LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PRESENTED  BY 
MRS.    ALFRED  W.     I NGALLS 


{/Ida^y^^- 


J^ 


(jAM^-Jiy  /iM^^^^^i^^^ . 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/dictionaryofbiblOOsmitiala 


A 


J)ICTIONARY  OF  THE  BIBLE, 


COMPRISING   ITS 


ANTIQUITIES,   BIOGRAPHY,  GEOGRAPHY, 


NATURAL  HISTORY, 


NUMEROUS    ILLUSTRATIONS  AND    MAPS. 


EDITED 

By  WILLIAM  SMITH,  LL.D., 

// 

CLASSICAL     EXAMINER      IN      THE     UNIVERSITY     OF     LONDON,     AND 

EDITOR    OF    THE    DICTIONARIES    OF     "GREEK    AND    ROMAN   ANTIQUITIES," 

"BIOGRAPHY    AND    MYTHOLOGY,"    AND    "GEOGRAPHY." 


OUUe  of  Show  Bread.    From  the  Arch  of  Titus. 


HARTFORD : 

J.  B.   BURR  &   COMPANY.  ^f 

1868.  Z.\iz]^ 


p) 


PEEFAOE. 


The  Bible,  which  an  eminent  Englishman  has  felicitously  and  truly 
named  the  "Book  for  the  People,"  is  nevertheless,  with  multitudes 
even  who  profess  to  value  it,  "as  the  words  of  a  book  that  is  sealed,  which 
men  deliver  to  one  that  is  learned,  saying,  Read  this  I  pray  thee :  and  he 
saith,  I  cannot ;  for  it  is  sealed :  and  the  book  is  delivered  to  him  that  is  not 
learned,  saying.  Read  this,  I  pray  thee:  and  he  saith,  I  am  not  learned." 
(Isaiah  xxix.  11.  12.) 

There  is  much  in  the  Bible  to  which  only  the  Holy  Spirit  by  His  influ- 
ence on  the  heart  can  give  the  key;  and  thus  the  child  and  the  unlettered 
man  may  find  in  it  a  wondrous  revelation  though  "sealed"  to  the  undevout 
scholar,  for  "the  testimony  of  the  Lord  is  sure,  making  wise  the  simple." 
There  is  much  too  in  these  ancient  Sacred  "Writings,  that  cannot  be  under- 
stood and  enjoyed  except  by  the  aid  of  research  and  learning.  Biblical 
scholarship  is  needed  to  help  us  not  only  to  fathom  the  depth  of  meaning, 
but  often  to  interpret  even  the  real  thought  and  import  of  what  is  read.  The 
most  patient,  prayerful  and  profound  investigation  of  scholarly  and  devout 
minds  along  the  ages,  has  been  addressed  to  the  elucidation  and  unfolding 
of  the  Bible,  that  no  part  of  it  may  be  "sealed"  to  the  lowliest  and  unlet- 
tered, and  that  its  divine  significance  may  be  comprehended  by  aU.  To 
search  the  libraries  of  Christian  lands,  gather  the  results  of  the  Biblical 
learning  of  centuries  and  give  them  to  the  people,  as  a  help  in  their  reading 
of  the  Divine  "Word  was  a  vast  and  most  praiseworthy  enterprise.  A  few 
years  since,  Dr.  "William  Smith  of  the  University  of  London,  and  the  most 
eminent  lexicographer  in  the  English-speaking  world,  associated  with  him- 
self seventy  distinguished  Divines  and  Authors  of  both  Europe  and  this 
country,  in  the  great  task  of  preparing  a  complete  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
and  supplying  the  want  which  had  been  long  felt  by  the  religious  Public. 
The  result  of  these  labors  has  appeared  in  three  large  octavo  volumes  of 
over  three  thousand  double-columned  pages  in  small  type.  This  Dictionary 
is  not  only  unsurpassed,  but  far  outrivals  all  other  similar  works  and  has 
the  unqualified  praise  and  confidence  of  Christian  scholars  in  this  and  other 
lands.  It  is  in  itself  a  great  library — the  condensation  of  thousands  of 
volumes  of  essays,  histories,  travels  and  commentaries,  so  that  the  Bible  is 
elucidated  and  illustrated  as  never  before.  The  labors  and  learning  of  cen- 
turies are  gathered  into  this  one  focus,  to  throw  a  clear,  strong  light  upon 
every  page  of  the  Inspired  "Word.  Whatever  of  Civil  and  Natural  History, 
of  Biography,  Geography,  Archaeology  and  Literature  relating  to  the  Bible 
might  perplex  and  bafile  the  reader,  is  explained  by  the  amplest  discussion 


II 


and  most  reliable  statement.  Hardly  a  question  can  be  started  pertaining  to 
the  Scriptures,  to  which  an  answer  may  not  be  found  here.  Animals  and 
plants ;  historical  incidents  and  traditions ;  domestic  and  national  customs 
and  institutions ;  manners,  dress,  and  habits  of  life  and  thought ;  supersti- 
tions, forms  of  worship  and  doctrines ;  conflicts  and  revolutions  ;  national 
and  religious  progress  or  decline — all  that  the  Bible  contains  is  opened  and 
illuminated,  so  that  the  reader  may  study  and  understand  the  times 
and  peoples  referred  to,  as  if  living  then  and  among  them,  and  thus  may 
more  fully  and  accurately  comprehend  the  lessons  God  has  sought  to  teach 
in  His  Word.  Historic  research,  antiquarian  investigation,  the  study  of 
languages  and  dialects,  the  discoveries  of  the  modern  travellers  and  explor- 
ers in  the  East, — Robinson,  Kawlinson,  Fergusson,  Layard,  OfFert  and 
Stanley — and  the  largest,  ripest  scholarship  of  the  Christian  world  have 
been  employed  to  unseal  the  Sacred  Book  and  help  both  the  clergy  and  laity 
to  understand  it  better  and  love  it  more. 

The  large  cost  and  affluent  learning  of  this  great  work  however  place 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  the  mass  of  the  people.  Nor  was  it  designed  for 
such,  but  e^eciaUy  for  persons  of  scholarly  pursuits  and.  attainments. 
Dr.  Smith  has  therefore  abridged  it  and  prepared  an  edition  for  Young  Per- 
sons, Sabbath  School  Teachers  and  Families.  He  says  in  his  Preface,  '"The 
'Larger  Dictionary  of  the  Bible'  is  mainly  intended  for  Divines  and  Schol- 
ars. I  have  accordingly  drawn  up  this  'Smaller  Dictionary'  myself,  and 
have  spared  no  pains  to  adapt  it  to  the  wants  of  the  persons  for  whom  it  is 
intended.  Judgment  is  needed  in  knowing  what  ought  to  be  omitted,  as 
well  as  inserted  in  such  a  work.  It  contains  every  name  in  the  Bible  re- 
specting which  any  thing  can  be  said ;  it  gives  an  account  of  each  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible ;  it  explains  the  civil  and  religious  institutions,  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Jews,  as  well  as  of  the  various  nations  mentioned 
or  alluded  to  in  Scripture."  The  work  which  the  American  publishers  here 
furnish,  is  what  it  claims  to  be,  a  reprint,  without  a  single  omission,  of  this 
Dictionary  by  Dr.  Smith.  Some  additions  have  been  made  to  it  from  the 
"Larger  Dictionary,"  to  give  an  ampler  discussion  of  some  topics,  yet  with- 
out oppressing  or  confusing  ordinary  readers  with  what — if  not  familiar 
with  the  speculations  of  Rationalism  and  Lafidelity,  nor  with  the  original 
languages  of  the  Scriptures — is  beyond  their  reach,  and  therefore  would  be 
useless  to  them.  Every  subject, — person,  place,  event  and  thing — of  which 
any  mention  is  made  in  the  Bible  and  which  is  treated  of  in  the  "  Larger 
Dictionary"  is.  included  in  this,  with  such  fulness  and  fidelity  as  to  suj)ply 
all  that  is  essential  to  the  explanation  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  it. 
The  list  of  the  proper  names  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  biographies 
or  historical  sketches  annexed,  is  more  complete  than  that  contained  in  any 
other  Dictionary  or  even  Cruden's  great  Concordance.  An  examination  of 
the  work  will  surprise  one  by  the  abundance  and  accuracy  of  the  references 
to  chapters  and .  verses,  which  it  contains. 


m 

This  republication  has  several  excellences,  (besides  being  much  cheaper 
than  any  other,)  that  commend  it  to  the  patronage  of  the  Public. 

(1)  It  is  printed  in  type  of  a  heavy,  distinct  and  very  legible  face. 

(2)  The  most  careful  endeavor  and  accurate  scholarship  have  been  en- 
listed, to  avoid  reproducing  the  errors  which  crept  into  the  English  edition. 

(3)  The  pronunciation  of  names  is  the  only  matter  in  which  Dr.  S.  is 
open  to  serious  criticism.  English  authorities  differ  from  American.  Our 
standard  lexicographers  have  here  been  followed,  so  as  to  adapt  the  work 
to  the  American  People,  and  give  it  a  merit  possessed  by  no  other  reprint. ' 

(4)  This  is  also  the  only  reprint  by  an  American  publisher  of  the  abridg- 
ment made  by  Dr.  Smith's  own  hand. 

Dlustrating  and  embellishing  their  work  with  over  one  hundred  wood- 
cuts from  both  the  "Larger"  and  "Smaller  Dictionary"  of  Dr.  Smith,  with 
valuable  Maps,  and  twenty-four  large  and  costly  steel  and  wood-engravings 
of  ancient  Cities  and  memorable  Places,  and  putting  it  in  the  most  attrac- 
tive and  durable  form,  as  respects  typography  and  binding,  the  Publishers 
confidently  expect  that  the  readers  of  the  Bible  who  desire  to  study  it  with 
clearer  light  and  with  greater  profit,  will  appreciate  the  service  here  render- 
ed to  the  cause  of  Biblical  interpretation  and  knowledge. 

"The  fairest  flower  that  ever  clomb  up  the  cottage  window,"  said  Cole- 
ridge, "is  not  to  my  eyes  so  beautiful  as  the  well-worn  Bible  on  the  cottage 
table."  In  every  household,  this  Dictionary  should  lie  beside  the  Divine 
Word,  as  the  best  aid  in  the  study  of  it.  By  every  Sabbath  School  Teach- 
er, by  every  person  who  wishes,  in  accordance  with  the  direction  of  the  Great 
Teacher,  to  "search  the  Scriptures,"  and  obtain  "the  riches  of  the  wis- 
dom of  God"  this  key  should  be  used  to  unlock  the   exhaustless  treasury. 

Two  disciples  who  had  been  taught  by  Christ  during  three  years  had 
foiled  to  comprehend  the  import  of  the  Scriptures  and  learn  the  real  charac- 
ter and  mission  of  their  Master.  Travelling  to  Emmaus  just  after  His 
crucifixion  they  were  overtaken  by  a  stranger,  who,  discovering  their  dark- 
ness and  despondency  "  beginning  at  Moses  and  all  the  prophets,  opened" 
to  them  "  the  Scriptures."  And  of  the  others  of  the  Eleven  it  is  also  said 
"  Then  opened  He  their  understanding  that  they  might  understand  the 
Scriptures." 

Reverent  study  and  sanctified  learning  have  here  sought  to  do  for  Christ's 

disciples,  for  those  who  are  to  become  teachers,  apostles,  for  our  homes  and 

Sabbath  schools  and  churches  what  He  did  for  His  chosen  ones.     They  have 

*  *  opened  for  them  the  Scriptures." 

.    That  this  valuable  auxiliary  may  be  the  vade   mecum  with  multitudes, 

and  that  the  help  of  the  Spirit  may  ever  accompany  it,  so  that  the  Word  of 

God  may  not  be  to  any  as  "  a  book  that  is  sealed,"  nor  misunderstood  hj  the 

imlearned,  is  the  desire  of  the 

American  Publishers. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


1  THE  DEAD  SEA  FROM  THE  NORTH,  (Steel.) ....Frontispiece. 

2  THE  CITY  OF  ANTIOCH,  CSteel.; Tofacepage    41 

3  Bf:THLEHEM, "  85 

4  ANCIENT  HARBOR  OF   CAESAREA, "  95 

6    COLOSSAE, "  117 

6  CORINTH, "  119 

7  CITY  OF  DAMASCUS,  (Steel.) "  129 

8  GAZA, '...  "  205 

9  POOL  OF  HEZEKIAH, "  239 

10  JERUSALEM  AND  THE  MOUNT  OF  OLIVES,  (Steel.) "  285 

11  LAODICEA, "  837 

12  CHAIN  OF  LEBANON, "  347 

13  MOUNT   LEBANON,  (Steel.) "  433 

14  NAZARETH, "  443 

16    THE  RIVER  NILE  AND  THE  PYRAMIDS,  (Steel,) "  455 

16  SAMARIA "  601 

17  SIDON  FROM  THE  NORTH, "  651 

18  MOUNT  SINAI  AND  THE  PLAIN,  (SteeL) "  655 

19  MOUNT  TABOR, "  081 

80    TARSUS, "  685 

21  ENCLOSURE  OF  THE  TEMPLE  AND  THE  MOSQUE,  (Steel,)....  "  687 

22  TIBERIAS  AND  LAKE,  LOOKING  TO  THE  NORTH, "  701 

23  THYATIRA, "  707 

24  COAST  OF  TYRE  AND    SIDON, "  778 

MAPS. 

25  MAP  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND  IN  THE  TIME  OF   CHRIST, "  291 

26  MAP  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND  IN  THE  TIME  OF  DAVID, "  485 

27  GENERAL  MAP  OF  THE  COUNTRIES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  BIBLE,  "  611 


LIST  OF  WRITERS. 


ALFOSD,  REV.  HENRY,  D.D., 

Dean  or  Canterbury, 
BAILEY,  REV.  HENRY,  B.  D., 

Wardea  of  St.  Augustine's,  Coll.  Canterbury. 
BARRY,  REV.  ALFRED.  B.D., 

Principal  of  Cheltenham  College. 
BE  VAN,  REV.  WILLIAM  L.,  M.A., 

Vicar  of  Hay,  Brecknockshire. 
BLAKESLEY,  REV.  JOSEPH  W-.B.D., 

Canon  of  Canterbury. 
BONAR,  REV.   HORATIUS,  D.D., 

Kelso,  N.  B.,.\uthor  of  "  The  Land  of  Proinise,"&c. 
BROWN,  REV.  THOMAS  E.,  M.A., 

Vice-Principal  of  King  William's  Coll.,  Isle  of  Man. 
BROWNE,  REV.  ROBERT  W.,  M.A., 

Archdeacon  of  Bath. 
BROWNE,  REV.  E.  HAROLD,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Ely. 
BULLOCK,  REV.   WILLIAM  T.,  M.A., 

Sec.  of  the  Soo.  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 
CLARK,  REV.  SAMUEL,  M.A., 

Vicar  of  Bredwardine  with  Brobury,  Herefordshire. 
COOK,  REV.  F.   C,  M.A., 

Canon  of  Exeter. 
COTTON,  REV,  GEORGE  E.  L.,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Calcutta. 
DAVIES,  REV.  J.  LLEWELYN,  M.A., 

Rector  of  Christ  Church,  Marylebone. 
DAY,  REV.  GEORGE  E.,  D.D., 

Prof,  of  Biblical  Theology,  Yale  Coll.,  New  Haren. 
DEUTSCH,  EMANUEL,  M.R.A.S., 

Uoirersity  of  Berlin  and  British  Museum. 
DRAKE,  REV.   WILLIAM,  M.A., 

Hon  Canon  of  Worcester. 
EDDRUP,  REV.  EDWARD  P.,  M.A., 

Principal  of  the  Theological  College,  Salisbury. 
ELLICOTT,  REV.  CHARLES  J.,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol, 
ELWIN,  REV.   WHITWELL,  B.  A., 

Rector  of  Bootou,  Norfolk. 
FARRAR,  REV.   FREDERICK  W.,  M.A., 

Assistant  .Master   of  Harrow  School. 
FELTON,  C.  C,   LL.D., 

Prof,  of  Greek  Lit.,  BUrr.  PniT.,  Cambridge,  MaM. 
FERGUSSON,  JAMES,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S., 

Royal  Institution  of  British  Architects. 
FFOULKES,  EDMUND  S.,  M.A., 

Late  Fellow  of  Jesus  Coll.,  Oxford. 
FITZGERALD,  REV.  WILLIAM,  D.D., 

Lord  Bishop  of  Killaloe. 
GARDEN,  REV.  FRANCIS,  M.A., 

Subdean  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
GOTC«,  F.  W.,  LL.D., 

Hebrew  Exatniaer,  University  of  London. 
GROVE,  GEORGE, 

Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham. 
HACKETT,  REV.  HORATIO  B.,  D.D., 

Prof,  of  Bib.  Literature,  Theo'l  Bern.  Newton,  Ms. 
HAWKINS,  REV.  ERNEST,  li.D., 

Canon  of  NVestminster. 
HAYMAN,  REV.    HENRY,  M.A., 

Head  Master  of  Grammar  School,  Cheltenham. 
HERVEY,  LORD    ARTHUR  C,  M.A., 

Author  of  '-Genealogieg  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 
HESSEY,  REV.   JAMES  A.,  D.C.L., 

Head  Master  of  Merchant  Tailors'  School. 
HOOKER,  JOSEPH  D.,  M.D.,  F.R.S,, 

Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew. 
HORNBY,  REV.  J.  J.,  M.A., 

Principal  of  Bishop  Cosin's  Hall. 
HOUGHTON,   REV.  WILLIAM,  M.A., 

Rector  of  Preston,  Salop. 


HOWSON,  REV.  JOHN  S.,  D.D., 

Joint- Author  of  "  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.'' 
HUXTABLE,  REV.  EDGAR,  M.A., 

Subdean  of  Wells. 
JONES,  REV.  W.  BASIL,  M.A., 

Prebendary  of  York  and  St.  David's. 
LAYARD,  AUSTEN  H.,  D.C.L.,  M.P., 

Author  of  "Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  &c. 
LEATHES,  REV.  STANLEY,  M.A.,  M.R.S.L 

Professor  of  Hebrew,  King's  College,  London. 
LIGHTFOOT,  REV.  JOSEPH  B.,  D.D., 

Hulsean  Professor  of  Divinity,  Cambridge,  Eng. 
MARKS,  REV.  D.  W., 

Professor  of  Hebrew,  University  Coll.,  London. 
MEYRICK,  REV.  FREDERICK,  M.A., 

Her  Majesty 's  Inspector  of  Schools. 
OPPERT,  PROF.  JULES, 

Author  of  ''Chronology  of  Babylon;"  Paris. 
ORGEK,  REV.  EDWARD  R.,  MA., 

Fellow  of  St.  Augustine's,  College,  Canterbury. 
ORMEROD,  REV.  THOMAS  J.,  M.A., 

Archdeacon  of  Suffolk. 
PEROWNE,  REV.  JOHN  J.  S.,  B.D., 

Vice  Principal  of  St.  David's  Coll.,  Lampeter. 
PEKOWNE,  REV.  THOS.  T.,  B.D., 

Fellow  and  Tutor,  Corpus  Christi  Coll.,  Cambridee. 
PHILLOTT,  REV.  H.  W.,  M.A., 

P.ector  of  Staunton-on-Wje. 
PLUxMPTRE,  REV.  EDWARD  H.,  M.A., 

Professor  of  Divinity,  King's  Coll.,  London. 
POOLE.  E.  STANLEY,  M.R.A.S.. 

South  Kensington  Museum. 
POOLE,  R.  STUART,  M.R.S.L., 

Author  of  "  Horae  Aegvptiacae."  &c. 
PORTER,  REV.  J.  LESLIE,  M.A., 

Authorof  '-Handbook  of  Syria  and  Palestine." 
PRITCHARD,  REV.  CHAS.,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 

Late  Fellow  of  St.  John's  Coll.,  Cambridge,  Eng. 
RAWLINSON,  RP:V.  GEORGE,  M.A., 

Author  of  ''Great  Monarchies  of  Anc.  World." 
ROSE,  REV.  HENRY  J.,  B.D., 

Rector  of  Houghton  Conquest,  Bedfordshire. 
SELWYN,  REV.  WILLIAM  W.,  B.D., 

Margaret  Professor  of  Divinity,  Cambridge,  Eng. 
SMITH,  REV.  D.  T.,  D.D., 

Prof,  of  Sac.  Lit.,  Theo'l  Sem.,  Bangor,  Me. 
SMITH,   WILLIAM,  LL.D.,  (Editor), 

Classical  Examiner,  University  of  London. 
STANLEY,  REV.  ARTHUR  P.,  D.D., 

Dean  of  Westminster. 
STOWE,  REV.  CALVIN  E.,  D.D., 

Late  Prof,  of  Sac.  Lit.,  Theo'l  Sem.  Andover,  Mass.. 
THO.MPSON,  REV.  JOSEPH  P.,  D.D., 

Authorof  "Egypt,  Past  and  Present," N.  Y,  City.. 
THOMSON,  REV.  WILLIAM,  D.D., 

Lord  Archbishop  of  York. 
THRUPP,  REV.  JOSEPH  F.,  M.A., 

Vicar  of  Barrington. 
TREGELLES,  SAMUEL  P.,  LL.D., 

Author,  "Ace.  of  the  Iriuted  Text  of  theGr.N.T. 
TRISTRAM,  REV.  H.  B.,  M.A.,  F.L.S., 

Author  of  "The  Land  of  Israel." 
TWISLETON,  HON.  EDW.,  M.A., 

Late  Fellow  of  Baliol  Coll.,  Oxford. 
VENABLES,  REV.  EDMUND,  M.A., 

Bonchurch,  Isle  of  Wight. 
WESTCOTT,  REV.  BROOKE  F.,  M.A., 

Authorof  "Introduc'n  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels." 
WORDSWORTH  REV.CHRISTOPHEB,D.D., 

Archdeicon  of  Westminster. 
WRIGHT,  WILLIAM  ALDIS,  M.A., 

Librarian  of  Trinity  Coll.,  Cambridge,  Eng. 


ABBREYIATIO]S^S. 


A.  C.      for     After  Christ. 

A.  D Anno  Z)o7nmt.(Latin)=in  the  year  of 

our  Lord. 

Am Amos,  (0.  T.) 

anc ancient. 

Ann Annals  of  Tacitus,  a  Roman  historian. 

Ant Antiquities. 

Apoc Apocrypha. 

Ar.  or  Arab.    Arabic  or  Arabia. 

A.  U.  C. .  .  .  anno  urbis  conUitce  =in  the  year  of  the 

building  of  the  city,  Kome. 

A.  V the  authorized  or  English  version  of  the 

Bible. 

B.  &  D.  .  .  .  Hist,  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  (Apoc.) 
Bar.  .....  Baruch,  (Apoc.) 

B.  C Before  Christ. 

B.  R Biblical  Researches,  by  Dr.  Robinson. 

Cant.    .      .  .  Canticles  or  Song  of  Solomon,  (0.  T.) 

cf conferer,  (French)=compare. 

ch.  &  chs.  .  .  chapter  and  chapters,  respectively. 

Chal Chaldaea  or  Chaldaean. 

1  Chr 1st  Book  of  Chronicles,  (0.  T.) 

1  Chr 2d  Book  of  Chronicles,  (0.  T.) 

Chrys.  Hom.  Homilies  of  Chrysostom,  A.  D.  344-407. 

Oic M.T  Cicero,  a  Roman  orator,  B.C. 106-43 

Cic.  in  Verr.   Cicero's  oration  against  Verres. 
cir.  or  circ.   .  ciVca.C  Latin)=about. 

Ool Ep.  to  the  Colossians,  (N.  T.) 

Comm.    .  .  .  Commentary, 
comp compare. 

1  Cor 1st  Ep.  to  the  Corinthians,  (N.  T.) 

2  Cor 2a  Ep.  to  the  Corinthians,  (N.  T.) 

Cyo Cyclopedia. 

Dan Daniel,  (0.  T.) 

Deut Deuteronomy,  (O.  T.) 

Diet Dictionary. 

Eccl Ecclesiastes,  (0.  T.) 

Ecclus.    .  .  .  Ecclesiasticus,  (Apoc.) 

ed edition. 

e.  g exempli  gratia  (Latin)=for  example. 

Eng England  or  English. 

ep.  &  epp.    .  epistle  and  epistles,  respectively. 
Eph Ep.  to  the  Ephesians,  (N.  T.) 

1  Rsd 1st  Book  of  Esdras,  (Apoc.) 

2  Esd 2d  Book  of  Esdras,  (Apoc.) 

Esth Esther,  (O.  T.) 

Euscb.    .  .  .  Eusebius,  a  Gr.  historian,  who  died  A. 

Ex Exodus,  (0.  T.)  [D.  340. 

Ez Ezekiel,  (O.  T.) 

Ezr Ezra,  (0  T.) 

f. following  (verse  or  page.) 

fern feminine. 

ff. following  (verses  or  pages  ) 

Gal Ep.  to  the  Galatians,  (N.  T.) 

Gen Genesis,  (O.  T.) 

Gr Greek. 

Hab Ilabakkuk,  (0.  T.) 

Hag Haggai,  (O.  T.) 

Handb.   .  .  .  Handbook. 

H.  E Ecclesiastical  History  by  Eusebius. 

Heb Hebrew  or  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews,  (N  T.) 

Herod Herodotus,  a  Gr.  Mstorian  B.  C.  484. 

Hist History. 

Hor.  Sat.  .  .  Satires  of  Horace,  a  Roman  poet  B.  C. 

Hos Hosea,  (O.  T.)  [65-8. 

ib.  or  ibid. .  .  ibidem,  (Latin,)=in  the  same  place. 

id idem,  ( Latin,  )=:  the  same. 

i.  e id  est,  (Latin,)=that  is. 

in  loc.  .  .  .     tn  ioco,(  Latin,  )=in  the  place,  or  on  the 
passage  cited. 

Is Isaiah,  (0.  T.) 

Jas Ep.  of  .)»mes,  (N.  T.) 

.lud Judith,  (Apoc.) 

Jer Jeremiah.  (0.  T.) 

Jon Jonah,  (0.  T.) 

Jos Josephus,  Antigttities  of  the  Jews. 

Jos.  B.  J.  .  .  Jos.  Bellum  Judaicum=3oym]x  War. 

Josh Joshua,  (O.  T.) 

Judg Judges,  (0.  T.) 


Juven.  Sat.for  Satires  of  Juvenal,  a  Roistm  «(«(. 

IK 1st  Book  of  Kings,  (0.  l") 

2  K 2d  Book  of  Kings,  (0.  T.) 

Lam Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  (0.  T.) 

1.  c loco  citato,  (Latin)=at  the  pla^e  jited. 

11  cc ioc/s  ct<at/«,  (Latin )=at  the  places  cited 

Lev Leviticus,  (0.  T.) 

lib /«6er,  (Latin)=book. 

Lin.  or  Linn.  Linnaeus,  the  Swedish  naturalist. 

Ut Uteral,  or  literally. 

Liv Livy,  a  Roman  liistorian. 

LXX The  Seventy,  i.  e.  the  Septuagint. 

M J*fon.5i>Kr,  (French. )=Mr. 

1  Mace.   ...  1st  Book  of  Maccabees,  (Apoc.) 

2  Mace.   ...  2d  Book  of  Maccabees,  (Apoc.) 

3  Mace.   ...  3d  Book  of  Maccabees,  (Apoc.) 
Mai Malachi,  (O.  T.) 

marg margin  or  marginal. 

Mart Martial,  a  Roman  poet  A.  D.  40-100. 

niasc masculine. 

Matt Gospel  according  to  Matthew. 

Mic Micah,  (O.  T.) 

Mod.  Eg.    .  .  Modern  Egyptians,  by  Lane. 

MS Manuscript. 

MSS Manuscripts. 

Nah Nahum,  (O.  T.) 

Neh Nehemiah,  (0.  T.) 

Nin.  &  Bab.    Nineveh  and  Babylon,  by  Layard* 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Num Numbers,  (O.  T  ) 

Ob Obadiah,  (O.  T.y 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.  &  pp. .  .  .  page  and  pages,  respectively. 

Pal Palestine. 

Pent Pentateuch. 

Pers Persian. 

1  Pet 1st  Ep.  of  Peter,  (N.  T.) 

2  Pet 2d  Ep.  of  Peter,  (N.  T.) 

Phil Ep.  to  the  Philippians,  (N.  T.) 

Philera.  .  .  .  Ep.  to  Philemon,  (N.  T.) 

Polyb Polybius,  a  Gr.  historian  B.  C.  205-12& 

Polyc Polycarp,  martyred  A.  D.  167. 

Prov Proverbs,  (0.  T  ) 

Ps.  &  Pss.    .  Psalm  or  Psahns,  (0.  T.,)  respectively- 

Ptol Ptolemy. 

R Rabbi,  (before  a  Jewish  name.) 

Rawl Rawlinson. 

Rev Revelation,  or  Apocalvpse,  (N.  T.) 

Rom Ep.  to  the  Romans,  (N.  T.) 

Sacr.  Lit.   .  .  Sacred  Literature. 
Sam Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

1  Sam 1st  Book  of  Samuel.  (O.  T.) 

2  Sam 2d  Book  of  Samuel,  (0.  T.) 

S.  &  P.  .  .  .   Sinai  and  Palestine,  by  Stanley. 

sc scilicet  (Latiu):=that  is  to  say. 

sq.  or  seq  .  .  wi^Kenij  (Latin )=following  (verse.) 
sqq.  or  seqq.    Sfquentia.  ( Latin )=following  (verses.) 

Suet Suetonius,  a  historian,  A.  D.  100. 

Sus History  of  Susanna,  (Apoc.) 

Syr Syria  or  Syriac. 

Tac Tacitus,  a  P.oman historian  A.  D.  56-135. 

1  Thess.  ...  1st  Ep.  to  the  Thessalonians,  (N.  T.) 

2  Thess.  ...  2d  Ep.  to  the  Thessalonians,  (N.  T.) 

1  Tim 1st  Ep.  to  Timothy,  (N.  T.) 

2  Tim 2d  Ep.  to  Timothy,  (N.  T.) 

Tit Ep.  to  Titus,  (N.  T.) 

Tob Tobit,  (Apoc.) 

ver verse  or  verses. 

viz videlicet,  (Latin)^namely. 

vol volume. 

Vulg Vulgate. 

Wisd Wisdom,  (Apoc.) 

Zech Zechariab,  (0.  T.) 

Zeph Zephaniah,  (0.  T.) 

§ denotes  section  or  subdivision  of  ch. 

= denotes  equivalent  to. 

Words  in  brackets  and  printed  in  small  c.\pit.\m 
thus  [Talmud.]  refer  the  reader  to  those  articles  in  the 
Dictionary  for  further  information. 


DICTIONARY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


A. 


AaTon,  the  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed, 
and  the  elder  brother  of  Moses  and  Miriam 
(Num.  xxvi.  69,  xxxiii.  39),  He  was  a 
Levite,  and  is  first  mentioned  in  Ex.  iv.  14, 
as  one  who  could  "  speak  well."  He  was 
appointed  by  Jehovah  to  be  the  Interpreter 
and  "  Mouth "  (Ex.  iv.  16)  of  his  brother 
Moses,  who  was  "  slow  of  speech ;  "  and 
accordingly  he  was  not  only  the  organ  of 
communication  with  the  Israelites  and  with 
Pharaoh  (Ex.  iv.  30,  vii.  2),  but  also  the 
actual  instrument  of  working  most  of  the 
miracles  of  the  Exodus.  (See  Ex.  vii.  19, 
&c.)  Thus  on  the  way  to  Mount  Sinai, 
during  the  battle  with  Amalek,  Aaron  is 
mentioned  with  Hur,  as  staying  up  the 
weary  hands  of  Moses,  when  they  were 
lifted  up  for  the  victory  of  Israel  (not  in 
prayer,  as  is  sometimes  explained,  but)  to 
bear  the  rod  of  God.  (See  Ex.  xvii.  9.) 
Through  all  this  period  he  is  mentioned  as 
dependent  upon  his  brother,  and  deriving 
all  his  authority  from  him.  The  contrast 
between  them  is  even  more  strongly  marked 
on  the  arrival  at  Sinai.  Moses  at  once  acts 
as  the  mediator  (Gal.  iii.  19)  for  the  people, 
to  come  near  to  God  for  them,  and  to  speak 
His  words  to  them.  Aaron  only  approaches 
with  Nadab,  and  Abihu,  and  the  seventy 
elders  of  Israel,  by  special  command,  near 
enough  to  see  God's  glory,  but  not  so  as  to 
enter  His  immediate  presence.  Left  then, 
on  Moses'  departure,  to  guide  the  people, 
Aaron  is  tried  for  a  moment  on  his  own 
responsibility,  and  he  fails  from  a  weak  in- 
ability to  withstand  the  demand  of  the  peo- 
ple for  visible  "  gods  to  go  before  them." 
Possibly  it  seemed  to  him  prudent  to  make 
an  image  of  Jehovah,  in  the  well-known 
form  of  Egyptian  idolatry  (Apis  or  Mnevis), 
rather  than  to  risk  the  total  alienation  of 
the  people  to  false  gods ;  and  his  weakness 
was  rewarded  by  seeing  a  "  feast  to  the 
Lord  "  (Ex.  xxxii.  5)  degraded  to  the  lowest 
form  of  heathenish  sensuality,  and  knowing, 
from  Moses'  words  and  deeds,  that  the  cov- 


AARON 

enant  with  the  Lord  was  utterly  broken.  He 
repented  of  his  sin,  and  Moses  gained  for- 
giveness for  him  (Deut.  ix.  20).  —  Aaron 
was  now  consecrated  by  Moses  to  the  new 
office  of  the  high-priesthood.  The  order 
of  God  for  the  consecration  is  found  in  Ex. 
xxix.,  and  the  record  of  its  execution  in 
Lev.  viii.  The  solemnity  of  the  office,  and 
its  entire  dependence  for  sanctitj'  on  the 
ordinance  of  God,  were  vindicated  by  the 
death  of  his  sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  for 
"  offering  strange  fire  "  on  the  altar  (Lev. 
X.  1,  2).  From  this  time  the  history  of 
Aaron  is  almost  entirely  that  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  its  chief  feature  is  the  great  re- 
bellion of  Korah  and  the  Levites  against 
his  sacerdotal  dignity,  united  with  that  of 
Dathan  and  Abiram  and  the  Reubenites 
against  the  temporal  authority  of  Moses. 
[Korah.]  —  The  only  ©ccasion  on  which 
his  individual  character  is  seen  is  one  of 
presumption.  The  murmuring  of  Aaron 
and  Miriam  against  Moses  clearly  pro- 
ceeded from  their  trust,  the  one  in  hia 
priesthood,  the  other  in  her  prophetic  in- 
spiration, as  equal  commissions  from  God 
(Num.  xii.  2).  On  all  other  occasions  he 
is  spoken  of  as  acting  with  Moses  in  the 
guidance  of  the  people.  Leaning  as  he 
seems  to  have  done  wholly  on  him,  it  is  not 
strange  that  he  should  have  shared  his  sin 
at  Meribah,  and  its  punishment  [Moses] 
(Num.  XX.  10-12).  Aaron's  death  seems 
to  have  followed  very  speedily.  It  took 
place  on  Mount  Hor,  after  the  transference 
of  his  robes  and  office  to  Eleazar  (Num.  xx. 
28).  This  mount  is  still  called  the  "  Moun- 
tain of  Aaron."  [Hok.]  —  The  wife  of 
Aaron  was  Elisheba  (Ex.  vi.  23) ;  and  the 
two  sons  who  survived  him,  Eleazar  and 
Ithamar.  The  high-priesthood  descended 
to  the  former,  and  to  his  descendants  until 
the  time  of  Eli,  who,  although  of  the  house 
of  Ithamar,  received  the  high-priesthood, 
and  transmitted  it  to  his  children;  with 
theiu  it  continued  till  the  accession  of  Solo- 

(7) 


AB 


mon,  who  took  it  from  Abiathar,  and  re- 
stored it  to  Zadok  (of  the  house  of  Eleazar). 
[Abiathar.] 

Ab  (^father),  an  element  in  the  composi- 
tion of  many  proper  names,  of  which  Abba 
is  a  Chahiaic  form,  the  syllable  affixed  giv- 
ing the  emphatic  force  of  the  definite  arti- 
cle. Applied  to  God  by  Jesus  Christ  (Mark 
aiv.  36),  and  by  St.  Paul  (llom.  viii.  15 ; 
Gal.  iv.  6). 

Ab.     [Months.] 

Abad'don.    [Apollton.] 

Abag'tha,  one  of  the  seven  eunuchs  in 
tlie  Persian  court  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i. 
10). 

Ab'ana,  one  of  the  "  rivers  of  Damas- 
cus "  (2  K.  V.  12).  The  Barada  and  the 
Awaj  are  now  the  chief  streams  of  Damas- 
cus, the  former  representing  the  Abana  and 
the  latter  the  Pharpar  of  the  text.  The 
Barada  rises  in  the  Antilibanus,  at  about 
23  miles  from  the  city,  after  flowing  through 
which  it  runs  across  the  plain,  till  it  loses 
itself  in  the  lake  or  marsh  Bahrei  el-Kib- 
liyeh. 

Ab'arim,  a  mountain  or  range  of  high- 
lands on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  land 
of  Moat,  lacing  Jericho,  and  forming  the 
eastern  wall  of  the  Jordan  valley  at  that 
part.  Its  most  elevated  spot  was  "  the 
Mount  Nebo,  '  head '  of  '  the  '  Pisgah,"  from 
which  Moses  viewed  the  Promised  Land 
before  his  death.  These  mountains  are 
mentioned  in  Num.  xxvii.  12,  xxxiii.  47,  48, 
and  Deut.  xxxii.  49. 

Ab'ba.    [Ab.] 

Ab'da.  1.  Father  of  Adoniram  (IK. 
iv.  6).  2.  Son  of  Shammua  (Neh.  xi.  17), 
called  Obadiah  in  1  Chr.  ix.  16. 

Ab'deel,  father  of  Shelemiah  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  26). 

Ab'di.  1.  A  Meraritc,  and  ancestor  of 
Ethan  the  singer  (1  Chr.  vi.  44).  2.  The 
father  of  Kish,  a  Merarite,  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12).  3.  One  of 
the  Bene-Elam  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  26). 

Ab'diel,  son  of  Guni  and  father  of  Ahi, 
one  of  the  Gadites  who  were  settled  in  tlie 
land  of  Bashan  (1  Chr.  v.  15)  in  the  days 
of  Jotham  king  of  Judah. 

Ab'don.  1.  A  judge  of  Israel  (Judg. 
xii.  13,  15),  perhaps  the  same  person  as 
Bedan  in  1  Sam.  xii.  11.  2.  Son  of 
Shashak  (1  Chr.  viii.  23).  3.  First-born 
son  of  Jehiel,  son  of  Gibeon  (1  Chr.  viii. 
30,  ix.  35,  36).  4.  Son  of  Micah,  a  con- 
temporary of  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxiv.  20), 
called  AcHBOR  in  2  K.  xxii.  12.  5.  A  city 
in  tlie  tribe  of  Asher,  given  to  the  Gershon- 
ites  (Josh.  xxi.  30;'  1  Chr.  vi.  74). 

Abed'negO  (i.  e.  servant  of  Nego,  per- 
haps the  same  as  Ncho),  the  Clialdaean 
name  given  to  Azariah,  one  of  the  three 
friends  of  Daniel,  miraculously  saved  from 
the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  iii.). 


8  ABIA 

A'bel,  the  name  of  several  places  in 
Palestine,  probably  signifies  a  meadow.  1. 
A'bel-beth-ma'achah,  a  town  of  some  im- 
portance (2  Sam.  XX.  19),  in  the  extreme 
N.  of  Palestine,  which  fell  an  early  prey  to 
the  invading  kings  of  Syria  (1  K.  xv.  20) 
and  Assyria  (2  K.  xv.  29).  In  the  parallel 
passage,  2  Chr.  xvi.  4,  the  name  is  changed 
to  Abrl-maim,  "Abel  on  tlie  waters."  It 
is  also  called  simply  Abel  (2  Sam.  xx.  14, 
18).  2.  A'bel-mizra'im,  i.  e.  the  mourn- 
ing of  Egypt,  the  name  given  by  the 
Canaanites  to  the  floor  of  Atad,  at  which 
Joseph,  his  brothers,  and  the  Egyptians 
made  their  mourning  for  Jacob  (Gen.  1. 11). 
It  was  beyond  (on  the  east  of)  Jordan. 
[Atad.]  3.  A'bel-shit'tim,  "  the  meadow 
of  the  acacias,"  in  the  "  plains  "  of  Moab; 
on  the  low  level  of  the  Jordan  valley. 
Here  —  their  last  resting-place  before  cross- 
ing the  Jordan  —  Israel  "pitched  from 
Bethjesimoth  unto  A.  Shittim "  (Num. 
xxxiii.  49).  The  place  is  most  frequently 
mentioned  by  its  shorter  name  of  Shittim. 
[Shittim.]  4.  A'bel-me'holah  ("  meadow 
of  the  dance  "),  in  the  N.  part  of  the  Jordan 
valley  (1  K.  iv.  12),  to  which  the  routed 
Bedouin  host  fled  from  Gideon  (Judg.  vii. 
22).  Here  Elisha  was  found  at  his  plough 
by  Elijah  returning  up  the  valley  from 
Horeb  (1  K.  xix.  16-19).  5.  A'bel- 
ce'ramim,  in  the  A.  V.  rendered  "the 
plain  of  the  vineyards,"  a  place  eastward 
of  Jordan,  beyond  Aroer  (Judg.  xi.  33).  6. 
"  The  great  '  Abel,'  in  the  field  of  Joshua 
the  Bethshemite"  (1  Sam.  vi.  18).  By 
comparison  with  14  and  15,  it  would  seem 
that  for  Abel  should  be  read  Ehen  =  stone. 
Our  translators,  by  the  insertion  of  "stone 
of,"  take  a  middle  course. 

A'bel  (i.  e.  breath,  vapor,  ira7isitori~ 
ness,  probably  so  called  from  the  sliortness 
of  his  life),  the  second  son  of  Adam,  mur- 
dered by  his  brother  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  1-16). 
Jehovah  showed  respect  for  Abel's  offering, 
but  not  for  that  of  Cain,  because,  according 
to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xi.  4),  Abel 
"  by  faith  offered  a  more  excellent  sacrifice 
than  Cain."  The  expression  "sin,"  i,  e. 
sin-offering  "lieth  at  the  door"  (Gen.  iv. 
7),  seems  to  imply  that  the  need  of  sacri- 
fices of  blood  to  obtain  forgiveness  was 
already  revealed.  Our  Lord  spoke  of  Abel 
as  the  first  martyr  (Matt,  xxiii.  35)  ;  so  did 
the  early  church  subsequently.  The  tradi- 
tional site  of  his  murder  and  liis  grave  are 
pointed  out  near  Damascus. 

A'bez,  a  town  in  the  possession  of  Issa- 
char,  named  between  Eisliion  and  Eemeth, 
in  Josh.  xix.  20,  only. 

A'bi,  mother  of  king  Hezekiah  (2  K. 
xviii.  2),  written  Abijah  in  2  Chr.  xxix.  1. 

Abi'a,  Abi'ah,  or  Abijah.  1.  Son 
of  Becher,  the  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  vii. 
8).  2.  Wifeofliezron  (lChr.ii.24).  3. 
Second  son  of  Samuel,  whom  together  with 


ABI-ALBON 


9 


ABIHAIL 


his  eldest  son  Joel  he  made  judge  in  Beer- 
siieba  (1  Sam.  viii.  2;  1  Chr.  vii.  28).  The 
corruptness  of  their  administration  was  the 
reason  alleged  by  the  Israelites  for  their 
demanding  a  king.  4.  Abijah,  or  Abijam, 
the  son  of  Rehoboam  (1  Chr.  iii.  10;  Matt. 
1.7).  5.  Mother  of  king  Hezekiah.  [Abi.] 
6.  Descendant  of  Eleazar,  and  chief  of  the 
eighth  of  the  24  courses  of  priests  (Luke  i. 
6) ;  the  same  as  Abijah,  4. 

Abi-al'bon.    [Abiel.] 

Abi'asaph  (Ex.  vi.  24),  otherwise, 
written  Ebi'asaph  (1  Chr.  vi.  23,  37,  ix. 
19),  the  head  of  one  of  the  families  of  tlie 
Korhites  (a  house  of  the  Kohathites).  In 
Ex.  vi.  24,  he  appears  at  first  sight  to  be 
represented  as  one  of  the  sons  of  Korah, 
and  as  the  brother  of  Assir  and  Elkanah. 
But  in  1  Chr.  vi.  he  appears  as  the  son  of 
Elkanah,  the  son  of  Assir,  the  son  of  Korah. 
Among  the  remarkable  descendants  of  Abi- 
asaph,  according  to  the  text  of  1  Chr.  vi. 
33-37,  were  Samuel  the  prophet  and  El- 
kanah his  father  (1  Sam.  i.  1),  and  Hemau 
the  singer;  but  Ebiasaph  seems  to  be  im- 
properly inserted  in  ver.  37. 

Abi  athar,  high-priest  and  fourth  in 
descent  from  Eli,  wlio  was  of  the  line  of 
Ithamar,  tlie  younger  son  of  Aaron.  Abia- 
thar  was  the  only  one  of  all  the  sons  of 
Ahimclech  the  high-priest  who  escaped  the 
slaughter  inflicted  upon  his  father's  house 
by  Saul,  in  revenge  for  his  having  inquired 
of  the  Lord  for  David,  and  given  him  the 
ehew-bread  to  eat  (1  Sam.  xxii.).  Abiathar 
having  become  high-priest  fled  to  David, 
an  J  was  thus  enabled  to  inquire  of  the  Lord 
for  him  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  9,  xxx.  7;  2  Sara.  ii. 
1,  V.  19,  &c.).  He  adiiered  to  David  in  Ids 
wanderings  while  pursued  by  Saul ;  he  was 
with  him  while  he  reigned  in  Hebron  (2 
Sam.  ii.  1-3),  the  city  of  the  house  of  Aaron 
(Josh.  xxi.  10-13)  ;  lie  carried  the  ark  be- 
fore him  when  David  brought  it  up  to 
Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  xv.  11;  IK.  ii.  26);  he 
continued  faithful  to  him  in  Absalom's  re- 
bellion (2  Sam.  XV.  24,  29,  35,  36,  xvii. 
15-17,  xix.  11);  and  "was  afliicted  in  all 
wherein  David  was  afliicted."  When,  how- 
ever, Adonijah  set  himself  up  for  David's 
successor  on  the  throne,  in  opposition  to 
Solomon,  Abiathar  sided  with  him,  while 
Zadok  was  on  Solomon's  side.  For  this 
Abiathar  was  deprived  of  the  hi^h-priest- 
hood,  and  we  are  told  that  "  Zadok  the 
priest  did  the  king  put  in  the  room  of  Abia- 
thar "  (1  K.  ii.  27,  35),  thus  fulfilling  the 
prophecy  of  1  Sam.  ii.  30. — Zadok  was 
descended  from  Eleazar,  the  elder  son  of 
Aaron.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  1  Chr. 
xii.  28,  and  is  said  to  have  joined  David 
while  he  reigned  in  Hebron.  From  this 
time  we  read,  both  in  tlie  books  of  Samuel 
and  Chronicles,  of  "  Zadok  and  Abiathar 
the  priests."  There  were,  henceforth,  two 
Uigh-priests  in  the  reign  of  David,  and  till 


the  deposition  of  Abiathar  by  Solomon, 
when  Zadok  became  the  sole  liigh-priest. 
In  Mark  ii.  26,  we  find  Abiathar  spoken  of 
as  the  high-priest  in  whose  time  David  ate 
the  shew-bread :  this  may  perhaps  be  ac- 
counted for,  if  Abiathar  was  tlie  person 
who  persuaded  his  father  to  allow  David  to 
have  the  bread,  and  if  the  loaves  were 
given  by  him  with  his  own  hand  to  David. 

A'bib.     [Months.] 

Abi  dah.  or  Abi' da,  a  son  of  Midian 
(Gen.  XXV.  4;  1  Chr.  i.  33.) 

Abi  dan,  cliief  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  11, 
ii.  22,  vii.  60,  65,  x.  24). 

A'biel.  1.  Father  of  Kish,  and  conse- 
quently grandfather  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  ix.  1), 
as  well  as  of  Abner,  Saul's  commander-in- 
chief  (1  Sam.  xiv.  61).  This  is  seen  by 
the  following  table  :  — 


Abiel 


Kish 

I 
Saul 


Ner 

I 
Abner 


2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chr. 
xi.  32).  In  2  Sam.  xxiii.  31  he  is  called 
Abi-albon. 

Abi-e'zer.  1.  Eldest  son  of  Gilead, 
and  descendant  of  Manasseh  (Josli.  xvii.  2 ; 
1  Chr.  vii.  18 ;  Num.  xxvi.  30,  where  the 
name  is  given  in  the  contracted  form  Jeb- 
zer).  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  great 
judge  Gideon.  [Gideon.]  The  name  also 
occurs  in  Judg.  vi.  34,  viii.  2 ;  and  in  an 
adjectival  form  ("  tlie  Abiezrite  ")  in  Judg. 
vi.  11,  24,  viii.  32.  2.  One  of  David's 
"  mighty  men  "  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  27;  1  Chr. 
xi.  28,  xxvii.  12). 

Abigail.     1.   The    beautiful    wife   of 

Nabal,  a  wealthy  owner  of  goats  and  sheep 

in    Carmel.      When    David's   messengers 

were  slighted  by  Nabal,  Abigail  supplied 

David  and  his  followers   with   provisions, 

and  succeeded  in  appeasing  his  anger.  Ten 

days  after  this  Nabal  died,  and  David  sent 

for  Abigail  and  made  her  his  wife  (1  Sam. 

XXV.  14,  «&c.).     By  her  he  had  a  son,  called 

Chileab  in  2  Sam.  iii.  3 ;  but  Daniel  in  1 

Chr.  iii.  1.     2.  A  sister  of  David,  married 

to  Jether  the  Jshmaelite,  and  motlier,  by 

I  him,  of  Araasa  (1  Chr.  ii.  17).     The  state- 

I  ment  in  2  Sam.  xvii.  25  that  the  mother  of 

■  Amasa  was  an  Israelite  is  doubtless  a  tran- 

j  scriber's  error. 

Abiha'iL     1.  Father  of  Zuriel,  chief 

j  of  the  Levitical  family  of  Merari,   a  con- 

j  temporary   of  Moses  (Num.   iii.  35).     2. 

i  Wife  of  Abishur  (1  Chr.  ii.  29).     3.  Son 

of  Huri,  of  tlie  tribe  of  Gad  (1  Chr.  v.  14). 

4.  Wife  of  liehoboam.     She  is  called  tlie 

daugliter,   i.  e.   descendant  of  Eliab,   the 

.  elder  brother  of  David  (2  Chr.  xi.  18).    6. 


ABIHU 


10 


ABISHAG 


Father  of  Esther  and  uncle  of  Mordecai 
(Esth.  ii.  15,  ix.  29). 

Abi'hu,  the  second  son  (Nura,  iii.  2)  of 
Aaron  by  Elisheba  (Ex.  vi.  23).  Being, 
together  with  his  elder  brother  Nadab, 
guilty  of  offering  strange  fire  to  the  Lord, 
he  was  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven  (Lev. 
X.  1,  2). 

Abi'htld,  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of 
Benjamin  (1  Chr.  riii.  3). 

Abi'jah  or  Abi'jam.  1.  Son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Rehoboam  on  the  throne  of  Ju- 
dah  (1  K.  xiv.  31 ;  2  Chr.  xii.  16).  He  is 
called  Abijah  in  Chronicles,  Abijam  in 
Kings.  He  began  to  reign  b.  c.  959,  and 
reigned  three  years.  He  endeavored  to  re- 
cover the  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and 
made  war  on  Jeroboam.  He  was  success- 
ful in  battle,  and  took  several  of  the  cities 
of  Israel.  We  are  told  that  he  walked  in 
all  the  sins  of  Rehoboam  (idolatry  and  its 
attendant  immoralities,  1  K.  xiv.  23,  24), 
and  that  his  heart  "was  not  perfect  before 
God,  as  the  heart  of  David  his  father."  He 
was  succeeded  by  Asa.  2.  Tlie  second 
eon  of  Samuel,  called  Abiah  in  our  ver- 
sion. [Abia,  Abiah,  No.  3.]  3.  Son  of 
Jeroboam  I.  king  of  Lsrael,  died  in  his 
childhood,  just  after  Jeroboam's  wife  had 
been  sent  in  disguise  to  seek  help  for  him, 
in  his  sickness,  from  the  prophet  Abijah  (1 
K.  xiv.">  4.  A  descendant  of  Eleazar,  who 
gave  his  name  to  the  eighth  of  the  twenty- 
four  courses  into  which  the  priests  were  di- 
vided by  DaWd  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  10;  2  Chr. 
viii.  14;  Neh.  xii.  4,  17).  To  the  course 
of  Abijah  or  Abia  belonged  Zacharias  the 
father  of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke  i.  5).  5. 
One  of  the  priests  who  entered  into  a  cov- 
enant with  Nehemiah  to  walk  in  God's  law 
(Neh.  X.  7)  ;  unless  the  name  is  rather  that 
of  a  family,  and  the  same  with  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Abi'jam.     [Abijah,  No.  1.] 

Ab'ila.     [Abilene.] 

Abile'ne  (Luke  iii.  1),  a  tetrarchy  of 
which  the  capital  was  Abila,  a  city  situated 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  Antilibanus,  in  a 
district  fertilized  by  the  river  Barada.  Its 
name  probably  arose  from  the  green  luxu- 
riance of  its  situation,  "  Abel  "  perhaps  de- 
noting "  a  grassy  meadow."  [See  p.  8.] 
The  name,  thus  derived,  is  quite  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  traditions  of  the  death  of 
Abel,  which  are  associated  with  the  spot, 
and  which  are  localized  by  the  tomb  called 
Nebi  Hdbil,  on  a  height  above  the  ruins  of 
the  city.  The  city  was  18  miles  from  Da- 
mascus, and  stood  in  a  remarkable  gorge 
called  Snk  Wady  Barada,  where  the  river 
breaks  down  through  the  mountain  towards 
the  plain  of  Damascus. 

Abim'ael,  a  descendant  of  Joktan  (Gen. 
X.  28;  1  Chr.  i.  22),  and  probably  the  pro- 
genitor of  an  Arab  tribe. 

Abimelech  (^faiher  of  the  king),  the 


name  of  several  Philistine  kings,  was  prob- 
ably a  common  title  of  these  kings,  like 
that  of  Pharaoh  among  the  Egyptians,  and 
that  of  Caesar  and  Augustus  among  the 
Romans.  Hence  in  the  title  of  Ps.  xxxiv. 
the  name  of  Abimelech  is  given  to  the 
king,  who  is  called  Achish  in  1  Sam.  xxi. 
11. — 1.  A  Philistine,  king  of  Gerar  (Gen. 
XX.,  xxi.),  who,  exercising  the  right  claimed 
by  Eastern  princes,  of  collecting  all  the 
beautiful  women  of  their  dominions  into 
their  harem  (Gen.  xii.  15 ;  Esth.  ii.  8),  sent 
for  and  took  Sarah.  A  similar  account  is 
given  of  Abraham's  conduct  on  this  occa- 
sion, to  that  of  his  behavior  towards  Pha- 
raoh. [Abraham.]  2.  Another  king  of 
Gerar  in  the  time  of  Isaac,  of  wliom  a  sim- 
ilar narrative  is  recorded  in  relation  to  Re- 
bekah  (Gen.  xxvi.  1,  &c.).  3.  Son  of-  the 
judge  Gideon  by  his  Shechemite  concubine 
(Judg.  viii.  31).  After  his  father's  death  he 
murdered  all  his  brethren,  70  in  number, 
with  the  exception  of  Jotham,  the  youngest, 
who  concealed  himself;  and  he  then  per- 
suaded the  Shechemites  to  elect  him  king. 
Shecliem  now  became  an  independent  state, 
and  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  conquering 
Israelites.  When  Jotham  heard  that  Abim- 
elech was  made  king,  he  addressed  to  the 
Shechemites  his  fable  of  the  trees  choosing 
a  king  (Judg.  ix.  1).  After  Abimelech  had 
j-eigned  three  years,  the  citizens  of  Shechem 
T"ebelled.  He  was  absent  at  the  time,  but 
he  returned  and  quelled  the  insurrection. 
Shortly  after  he  stormed  and  took  Thebez, 
but  was  struck  on  the  head  by  a  woman 
with  the  fragment  of  a  mill-stone  (corap.  2 
Sara.  xi.  21)  ;  and  lest  he  should  be  said  to 
have  died  by  a  woman,  he  bade  his  armor- 
bearer  slay  him.  Thus  God  avenged  the 
murder  of  his  brethren,  and  fulfilled  the 
curse  of  Jotham. 

Abin'adab.  1.  A  Levite,  a  native  of 
Kirjath-jearim,  in  whose  house  the  ark  re- 
mained 20  years  (1  Sam.  vii.  1,  2;  1  Chr. 
xiii.  7).  2.  Second  son  of  Jesse,  who  fol- 
lowed Saul  to  his  war  against  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  xvi.  8,  xvii.  13).  3.  A  son 
of  Saul,  who  was  slain  with  his  brothers  at 
the  fatal  battle  on  Mount  Gilboa  (1  Sam. 
xxxi.  2).  4.  Father  of  one  of  the  twelve 
chief  officers  of  Solomon  (1  K.  iv.  11). 

Abin'oam,  the  father  of  Barak  (Judg. 
iv.  6,  12,  V.  1,  12). 

Abi'ram.  1.  A  Reubenite,  son  of  Eli- 
ab,  who  with  Dathan  and  On,  men  of  the 
same  tribe,  and  Korah  a  Levite,  organized 
a  conspiracy  against  Moses  and  Aaron 
(Num.  xvi.).  [For  details,  see  Korah.] 
2.  Eldest  son  of  Hiel,  the  Bethelite,  who 
died  when  his  father  laid  the  foundations 
of  Jericho  (1  K.  xvi.  34),  and  thus  accom- 
plished the  first  part  of  the  curse  of  Joshua 
(Josh.  vi.  26). 

Ab'ishag,  a  beautiful  Shunammite, 
taken  into  David's  barem  to  comfort  him 


ABISHAI 


11 


ABRAHAM 


In  his  extreme  old  age  (1  K.  i.  1-4).  After  '  the  side  of  David,  till  at  last  the  imprudence 
David's  death  Adoiiijah  induced  Bathsheba,  j  of  Ishbosheth  deprived  him  of  the  counsels 
the  queen-mother,  to  ask  Solomon  to  give  I  and  generalship  of  the  hero  who  was  in 
him  Abisliag  in  marriage ;  but  this  irapru-  \  truth  the  only  support  of  his  tottering 
dent  petition  cost  Adonijah  his  life  (1  K.  ii.  throne.  Abner  had  married  Rizpah,  Saul's 
13,  &c.).   .[Adonijah.]  |  concubine,  and  this,  according  to  the  views 

Abisha'i,  the  eldest  of  the  three  sons  |  of  Oriental  courts,  might  be  so  interpreted 
of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister,  and  brother  to  :  as  to  imply  a  design  upon  the  throne.  Right- 
Joab  and  Asahel  (1  Chr.  ii.  16).  Like  his  ,  ly  or  wrongly,  Ishbosheth  so  understood  it, 
two  brothers  he  was  the  devoted  follower  {  and  he  even  ventured  to  reproach  Abner 
of  David.  He  was  his  companion  in  the  with  it.  Abner,  incensed  at  his  ingratitude, 
desperate  night  expedition  to  the  camp  of  ■  opened  negotiations  with  David,  by  whom 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  6-9).  On  the  outbreak  he  was  most  favorably  received  at  Hebron, 
of  Absalom's  rebellion  he  remained  true  to  He  then  undertook  to  procure  his  recogni- 
the  king,  and  commanded  a  third  part  of  tion  throughout  Israel ;  but  after  leaving 
the  army  in  the  decisive  battle  against  Ab-  j  his  presence  for  the  purpose  was  enticed 
salom.  He  rescued  David  from  the  hands  :  back  by  Joab,  and  treacherously  nmrdereJ 
of  a  gigantic  Philistine,  Ishbi-benob  (2  '  by  him  and  his  brother  Abishai,  at  the  gate 
Sam.  xxi.  17).  His  personal  prowess  on  '  of  the  city,  partly,  no  doubt,  from  fear  lest 
this,  as  on  another  occasion,  when  he  fought  I  so  distinguished  a  convert  to  their  cause 
single-handed  against  three  hundred,  won  ;  should  gain  too  high  a  place  in  David's  fa- 
for  him  a  place  as  captain  of  the  second  i  vor,  but  ostensibly  in  retaliation  for  the  death 
three  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  j  of  Asahel.  Tliis  murder  caused  the  great- 
18;  1  Chr.  xi.  20).  est  sorrow  and  indignation  to  David;  but 

Abish.'alom.,  father  or  grandfather  of  as  the  assassins  were  too  powerful  to  be 
Maachah,  who  was  the  wife  of  Rehoboam,  '  punished,  he  contented  himself  with  show- 
and  mother  of  Abijah  (1  K.  xv.  2,  10).  He  ;  ing  every  public  token  of  respect  to  Abner's 
is  called  Absalom  in  2  Chr.  xi.  20,  21.  j  memory,  by  following  the  bier  and  pouring 
This  person  must  be  David's  son  (see  I  forth  a  simple  dirge  over  the  slain  (2  Sam. 
LXX.,  2  Sam.  xiv.  27).  |  iii.  33,  34).    2.  The  father  of  Jaasiel,  chief 

Abishu'a.  1.  Son  of  Bela,  of  the  tribe  i  of  the  Benjamites  in  David's  reign  (1  Chr. 
of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  viii.  4).  2.  Son  of  Lxxvii.  21)  :  probably  the  same  as  the  pre- 
Phinehas,  the  son  of  Eleazar,  and  fatherTceding. 

of  Bukki,  in  the  genealogy  of  the  high-  Abomination  of  Desolation,  men- 
priests  (1  Chr.  vi.  4,  5,  50,  51 ;  Ezr.  vii.  4,  5).  '  tioned  by  our  Savior  as  a  sign  of  the  ap- 


Ab'ish.ur,  son  of  Shammai  (1  Chr.  ii. 
28). 

Ab'ital,  one  of  David's  wives  (2  Sam. 
ni.4;  1  Chr.  iii.  3). 


proaching  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  with 
reference  to  Dan.  ix.  27,  xi.  31,  xii.  11. 
The  Jews  considered  the  prophecy  of  Dan- 
iel  as  fulfilled  in  the   profanation   of  the 


Ab'itub,  son  of  Shaharaim  by  HusMm   Temple  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  when 
(1  Chr.  viii.  11).  the  Israelites  themselves  erected  an  idol- 

Abi'ud,  descendant  of  Zorobabel  in  the   atrous  altar  upon  the  sacred  altar,  and  of- 


genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  13). 
Ablution.  [Purification.] 
Ab'ner.  1.  Son  of  Ner,  who  was  the 
brother  of  Kish  (1  Chr.  ix.  36),  the  father 
of  Saul.  Abner,  therefore,  was  Saul's  first 
cousin  [see  Table,  p.  9],  and  was  made  by 
him  commander-in-chief  of  his  array  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  51,  xvii.  57,  xxvi.  3-14).     After 


fered  sacrifice  thereon.  This  altar  is  de- 
scribed as  "an  abomination  of  desolation  " 
(1  Mace.  i.  54,  vi.  7).  The  prophecy,  how- 
ever, referred  ultimately  to  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans,  and  conse- 
quently the  "  abomination  "  must  describe 
some  occurrence  connected  with  that  event. 
It  appears  most  probable  that  the  profani- 


the  death  of  Saul  David  was  proclaimed  |  ties  of  the  Zealots  constituted  the  abomi- 
king  of  Judah  in  Hebron ;  and  some  time  j  nation,  which  was  the  sign  of  impending 
subsequently  Abner  proclaimed  Ishbosheth,  !  ruin.  The  introduction  of  the  Roman  stan- 
Saul's  son,  as  king  of  Israel,  at  Mahanaim  !  dards  into  the  Temple,  regarded  by  many 
beyond  Jordan.  War  soon  broke  out  be-  I  as  the  "  desolation,"  took  place  afier  the 
tween  the  two  rival  kings,  and  "  a  very  destruction  of  the  city. 
sore  battle  "  was  fought  at  Gibeon  between  |  A'braham  or  A'bram,  as  his  name  ap- 
tlie  men  of  Israel  under  Abner,  and  the  '  pears  in  the  earlier  portion  of  the  histcry, 
men  of  Judah  under  Joab,  son  of  Zeruiah,  j  was  the  son  of  Terah,  and  founder  of  the 
David's  sister  (1  Chr.  ii.  16).  When  the  j  great  Hebrew  nation.  His  family,  a  branch 
army  of  Ishbosheth  was  defeated,  Joab's  of  the  descendants  of  Shem,  was  settled  ill 
youngest  brother  Asahel  pursued  Abner,  j  Ur  of  tlie  Chaldees,  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
and  in  spite  of  warning  refused  to  leave  Terah  had  two  other  sons,  Nahor  and 
him,  so  tliat  Abner  in  self-defence  was  |  Haran.  Haran  died  before  his  father  in 
forced  to  kill  him.  After  this  the  war  con-  j  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  leaving  a  son  Lot;  and 
tinued,  success  inclining  more  and  more  to  i  Terah,  taking  with  him  Abram,  with  Saroi 


ABRAHAM 


12 


ABRAHAM 


his  wife,  and  his  grandson  Lot,  emigrated 
to  Haran  in  Mesopotamia,  where  he  died. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  Abram,  then  in 
the  75th  year  of  his  age,  with  Sarai  and 
Lot,  pursued  his  course  to  the  land  of 
Canaan,  whither  he  was  directed  by  divine 
command  (Gen.  xii.  5),  when  he  received 
the  general  promise  that  he  should  become 
the  founder  of  a  great  nation,  and  that  all 
the  families  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed 
in  him.  He  passed  through  the  heart  of 
the  country  by  the  great  highway  to  She- 
chem,  and  pitched  his  tent  beneath  the 
terebinth  of  Moreh  (Gen.  xii.  6).  Here 
he  received  in  vision  from  Jehovah  the 
further  revelation  that  this  was  the  land 
which  his  descendants  should  inherit  (xii. 
7).  The  next  lialting-place  of  the  wander- 
er was  on  a  mountain  between  Bethel  and 
Ai  (Gen.  xii.  8).  But  tlie  country  was  suf- 
fering from  famine,  and  Abram,  finding 
neither  pasture  for  liis  cattle  nor  food  for 
bis  household,  journeyed  still  southwards 
to  the  rich  corn-lands  of  Egypt.  There, 
fearing  that  the  great  beauty  of  Sarai  might 
tempt  the  powerful  monarch  of  Egypt  and 
expose  his  own  life  to  peril,  he  arranged 
that  Sarai  should  represent  herself  as  his 
sister,  which  her  actual  relationship  to 
him,  as  probably  the  daughter  of  his  broth- 
er Harun,  allowed  her  to  do  with  some 
semblance  of  truth.  But  her  beauty  was 
reported  to  the  king,  and  she  was  taken 
into  the  royal  harem.  The  deception  was 
discovered,  and  Pharaoh  with  some  indig- 
nation dismissed  him  from  tlie  country  (xii. 
lD-20).  Abram  left  Egypt  with  great  pos- 
sessions, and,  accompanied  by  Lot,  re- 
turned by  the  south  of  Palestine  to  his 
former  encampment  bet\veen  Bethel  and 
Ai.  The  increased  wealth  of  the  two  kins- 
men was  the  ultimate  cause  of  their  sepa- 
ration. The  soil  was  not  fertile  enough  to 
support  them  both :  their  herdsmen  quar- 
relled ;  and,  to  avoid  dissensions  in  a 
country  where  they  were  surrounded  by 
enemies,  Abram  proposed  that  each  should 
follow  his  own  fortune.  Lot  chose  the  fer- 
tile plain  of  the  Jordan,  rich  and  well 
watered  as  tlie  garden  of  Jehovali ;  while 
Abram  quitted  the  hill-fastness  between 
Bethel  and  Ai,  and  pitched  his  tent  among 
the  oak -groves  of  Mamre,  close  to  Hebron 
(Gen.  xiii.).  The  chiefs  of  the  tribes  who 
peopled  tlie  plain  of  the  Jordan  had  been 
subdued  in  a  previous  irruption  of  nortli- 
ern  warriors,  and  for  twelve  years  had 
been  the  tributaries  of  Chedorlaomer,  king 
of  Elani.  Their  rebellion  brought  down 
upon  Palestine  and  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries a  fresh  flood  of  invaders  from  the 
north-east,  who  joined  battle  with  the  re- 
volted chieftains  in  tlic  vale  of  Siddim. 
Tiie  king  of  Sodom  and  his  confederates 
wer«  defeated,  their  cities  plundered,  and  a 
host  of  captives  accompanied  the  victori- 


ous army  of  Chedorlaomer.  Among  them 
were  Lot  and  his  family.  Abram,  then  con- 
federate with  Mamre  the  Amorite  and  his 
brethren,  heard  tlie  tidings  from  a  fugitive, 
and  hastily  arming  his  trusty  slaves,  started 
in  pursuit.  He  followed  the  track  of  the 
conquerors  along  the  Jordan  valley,  came 
up  with  them  by  Dan,  and  in  a  night  attack 
completely  routed  their  host,  and  checked 
for  a  time  the  stream  of  northern  immigra- 
tion. Tlie  captives  and  plunder  wore  all 
recovered,  and  Abram  was  greeted  on  his 
return  by  the  king  of  Sodom,  and  by  Mel- 
cliizcdek,  king  of  Salem,  priest  of  the  Most 
High  God,  who  mysteriously  appears  upon 
the  scene  to  bless  the  patriarch,  and  re- 
ceive from  him  a  tenth  of  the  spoil  (Gen. 
xiv.).  After  this,  the  thrice-repeated  prom- 
ise that  his  descendants  should  become  a 
mighty  natiop  and  possess  the  land  in  which 
he  was  a  stranger,  was  confirmed  with  all 
the  solemnity  of  a  religious  ceremony  (Gen. 
XV.).  Ten  years  had  passed  since,  in  obe- 
dience to  the  divine  command,  he  had  left 
liis  father's  house,  and  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  was  apparently  more  distant  than 
at  first.  At  the  suggestion  of  Sarai,  who 
despaired  of  having  children  of  her  own,  he 
took  as  his  concubine  Hagar,  her  Egyptian 
maid,  wlio  bore  him  Ishmael  in  tlie  8Gth 
year  of  his  age  (Gen.  xvi.).  [Hagar;  Ish- 
siAEL.]  But  this  was  not  the  accomplish- 
'^ent  of  the  promise.  Thirteen  years 
elapsed,  dvriug  which  Abram  still  dwelt  in 
Hebron,  when  the  last  step  in  the  revela- 
tion was  made,  that  the  son  of  Sirai,  and 
not  Ishmael,  should  inherit  both  the  tem- 
poral and  spiritual  blessings.  The  cove- 
nant was  renewed,  and  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision established  as  its  sign.  This  most 
important  crisis  in  Abram's  life  is  marked 
by  tlie  significant  change  of  his  name  to 
Abraham,  "father  of  a  multitude;"  while 
his  wife's  from  Sarai  became  Sarah.  In 
liis  99tli  year  Abraiiam  was  circumcised,  in 
accoi'dance  with  the  divine  command,  to- 
gether with  Ishmael  and  all  the  males  of 
his  household,  as  well  the  slaves  born  in 
his  house  as  those  purchased  from  the  for- 
eigner (Gen.  xvii.).  The  promise  that 
Sarah  should  have  a  son  was  repeated  in 
the  remarkable  scene  described  in  ch.  xviii. 
Three  men  stood  before  Abraham  as  he  sat 
in  his  tent  door  in  the  heat  of  the  day. 
The  patriarch,  witli  true  Eastern  hospital- 
ity, welcomed  the  strangers,  and  bade 
them  rest  and  refresh  themselves.  The 
meal  ended,  they  foretold  the  birth  of 
Isaac,  and  went  on  their  way  to  Sodom. 
Abraham  accompanied  them,  and  is  repre- 
sented as  an  interlocutor  in  a  dialogue  with 
Jehovah,  in  which  he  pleaded  in  vain  to 
avert  the  vengeance  threatened  to  the  de- 
voted cities  of  the  plain  (xviii.  17-33).  In 
remarkable  contrast  with  Abraham's  firm 
faith  with  regard  to  the  magnificeat  for- 


ABRAHAM 


13 


ABSALOM 


tunes  of  his  posterity  stands  the  incident 
which  occurred  during  his  temporary  resi- 
dence among  the  Philistines  in  Gerar, 
whither  he  had,  for  some  cause,  removed 
after  the  destruction  of  Sodora.  Sarah's 
beauty  won  the  admiration  of  Abimelecii, 
the  king  of  the  country ;  the  temporizing 
policy  of  Abraham  produced  the  same  re- 
sults as  before ;  and  the  narrative  of  ch. 
XX.  is  nearly  a  repetition  of  that  in  ch.  xii. 
11-20.  Abimelech's  dignified  rebuke  taught 
him  that  he  was  not  alone  in  recognizing  a 
God  of  justice.  At  length  Isaac,  the  long- 
looked-for  child,  was  born.  His  birth  was 
welcomed  by  all  the  rejoicings  which  could 
greet  the  advent  of  one  whose  future  was 
of  such  rich  promise.  Sarah's  jealousy, 
aroused  by  the  mockery  of  Ishmael  at  the 
"great  banquet"  which  Abraham  made  to 
celebrate  the  weaning  of  her  son  (Gen.  xxi. 
9),  demanded  that,  with  his  mother  Hagar, 
he  should  be  driven  out  (Gen.  xxi.  10). 
The  patriarch  reluctantly  consented,  con- 
soled by  the  fresh  promise  that  Ishmael  too 
should  become  a  great  nation.  But  the 
severest  trial  of  his  faith  was  yet  to  come. 
For  a  long  period  the  history  is  almost  si- 
lent. At  length  he  receives  the  strange 
command  to  take  Isaac,  his  only  son,  and 
offer  him  for  a  burnt-offering  at  an  ap- 
pointed place.  Such  a  bidding,  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  promptings  of  nature  and 
the  divine  mandate  against  the  shedding  of 
human  blood,  Abraham  hesitated  not  to 
obey.  His  faith,  hitherto  unshaken,  support- 
ed him  in  this  final  trial,  "  accounting  that 
God  was  able  to  raise  up  his  son,  even 
from  the  dead,  from  whence  also  he  re- 
ceived him  in  a  figure "  (Heb.  xi.  19). 
The  sacrifice  was  stayed  by  the  angel  of 
Jehovah,  the  promise  of  spiritual  blessing 
for  the  first  time  repeated,  and  Abraham 
with  his  son  returned  to  Bcersheba,  and 
for  a  time  dwelt  there  (Gen.  xxii.).  But 
we  find  him  after  a  few  years  in  his  origi- 
nal residence  at  Hebron,  for  there  Sarah 
died  -(Gen.  xxiii.  2),  and  was  buried  in 
the  cave  of  Maclipelah,  which  Abraliam 
purchased  of  Ephron  the  Hittite,  for  the 
exorbitant  price  of  400  shekels  of  silver. 
The  mosque  at  Hebron  is  believed  to  stand 
upon  the  site  of  the  sepulchral  cave.  The 
remaining  years  of  Abraham's  life  are 
marked  by  but  few  incidents.  In  his  ad- 
vanced age  he  commissioned  the  faithful 
steward  of  his  house  to  seek  a  wife  for 
Isaac  from  the  family  of  his  brother  Nahor, 
binding  him  by  the  most  solemn  oath  not 
to  contract  an  alliance  with  the  daughters 
of  the  degraded  Cauaanites  among  whom 
he  dwelt  (Gen.  xxiv.).  After  Isaac's  mar- 
riage with  Rebekah,  and  his  removal  to 
Lahai-roi,  Abraham  took  to  wife  Keturah, 
by  whom  he  had  six  children,  Zimran, 
Jokshan,  Medan,  Midian,  Ishbok,  and 
Shuah,    who    became   the    ancestors    of 


j  nomadic  tribes  inhabiting  the  countries 
south  and  south-east  of  Palestine.  Ketu- 
rah occupied  a  position  inferior  to  that  of 
a  legitimate  wife.  Her  children,  like  Ish- 
mael, were  dismissed  with  presents,  and 
settled  in  the  East  country  during  Abra- 
ham's lifetime,  and  Isaac  was  left  sole  heir 
of  his  father's  wealth.  Abraham  lived  to 
see  the  gradual  accomplishment  of  the 
promise  in  the  birth  of  his  grandchildren 
Jacob  and  Esau,  and  witnessed  their  growth 
to  manhood  (Gen.  xxv.  2G).  At  the  good- 
ly age  of  175  he  was  "  gathered  to  his  peo- 
ple," and  laid  beside  Sarah  in  the  ton)b  of 
Maclipelah  by  his  sons  Isaac  and  Ishmael 
(Gen.  xxv.  7-10).  From  the  intimate  com- 
munion which  Abraham  held  with  the  Al- 
mighty, he  is  distinguished  by  the  high 
title  of  "the  'friend'  of  God"  (2  Chr.  xx. 
7;  Is.  xli.  8;  Jam.  ii.  23);  and  El-Khalil, 
"  the  friend,"  is  the  appellation  by  which 
he  is  familiarly  known  in  the  traditions  of 
the  Arabs,  who  have  given  the  same  name 
to  Hebron,  the  place  of  his  residence. 

Ab'salom  {father  of  peace),  third  son 
of  David  by  Maacliah,  daughter  of  Taln/ai 
king  of  Geshur,  a  Syrian  district  adjoining 
the  N.  E.  frontier  of  the  Holy  Land.  Ab- 
salom had  a  sister,  Tamar,  who  was  violated 
by  her  half-brother  Amnon,  David's  eldest 
son  by  Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess.    The  nat- 

J^ral  avenger  of  such  an  outrage  would  be 
Tamar's  full  brother  Absalom.  He  brooded 
over  the  wrong  for  two  years,  and  then  in- 
vited all  the  princes  to  a  sheep-shearing 
feast  at  his  estate  in  Baal-hiizor,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Ephraim  and  Be:.jamin.  Here  he 
ordered  his  servants  to  murder  Amnon,  and 
then  fled  for  safety  to  liis  grandfather's  court 
at  Geshur,  where  he  remained  for  three 
years.  At  the  end  of  that  time  he  was 
brought  back  by  an  artifice  of  Joab,  who 
sent  a  woman  of  Tekoah  to  entreat  the 
king's  interference  in  an  imaginary  case 
similar  to  Absalom's.  David,  however, 
would  not  see  Absalom  for  two  more  years ; 
but  at  length  Joab  brought  about  a  recon- 
ciliation. Absalom  now  began  at  once  to 
prepare  for  rebellion,  urged  to  it  partly  by 
his  own  restless  wickedness,  partly  perhaps 
by  the  fear  lest  Bathsheba's  child  should 
supplant  him  in  the  succession,  to  which 
he  would  feel  himself  entitled  as  being  now 
David's  eldest  surviving  son.  Absalom  tried 
to  supplant  his  father  by  courting  popular- 
ity, standing  in  the  gate,  conversing  with 
every  suitor,  and  lamenting  the  difficulty 
which  he  would  find  in  getting  a  hearing. 
He  also  maintained  a  splendid  retinue 
(2  Sam.  XV.  1),  and  was  admired  for  his 
personal  beauty  and  the  luxuriant  growth 
of  his  hair,  on  grounds  similar  to  those 
which  had  made  Saul  acceptable  (1  Sara. 
X.  23).  It  is  probable  too  that  the  great 
tribe  of  Judah  had  taken  some  offence  at 
David's  government,  perhaps  from  finding 


ACCAD 


14 


ACHAN 


tkemselves  completely  merged  in  one  united 
Israel.  But  whatever  the  causes  may  have 
been,  Absalom  raised  the  standard  of  revolt 
at  Hebron,  the  old  capital  of  Judah,  now 
supplanted  by  Jerusalem.  The  revolt  was 
at  first  completely  successful;  David  fled 
from  his  capital  over  the  Jordan  to  Maha- 
naim  in  Gilead.  Absalom  occupied  Jeru- 
salcDJ,  and  by  the  advice  of  Ahithophel  took 
possession  of  David's  harem,  in  which  he 
had  left  ten  concubines.  This  was  consid- 
ered to  imply  a  formal  assumption  of  all  his 
father's  royal  rights  (comp.  the  conduct  of 
Adonijah,  1  K.  ii.  13  ff.),  and  was  also  a 
fulfilment  of  Nathan's  prophecy  (2  Sam. 
xii.  11).  But  David  had  left  friends  who 
watched  over  his  interests.  The  vigorous 
counsels  of  Ahithophel  were  afterwards 
rejected  through  the  crafty  advice  of  Hushai, 
who  insinuated  himself  into  Absalom's 
confidence  to  work  his  ruin,  and  Ahithophel 
himself,  seeing  his  ambitious  hopes  frus- 
trated, went  home  to  Giloh,  and  committed 
suicide.  At  last,  after  being  solemnly 
anointed  king  at  Jerusalem  (xix.  10), 
Absalom  crossed  the  Jordan  to  attack  his 
father,  who  by  tliis  time  had  rallied  round 
him  a  considerable  force,  whereas  had 
Ahithophel's  advice  been  followed,  he  would 
probably  have  been  crushed  at  once.  A 
decisive  battle  was  fought  in  Gilead,  in  the 
wood  of  Ephraira.  Here  Absalom's  forcesi 
were  totally  defeated,  and  as  he  himself 
was  escaping,  his  long  hair  was  entangled 
in  the  branches  of  a  terebinth,  where  he 
was  left  hanging  while  the  mule  on  which 
he  was  riding  rar.  away  from  under  him. 
He  was  despatched  by  Joab  in  spite  of  the 
prohibition  of  David,  who,  loving  liira  to 
tlie  last,  had  desired  that  his  life  might  be 
spared.  He  was  buried  in  a  great  pit  in  the 
forest,  and  the  conquerors  threw  stones 
over  his  grave,  an  old  proof  of  bitter  hos- 
tiUty  (Josh.  vii.  26). 

Ae'cad,  one  of  the  cities  in  the  land  of 
Shinar  (Gen.  x.  10).  Its  position  is  quite 
uncertain. 

Ac'caron.    [Ekkon.] 

Ac'cho(thc  Ptolemais  of  the  Maccabees 
and  N.  T.),  now  called  Acca,  or  more  usu- 
ally by  Europeans,  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  the 
most  important  sea-port  town  on  the  Syrian 
coast,  about  30  miles  S.  of  Tyre.  It  was 
situated  on  a  slightly  projecting  headland, 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  that  spacious 
bay,  which  is  formed  by  the  bold  promon- 
tory of  Carmel  on  the  opposite  side.  In 
the  division  of  Canaan  among  the  tribes, 
Accho  fell  to  the  lot  of  Asher,  but  was  nev- 
er wrested  fi-om  its  original  inliabitants 
(Judg.  i.  31)  ;  and  hence  it  is  reckoned  by 
the  classical  writers  among  the  cities  of 
Phoenicia.  No  further  mention  is  made  of 
it  in  the  O.  T.  history,  but  it  rose  to  impor- 
tance after  the  dismemberment  of  the  Mace- 
donian empire.      Along  with  the  rest  of 


Phoenicia  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  Egypt,  aud 
was  named  Ptolemais,  after  one  of  the 
Ptolemies,  probably  Soter.  It  was  after- 
wards taken  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  and 
attached  to  his  kingdom.  The  only  notice 
of  it  in  the  N.  T.  is  in  connection  with  St. 
Paul's  passage  from  Tyre  to  Caesarea  (Act* 
xxi.  7). 

Aeel'dama,  "the  field  of  blood;  "  the 
name  given  by  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem  to  a 
field  near  Jerusalem  purchased  by  Judas 
with  the  money  which  he  received  for  the 
betrayal  of  Christ,  and  so  called  from  his 
violent  death  therein  (Acts  i.  19).  This  is 
apparently  at  variance  with  the  account  of 
St.  Matthew  (xxvii.  8),  according  to  which 
the  "  field  of  blood  "  was  purchased  by  the 
priests  with  the  30  pieces  of  silver,  after 
they  had  been  cast  down  by  Judas,  as  a 
burial-place  for  strangers,  the  locality  being 
well  known  at  the  time  as  "the  field  of  the 
Potter."  And  accordingly  ecclesiasticaJ 
tradition  appears,  fi-om  the  earliest  times, 
to  have  pointed  out  two  distinct  spots  as  re- 
ferred to  in  the  two  accounts.  The  "field 
of  blood  "  is  now  shown  on  the  steep  south- 
ern face  of  the  valley  or  ravine  of  Hinnora. 
It  was  believed  in  the  middle  ages  that  the 
soil  of  this  place  had  the  power  of  very 
rapidly  consuming  bodies  buried  in  it,  and 
in  consequence  either  of  tliis,  or  of  the 
sanctity  of  the  spot,  great  quantities  of  the 
earth  were  taken  away ;  amongst  others  by 
the  Pisan  Crusaders  in  1218  for  their  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa,  and  by  the  Empress  Helena 
for  that  at  Rome. 

Acha'ia  signifies,  in  the  N.  T.,  a  Roman 
province,  which  included  the  whole  of  the 
Peloponnesus  and  the  greater  part  of  Hel- 
las proper  with  the  adjacent  islands.  This 
province,  with  that  of  Macedonia,  compre- 
hended the  whole  of  Greece ;  hence  Achaia 
and  Macedonia  are  frequently  mentionec 
together  in  the  N.  T.  to  indicate  all  Greece 
(Acts  xviii.  12,  xix.  21;  Rom.  xv.  26,  xvi 
5 ;  ]  Cor.  xvi.  15 ;  2  Cor.  ii.  1,  ix.  2,  xi.  10 
1  T  *ss.  i.  7,  8).  In  the  time  of  the  Empe- 
ror t^laudius,  it  was  governed  by  a  Procon- 
sul, translated  in  the  A.  V.  "  deputy  "  of 
Achaia  (Acts  xviii.  12). 

Acha'icus,  a  name  of  a  Christian  (I 
Cor.  xvi.  17,  subscription  No.  25). 

A'chan  (troubler),  an  Israelite  of  thfr 
tribe  of  Judah,  who,  when  Jericho  and  all 
that  it  contained  were  accursed  and  devoted 
to  destruction,  secreted  a  portion  of  the 
spoil  in  his  tent.  For  this  sin  Jehovah 
punished  Israel  by  their  defeat  in  the  attack 
upon  Ai.  When  Achan  confessed  his  guilt, 
and  the  booty  was  discovered,  he  was  stoned 
to  death  with  his  whole  family  by  the  peo- 
ple in  a  valley  situated  between  Ai  and  Jer- 
icho, and  their  remains,  together  with  his 
property,  were  burnt  (Josh.  vii.  16-22). 
From  this  event  the  valley  received  the 
name  of  Achor  (i.  e.  trouble).    [Achob.! 


ACHAR 


15 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 


A'char  =  Achan  (1  Chr.  ii.  7). 

A'chaz  =  Aha25,  king  of  Judah  (Matt. 
i.9). 

Ach'bor.  1.  Father  of  Baal-hanan, 
king  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  38,  39 ;  1  Chr. 
i.  49).  2.  Son  of  Michaiah,  a  contempo- 
rary of  Josiah  (2  K.  xxii.  12, 14 ;  Jer.  xxvi. 
22,  xxxvi.  12),  called  Abdon  in  2  Chr. 
xxxiv.  20. 

A'chim,  son  of  Sadoc,  and  father  of 
Eliud,  in  our  Lord's  genealogy ;  the  fifth  in 
succession  before  Joseph,  the  husband  of 
Mary  (Matt.  i.  14).  The  Hebrew  form  of 
the  name  would  be  Jachin,  which  is  a  short 
form  of  Jehoiachin,  the  Lord  will  establish. 

A'chish,  a  Philistine  king  of  Gath,  who 
in  the  title  to  the  34th  Psalm  is  called  Abim- 
elech.  David  twice  found  a  refuge  with 
him  when  he  fled  from  Saul.  On  the  first 
occasion,  being  recognized  by  the  servants 
of  Achish  as  one  celebrated  for  his  victories 
over  the  Philistines,  he  was  alarmed  for  his 
safety,  and  feigned  madness  (1  Sam.  xxi. 
10-13).  [David.]  From  Acliish  he  fled 
to  the  cave  of  Adullam.  On  a  second  occa- 
sion David  fled  to  Achish  with  600  men  (1 
Sam.  xxvii.  2),  and  remained  at  Gath  a 
year  and  four  months. 

Ach'metha.    [Ecbatana.] 

A'chor,  Valley  of,  or  ''valley  of  trou- 
ble," the  spot  at  which  Achan,  the  "  trou- 
bler  of  Israel,"  was  stoned  (Josh.  vii.  24, 
26).  On  the  N.  boundary  of  Judah  (xv.  7 ; 
also  Is.  Ixv.  10;  Hos.  ii.  15). 

Ach'sa  (1  Chr.  ii.  49).     [Achsah.] 

Ach'sah,  daughter  of  Caleb.  Her 
father  promised  her  in  marriage  to  whoever 
should  take  Debir.  Othniel,  her  father's 
younger  brother,  took  that  city,  and  accord- 
ingly received  the  hand  of  Achsah  as  his 
reward.  Caleb,  at  his  daughter's  request, 
added  to  her  dowry  the  upper  and  lower 
springs,  which  she  had  pleaded  for  as  pecu- 
liarly suitable  to  her  inheritance  in  a  south 
country  (Josh.  xv.  15-19;  Judg.  i.  11-15). 

Ach'sliapll,  a  city  within  the  territory 
of  Asher,  named  between  Beten  and  Alam- 
melech  (Josh.  xix.  25)  ;  originally  the  seat 
of  a  Canaanite  king  (xi.  1,  xii.  20). 

Ach'zib.  1.  A  city  in  the  lowlands  of 
Judah,  named  with  Keilah  and  Mareshah 
(Josh.  XV.  44 ;  Mic.  i.  14).  It  is  probably 
the  same  with  Chezib  and  Chozkba,  which 
see.  2.  A  town  belonging  to  Asher  (Josh, 
xix.  29),  from  which  the  Canaanites  were 
not  expelled  (Judg.  i.  31) ;  afterwards 
Ecdippa.  It  is  now  es-Zib,  on  the  sea- 
shore, 2  h.  20  m.  N.  of  Acre.         , 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  a  second 
treatise  by  the  author  of  the  third  Gospel, 
traditionally  known  as  Luke.  The  identity 
of  the  writer  of  both  books  is  strongly 
shown  by  their  great  similarity  in  style  and 
idiom,  and  the  usage  of  particular  words 
and  compound  forms.  It  is,  at  first  sight, 
eomewhat  surprising  that  notices  of  the 


author  are  wanting,  generally,  in  the  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul,  whom  he  must  have  accom- 
panied for  some  years  on  his  travels.  Bui 
no  Epistles  were,  strictly  speaking,  written 
by  St.  Paul  while  our  writer  was  in  his 
company,  before  his  Roman  imprisonment ; 
for  he  does  not  seem  to  have  joined  him  at 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.),  where  the  two  Epis- 
tles to  the  Thessalonians  were  written,  nor 
to  have  been  with  him  at  Ephesus  (ch.  xix.), 
whence,  perhaps,  the  Epistle  to  tho  Gala- 
tians  was  written ;  nor  again  to  have  win- 
tered with  him  at  Corinth  (ch.  xx.  3)  at  the 
time  of  his  writing  the  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, and,  perhaps,  that  to  the  Galatians. 
The  book  commences  with  an  inscription  to 
one  Theophilus,  who  was  probably  a  man 
of  birth  and  station.  But  its  design  must 
not  be  supposed  to  be  limited  to  the  edifica- 
tion of  Theophilus,  whose  name  is  prefixed 
only,  as  was  customary  then  as  now,  by 
way  of  dedication.  The  readers  were  evi- 
dently intended  to  be  the  members  of  the 
Christian  Church,  whether  Jews  or  Gen- 
tiles ;  for  its  contents  are  such  as  are  of 
the  utmost  consequence  to  the  whole 
Church.  They  are  The  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  of  the  Father  by  the  descent  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  results  of  thai 
outpouring,  by  the  dispersion  of  the  Gos' 
pel  among  Jews  and  Gentiles.,  Under  these 
leading  heads  all  the  personal  and  subor- 
dinate details  may  be  ranged.  Immediately 
after  the  Ascension,  St.  Peter,  the  first  of 
the  Twelve,  designated  by  our  Lord  as  the 
Rock  on  whom  the  Church  was  to  be  built, 
the  holder  of  the  keys  of  the  kingdom, 
becomes  the  prime  actor  under  God  in  the 
founding  of  the  Church.  He  is  the  centre 
of  the  first  great  group  of  sayings  and 
doings.  The  opening  of  the  door  to  Jews 
(ch.  ii.)  and  Gentiles  (ch.  x.)  is  his  office, 
and  by  him,  in  good  time,  is  accomplished. 
But  none  of  the  existing  twelve  Apostles 
were,  humanly  speaking,  fitted  to  preach 
the  Gospel  to  the  cultivated  Gentile  world. 
To  be  by  divine  grace  the  spiritual  con- 
queror of  Asia  and  Europe,  God  raised  up 
another  instrument,  from  among  the  highly 
educated  and  zealous  Pharisees.  The  prep- 
aration of  Saul  of  Tarsus  for  the  work  to 
be  done,  the  progress,  in  his  hand,  of  that 
work,  his  journoyings,  preachings,  and  per- 
ils, his  stripes  and  imprisonments,  his  testi- 
fying in  Jerusalem  and  being  brought  to 
testify  in  Rome,  —  these  are  the  subjects  of 
the  latter  half  of  the  book,  of  which  the 
great  central  figure  is  the  Apostle  Paul.  It 
seems  most  probable  that  the  place  of  writ- 
ing was  Rome,  and  the  time  about  two  years 
from  the  date  of  St.  Paul's  arrival  there,  as 
related  in  ch.  xxviii.  30.  This  would  give 
us  for  the  publication  the  year  63  a.  d., 
according  to  the  most  probable  assignment 
of  the  date  of  the  arrival  of  St.  Paul  at 
Rome. 


ADADAH 


16 


ADAMANT 


Ad'adah,  one  of  the  cities  in  the 
extreme  south  of  Judah  named  with  Di- 
monah  and  Kedesh  (Josli.  xv.  22). 

A'dah  (ornament,  beauty).  1.  The 
first  of  the  two  wives  of  Lamech,  by  whom 
were  born  to  him  Jabal  and  Jubal  (Gen.  iv. 
19).  2.  AHittitess,  one  of  the  three  wives 
of  Esau,  mother  of  Eliphaz  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2, 
10,  12,  IG).  In  Gen.  xxvi.  34  she  is  called 
Bashkmatii. 

Adai'ah.  1.  Maternal  grandfather  of 
king  Josiah,  and  native  of  Boscath  in  the 
lowlands  of  Judah  (2  K.  xxii.  1).  2.  A 
Levite,  of  the  Gershonite  branch,  and  ances- 
tor of  Asaph  (1  Chr.  vi.  41).  In  v.  21  he 
is  called  Iddo.  3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of 
Shimlii  (1  Chr.  viii.  21),  who  is  apparently 
the  same  as  Shema  in  v.  13.  4.  A  priest, 
son  of  Jehoram  (1  Chr.  ix.  12;  Neb.  xi. 
12).  5.  Ancestor  of  Maaseiah,  one  of  the 
captains  who  supported  Jehoiada  (2  Chr. 
xxiii.  1).  6.  One  of  the  descendants  of 
Bani  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  after 
the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezr.  x.  29).  7. 
The  descendant  of  another  Bani,  who  had 
also  taken  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  39).  8. 
A  man  of  Judah,  of  the  line  of  Pharez 
(Neh.  xi.  5). 

Adali  a,  the  fifth  son  of  Haman  (Esth. 
is.  8). 

Aa'am,  the  name  given  in  Scripture  to 
the  first  man.  It  apparently  has  reference 
t<)  the  ground  from  which  he  was  formed, 
which  is  called  in  Hebrew  Adamah.  The 
idea  of  redness  of  color  seems  to  be  inhe- 
rent in  either  word.  The  creation  of  man 
was  the  work  of  the  sixth  day.  His  forma- 
tion was  the  ultimate  object  of  the  Creator. 
It  was  with  reference  to  Mm  that  all  things 
were  designed.  He  was  to  be  the  "roof 
and  crown"  of  the  whole  fabric  of  the 
world.  In  the  first  nine  chapters  of  Gen- 
esis there  appear  to  be  three  distinct  histo- 
ii«s  relating  more  or  less  to  the  life  of 
Adam.  The  first  extends  from  Gen.  i.  1  to 
ii.  3,  the  second  from  ii.  4  to  iv.  26,  the 
third  from  v.  1  to  the  end  of  ix.  The  word 
at  the  commencement  of  the  two  latter  nar- 
ratives, which  is  rendered  there  and  else- 
where generations,  may  also  be  rendered 
history.  The  object  of  the  first  of  these 
narratives  is  to  record  the  creation ;  that  of 
the  second  to  give  an  account  of  paradise, 
the  original  sin  of  man,  and  the  immediate 
posterity  of  Adam ;  the  third  contains  main- 
ly the  history  of  Noah,  referring,  it  would 
seem,  to  Adam  and  his  descendants  princi- 
pally in  relation  to  that  patriarch.  The 
name  Adam  was  not  confined  to  the  father 
of  the  human  race,  but  like  homo  was 
applicable  to  woman  as  well  as  man,  so 
that  we  find  it  said  in  Gen.  v.  2,  "  male  and 
female  created  He  them,  and  called  their 
uame  Adam  in  the  day  when  they  were 
created."  The  man  Adam  was  placed  in  a 
garden  which  the  Lord  God  had  planted 


"  eastward  in  Eden,"  for  the  purpose  of 
dressing  it  and  keeping  it.  [Eden.]  Adam 
was  permitted  to  eat  of  the  fruit  of  every 
tree  in  the  garden  but  one,  which  was  called 
the  "tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil."  The  prohibition  to  taste  the  fruit  of 
this  tree  was  enforced  by  the  menace  of 
death.  There  was  also  another  tree  which 
was  called  "the  tree  of  life."  Some  sup- 
pose it  to  have  acted  as  a  kind  of  medicine, 
and  that  by  the  continual  use  of  it  our  first 
parents,  not  created  immortal,  were  pre- 
served from  death.  While  Adam  was  in 
the  garden  of  Eden,  the  beasts  of  the  field 
and  the  fowls  of  the  air  were  brought  to  him 
to  be  named,  and  whatsoever  he  called 
every  living  creature  that  was  the  name 
thereof.  Tims  the  power  of  fitly  designat- 
ing objects  of  sense  was  possessed  by  the 
first  man,  a  faculty  which  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  indicating  mature  and  extensive 
intellectual  resources.  Upon  the  failure  of 
a  companion  suitable  for  Adam  among  the 
creatures  thus  brought  to  him  to  be  named, 
the  Lord  God  caused  a  deep  sleep  to  fall 
upon  him,  and  took  one  of  his  ribs  from 
him,  wliich  He  fashioned  into  a  woman  and 
brought  her  to  the  man.  At  this  time  they 
are  both  described  as  being  naked  without 
the  consciousness  of  shame.  Such  is  the 
Scripture  account  of  Adam  prior  to  the 
Fall.  The  first  man  is  a  true  man,  with 
the  powers  of  a  man  and  the  innocence  of 
a  child.  He  is  moreover  spoken  of  by  St. 
Paul  as  being  "  the  figure  of  Him  that  was 
to  come,"  the  second  Adam,  Christ  Jesus 
(Rom.  V.  14).  By  the  subtlety  of  the  ser- 
pent, the  woman  who  was  given  to  be  with 
Adam,  was  beguiled  into  a  violation  of  the 
one  command  which  had  been  imposed  upon 
them.  She  took  of  the  fruit  of  the  forbid- 
den tree  and  gave  it  to  her  husband.  The 
propriety  of  its  name  was  immediately 
shown  in  the  results  which  followed :  self- 
consciousness  was  the  first-fruits  of  sin; 
their  eyes  were  opened  and  they  knew  that 
they  were  naked.  Though  the  curse  of 
Adam's  rebellion  of  necessity  fell  upon  him, 
yet  the  very  prohibition  to  eat  of  the  tree 
of  life  after  liis  transgression  was  probably 
a  manifestation  of  Divine  mercy,  because 
the  greatest  malediction  of  all  would  have 
been  to  have  the  gift  of  indestructible  life 
superadded  to  a  state  of  wretchedness  and 
sin.  Adam  is  stJited  to  have  lived  930 
years.  His  sons  mentioned  in  Scripture  are 
Cain,  Abel,  and  Seth;  it  is  implied  how- 
ever that  he  had  others. 

Ad'am,  a  city  on  the  Jordan  "  beside 
Zaretan,"  in  the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh.  iii. 
16). 

Ad'amah,  one  of  the  "fenced  cities'* 
of  Naphtali,  named  between  Chinnereth 
and  ha-Eamah  (Josh.  xix.  36). 

Adaraant,  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Shdmir  in  Ez.  iii.  9  and  Zech.  vii.  12, 


AD  AMI 


17 


ADNAH 


In  Jer.  xvii.  1  it  is  translated  **  diamond." 
In  these  three  passages  the  word  is  the 
representative  of  some  stone  of  excessive 
hardness,  and  is  used  metaphorically. 
Since  the  HebrcAvs  appear  to  have  been 
unacquainted  with  the  true  diamond,  it  is 
very  probable,  from  the  expression  in  Ez. 
iii.  9,  of  "  adama.m  haj-der  than  flint,"  that 
by  Shdmir  is  intended  Emery,  a  variety  of 
Corundum,  a  mineral  inferior  only  to  the 
diamond  in  hardness.  Emery  is  extensively 
used  for  polishing  and  cutting  gems  and 
other  hard  substances. 

Ad' ami,  a  place  on  the  border  of  Naph- 
tali  (Josh.  xix.  33). 

A'dar,  a  place  on  the  south  boundary 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  3). 

A'dar.     [Months.] 

Ad'asa,  a  place  in  Judaea,  about  4  miles 
from  Bethhoron  (1  Mace.  vii.  40,  45). 

Ad'beel,  a  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
13;  1  Chr.  i.  29),  and  probably  the  progen- 
itor of  an  Arab  tribe. 

Ad'dan,  one  of  the  places  from  which 
some  of  the  captivity  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  to  Judaea  who  could  not  show  their 
pedigree  as  Israelites  (Ezr.  ii.  59).  In  the 
parallel  list  of  Nehemiah  (vii.  61)  the 
name  is  Addon. 

Ad'dar,  son  of  Bela  (1  Chr.  viii.  3), 
called  Ard  in  Num.  xxvi.  40. 

Ad'der.  This  word  is  used  for  any 
poisonous  snake,  and  is  applied  in  this  gen- 
eral sense  by  the  translators  of  the  A.  V. 
They  use  in  a  similar  way  the  synonymous 
term  asp.  The  word  adder  occurs  five 
times  in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.  (see  below), 
and  three  times  in  the  margin  as  synony- 
mous with  cockatrice,  viz.  Is.  xi.  8,  xiv.  29, 
lix.  5.  It  represents  four  Hebrew  words  : 
1.  'Acshub  is  found  only  in  Ps.  cxl.  3, 
"  They  have  sharpened  their  tongues  like 
a  serpent,  adders'  poison  is  under  their 
lips."  The  latter  half  of  this  verse  is 
quoted  by  St.  Paul  from  the  LXX.  in  Rom. 
iii.  13.  'Acshub  may  be  represented  by  the 
Toxicoa  of  Egypt  and  North  Africa.  2. 
Pethen.  [Asp.]  3.  Tsepha,  or  Tsiphoni, 
occurs  five  times  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  In 
Prov.  xxiii.  32  it  is  translated  adder,  and 
in  Is.  xi.  ft,  xiv.  29,  lix.  5,  Jer.  viii.  17,  it  is 
rendered  cockatrice.  Erom  Jeremiah  we 
Icam  that  it  was  of  a  hostile  nature,  and 
from  the  parallelism  of  Is.  xi.  8  it  appears 
that  the  Tsiphoni  was  considered  even 
more  dreadful  than  the  Pethen.  4.  She- 
phtph6n  occurs  only  in  Gen.  xlix.  17,  where 
it  is  used  to  characterize  the  tribe  of  Dan : 
"  Dan  shall  be  a  serpent  by  the  way,  an 
adder  in  the  path,  that  biteth  the  horse's 
heels,  so  that  his  rider  shall  fall  backward." 
The  habit  of  lurking  in  the  sand  and  biting 
at  the  horse's  heel?,  here  alluded  to,  suits  the 
character  of  a  well-known  species  of  ven- 
omous snake,  and  helps  to  identify  it  with 
the  celebrated  horned  viper,  the  asp  of 
2 


Cleopatra  (Cerastes'),  which  is  found  abun- 
dantly in  the  dry  sandy  deserts  of  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Arabia.  The  Cerastes  is  ex- 
tremely venomous ;  Bruce  compelled  a 
specimen  to  scratch  eighteen  pigeons  upon 
the  thigh  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  they 
all  died  in  nearly  the  same  interval  of  time. 

Ad'di.  (Luke  iii.  28.)  Son  of  Cosam, 
and  father  of  Melchi,  in  our  Lord's  geneal- 
ogy ;  the  third  above  Salathiel. 

Ad'don.    [Addan.] 

A'der,  a  Benjamite,  son  of  Beriah, 
chief  of  the  inhabitants  of  Aijalon  (1  Chr. 
viii.  15).  The  name  is  more  correctly 
Eder. 

A'dieL  1.  A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Sim- 
eon, descended  from  the  prosperous  family 
of  Sliimei  (1  Chr.  iv.  36).  He  took  part 
in  the  murderous  raid  made  by  his  tribe 
upon  the  peaceable  Ilamite  shepherds  of 
the  valley  of  Gedor  in  the  reign  of  Heze- 
kiah.  2.  A  priest,  ancestor  of  Maasiai  (I 
Chr.  ix.  12).  3.  Ancestor  of  Azmaveth, 
David's  treasurer  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  25).  . 

A'din,  ancestor  of  a  family  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  to  the  number  of  454 
(Ezr.  ii.  15),  or  G55  according  to  the  par- 
allel list  in  Neh.  vii,  20.  Eifty-one  more 
accompanied  Ezra  in  the  second  caravan 
from  Babylon  (Ezr.  viii.  G).  They  joined 
with  Nehemiah  in  a  covenant  to  separate 
themselves  fiom  the  heathen  (Neh.  x.  16). 

Ad'ina,  one  of  David's  captains  beyond 
the  Jordan,  and  a  chief  of  the  Eeubenites 
(1  Chr.  xi.  42).  According  to  the  A.  V. 
and  the  Syr.  he  had  the  command  of  thirty 
men ;  but  the  passage  should  be  rendered 
"and  over  him  were  thirty,"  i.  e.  the 
thirty  before  enumerated  were  his  supe- 
riors. 

Adi'no,  the  Eznite,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8. 
See  Jashobeam. 

Aditha'im,  a  town  belonging  to  Judah, 
lying  in  the  low  country,  and  named,  be- 
tween Sharaim  and  hag-Gederah,  in  Josh;. 
XV.  36  only. 

Adla'i,  ancestor  of  Shaphat,  the  over- 
seer of  David's  herds  that  fed  in  the  broad! 
valleys  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  29). 

Ad'mah,  one  of  the  "  cities  of  the 
plain,"  always  coupled  with  Zeboim  (Gen. 
X.  19,  xiv.  2.  8 ;  Dcut.  xxix.  23 ;  Hos.  xi.  8).. 

Ad'matha,  one  of  the  seven  princes  of 
Persia  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Ad'na.  1 .  One  of  the  family  of  Pahath- 
Moab  who  returned  with  Ezra  and  married; 
a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  30).  2.  A  priest, 
descendant  of  Harim  in  the  days  of  Joia- 
kim,  the  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  15). 

Ad'nah.  1.  A  Manassite  who  deserted 
from  Saul  and  joined  the  fortunes  of  David 
on  liis  road  to  Ziklag  from  the  camp  of  the 
Philistines.  He  was  captain  of  a  thousand 
of  his  tribe,  and  fought  at  David's  side  in 
the  pursuit  of  the  Amalekites  (1  C'hr.  xii. 
20).    2.  The  captain  over  300,000  men  of 


ADONI-BEZEK 


18 


ADORAM 


Judah  who  were  in  Jehoshaphat's  army  (2 
Cbr.  xvii.  14). 

Adon'i-Be'zek  Qord  of  Bezek),  king 
of  Bezek,  a  city  of  the  Canaanites.  [Be- 
ZEK.]  This  chieftain  was  vanquished  by 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (Judg.  i.  3-7),  who  cut 
off  his  thumbs  and  great  toes,  and  brought 
him  prisoner  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died. 
He  confessed  that  he  had  inflicted  the  same 
cruelty  upon  70  petty  kings  whom  he  had 
conquered. 

Adoni'j  ah.  (jny  Lord  is  JehovaTi) .  1.  The 
fourth  son  of  David  by  Haggith,  born  at 
Hebron,  wliile  his  father  was  king  of  Ju- 
dah (2  Sam.  iii.  4).  After  the  death  of  his 
three  brothers,  Amnon,  Chileab,  and  Absa- 
lom, he  became  eldest  son ;  and  when  his 
father's  strength  was  visibly  declining,  put 
forward  his  pretensions  to  tlie  crown. 
David  promised  Bathsheba  that  her  son 
Solomon  should  inherit  the  succession  (1 
K.  i.  30),  for  there  was  no  absolute  claim 
of  primogeniture  in  these  Eastern  monar- 
chies. Adonijah's  cause  was  espoused  by 
Abiathar  and  Joab,  the  famous  commander 
of  David's  army.  [Joab.]  His  name  and 
influence  secured  a  large  number  of  fol- 
lowers among  the  captains  of  the  royal 
army  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (comp. 
1 K.  i.  9, 25)  ;  and  these,  together  with  all  the 
princes,  except  Solomon,  were  entertained 
by  Adonijah  at  a  great  sacrificial  feast  held 
'*  by  the  stone  Zoheleth,  which  is  by  En- 
rogel."  [Enrogel.]  Nathan  and  Bath- 
sheba, now  thoroughly  alarmed,  apprised 
David  of  these  proceedings,  who  immedi- 
ately gave  orders  that  Solomon  should  be 
conducted  on  the  royal  mule  in  solemn 
procession  to  Gihon,  a  spring  on  the  W.  of 
Jerusalem  (2  Chr.  xxxii.  30).  [Gihon.] 
Here  he  was  anointed  and  proclaimed  king 
by  Zadok,  and  joyfully  recognized  by  the 
people.  This  decisive  measure  struck  ter- 
ror into  tlie  opposite  party,  and  Adonijah 
fled  to  sanctuary,  but  was  pardoned  by 
Solomon  on  condition  that  he  should  "  show 
himself  a  worthy  man,"  with  the  threat 
that  "if  wickedness  were  found  in  him  he 
should  die  "  (i.  52).  The  death  of  David 
quickly  followed  on  these  events ;  and' 
Adonijah  begged  Bathsheba,  who  as  "king's 
mother "  would  now  have  special  dignity 
and  influence  [Asa],  to  procure  Solomon's 
consent  to  his  marriage  with  Abishag,  who 
had  been  the  wife  of  David  in  his  old  age 
(1  K.  i.  3).  This  was  regarded  as  equiva- 
lent to  a  fresh  attempt  on  the  throne  [Ab- 
salom ;  Abner]  ;  and  therefore  Solomon 
ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death  by  Bcnaiah, 
in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  his  pre- 
vious pardon.  2.  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Clir.  xvii,  8).  3,  (Neh.  x. 
16.)     [Adoniicam.] 

Adoni'kam.  The  sons  of  Adonikam, 
666  in  number,  were  among  those  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabcl 


(Ezr.  ii.  13;  Neh.  vii.  18;  1  Esd.  v.  34). 
In  the  last  two  passages  the  number  is  6G7. 
The  remainder  of  the  family  returned  with 
Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  13;  1  Esd.  viii.  39).  The 
name  is  given  as  Adonijah  in  Neh.  x.  16. 

Adoni'ram  (l  K.  iv.  6;  by  an  unusual 
contraction  Ador.vm,  2  Sam.  xx.  24,  and 
1  K.  xii.  18;  also  Hadoram,  2  Chr.  x.  18), 
chief  receiver  of  the  tribute  during  the 
reigns  of  David  (2  Sam.  xx.  24),  Solomon 
(1  K.  iv.  6),  and  Kehoboam  (1  K.  xii.  18). 
This  last  monarch  sent  him  to  collect  the 
tribute  from  the  rebellious  Israelites,  by 
whom  he  was  stoned  to  death. 

Ado'ni-ze'dek  (lord  of  justice),  the 
Amorite  king  of  Jerusalem  who  organized 
a  league  with  four  other  Amorite  princes 
against  Joshua.  The  confederate  kings 
having  laid  siege  to  Gibeon,  Joshua  marched 
to  the  relief  of  his  new  allies  and  put  the 
besiegers  to  flight.  The  five  kings  took 
refuge  in  a  cave  at  Makkedah,  whence  they 
were  taken  and  slain,  their  bodies  hung  on 
trees,  and  then  buried  in  the  place  of  their 
concealment  (Josh.  x.  1-27). 

Adoption,  an  expression  metaphorical- 
ly used  by  St.  Paul  in  reference  to  the 
present  and  prospective  privileges  of  Chris- 
tians (Rom.  viii.  15,  23 ;  Gal.  iv.  5 ;  Eph.  i. 
5).  He  probably  alludes  to  the  Roman  cus- 
tom of  adoption,  by  which  a  person,  not 
having  children  of  his  own,  might  adopt  as 
his  son  one  born  of  other  parents.  The  ef- 
fect of  it  was  that  the  adopted  child  was 
entitled  to  the  name  and  sacra  privata  of 
his  new  father,  and  ranked  as  his  heir- 
at-law  :  while  the  father  on  his  part  was 
entitled  to  the  property  of  the  son,  and  exer- 
cised towards  him  all  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  a  father.  In  short,  the  relation- 
ship w.as  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the 
same  as  existed  between  a  natural  father 
and  son.  The  selection  of  a  person  to  be 
adopted  implied  a  decided  preference  and 
love  on  the  part  of  the  adopter :  and  St. 
Paul  aptly  transfers  the  well-known  feel- 
ings and  customs  connected  with  the  act  to 
illustrate  the  position  of  the  Christianized 
Jew  or  Gentile.  The  Jews  themselves 
were  unacquainted  with  the  process  of 
adoption :  indeed  it  would  have  been  in- 
consistent with  the  regulations  of  the  Mo- 
saic law  affecting  the  inheritance  of  prop- 
erty :  the  instances  occasionally  adduced  as 
referring  to  the  custom  (Gen.  xv.  3,  xvi.  2, 
XXX.  5-0)  are  evidently  not  cases  of  adop- 
tion proper. 

Ado'ra  or  A'dor.     [Adoraim.] 

Adora'im,  a  fortified  city  built  by  Re- 
hoboam  (2  Chr.  xi.  9),  in  Judah.  Adoraim 
is  probably  the  same  place  with  Adora  (1 
"ilacc.  xiii.  20),  unless  that  be  Dor,  on  the 
sea-coast  below  Carmel.  Robinson  identi- 
fies it  with  Diira,  a  "  large  village  "  on  a 
rising  ground  west  of  Hebron. 

Ado'ram.     [Adoniram  ;  Hadoram.] 


ADORATION 


19 


ADULLAM 


Adoration.  The  acts  and  postures  by 
which  the  Hebrews  expressed  adoration 
bear  a  great  similarity  to  those  still  in  use 
among  Oriental  nations.  To  rise  up  and 
suddenly  prostrate  the  body  was  the  most 


Adoration.    Modern  Eg. 


simple  method;  but,  generally  speaking, 
the  prostration  was  conducted  in  a  more 
formal  manner,  the  person  falling  upon  the 
knee  and  then  gradually  inclining  the  body 
until  the  forehead  touched  the  ground. 
Such  prostration  was  usual  in  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  (Gen.  xvii.  3;  Ps.  xcv.  6).  But 
it  was  by  no  means  exclusively  used  for 
that  purpose ;  it  was  the  formal  mode  of 
receiving  visitors  (Gen.  xviii.  2),  of  doing 
obeisance  to  one  of  superior  station  (2 
Sam.  xiv.  4),  and  of  showing  respect  to 
equals  (1  K.  ii.  19).  Occasionally  it  was 
repeated  three  times  (1  Sam.  xx.  41),  and 
even  seven  times  (Gen.  xxxiii.  3).  It  was 
accompanied  by  such  acts  as  a  kiss  (Ex. 
xviii.  7),  laying  hold  of  the  knees  or  feet 
of  the  person  to  whom  the  adoration  was 
paid  (Matt,  xxviii.  9),  and  kissing  the 
ground  on  which  he  stood  (Ps.  Ixxii.  9 ; 
Mic.  vii.  17).  Similar  adoration  was  paid 
to  idols  (1  K.  xix.  18)  :  sometimes  how- 
ever prostration  was  omitted,  and  the  act 
consisted  simply  in  kissing  the  hand  to  the 
object  of  reverence  (Job  xxxi.  27),  and  in 
kissing  the  statue  itself  (Hos.  xiii.  2). 

Adjarn'melech.  1.  The  name  of  an 
idol  introduced  into  Samaria  by  the  colo- 
nists from  Sepharvaim  (2  K.  xvii.  31).  lie 
was  worshipped  with  rites  resembling  those 
of  Molech,  children  being  burnt  in  his 
honor.  The  first  part  of  the  word  proba- 
bly means  fire.  Adrararaelcch  was  probably 
the  male  power  of  the  sun,  and  Anamme- 
LECH,  who  is  mentioned  with  Adrammelech 
as  a  companion-god,  the  female  power  of 
the  sun.  2.  Son  of  the  Assyrian  king  Sen- 
nacherib, who,  together  with  his  brother 
Sharezer,  murdered  their  father  in  the 
temple  of  Nisroch  at  Nineveh,  after  the 
failure  of  the  Assyrian  ^ack  on  Jerusalem. 
The  parricides  escaped  into  Armenia  (2  K. 
xix.  37;  2Chr.  xxxii.  21 ;  Is.  xxxvii.  38). 
The  date  of  this  event  was  b.  c.  680. 

Adramyt'tium,  a  seaport  in  the  prov- 


ince of  Asia  [Asia],  situated  in  the  dis- 
trict anciently  called  Aeolis,  and  also  Mysia 
(see  Acts  xvi.  7).  Adramyttium  gave, 
and  still  gives,  its  name  to  a  deep  gulf  on 
this  coast,  opposite  to  the  opening  of  which 
is  the  island  of  Lesbos.  [Mitylene.]  It 
has  no  Biblical  interest,  except  as  illustrat- 
ing St.  Paul's  voyage  from  Caesarea  in  a 
ship  belonging  to  this  place  (Acts  xxvii. 
2).  Ships  of  Adramyttium  must  have  been 
frequent  on  this  coast,  for  it  was  a  placo 
of  considerable  traffic.  The  modern  Adro' 
myti  is  a  poor  village,  but  it  is  still  a  place 
of  some  trade  and  shipbuilding. 

A'dria,  more  properly  A'drias.  It  is 
important  to  fix  the  meaning  of  this  word 
as  used  in  Acts  xxvii.  27.  The  word  seems 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  town  of 
Adria,  near  the  Po ;  and  at  first  it  denoted 
the  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice  which  is  in 
that  neighborhood.  Afterwards  the  signifi- 
cation of  the  name  was  extended,  so  as  to 
embrace  the  whole  of  that  gulf.  Subse- 
quently it  obtained  a  much  wider  exten- 
sion, and  in  the  apostolic  age  denoted  that 
natural  division  of  the  Mediterranean  which 
had  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  Italy,  Greece,  and 
Africa  for  its  boundaries.  This  definition 
is  explicitly  given  by  almost  a  contempo- 
rary of  St.  Paul,  the  geographer  Ptolemy, 
who  also  says  that  Crete  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  Adrias.  Later  writers  state  that 
Malta  divides  the  Adriatic  sea  from  the 
Tyrrhenian  sea,  and  the  isthmus  of  Corinth 
the  Aegean  from  the  Adriatic.  It  is  thr ou  gh 
ignorance  of  these  facts,  or  through  the 
want  of  attending  to  them,  that  writers  have 
drawn  an  argument  from  this  geographical 
term  in  favor  of  the  false  view  which  places 
the  apostle's  shipwreck  in  the  Gulf  of 
Venice.     [Melita.] 

A'driel,  son  of  Barzillai,  to  whom  Saul 
gave  his  daughter  Merab,  although  he  had 
previously  promised  her  to  David  (1  Sam. 
xviii.  19).  His  five  sons  were  amongst  the 
seven  descendants  of  Saul  whom  David  sur- 
rendered to  the  Gibeonites  in  satisfaction 
for  the  endeavors  of  Saul  to  extirpate  theia 
(a  Sam.  xxi.  8). 

Adul'Iam.  Apocr.  Odollam,  a  city  of 
Judah  in  the  lowland  of  the  Shefelah  (Josh. 
XV.  35)  ;  the  seat  of  a  Canaanite  king  (Josh, 
xii.  15),  and  evidently  a  place  of  great  anti- 
quity (Gen.  xxxviii.  1,  12,  20).  Fortified 
by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  7),  it  was  one 
of  the  towns  reoccupied  by  the  Jews  after 
their  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi.  30), 
and  still  a  city  in  the  times  of  the  Macca- 
bees (2  Mace.  xii.  38).  Adullamwas  prob- 
ably near  Deir  JDubbdn,  5  or  6  miles  N.  of 
Eleutheropolis.  The  limestone  cliffs  of  the 
whole  of  that  locality  are  pierced  with  ex- 
tensive excavations,  some  one  of  which  is 
doubtless  the  "cave  of  Adullara,"  the  refuge 
of  David  (1  Sam.  xxii.  1 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  13} 
1  Chr.  xi.  15). 


ADULTERY 


20 


AGE 


Adultery.  The  parties  to  this  crime 
were  a  married  woman  and  a  man  who  was 
not  her  husband.  The  toleration  of  polyg- 
amy, indeed,  renders  it  nearly  impossible 
to  make  criminal  a  similar  offence  com- 
niilted  by  a  married  man  with  a  woman 
not  his  wife.  The  Mosaic  penalty  was  that 
both  the  guilty  parties  should  be  stoned, 
and  it  applied  as  well  to  the  betrothed  as 
to  the  married  woman,  provided  she  were 
free  (Deut.  xxii.  22-24).  A  bondwoman 
80  offending  was  to  be  scourged,  and  the 
man  was  to  make  a  trespass  offering  (Lev. 
xix.  20-22).  At  a  later  time,  and  when, 
owing  to  Gentile  example,  the  marriage 
tie  became  a  looser  bond  of  union,  public 
feeling  in  regard  to  adultery  changed,  and 
the  penalty  of  death  was  seldom  or  never 
inflicted.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  woman 
brought  under  our  Lord's  notice  (John 
viii.),  it  is  likely  that  no  one  then  thought 
of  stoning  her  in  fact,  though  there  re- 
mained the  written  law  ready  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  caviller.  It  is  likely  also  that 
a  divorce,  in  which  the  adulteress  lost  her 
dower  and  rights  of  maintenance,  &c., 
was  the  usual  remedy,  suggested  by  a  wish 
to  avoid  scandal  and  the  excitement  of  com- 
miseration for  crime.  The  expression  in 
St.  Matthew  (i.  19)  "to  make  her  a  pub- 
lic example,"  probably  means  to  bring  the 
case  before  the  local  Sanhedrim,  which  was 
the  usual  course,  but  which  Joseph  did  not 
propose  to  take,  preferring  repudiation,  be- 
cause that  could  be  managed  privately. 
The  famous  trial  by  the  waters  of  jealousy 
(Num.  y.  11-29),  was  probably  an  ancient 
custom,  which  Moses  found  deeply  seated, 
and  which  is  said  to  be  paralleled  by  a  form 
of  ordeal  called  the  "red  water"  in  West- 
ern Africa.  The  forms  of  Hebrew  justice 
all  tended  to  limit  the  application  of  this 
test.  When  adu'tery  ceased  to  be  capital, 
as  no  doubt  it  did,  and  divorce  became  a 
matter  of  mere  convenience,  it  would  be 
absurd  to  suppose  that  this  trial  was  con- 
tinued. And  when  adultery  became  com- 
mon, it  would  have  been  impious  to  expect 
the  miracle  which  it  supposed. 

Adum'mizn,  "the  going  up  to"  or 
"  OF,"  one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  boun- 
dary of  Benjamin,  a  rising  ground  or  pass 
"  over  against  Gilgal,"  and  "  on  the  south 
side  of  the  *  torrent '  "  (Josh.  xv.  7,  xviii. 
17),  which  is  the  position  still  occupied  by 
the  road  leading  up  from  Jericho  and  the 
Jordan  valley  to  Jerusalem,  on  the  south 
face  of  the  gorge  of  the  Wady  Kelt.  Tlie 
pass  is  still  infested  by  robbers,  as  it  was  in 
tlie  days  of  our  Lord,  of  whose  parable  of 
the  Good  Samaritan  this  is  the  scene. 

Ae'gypt.     [Egypt.] 

Aene'as,  a  paralytic  at  Lydda  healed 
by  St.  Peter  (Acts  ix,  33,  34). 

Ae'non,  a  place  "near  to  Salim,"  at 
which  John  baptized  (John  iii.  23).     It  was 


evidently  west  of  the  Jordan  (comp.  iii.  22, 
with  26,  and  with  i.  28),  and  abounded  in 
water.  This  is  indicated  by  the  name, 
which  is  merely  a  Greek  version  of  a  Chal- 
dee  word,  signifying  "springs."  Aenon  is 
given  in  the  Onomasticon  as  8  miles  south 
of  Scythopolis  "  near  Salem  and  the  Jor- 
dan." 

Aera.    [Cheonoloot.] 

Aethio'pia.     [Ethiopia.] 

Afllnity.     [Marriage.] 

Ag'abus,  a  Christian  prophet  in  the 
apostolic  age,  mentioned  in  Acts  xi.  28  and 
xxi.  10.  He  predicted  (Acts  xi.  28)  that  a 
famine  would  take  place  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius  "  throughout  all  the  world."  As 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  used  "  the  world  " 
of  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  world,  so  a 
Jewish  writer  would  use  it  naturally  of  the 
Jewish  world  or  Palestine.  Josephus  men- 
tions a  famine  which  prevailed  in  Judaea 
in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  swept  away 
many  of  the  inhabitants.  This,  in  all  prob- 
ability, is  the  famine  to  which  Agabus  re- 
fers. 

A'gag,  possibly  the  title  of  the  kings  of 
Amalek,  like  Pharaoh  of  Egypt.  One  king 
of  this  name  is  mentioned  in  Num.  xxiv.  7, 
and  another  in  1  Sam.  xv.  8,  9,  20,  32.  The 
latter  was  the  king  of  the  Amalekites,  whom 
Saul  spared,  together  with  the  best  of  the 
spoil,  although  it  was  the  well-known  will 
of  Jehovah  that  the  Amalekites  should  be 
extirpated  (Ex.  xvii.  14;  Deut.  xxv.  17). 
For  this  act  of  disobedience  Samuel  was 
commissioned  to  declare  to  Saul  ids  rejec- 
tion, and  he  liimself  sent  for  Agag  and  cut 
him  in  pieces.  [Samuel.]  —  Haman  is 
called  the  Agagite  in  Esth.  iii.  1,  10,  viii, 
3,  5.  The  Jews  consider  him  a  descendant 
of  Agag  the  Amalekite,  and  hence  account 
for  the  hatred  with  which  he  pursued  their 
race. 

A'gagite.     [Agag.] 

A'gar,     [Hagar.] 

Agate  is  mentioned  four  times  in  the 
text  of  the  A.  V. ;  viz.  in  Ex.  xxviii.  19, 
xxxix.  12;  Is.  liv.  12;  Ez.  xxvii.  16.  In 
the  two  former  passages,  where  it  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Hebrew  word  shehd,  it  is 
spoken  of  as  forming  the  second  stone  in 
the  third  row  of  the  high  priest's  breast- 
plate ;  in  each  of  the  two  latter  places  the 
original  word  is  cadc6d,  by  which,  no  doubt, 
is  intended  a  different  stone.  [Ruby.]  — 
Our  English  agate  derives  its  name  from 
the  Achates,  on  the  banks  of  which,  accord- 
ing to  Theophrastus  and  Pliny,  it  was  first 
found ;  but  as  agates  are  met  with  in  almost 
every  country,  this  stone  was  doubtless 
from  the  earliest  times  known  to  the  Orien- 
tals. It  is  a  silicioQs  stone  of  the  quartz 
family. 

Age,  Old.  In  early  stages  of  civiliza- 
tion, when  experience  is  the  only  source  of 
practical  knowledge,  old  age  has  its  special 


AGEE 


21 


AGRICULTURE 


Talue,  and  consequently  its  special  honors. 
A  furtlier  motive  was  superadded  in  the 
case  of  the  Jew,  who  was  taught  to  con- 
sider old  age  as  a  reward  for  piety,  and  a 
signal  token  of  God's  favor.  For  these 
reasons  the  aged  occupied  a  prominent 
place  in  the  social  and  political  system  of 
the  Jews.  In  private  life  they  were  looked 
up  to  as  the  depositaries  of  knowledge  (Job 
XV.  10)  :  the  young  were  ordered  to  rise  up 
in  their  presence  (Lev.  xix.  32)  :  they  al- 
lowed tliera  to  give  their  opinion  first  (Job 
xxxii.  4)  :  they  were  taught  to  regard  gray 
hairs  as  a  "  crown  of  glory  "  and  as  the 
"beauty  of  old  men"  (Prav.  xri.  31,  xx. 
29).  The  attainment  of  old  age  was  re- 
garded as  a  special  blessing  (Job  v.  26),  not 
only  on  account  of  the  prolonged  enjoy- 
ment of  life  to  the  individual,  but  also  be- 
cause it  indicated  peaceful  and  prosperous 
times  (Zech.  viii.  4;  1  Mace.  xiv.  9;  Is. 
Ixv.  20).  In  public  affairs  age  carried 
weight  with  it,  especially  in  the  infancy  of 
the  state :  it  formed  under  Moses  the  main 
qualification  of  those  who  acted  as  the 
representatives  of  the  people  in  all  matters 
of  difiiculty  and  deliberation.  The  old  men 
er  Elders  thus  became  a  class,  and  the  title 
gradually  ceased  to  convey  the  notion  of 
age,  and  was  used  in  an  official  sense,  like 
Patres,  Senatores,  and  other  similar  terms. 
[Elders.]  Still  it  would  be  but  natural 
that  such  an  office  was  generally  held  by 
men  of  advanced  age  (1  K.  xii.  8). 

Ag'ee,  a  Hararite,  father  of  Shammah, 
one  of  David's  three  mightiest  heroes  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  11). 

Agriculture.  Jhis,  though  promi- 
nent in  the  scriptural  narrative  concerning 
Adam,  Cain,  and  Noah,  was  little  cared  for 
by  the  patriarchs.  The  pastoral  life  was 
the  means  of  keeping  the  sacred  race, 
whilst  yet  a  family,  distinct  from  mixture 
and  locally  unattached,  especially  whilst  in 
Egypt.  When,  grown  into  a  nation  they 
conquered  their  future  seats,  agriculture 
supplied  a  similar  check  on  the  foreign 
intercourse  and  speedy  demoralization, 
especially  as  regards  idolatry,  which  com- 
merce would  have  caused.  Thus  agricul- 
ture became  the  basis  of  the  Mosaic  com- 
monwealth. Taken  in  connection  with  the 
inalienable  character  of  inheritances,  it 
gave  each  man  and  each  family  a  stake  in 
the  soil,  and  nurtured  a  hardy  patriotism. 
"  The  land  is  Mine  "  (Lev.  xxv.  23)  was  a 
dictum  which  made  agriculture  likewise 
the  basis  of  the  theocratic  relation.  Thus 
every  family  felt  its  own  life  with  intense 
keenness,  and  had  its  divine  tenure  which 
it  was  to  guard  from  alienation.  The  pro- 
hibition of  culture  in  the  sabbatical  year 
formed,  under  this  aspect,  a  kind  of  rent 
reserved  by  the  Divine  Owner.  Land- 
marks were  deemed  sacred  (Deut.  xix.  14), 
and  the  inalienability  of  the  heritage  was 


I  insured  by  its  reversion  to  the  owner  in  the 
i  year  of  jubilee ;  so  that  only  so  many  years 
of  occupancy  could  be  sold  (Lev.  xxv.  8- 
16,  23-35).     The  prophet  Isaiah  (v.  8)  de- 
I  nounces  the  contempt  of  such  restrictions 
'  by  wealthy  grandees,  who  sought  to  "  add 
field  to  field,"  erasing  families  and  depopu- 
lating districts. 

Rain.  —  The  abundance  of  water  in  Pal- 
estine, from  natural  sources,  made  it  a 
contrast  to  rainless  Egypt  (Deut.  viii.  7, 
xi.  8-12).  Rain  was  commonly  expected 
soon  after  the  autumnal  equinox.  The  com- 
mon scriptural  expressions  of  the  "  early" 
and  the  "latter  rain"  (Deut.  xi.  14;  Jer.  v. 
24;  Hos.  vi.  3;  Zech.  x.  1;  Jam.  v.  7)  are 
scarcely  confirmed  by  modern  experience, 
the  season  of  rains  being  unbroken,  though 
perhaps  the  fall  is  more  strongly  marked  at 
the  beginning  and  the  end  of  it. 

Crops.  —  The  cereal  crops  of  constant 
mention  are  wheat  and  barley,  and  more 
rarely  rye  and  millet  (?).  Of  the  two  for- 
mer, together  with  the  vine,  olive,  and  fig, 
the  use  of  irrigation,  the  plough  and  the 
harrow,  mention  is  made  in  the  book  of 
Job  (xxxi.  40;  xv.  33;  xxiv.  6;  xxix.  19; 
xxxix.  10).  Two  kinds  of  cumin  (the 
black  variety  called  "  fitches,"  Is.  xxviii. 
27),  and  such  podded  plants  as  beans  and 
lentiles,  may  be  named  among  the  staple 
produce. 

Ploughing  and  Sowing.  —  The  plough 
was  probably  very  light,  one  yoke  of  oxen 
usually  sufficing  to  draw  it.  Mountains 
and  steep  places  were  hoed  (Is.  vii.  25). 
New  ground  and  fallows,  the  use  of  which 
latter  was  familiar  to  the  Jews  (Jer.  iv.  3 ; 
Hos.  X.  12),  were  cleared  of  stones  and  of 
thorns  (Is.  v.  2)  early  in  the  year,  sowing 
or  gathering  from  "among  thorns  "  being  a 
proverb  for  slovenly  husbandry  (Job  v.  6 ; 
Prov.  xxiv.  30,  31).  Sowing  also  took 
place  without  previous  ploughing,  the  seed, 
as  in  the  parable  of  the  sower,  being  scat- 
tered broadcast,  and  ploughed  in  after- 
wards. The  soil  was  then  brushed  over 
with  a  light  harrow,  often  of  thorn  bushes. 
In  highly  irrigated  spots  the  seed  was 
trampled  in  by  cattle  (Is.  xxxii.  20),  as  in 
Egypt  by  goats.  The  more  formal  routine 
of  heavy  western  soils  must  not  be  made 
the  standard  of  such  a  naturally  fine  tilth 
as  that  of  Palestine  generally.  During  the 
rains,  if  not  too  heavy,  or  between  their 
two  periods,  would  be  the  best  time  for 
these  operations ;  thus  70  days  before  the 
passover  was  the  time  prescribed  for  sow- 
ing for  the  "  wave-sheaf,"  and  probably, 
therefore,  for  that  of  barley  generally. 
The  oxen  were  urged  on  by  a  goad  like  a 
spear  (Judg.  iii.  31).  The  custom  of  watch- 
ing ripening  crops  and  threshing  floors 
against  theft,  or  damage,  is  probably  an- 
cient. Thus  Boaz  slept  on  the  floor  (Ruth 
i  iii.  4,  7).    Barley  ripened  a  week  or  two 


AGRICULTURE 


22 


AHAB 


before  wheat,  and  as  fine  harvest  weather 
was  certain  (Prov.  xxvi.  1 ;  1  Sam.  xii.  17 ; 
Am.  iv.  7),  the  crop  cliiefly  varied  with  the 
quantity  of  timely  rain.  The  proportion 
of  harvest  gathered  to  seed  sown  was  often 
Tast;  a  hundred  fold  is  mentioned,  but  in 
such  a  way  as  to  signify  that  it  was  a  limit 
rarely  attained  (Gen.  xxvi.  12 ;  Matt.  xiii. 
8).  Sowing  a  field  with  divers  seeds  was 
forbidden  (Deut.  xxii.  9). 

Reaping  and  Tlireshing.  —  The  wheat, 
&c.,  were  reaped  by  the  sickle,  or  pulled  up 
by  the  roots.  They  were  bound  in  sheaves 
—  a  process  prominent  in  Scripture.  The 
sheaves  or  heaps  were  carted  (Am.  ii.  13) 
to  the  floor  —  a  circular  spot  of  hard 
ground,  probably,  as  now,  from  50  to  80  or 
100  feet  in  diameter.  Such  floors  were  prob- 
ably permanent,  and  became  well  known 
spots  (Gen.  1.  10,  11 ;  2  Sara.  xxiv.  16,  18). 
On  these  the  oxen,  &c.,  forbidden  to  be 
muzzled  (Deut.  xxv.  4),  trampled  out  the 
grain,  as  we  find  represented  on  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments.  At  a  later  time  the  Jews 
used  a  threshing  sledge  called  morag  (Is. 
xU.  15;  2  Sam.  xxiv,  22;  1  Chr.  xxi.  23), 
probably  resembling  the  ndreg,  still  em- 
ployed in  Egypt — a  stage  with  three  rollers 
ridged  with  iron,  which,  aided  by  the  dri- 
ver's weight,  crushed  out,  often  injuring, 
the  grain,  as  well  as  cut  or  tore  the  straw, 
which  thus  became  fit  for  fodder.  Lighter 
grains  were  beaten  out  with  a  stick  (Is. 
xxviii.  27).  The  use  of  animal  manure  is 
proved  frequent  by  such  recurring  expres- 
sions as  "  dung  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
field,"  &c.  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10 ;  2  K.  ix.  37 ;  Jer. 
viii.  2,  &c.). 


Thrcshinft-floor.    The  oxen  driven  round  the  heap  ;  con- 
trary to  the  usual  custom.    (Wilkinson,  Thebe».y 

Winnowing.  —  The  "  shovel "  and  "  fan  " 
(Is.  XXX.  24),  the  precise  difl'erence  of 
which  is  doubtful,  indicate  the  process  of 
winnowing  —  a  conspicuous  part  of  ancient 
husbandry  (Ps.  xxxv.  5 ;  Job  xxi.  18 ;  Is. 
xvii.  13),  and  important,  owing  to  the  slov- 
enly threshing.  Evening  was  the  favorite 
time  (Ruth  iii.  2),  when  there  was  mostly 
a  breeze.  The  "  fan  "  (Matt.  iii.  12)  was 
perhaps  a  broad  shovel  which  threw  the 
grain  up  against  the  wind.  The  last  pro- 
cess was  the  shaking  in  a  sieve  to  separate 
dirt  and  refuse  (Am.  ix.  9). 

Fields  and  floors  were  not  commonly  en- 


closed; vineyards  mostly  were,  with  a 
tower  arid  other  buiMings  (Num.  xxii.  24 ; 
Ps.  Ixxx.  13 ;  Is.  v.  5 ;  Matt.  xxi.  33 ;  comp. 
Judg.  vi.  11).  Banks  of  mud  from  ditches 
were  also  used.  —  With  regard  to  occu- 
pancy, a  tenant  might  pay  a  fixed  money 
rent  (Cant.  viii.  11),  or  a  stipulated  share 
of  the  fruits  (2  Sam.  ix.  10;  Matt.  xxi.  34), 
often  a  half  or  a  third ;  but  local  custom 
was  the  only  rule.  A  passer-by  might  eat 
any  quantity  of  corn  or  grapes,  but  not  reap 
or  carry  oif  fruit  (Deut.  xxiii.  24,  25 ;  Matt, 
xii.  1).  —  The  rights  of  the  corner  to  be 
left,  and  of  gleaning  [Corner  ;  Gleaning], 
formed  the  poor  man's  claim  on  the  soil  for 
support.  For  his  benefit,  too,  a  sheaf  for- 
gotten in  carrying  to  the  floor  was  to  be 
left;  so  also  with  regard  to  the  vineyard 
and  the  olive-grove  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10 ;  Deut. 
xxiv.  19).  Besides  there  seems  a  proba- 
bility that  every  third  year  a  second  tithe, 
besides  the  priests',  was  paid  for  the  poor 
(Deut.  xiv.  28,  xxvi.  12 ;  Am.  iv.  4 ;  Tob. 
i.  7). 

Agrip'pa.     [Herod.] 

A'gur,  the  son  of  Jakeh,  an  unsown 
Hebrew  sage,  who  uttered  or  collected  the 
sayings  of  wisdom  recorded  in  Prov.  xxx. 

A'hab.  1.  Son  of  Omri,  seventh  king 
of  Israel,  reigned  b.  c.  919-896.  He  mar- 
ried Jezebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal  king  of 
Tyre;  and  in  obedience  to  her  wishes, 
caused  a  temple  to  be  built  to  Baal  in  Sa- 
maria itself,  and  an  oracular  grove  to  be 
consecrated  to  Astarte.  (See  1  K.  xviii. 
19.)  How  the  worship  of  God  was  restored, 
and  the  idolatrous  priests  slain,  in  conse- 
quence of  "  a  sore  famine  in  Samaria,"  is 
related  under  Elijah.  One  of  Ahab's  chief 
tastes  was  for  splendid  architecture,  which 
he  showed  by  building  an  ivory  house  and 
several  cities.  Desiring  to  add  to  his  pleas- 
ure-grounds at  Jezreel  the  vineyard  of  his 
neighbor  Naboth,  he  proposed  to  buy  it  or 
give  land  in  exchange  for  it ;  and  when  this 
was  refused  by  Naboth,  a  false  accusation 
of  blasphemy  was  brought  against  him,  and 
not  only  was  he  himself  stoned  to  death, 
but  his  sons  also,  as  we  learn  from  2  K.  ix. 
26.  Thereupon  Elijah  declared  that  the 
entire  extirpation  of  Ahab's  house  was  the 
penalty  appointed  for  his  long  course  of 
wickedness,  now  crowned  by  this  atrocious 
crime.  The  execution,  however,  of  the 
sentence  was  delayed  in  consequence  of 
Ahab's  deep  repentance  (1  K.  xxi.).  — 
Ahab  undertook  three  campaigns  against 
Benhadad  II.  king  of  Damascus,  two  de- 
fensive and  one  offensive.  In  the  first, 
Benhadad  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  but  was 
repulsed  with  great  loss  (1  K.  xx.  1-21). 
Next  year  Benhadad  again  invaded  Israel 
by  way  of  Aphck,  on  the  E.  of  Jordan. 
Yet  Ahab's  victory  was  so  complete  that 
Benhadad  himself  fell  into  his  hands ;  but 
was  released  (contrary  to  the  will  of  God 


AHARAH 


23 


AHASUERUS 


as  announced  by  a  prophet)  on  condition 
of  restoring  all  the  cities  of  Israel  which  he 
held,  and  making  "streets"  for  Ahab  in 
Damascus ;  that  is,  admitting  into  his  capi- 
tal permanent  Hebrew  commissioners,  in 
an  independent  position,  with  special  dwell- 
ings for  themselves  and  their  retinues,  to 
watch  over  the  commercial  and  political  in- 
terests of  Ahab  and  his  subjects  (1  K.  xx. 
22-34).  After  this  great  success  Ahab 
enjoyed  peace  for  three  years,  when  he 
attacked  Ramoth  in  Gilead  on  the  east  of 
Jordan,  in  conjunction  with  Jehoshaphat 
king  of  Judah,  which  town  he  claimed  as 
belonging  to  Israel.  But  God's  blessing 
did  not  rest  on  the  expedition,  and  Ahab 
was  told  by  the  prophet  Micaiah  that  it 
would  fail.  Ahab  took  the  precaution  of 
disguising  himself,  so  as  not  to  offer  a  con- 
spicuous mark  to  the  archers  of  Benhadad ; 
but  he  was  slain  \)y  a  "  certain  man  who 
drew  a  bow  at  a  venture."  When  he  was 
brought  to  be  buried  in  Samaria,  the  dogs 
licked  up  his  blood  as  a  servant  was  wash- 
ing his  chariot;  a  partial  fulfilment  of  Eli- 
jah's prediction  (1  K.  xxi.  19),  which  was 
more  literally  accomplished  in  the  case  of 
his  son  (2  K.  ix.  26).  2.  A  lying  proph- 
et, who  deceived  the  captive  Israelites  in 
Babylon,  and  was  burnt  to  death  by  Neb- 
uchadnezzar (Jer.  xxix.  21). 

Ahar'ah,  third  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr. 
viii.  1).     [Ahek;  Ahiram.] 

Ahar'hel,  a  name  occurring  in  an  ob- 
scure fragment  of  the  genealogies  of  Judah. 
"The  families  of  Aharhel"  apparently 
traced  their  descent  through  Coz  to  Ashur, 
the  posthumous  son  of  Hezron.  The  Tar- 
gum  of  R.  Joseph  on  Chronicles  identifies 
him  v,ith  "  Hur  the  firstborn  of  Miriam" 
(IChr.  iv.8). 

Ahas'ai,  a  priest,  ancestor  of  Maasiai 
(Neh.  xi.  13) ;  called  Jahzebah  in  1  Chr. 
ix.  12. 

Ahas'bai,  father  of  Eliphelet,  one  of 
David's  thirty-seven  captains  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34).  In  the  corrupt  list  in  1  Chr.  xi.  35, 
Eliphelet  appears  as  "  Eliphal  the  son  of 
Ur." 

Ahasue'rus,  the  name  of  one  Median 
and  two  Persian  kings  mentioned  in  the 
O.  T.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  kings  from  Cyaxares  to  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  according  to  their  ordinary 
classical  names.  The  Scriptural  names 
conjectured  to  correspond  to  them  are 
added  in  italics.  1.  Cyaxares,  king  of 
Media,  son  of  Phraortes,  grandson  of  Dei- 
oces  and  conqueror  of  Nineveh,  began  to 
reign  b.  c.  634 :  Ahasuerus.  2.  Astyages 
his  son,  last  king  of  Media,  b.  c.  594  :  Darius 
the  3fede.  3.  Cyrus,  son  of  his  daughter 
Mandane  and  Cambyse?,  a  Persian  noble, 
first  king  of  Persia,  559  :  Cyrus.  4.  Cara- 
byses  his  son,  529  :  Ahasuerus.  5.  A  Ma- 
gian  usurper,  who  personated  Smerdis,  the 


'  younger  son  of  Cyrus,  521 :   Artaxerxes. 

6.  Darius  Hystaspis,  raised  to  the  throne 
on  the  overthrow  of  the  Magi,  521 :  Darius. 

7.  Xerxes  his  son,  485 :  Ahasuerus.  8. 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (Macrocheir),  his 
son,  465-425  :  Artaxerxes.  1.  In  Dan.  ix. 
1,  Ahasuerus  is  said  to  be  the  father  of 
Darius  the  Mede.  Now  it  is  almost  certain 
that  Cyaxares  is  a  form  of  Ahasuerus,  Gre- 
cized  into  Axarcs  with  the  prefix  Cy  or  Kai. 
The  son  of  this  Cyaxares  was  Astyages,  and 
it  is  no  improbable  conjecture  that  Darias 
the  Mede  was  Astyages,  set  over  Babylon 
as  viceroy  by  his  grandson  Cyrus,  and  al- 
lowed to  live  there  in  royal  state.  [Dakius.] 
Tills  first  Ahasuerus,  then,  is  Cyaxares,  the 
conqueror  of  Nineveh.  And,  in  accordance 
with  this  view,  we  read  in  Tobit  xiv.  15 
that  Nineveh  was  taken  by  Nabuchodonosor 
and  Assuerus,  *.  e.  Cyaxares.  2.  In  Ezr. 
iv.  6  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  after  the 
death  of  Cyrus,  desirous  to  frustrate  the 
building  of  Jerusalem,  send  accusations 
against  them  to  Ahasuerus  king  of  Persia. 
This must  be  Cambyses.  He  was  plainly 
called  after  his  grandfather,  who  was  not 
of  royal  race,  and  therefore  it  is  very  likely 
that  he  also  assumed  the  kingly  name  or 
title  of  Cyaxares,  which  had  been  borne  by 
his  most  illustrious  ancestor.  3.  The  third 
is  the  Ahasuerus  of  the  book  of  Esther. 
Having  divorced  his  queen  Vasliti  for  re- 
fusing to  appear  in  public  at  a  banquet,  he 
married,  four  years  afterwards,  the  Jewess 
Esther,  cousin  and  ward  of  Mordecai. 
Five  years  after  this,  Haman,  one  of  his 
counsellors,  having  been  slighted  by  Mor- 
decai, prevailed  upon  the  king  to  order  the 
destruction  of  all  the  Jews  in  the  empire. 
But  before  the  day  appointed  for  the  mas- 
sacre, Esther  and  Mordecai  overthrew  the 
influence  which  Haman  had  exercised,  and 
so  completely  changed  his  feelings  in  the 
matter,  that  they  induced  him  to  putkHaman 
to  death,  and  to  give  the  Jews  the  right  of 
self-defence.  This  they  used  so  vigorously, 
that  they  killed  several  thousands  of  their 
opponents.  This  Ahasuerus  is  probably 
Xerxes  (the  names  being  identical)  :  and 
this  conclusion  is  fortified  by  the  resem- 
blance of  character,  and  by  certain  chrono- 
logical indications.  As  Xerxes  scourged 
the  sea,  and  put  to  death  the  engineers  of 
his  bridge  because  their  work  was  injured 
by  a  storm,  so  Ahasuerus  repudiated  his 
queen  Vashti  because  she  would  not  violate 
the  decorum  of  her  sex,  and  ordered  the 
massacre  of  the  whole  Jewish  people  to 
gratify  the  malice  of  Haman.  In  tlie  third 
year  of  the  reign  of  Xerxes  was  held  an 
assembly  to  arrange  the  Grecian  war.  lu 
the  third  year  of  Ahasuerus  was  held  a 
great  feast  and  assembly  in  Shushan  the 
palace  (Esth.  i.  3).  In  the  seventh  year 
of  his  reign  Xerxes  returned  defeated  from 
Greece,  and  consoled  himse)f  by  the  pleas- 


AHAVA 


AHIAH 


nres  of  the  harem.  In  the  seventh  year  of 
his  reign  "fair  young  virgins  were  sought" 
for  Ahasuerus,  and  he  rephiced  Vashti  by 
marrying  Esther.  The  tribute  he  "  laid 
upon  the  land  and  upon  the  isles  of  the 
sea  "  (Esth.  x.  1)  may  well  have  been  the 
result  of  the  expenditure  and  ruin  of  the 
Grecian  expedition. 

AhaVa,  a  place  (Ezr.  viii.  15),  or  a 
river  (viii.  21),  on  the  banks  of  which  Ezra 
collected  the  second  expedition  which  re- 
turned with  him  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem. 
Perhaps  it  is  the  modern  Hit,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, due  east  of  Damascus. 

A'liaz,  eleventh  king  of  Judah,  son  of 
Jothani,  reigned  741-726.  At  the  tijne  of 
his  accession,  Eezin  king  of  Damascus  and 
Pekah  king  of  Israel  had  recently  formed 
a  league  against  Judah,  and  they  proceeded 
to  lay  siege  to  Jerusalem.  Upon  this  Isaiah 
hastened  to  give  advice  and  encourage- 
ment to  Ahaz,  and  it  was  probably  owing 
to  the  spirit  of  energy  and  religious  devo- 
tion which  he  poured  into  his  counsels, 
that  the  allies  failed  in  their  attack  on  Jeru- 
salem (Is.  vii.  viii.  ix.).  But  the  allies  in- 
flicted a  most  severe  injury  on  Judah  by 
the  capture  of  Elath,  a  flourishing  port  on 
the  Red  Sea ;  while  the  Philistines  invaded 
the  W.  and  S.  (2  K.  xvi. ;  2  Chr.  xxviii.). 
The  weak-minded  and  helpless  Ahaz  sought 
deliverance  from  these  numerous  troubles 
by  appealing  to  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria,  who  freed  him  from  his  most  for- 
midable enemies  by  invading  Syria,  taking 
Damascus,  killing  Rezin,  and  depriving 
Israel  of  its  Northern  and  trans- Jordanic 
districts.  Bat  Ahaz  had  to  purchase  this 
help  at  a  costly  price  :  he  became  tributary 
to  Tiglath-pileser,  sent  him  all  the  treasures 
of  the  Temple  and  his  own  palace,  and 
even  appeared  before  him  in  Damascus  as 
a  vassal.  He  also  ventured  to  seek  for 
safety  in  heathen  ceremonies ;  making  his 
son  pasis  through  the  fire  to  Molech,  con- 
sulting wizards  and  necromancers  (Is.  viii. 
19),  sacrificing  to  the  Syrian  gods,  intro- 
ducing a  foreign  altar  from  Damascus,  and 
probably  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
from  Assyria  and  Babylon;  and  "The 
altars  on  the  top  (or  roof)  of  the  upper 
chamber  of  Ahaz "  (2  K.  xxiii.  12)  were 
connected  with  the  adoration  of  the  stars. 

Ahazi'ah.  1.  Son  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel, 
eighth  king  of  Israel,  reigned  b.  c.  896-895. 
After  the  battle  of  Kamoth  in  Gilead,  in 
which  Ahab  perished  [Ahab],  the  vassal 
king  of  Moab  refused  his  yearly  tribute  of 
100,000  lambs  and  100,000  rams  with  their 
wool  (comp.  Is.  xvi.  1).  Before  Ahaziah 
could  take  measures  for  enforcing  his 
claim,  he  was  seriously  injured  by  a  fall 
through  a  lattice  in  his  palace  at  Samaria. 
In  his  health  he  had  worshipped  his 
mother's  gods,  and  now  he  sent  to  inquire 
of  the  oracle  of  Baalzebub  in  the  Philistine 


city  of  Ekron  whether  he  should  recover 
his  health.  But  Elijah,  who  now  for  the 
last  time  exercised  the  prophetic  office,  re- 
buked him  for  tliis  impiety,  and  announced 
to  him  his  approaching  death.  The  only 
other  recorded  transaction  of  his  reign,  his 
endeavor  to  join  the  king  of  Judali  in  trad- 
ing to  Ophir,  is  related  under  Jehosha- 
PHAT  (1  K.  xxii.  49-53 ;  2  K.  1. ;  2  Chr.  xx. 
35-37).  2.  Fifth  king  of  Judah,  son  of 
Jehoram  and  Athaliah  (daughter  of  Ahab), 
and  therefore  nephew  of  the  preceding 
Ahaziah,  reigned  one  year,  b.  c.  884.  He 
is  called  Azariah,  2  Chr.  xxii.  6,  probably 
by  a  copyist's  error,  and  Jehoahaz,  2  Chr. 
xxi.  17.  He  was  22  years  old  at  his  acces- 
sion (2  K.  viii.  26 ;  his  age,  42  in  2  Chr.  xxii. 
2,  is  also  a  copj'ist's  error).  Ahaziah  was 
an  idolater,  and  he  allied  himself  with 
his  uncle  Jehoram  king  of  Israel,  brother 
and  successor  of  the  preceding  Ahaziah, 
against  Hazael,  the  new  king  of  S^ria. 
The  two  kings  were,  however,  defeated  at 
Ramoth,  where  Jehoram  was  severely 
wounded.  The  revolution  carried  out  in 
Israel  by  Jehu  under  the  guidance  of  Elisha 
broke  out  while  Ahaziah  was  visiting  his 
uncle  at  Jezreel.  As  Jehu  approached  the 
town,  Jehoram  and  Ahaziah  went  out  to 
meet  him;  the  former  was  shot  through 
the  heart  by  Jehu,  and  Ahaziah  was  pur- 
sued and  mortally  wounded.  He  died  when 
he  reached  Megiddo. 

Ah.'bail,  son  of  Abishur,  by  his  wife 
Abihail  (1  Chr.  ii.  29).  He  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah. 

A'her,  ancestor  of  Hushim,  or  rather 
"  the  Ilusliim,"  as  the  plural  form  seems 
to  indicate  a  family  rather  than  an  indi- 
vidual. The  name  occurs  in  an  obscure 
passage  in  the  genealogy  of  Benjamin  (1 
Chr.  vii.  12).  It  is  not  improbable  that 
Aher  and  Ahiram  (Num.  xxvi.  38)  are 
the  same;  unless  the  former  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Dan,  whose  genealogy  is 
omitted  in  1  Chr.  vii. ;  Hushim  being  a 
Danite  as  well  as  a  Benjamite  name. 

A'hi.  1.  A  Gadite,  chief  of  a  family 
who  lived  in  Gilead  in  Bashan  (1  Chr.  v. 
15),  in  the  days  of  Jotham,  king  of  Judah. 
2.  A  descendant  of  Shamer,  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  34).  The  name,  ac- 
cording to  Gesenius,  is  a  contraction  of 
Ahijah. 

Ahi'ah  or  Ahi'j  ah.  1 .  S  on  of  Ahitub, 
grandson  of  Phinehas,  and  great-grandson 
of  Eli,  succeeded  his  father  as  high-priest 
in  the  reign  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  3,  18). 
Ahiah  is  probably  the  same  person  as 
Ahimelech  the  son  of  Ahitub.  However  it  is 
not  impossible  that  Ahimelech  may  have 
been  brother  to  Ahiah.  2.  One  of  Solo- 
mon's princes  (1  K.  iv.  3).  3.  A  prophet 
of  Shiloh  (1  K.  xiv.  2),  hence  called  the 
Shilonite  (xi.  29)  in  the  days  of  Solomon 
and  of  Jeroboam  king  of  Israel,  of  whom 


AHIAM 


25 


AHXTHOPHEL 


we  have  two  remarkable  prophecies  extant : 
the  one  in  1  K.  xi.  31-39,  addressed  to 
Jeroboam,  announcing  the  rending  of  the 
ten  tribes  from  Solomon :  the  other  in  1  K. 
xiv.  6-16,  delivered  in  the  prophet's  extreme 
Did  age  to  Jeroboam's  wife,  in  which  he 
foretold  the  death  of  Abijah,  the  king's 
son,  who  was  sick,  and  the  destruction  of 
Jeroboam's  house  on  account  of  the  images 
which  he  had  set  up.  Jeroboam's  speech 
concerning  Ahijah  (1  K.  xiv.  2,  3)  shows 
the  estimation  in  which  he  held  his  truth 
and  prophetic  powers  (comp.  2  Chr.  ix. 
29).  4.  Father  of  Baasha,  king  of  Israel 
(1  K.  XV.  27,  33).  5.  Son  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chr.  ii.  25).  6.  Son  of  Bela  (1  Chr. 
viii.  7).  7.  One  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chr.  X.  36).  8.  A  Levite  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chr,  xxvi.  20).  9.  One  of  "the 
heads  of  the  people  "  who  joined  in  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  26). 

Ahi'am,  son  of  Sharar  the  Hararite  (or 
of  Sacar,  1  Chr.  xi.  35),  one  of  David's 
thirty  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  33). 

Ahi'an,  a  Manassite,  of  the  family  of 
Shemidah  (1  Chr.  vii.  19). 

Allie'zer.  1.  Son  of  Ammishaddai, 
hereditary  chieftain  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
(Num.  i.  12,  ii.  25,  vii.  66).  2.  The 
Benjamite  chief  of  a  body  of  archers  in 
the  time  of  David  (1  Chr.  xii.  3). 

Ahi'hud.  1.  The  son  of  Shelomi,  and 
prince  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Num.  xxxiv. 
27).  2.  Chieftain  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min (1  Chr.  viii.  7). 

Ahi'jah.     [Ahiah.] 

Abl'kam,  son  of  Shaphan  the  scribe, 
an  influential  officer  at  the  court  of  Josiah. 
was  one  of  the  delegates  sent  by  Hilkiah  to 
consult  Huldah  (2  K.  xxii.  12-14).  In  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim  he  successfully  used  his 
influence  to  protect  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  xxvi.  24).  He  was  the  father  of 
Gedaliah.    [Gedaliah.] 

Ahi'lud.  1.  Father  of  Jehoshaphat, 
the  recorder  or  chronicler  of  the  kingdom 
in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  (2 
Sam.  viii.  16,  xx.  24 ;  IK.  iv.  3 ;  1  Chr. 
xviii.  15).  2.  The  father  of  Baana,  one 
of  Solomon's  twelve  commissariat  officers 
(I  K.  iv.  12).  It  is  uncertain  whether  he 
is  the  same  with  the  foregoing, 

Ahim'aaz,  son  of  Zadok,  the  high- 
priest  in  David's  reign,  and  celebrated  for 
his  swiftness  of  foot.  During  Absalom's 
rebellion  he  carried  to  David  the  important 
intelligence  that  Ahithophel  had  counselled 
an  immediate  attack  upon  David  and  his 
follov  ers,  and  that,  consequently,  the  king 
must  cross  the  Jordan  without  the  least 
delay  (2  Sam.  xv.  24-37,  xvii.  15-22). 
Shortly  afterwards  he  was  the  first  to  bring 
to  the  king  the  good  news  of  Absalom's  de- 
feat, suppressing  his  knowledge  of  the  death 
of  his  son,  which  was  announced  soon  af- 
terwards by  another  (2  Sam.  xviii.  19-33). 


Ahi'man,  one  of  the  three  giant  Anakim 
who  inhabited  Mount  Hebron  (Num.  xiii. 
22,  33),  seen  by  Caleb  and  the  spies.  Tlie 
whole  race  were  cut  off"  by  Joshua  (Josh, 
xi.  21),  and  the  three  brothers  were  slain 
by  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Judg.  i.  10). 

Ahim'elech,  son  of  Ahitub  (1  Sara, 
xxii,  11,  12),  and  high-priest  at  Nob  in  the 
days  of  Saul.  He  gave  David  the  shew- 
bread  to  eat,  and  the  sword  of  Goliath; 
and  for  so  doing  was,  upon  the  accusation 
of  Doeg  the  Edomite,  put  to  death  with  his 
whole  house  by  Saul's  order.  Abiathar 
alone  escaped,     [Abiathar,] 

Ahi'moth,  a  Levite,  apparently  in  the 
time  of  David  (1  Chr,  vi.  25),  In  ver.  35, 
for  Ahimoth  we  find  Mahaih,  as  in  Luke 
iii,  26, 

Ahiu'adab,  son  of  Iddo,  one  of  Solo- 
mon's twelve  commissaries  who  supplied 
provisions  for  the  royal  household  (1  K. 
iv,  14), 

Abln'oam,  1.  The  daughter  of  Ahim- 
aaz  and  wife  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  60). 
2.  A  native  of  Jezreel  who  was  married 
to  David  during  his  wandering  life  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  43).  She  lived  with  him  and  his  other 
wife  Abigail  at  the  court  of  Achish  (xxvii. 
3),  was  taken  prisoner  with  her  by  the 
Amalekites  when  they  plundered  Ziklag 
(xxx.  5),  but  was  rescued  by  David  (18). 
She  is  again  mentioned  as  living  with  him 
when  he  was  king  of  Judah  in  Hebron  (2 
Sam.  ii.  2),  and  was  the  mother  of  has 
eldest  son  Amnon  (iii.  2). 

Ah.i'o,  1,  Son  of  Abinadab,  who  ac- 
companied the  ark  when  it  was  brought 
out  of  his  father's  house  (2  Sam,  vi,  3,  4 ; 
1  Chr,  xiii,  7),  2,  A  Benjamite,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Beriah  who  drove  out  the  in- 
habitants of  Gath  (1  Chr,  viii,  14).  3. 
A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jehiel,  father  or 
founder  of  Gibeon  (1  Chr.  viii,  31,  ix,  37). 

Ahi'ra,  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali 
when  Moses  took  the  census  in  the  year 
after  the  Exodus  (Num.  i,  15,  ii,  29,  vii. 
78,  83,  X,  27). 

Ahi'ram,  one  of  the  sons  of  Benjamin, 
and  ancestor  of  the  Ahiramites  (Num. 
xxvi.  38).  In  the  list  of  Benjamin's  chil- 
dren, in  Gen.  xlvi.  21,  the  name  of  Ahiram 
appears  as  "  Ehi  and  Eosh,"  the  former 
being  probably  the  true  reading,  of  which 
the  latter  was  an  easy  corruption.  It  is  un- 
certain whether  Ahiram  is  the  same  as  Aher 
(1  Chr.  vii.  12),  or  Aharah  (1  Chr.  viii.  1.) 

Ahis'amach,  a  Danite,  father  of  Aho- 
liab,  one  of  the  architects  of  the  tabernacle 
(Ex.  xxxi.  6,  XXXV.  34,  xxxviii.  23). 

Ahish'ahar,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bilhan, 
the  grandson  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  vii.  10). 

Ahi'shar,  the  controller  of  Solomon's 
household  (1  K.  iv,  6), 

Ahith'ophel  (brother  of  foolishness), 
a  native  of  Giloh,  was  a  privy  councillor 
of  David,  whose  wisdom  was  highly  es- 


AHITUB 


» 


AIJELETH  SHAHAR 


teemed,  though  his  name  had  an  exactly 
opposite  signification  (2  Sam.  xvi.  23).  He 
was  the  grandfather  of  Bathsheba  (comp. 
2  Sam.  xi.  3  with  xxiii.  84).  When  Ahith- 
ophel  joined  the  conspiracy  of  Absalom, 
David  prayed  Jehovah  to  turn  his  counsel 
to  foolishness  (xv.  31),  alluding  possibly 
to  the  signification  of  his  name.  David's 
grief  at  the  treachery  of  his  confidential 
friend  found  expression  in  the  Messianic 
prophecies  (Ps.  xli.  9,  Iv.  12-14).  —  In 
order  to  show  to  the  people  that  the  breach 
between  Absalom  and  his  father  was  irrep- 
arable, Ahithophel  persuaded  him  to  take 
possession  of  the  royal  harem  (2  Sam.  xvi. 
21).  David,  to  counteract  his  counsel, 
sent  Hushai  to  Absalom.  Ahithophel  had 
recommended  an  immediate  pursuit  of 
David;  but  Hushai  advised  delay,  his 
object  being  to  send  intelligence  to  David, 
and  to  give  him  time  to  collect  his  forces 
for  a  decisive  engagement.  When  Ahith- 
ophel saw  that  Hushai's  advice  prevailed, 
he  despaired  of  success,  and  returning  to 
his  own  home  "  put  his  household  in  order 
and  hanged  himself"  (xvii.  1-23). 

Ahi'tub.  1.  Father  of  Ahimelech,  or 
Ahijah,  the  son  of  Phinehas,  and  grand- 
son of  Eli,  and  therefore  of  the  family  of 
Ithamar  (1  Sam.  xiv.  3,  xxii.  9,  11).  2. 
Sou  of  Amariah,  and  father  of  Zadok  the 
high-priest  (1  Chr.  vi.  7,  8 ;  2  Sam.  viii. 
17),  of  the  house  of  Eleazar.  3.  The 
genealogy  of  the  high-priests  in  1  Chr.  vi. 
11,  12,  introduces  another  Ahitcb,  son  of 
another  Amariah,  and  father  of  another 
Zadok.  But  there  are  reasons  for  believ- 
ing that  the  second  Ahitub  and  Zadok  are 
spurious. 

Ah'lab,  a  city  of  Asher  from  which  the 
Canaanites  were  not  driven  out  (Judg.  i.  31). 

Ahla'i,  daughter  of  Sheshan,  whom, 
having  no  issue,  he  gave  in  marriage  to  his 
Egyptian  slave  Jarha  (1  Chr.  ii.  31,  35). 
In  consequence  of  the  failure  of  male  issue, 
she  became  the  foundress  of  an  important 
branch  of  the  family  of  the  Jerahmeelites, 
and  from  her  were  descended  Zabad,  one 
of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chr.  xi.  41),  and 
Azariah,  one  of  the  captains  of  hundreds 
in  the  reign  of  Joash  (2  Chr.  xxiii.  1). 

Aho'ah,  son  of  Bela,  the  son  of  Benja- 
min (1  Chr.  viii.  4).  In  1  Chr.  viii.  7,  he 
is  called  Ahiah.  The  patronymic,  Aho- 
HiTE,  is  found  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  9,  28;  1 
Chr.  xi.  12,  29,  xxvii.  4. 

Aho'hite.    [Auoah.] 

Aho'lah,  and  Aho'libah,  two  sym- 
bolical names,  are  described  as  harlots,  the 
former  representing  Samaria,  and  the  latter 
Judah  (Ez.  xxiii.). 

Aho'liab,  a  Danite  of  great  skill  as  a 
weaver  and  embroiderer,  whom  Moses  ap- 
pointed with  Bezaleel  to  erect  the  taber- 
nacle (Ex.  XXXV.  30-35). 

Alioliba'mah,  one  (probably  the  sec- 


ond) of  the  three  wives  of  Esau.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Anah,  a  descendant  of 
Seir  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2,  25).  In  the 
earlier  narrative  (Gen.  xxvi.  84)  Aholiba- 
mah  is  called  Judith,  daughter  of  Beeri 
the  Hittite.  It  appears  that  her  proper 
personal  name  was  Judith,  and  that  Alioli- 
bamah  was  the  name  which  she  received  as 
the  wife  of  Esau  and  foundress  of  three 
tribes  of  his  descendants. 

Ahu'mai,  son  of  Jahath,  a  descendant 
of  Judah,  and  head  of  one  of  the  families 
of  the  Zorathites  (1  Chr.  iv.  2). 

Ahu'zani,  properly  Ahuzzam,  son  of 
Ashur,  the  father  or  founder  of  Tekoa,  by 
his  wife  Naarah  (1  Chr.  iv.  6). 

Ahuz'zath,  one  of  the  friends  of  the 
Philistine  king  Abimelech,  who  accom- 
panied him  at  his  interview  with  Isaac 
(Gen.  xxvi.  26). 

A'i  (heap  of  ruins).  1.  A  city  lying 
east  of  Bethel  and  "  beside  Bethaven  " 
(Josh.  vii.  2,  viii.  9).  It  was  the  second 
city  taken  by  Israel  after  the  passage  of 
the  Jordan,  and  was  "  utterly  destroyed  " 
(Josh.  vii.  .3-5,  viii.,  ix.  3,  x.  1,  2,  xii.  9). 
2.  A  city  of  the  Ammonites,  apparently 
attached  to  Heshbon  (Jer.  xlix.  3). 

Ai'ah.  1.  Son  of  Zibeon,  a  descendant 
of  Seir,  and  ancestor  of  one  of  the  wives 
of  Esau  (1  Chr.  i.  40),  called  in  Gen. 
xxxvi.  24,  Ajah.  He  probably  died  before 
his  father,  as  the  succession  fell  to  his 
brother  Anah.  2.  Father  of  Rizpah,  the 
concubine  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  iii.  7,  xxi.  8, 
10,  11. 

Ai'ath,  a  place  named  by  Isaiah  (x.  28), 
in  connection  with  Migron  and  Michmasb, 
probably  the  same  as  Ai. 

Ai'ja,  like  Aiath,  probably  a  variation 
of  the  name  Ai,  mentioned  with  Michmash 
and  Betliel  (Neh.  xi.  31). 

Aij'alon,  ''  a  place  of  deer  or  gazelles." 

1.  A  city  of  the  Kohathites  (Josh.  xxi.  24; 
1  Chr.  vi.  69),  originally  allotted  to  the  tribe 
of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  42;  A.  V.  "  Ajalon"), 
which  tribe,  however,  was  unable  to  dis- 
possess the  Amorites  of  the  place  (Judg.  i. 
35).  Aijalon  was  one  of  the  towns  fortified 
by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  10),  and  the  last 
we  hear  of  it  is  as  being  in  the  hands  of  the 
Philistines  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  18;  A.  V.  "Aja- 
lon"). Being  on  the  very  frontier  of  the 
two  kingdoms,  we  can  understand  how  Ai- 
jalon should  be  spoken  of  sometimes  (1  Chr. 
vi.  69,  comp.  with  66)  as  in  Ephraim,  and 
sometimes  (2  Chr.  xi.  10 ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  31)  as 
in  Judah  and  Benjamin.  It  is  repsesented 
by  the  modern  YAlo,  a  little  to  the  N.  of  the 
Jaffa  road,  about  14  miles  out  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  A  place  in  Zebulun,  mentioned  as  the 
burial-place  of  Elon,  one  of  the  Judges 
(Judg.  xii.  12). 

Alj'eleth  Sha'har  (i.  e.  the  hind  of 
the  morning  dawn),  found  once  only  in  the 
Bible,  in  the  title  of  Ps.  xxii.    It  probacy 


AIN 


27 


ALEXANDER  IH. 


describes  to  the  musician  the  melody  to 
wliich  the  psalm  was  to  be  played,  —  "a 
Psalm  of  David,  addressed  to  the  music- 
master  who  presides  over  the  band  called 
the  Morning  Hind." 

Ain.  1.  One  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
eastern  boundary  of  Palestine  (Num.  xxxiv. 
11).  It  is  probably  'Ain  el-'Azy,  the  main 
source  of  the  Orontes.  2.  One  of  the 
southernmost  cities  of  Judah  (Josh.  xy. 
82),  afterwards  allotted  to  Simeon  (Josh, 
xix.  7;  1  Chr.  iv.  32)  and  given  to  the 
priests  (Josh.  xxi.  16). 

A'jah  =  Aiah,  1  (Gen.  xxxvi.  24). 

Aj'alon.    [AijALON.] 

A'kan,  son  of  Ezer,  one  of  the  "  dukes" 
or  chieftains  of  the  Horites,  and  descend- 
ant of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi.  27).  He  is  called 
Jakan  in  1  Chr.  i.  42  =  Jaakan,  which  last 
is  probably  the  true  reading  in  both  cases. 

Ak'kub.  1.  A  descendant  of  Zerub- 
babel  and  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Chr.  iii.  24). 

2.  One  of  the  porters  or  doorkeepers  at 
the  east  gate  of  the  Temple.  His  descend- 
ants succeeded  to  his  office,  and  appear 
among  those  who  returned  from  Babylon. 

3.  One  of  the  Nethinim,  whose  family  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  45).  4. 
A  Levite  who  assisted  Ezra  in  expounding 
the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  7). 

Akrab'bim,  "the  ascent  of,"  and 
*'  THE  GOING  UP  TO ;  "  also  "  Maaleh- 
ACRABBiM  "  (=  "the  scorpion-pass").  A 
pass  between  the  south  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea  and  Zin,  forming  one  of  the  landmarks 
on  the  south  boundary  at  once  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  3)  and  of  the  Holy  Land  (Num. 
xxxiv.  4).  Also  the  boundary  of  the 
AmOrites  (Judg.  i.  36).  As  to  the  name, 
scorpions  abound  in  the  whole  of  this  dis- 
trict. 

Alabaster  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  only  in 
the  notice  of  the  alabaster-box  of  ointment 


Alabaster  Vcusels. —  From  the  British  Mueeiiin.    The  in- 
scription on  the  centre  vcsncl  denotca  the  quantity  it  holda. 

which  a  woman  brought  to  our  Lord  when 
He  sat  at  meat  in  the  house  of  Simon  the 


leper  at  Bethany,  the  contents  of  which 
she  poured  on  the  head  of  the  Saviour  (Matt. 
xxvi.  7;  Mark  xiv.  3;  Luke  vii.  87).  The 
ancients  considered  alabaster  to  be  the  best 
material  in  which  to  preserve  their  oint- 
ments. In  Mark  xiv.  3,  the  woman  who 
brought  "  the  alabaster-box  of  ointment  of 
spikenard  "  is  said  to  break  the  box  before 
I  pouring  out  the  ointment,  which  probably 
only  means  breaking  the  seal  which  kept 
the  essence  of  the  perfume  from  evaporat- 
ing. 

Al'ametll,  properly  Alemeth,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Becher,  the  son  of  Benjamin  (1 
Chr.  vii.  8). 

Alam'melech  ("king's  oak"),  a  place 
within  the  limits  of  Asher,  named  between 
Achshaph  and  Amad  (Josh.  xix.  26  only). 

Al'amoth  (Ps.  xlvi.  title;  1  Chr.  xv. 
20),  a  word  of  exceedingly  doubtful  mean- 
ing, some  interpreting  it  to  mean  a  musical 
instrument,  and  others  a  melody. 

Al'emethf  a  Benjamite,  son  of  Jehoa- 
dah  or  Jarah  (1  Chr.  viii.  36,  ix.  42),  and 
descended  from  Jonathan  the  son  of  Saul. 

Alexan'der  HI.,  king  of  Macedon, 
surnamed  the  great,  the  laon  of  Philip 
and  Olympias,  was  born  at  Pella,  b.  c.  356, 
and  succeeded  his  father  b;  c.  336.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  crossed  the  Hellespont 
(b.  c.  334)  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  his 
father,  and  execute  the  mission  of  Greece 
to  the  civilized  world.  The  battle  of  the 
Granicus  was  followed  by  the  subjugation 
of  western  Asia ;  and  in  the  following  year 
the  fate  of  the  East  was  decided  at  Issus 
(b.  c.  333).  Tyre  and  Gaza  were  the  only 
cities  in  western  Syria  which  offered  Alex- 
ander any  resistance,  and  these  were  re- 
duced and  treated  with  unusual  severity 
(b.  c.  332).  Egypt  next  submitted  to  him ; 
and  in  b.  c.  331  he  founded  Alexandria, 
which  remains  to  the  present  day  the  most 
characteristic  monument  of  his  life  and 
work.  In  the  same  year  he  finally  defeated 
Darius  at  Gaugamela ;  and  in  b.  c.  330  his 
unhappy  rival  was  murdered  by  Bessus, 
satrap  of  Bactria.  The  next  two  years 
were  occupied  by  Alexander  in  tlie  consoli- 
dation of  his  Persian  conquests  and  the  re- 
duction of  Bactria.  In  b.  c.  327  he  crossed 
the  Indus,  penetrated  to  the  Hydaspes,  and 
was  there  forced  by  the  discontent  of  his 
army  to  turn  westward.  He  reached  Sussi, 
B.  c  325,  and  proceeded  to  Babylon,  b.  c. 
324,  which  he  chose  as  the  capital  of  his 
empire.  In  the  next  year  (b.  c.  323)  he 
died  there  in  the  midst  of  his  gigantic 
plans;  and  those  who  inherited  his  con- 
quests left  his  designs  unachieved  and  un- 
attempted  (cf.  Dan.  vii.  6,  viii.  5,  xi.  3). 
The  famous  tradition  of  the  visit  of  Alex- 
ander to  Jerusalem  during  his  Phoenician 
campaign,  which  is  related  by  Josephus, 
has  been  a  fruitful  source  of  controversy. 
The  Jews,  it  is  said,  had  provoked  hia 


ALEXANDER  BALAS 


28 


ALEXANDRIA 


anger  by  reftising  to  transfer  their  alle- 
giance to  him  when  summoned  to  do  so 
during  the  siege  of  Tyre,  and  after  the  re- 
duction of  Tyre  and  Gaza  he  turned  to- 
wards Jerusalem.  Jaddua  (Jaddus)  the 
high-priest  (Neh.  xii.  11,  22)  went  out  to 
meet  him,  clad  in  his  robes  of  hyacinth 
and  gold,  and  accompanied  by  a  train  of 
priests  and  citizens  arrayed  in  white.  Al- 
e-'^ander  was  so  moved  by  the  solemn  spec- 
tacle that  he  did  reverence  to  the  holy  name 
inscribed  upon  the  tiara  of  the  high-priest ; 
and  when  Parmenio  expressed  surprise,  he 
replied  that  ' '  he  had  seen  the  god  whom 
Jaddua  represented  in  a  dream  at  Dium, 
encouraging  him  to  cross  over  into  Asia, 
and  promising  him  success."  After  this  it 
is  said  that  he  visited  Jerusalem,  offered 
sacrifice  there,  heard  the  prophecies  of 
Daniel  which  foretold  his  victory,  and  con- 
ferred important  privileges  upon  the  Jews. 
In  the  prophetic  visions  of  Daniel  the  em- 
blem by  which  Alexander  is  typified  (a  he 
goat)  suggests  the  notions  of  strength  and 
speed;  and  the  universal  extent  (Dan.  viii. 
6,  .  .  .  from  the  west  on  the  face  of  the 
whole  earth)  and  marvellous  rapidity  of  his 
conquests  (Dan.  I.  c,  he  touched  not  the 
ground)  are  brought  forward  as  the  char- 
acteristics of  his  power,  which  was  directed 
by  the  strongest  personal  impetuosity  (Dan. 
yiii.  6,  in  the  fury  of  his  power).  He 
ruled  with  great  dominion,  and  did  accord- 
ing to  his  will  (xi.  3),  "  and  there  was  none 
that  coulii  deliver  .  .  .  out  of  his  hand  " 
(viii.  7). 


Coin  of  Lysitnachua,  King  of  Thrace,  representing  head 
of  Alexander  the  Great  as  a  young  Jupiter  Aiumou. 

Alexan'der  Ba'las  was,  according  to 
some,  a  natural  son  of  Antiochus  IV.  Epiph- 
anes,  but  he  was  more  generally  regarded 
as  an  impostor  who  falsely  assumed  the 
connection.  He  claimed  the  throne  of  Syr- 
ia, in  152  B.  c,  in  opposition  to  Demetrius 
8oter,  and  gained  the  warm  support  of 
Jonathan,  the  leader  of  the  Jews  (1  Mace. 
ix.  73).  In  150  b.  c.  he  completely  routed 
the  forces  of  Demetrius,  who  himself  fell 
in  the  retreat  (1  Mace.  x.  48-50).  After 
this,  Alexander  married  Cleopatra,  the 
daughter  of  Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor.  But 
his  triumph  was  of  short  duration.  After 
obtaining  power  he  gave  himself  up  to  a 
life  of  indulgence;  and  when  Demetrius 
Nicator,    the    son    of    Demetrius    Soter, 


landed  in  Syria,  in  147  b.  c,  the  new  pre- 
tender found  powerful  support  (1  Mace.  x. 
67  ff.)  In  the  following  year  Ptolemy  de- 
serted Alexander,  who  was  defeated  (I 
Mace.  xi.  15),  and  fled  to  Abac  in  Arabia, 
where  he  was  murdered,  b.  c.  146  (1  Mace. 
xi.  17).  The  narrative  in  1  Mace,  shows 
clearly  the  partiality  which  the  Jews  en- 
tertained for  Alexander ;  and  the  same  feel- 
ing was  exhibited  afterwards  in  the  zeal 
with  which  they  supported  his  son  Antio- 
chus.    [Antiochus  VI.] 

Alexan'der.  1.  Son  of  Simon  the 
Cyrenian,  who  was  compelled  to  bear  the 
cross  for  our  Lord  (Mark  xv.  21).  2.  One 
of  the  kindred  of  Annas  the  high-priest 
(Acts  iv.  6).  3.  A  Jew  at  Ephesus,  whom 
his  countrymen  put  forward  during  the  tu- 
mult raised  by  Demetrius  the  silversmith 
(Acts  xix.  33),  to  plead  their  cause  with 
the  mob.  4.  An  Ephesian  Chri.'>tian,  rep- 
robated by  St.  Paul  in  1  Tim.  i.  20,  as 
having,  together  with  one  Hymenaeus,  put 
from  him  faith  and  a  good  conscience,  and 
so  made  shipwreck  concerning  the  faith. 
This  may  be  the  same  with  5.  Alexan- 
der the  coppersmith,  mentioned  by  the 
same  apostle  (2  Tim.  iv.  14)  as  having 
done  him  many  mischiefs. 

Alexan'dria  (3  Mace.  iii.  1;  Acts 
xviii.  24,  vi.  9),  the  Hellenic,  Roman,  and 
Christian  capital  of  Egypt,  was  founded  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  b.  c.  332,  who  him- 
self traced  the  ground-plan  of  the  city. 
The  work  thus  begun  was  continued  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  by  the  Ptolemies. 
Under  the  despotism  of  the  later  Ptolemies 
the  trade  of  Alexandria  declined,  but  its 
population  and  wealth  were  enormous.  Its 
importance  as  one  of  the  chief  corn-ports 
of  Rome  secured  for  it  the  general  favor  of 
the  first  emperors.  Its  population  was 
mixed  from  tlie  first.  According  to  Jose- 
phus,  Alexander  liimself  assigned  to  the 
Jews  a  place  in  his  new  city.  Their  num- 
bers and  importance  were  rapidly  increased 
under  the  Ptolemies  by  fresh  immigrations 
and  untiring  industry.  The  Scptuagint 
translation  was  made  for  their  benefit, 
under  the  first  or  second  Ptolemy.  Philo 
estimates  the  number  of  the  Alexandrine 
Jews  in  his  time  at  little  less  than  1,000,000 ; 
and  adds,  that  two  of  the  five  districts  of 
Alexandria  were  called  "  Jewish  districts," 
and  that  many  Jews  lived  scattered  in  the 
remaining  three.  Julius  Caesar  and  Au- 
gustus confirmed  to  them  the  privileges 
which  they  had  enjoyed  before,  and  they 
retained  them,  with  various  interruptions, 
during  the  tumults  and  persecutions  of 
later  reigns.  According  to  the  common 
legend,  St.  Mark  first  "preached  the  Gos- 
pel in  Egypt,  and  founded  the  first  Church 
in  Alexandria."  At  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  the  niunber  of  Christians  at 
Alexandria  must  have  been  very  large,  amj 


ALEXANDRIANS 


29 


ALLIANCES 


the  great  leaders  of  Gnosticism  who  arose 
there  (Basilides,  Valentinus)  exhibit  an 
exaggeration  of  the  tendency  of  the  Church. 

Alexan'drians,  the  Jewish  colonists 
of  Alexandria,  who  were  admitted  to  the 
privileges  of  citizenship,  and  had  a  syna- 
gogue at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  9). 

Algum  or  Almug  Trees ;  the  former 
occurring  in  2  Chr.  ii.  8,  ix.  10,  11,  the  lat- 
ter in  1  K.  X.  11,  12.  There  can  be  no 
question  that  these  words  are  identical. 
From  1  K.  x.  11,  12;  2  Chr.  ix.  10,  11,  we 
learn  that  the  almug  was  brought  in  great 
plenty  from  Ophir  for  Solomon's  Temple 
and  house,  and  for  the  construction  of  mu- 
sical instruments.  It  is  probable  that  this 
tree  is  the  red  sandal  wood,  which  is  a  na- 
tive of  India  and  Ceylon.  The  wood  is 
very  heavy,  hard,  and  fine  grained,  and  of 
a  beautiful  garnet  color. 

Ali'ah.     [Alvah.] 

Ali'an.     [Alvan.] 

Allegory,  a  figure  of  speech,  which  has 
been  defined  by  Bishop  Marsh,  in  accord- 
ance with  its  etymology,  as  "  a  representa- 
tion of  one  thing  which  is  intended  to  excite 
the  representation  of  another  thing ;  "  the 
first  representation  being  consistent  with 
itself,  but  requiring,  or  capable  of  admitting, 
a  moral  or  spiritual  interpretation  over  and 
above  its  literal  sense.  In  every  allegory 
there  is  a  twofold  sense ;  the  immediate  or 
liistoric,  which  is  understood  from  the 
words,  and  the  ultimate,  which  is  concerned 
with  the  things  signified  by  the  words. 
The  allegorical  interpretation  is  not  of  the 
words,  but  of  the  things  signified  by  them; 
and  not  only  may,  but  actually  does,  coex- 
ist with  the  literal  interpretation  in  every 
allegory,  whether  the  narrative  in  which  it 
is  conveyed  be  of  things  possible  or  real. 
An  illustration  of  this  may  be  seen  in  Gal. 
iv.  24,  where  the  apostle  gives  an  allegori- 
cal interpretation  to  the  historical  narrative 
of  Hagar  and  Sarah;  not  treating  that  nar- 
rative as  an  allegory  in  itself,  as  our  A.  V. 
would  lead  us  to  suppose,  but  drawing 
from  it  a  deeper  sense  than  is  conveyed  by 
the  immediate  representation. 

Allelu'ia,  so  written  in  Rev.  xix.  7,  foil., 
or  more  properly  Hallelujah,  "  praise  ye 
Jehovah,"  as  it  is  found  in  the  margin  of 
1*8.  civ.  35,  cv.  45,  cvi.,  cxi,  1,  cxii.  1,  cxiii. 
1  (comp.  Ps.  cxiii.  9,  cxv.  18,  cxvi.  19,  cxvii. 
2).  The  literal  meaning  of  "  Hallelujah" 
sufficiently  indicates  the  character  of  the 
Psalms  in  which  it  occurs,  as  hymns  of 
praise  and  thanksgiving.  They  are  all 
found  in  the  last  book  of  the  collection,  and 
bear  marks  of  being  intended  for  use  in  the 
Temple-service;  the  words  "  praise  ye  Je- 
hovah "  being  taken  up  by  the  full  chorus 
of  Levites.  In  the  great  hymn  of  triumph 
in  heaven  over  the  destruction  of  Babylon, 
the  apostle  in  vision  heard  the  multitude  in 
chorus  like  the  voice  of  mighty  thunderings 


burst  forth,  "Alleluia,  for  the  Lord  God 
omnipotent  reigneth,"  responding  to  the 
voice  which  came  out  of  the  throne  saying, 
"Praise  our  God,  all  ye  liis  servants,  and 
ye  that  fear  him,  both  small  and  great" 
(Rev.  xix.  1-6).  In  this,  as  in  the  off"ering 
of  incense  (Rev.  viii.),  there  is  evident  al- 
lusion to  the  service  of  the  Temple,  as  the 
apostle  had  often  witnessed  it  in  its  fading 
grandeur. 

Alliances.  On  the  first  establishment 
of  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine  no  connections 
were  formed  between  them  and  the  sur- 
rounding nations.  But  with  the  extension 
of  their  power  under  the  kings,  they  were 
brought  more  into  contact  with  foreigners, 
and  alliances  became  essential  to  the  secu- 
rity of  their  commerce.  Solomon  con- 
cluded two  important  treaties  exclusively 
for  commercial  purposes ;  the  first  with 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  originally  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  materials  and  workmen 
for  the  erection  of  the  Temple,  and  after- 
wards for  the  supply  of  ship-builders  and 
sailors  (1  K.  v.  2-12,  ix.  27)  :  the  second 
with  a  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt;  by  this  he 
secured  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  in  horses 
and  other  products  of  that  country  (1  K.  x. 
28,  29).  After  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
the  alliances  were  of  an  offensive  and  de- 
fensive nature.  When  war  broke  out  be- 
tween Amaziah  and  Jeroboam  II.  a  coali- 
tion was  formed  between  Rezin,  king  of 
Syria,  and  Pekah  on  the  one  side,  and  Ahaz 
and  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  on  the 
other  (2  K.  xvi.  5-9).  By  tiiis  means  an 
opening  was  afibrded  to  the  advances  of  the 
Assyrian  power ;  and  the  kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  as  they  were  successively  at- 
tacked, sought  the  alliance  of  the  Egyptians, 
who  were  strongly  interested  in  maintaining 
the  independence  of  the  Jews  as  a  barrier 
against  the  encroachments -of  the  Assyrian 
power  (2  K.  xvii.  4,  xix.  9,  36 ;  Is.  xxx.  2). 
On  the  restoration  of  independence  Judas 
Maccabeus  sought  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  neighbor- 
ing state  of  Syria  (1  Mace.  viii.).  Treaties 
of  a  friendly  nature  were  at  the  same  peri- 
od concluded  with  the  Lacedaemonians  (1 
Mace.  xii.  2,  xiv.  20).  —  The  formation  of 
an  alliance  was  attended  with  various  re- 
ligious rites  :  a  victim  was  slain  and  divided 
into  two  parts,  between  which  the  contract- 
ing parties  passed  (Gen.  xv.  10).  That 
this  custom  was  maintained  to  a  late  period 
appears  from  Jer.  xxxiv.  18-20.  Generally 
speaking  the  oath  alone  is  mentioned  in  the 
contracting  of  alliances,  either  between  na- 
tions (Josh.  ix.  15)  or  individuals  (Gen. 
xxvi.  28,  xxxL  53;  1  Sam.  xx.  17;  'I  K.  xi. 
4).  The  event  was  celebi-ated  by  a  foast 
(Gen.  I.  c;  Ex.  xxiv.  11;  2  Sam.  iii.  12, 
20).  Salt,  as  symbolical  of  fidelity,  was 
]  used  on  these  occasions.  Occasionally  a 
!  pillar  or  a  heap  of  stones  was  set  up  as  a 


ALLON 


30 


ALPHAEUS 


memorial  of  the  alliance  (Gen.  xxxi.  52). 
Presents  were  also  sent  by  the  party  soli- 
citing the  alliance  (1  K.  xv.  18 ;  Is.  xxx.  6 ; 
1  Mace.  XV.  18).  The  fidelity  of  the  Jews 
to  their  engagements  was  conspicuous  at 
all  periods  of  their  history  (Josh.  ix.  18), 
and  any  breach  of  covenant  was  visited 
with  very  severe  punishment  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
1;  Ez.  xvii.  16). 

Al'lon,  a  Simeonite,  ancestor  of  Ziza,  a 
prince  of  his  tribe  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah 
(1  Chr.  iv.  37). 

Al'lon,  a  large  strong  tree  of  some  de- 
Bcriptioi ,  probably  an  oak.  The  word  is 
found  in  two  names  in  the  topography  of 
Palestine.  1.  Allon,  more  accurately 
Elon,  a  place  named  among  the  cities  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33).  Probably  the 
more  correct  construction  is  to  take  it  with 
the  following  word,  i.  e.  "  the  oak  by  Zaa- 
nannira,"  or  "  the  oak  of  the  loading  of 
tents,"  as  if  deriving  its  name  from  some 
nomad  tribe  frequenting  the  spot.  [Elon.] 
2.  Al'lon-ba'chuth  ("oak  of  weeping"), 
the  tree  under  which  Rebekah's  nurse,  Deb- 
orah, was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv.  8). 

Almo  dad,  the  first,  in  order,  of  the 
descendants  of  Joktan  (Gen.  a.  2Q\  1  Chr. 
i.  20),  and  the  progenitor  of  an  Arab  tribe. 
His  settlements  must  be  looked  for,  in  com- 
mon with  those  of  the  other  descendants  of 
Joktan,  in  the  Arabian  peninsula. 

Al'mon,  a  city  within  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jpmin,  with  "  suburbs  "  given  to  the  priests 
(dosh.  xxi.  18).  In  the  parallel  list  in  1 
Chr.  vi.  it  is  found  as  Alemeth.  [Alemeth.] 

Al'mon-diblatha'im,  one  of  the  latest 
stations  of  the  Israelites,  between  Dibon- 
gad  and  the  mountains  of  Abarim  (Num. 
xxxiii.  46,  47).  It  is  probable  that  Almon- 
diblathaim  is  identical  with  Beth-dibla- 
thaim. 

Almond-Tree;  Almond.  This  word 
is  found  in  Gen.  xliii.  11 ;  Ex.  xxv.  33,  34, 
xxxvii.  19,  20;  Num.  xvii.  8;  Eccles.  xii. 
6 ;  Jer.  i.  11,  in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.  It  is 
invariably  represented  by  the  same  Hebrew 
word  {sfidMd),  which  sometimes  stands 
for  the  whole  tree,  sometimes  for  the  fruit 
or  nut.  The  almond-tree,  whose  scientific 
name  is  Amygdalus  communis,  is  a  native 
of  Asia  and  North  Africa,  but  it  is  cultivated 
in  the  milder  parts  of  Europe.  The  height 
of  the  tree  is  about  12  or  14  feet ;  the  flow- 
ers are  pink,  and  arranged  for  the  most 
part  in  pairs ;  the  leaves  are  long,  ovate, 
with  a  serrated  margin,  and  an  acute  point. 
The  covering  of  the  fruit  is  downy  and  suc- 
culent, enclosing  the  hard  shell  which  con- 
tains the  kernel.  It  is  curious  to  observe, 
in  connection  with  the  almond-bowls  of  the 
golden  candlestick,  that,  in  the  language 
of  lapidaries.  Almonds  are  pieces  of  rock- 
crystal,  even  now  used  in  adorning  branch- 
candlesticks. 

Alms.     The  duty  of  alms-giving,  espe- 


cially in  kind,  consisting  chiefly  in  portions 
to  be  left  designedly  from  produce  of  the 
field,  the  vineyard,  and  the  oliveyard  (Lev. 
xix.  9,  10,  xxiii.  22 ;  Deut.  xv.  11,  xxiv.  19, 
xxvi.  2-13;  Ruth  ii.  2),  is  strictly  enjoined 
by  the  Law.  Every  third  year  also  (Deut. 
xiv.  28)  each  proprietor  was  directed  to 
share  the  tithe  of  his  produce  with  "the 
Levite,  the  stranger,  the  fatherless,  and  the 
widow."  The  theological  estimate  of  alms- 
giving among  the  Jews  is  indicated  in  the 
following  passages  :  —  Job  xxxi.  17;  Prov. 
X.  2,  xi.  4 ;  Esth.  ix.  22 ;  Ps.  cxii.  9 ;  Acta 
ix.  36,  the  case  of  Dorcas ;  x.  2,  of  Cor- 
nelius ;  to  which  may  be  added,  Tob.  iv. 
10,  11,  xiv.  10,  11;  and  Ecclus.  iii.  30,  xl. 
24.  And  the  Talmudists  went  so  far  as  to 
interpret  righteousness  by  alms-giving  in 
such  passages  as  Gen.  xviii.  19 ;  Is.  liv.  14 ; 
Ps.  xvii.  15.  —  The  Pharisees  were  zealous 
in  alms-giving,  but  too  ostentatious  in  their 
mode  of  performance,  for  which  our  Lord 
finds  fault  with  them  (Matt.  vi.  2).  — The 
duty  of  relieving  the  poor  was  not  neglected 
by  the  Christians  (Matt.  vi.  1-4 ;  Luke  xiv. 
13;  Acts  XX.  35;  Gal.  ii.  10).  Every 
Christian  was  exhorted  to  lay  by  on  the  first 
day  of  each  week  some  portion  of  his  prof- 
its, to  be  applied  to  the  wants  of  the  needy 
(Acts  xi.  30 ;  Rom.  xv.  25-27 ;  1  Cor.  xvi. 
1-4).  It  was  also  considered  a  duty  special- 
ly incumbent  on  widows  to  devote  them- 
selves to  such  ministrations  (1  Tim.  v.  10) 

Almug- Trees.    [Algum-Trees.] 

Aloes,  Lign  Aloes  (in  Heb.  AhdUm, 
Ahdldth),  the  name  of  a  costly  and  sweet- 
smelling  wood  which  is  mentioned  in  Num. 
xxiv.  6;  Ps.  xiv.  8;  Prov.  vii.  17;  Cant.  iv. 
14;  John  xix.  39.  It  is  usually  identified 
with  the  Aquilaria  Agallochum^,  a  tree 
which  supplies  the  agallochum,  or  aloes- 
wood  of  commerce,  much  valued  in  India 
on  account  of  its  aromatic  qualities  for 
purposes  of  fumigation  and  for  incense. 
This  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  120  feet, 
being  12  feet  in  girth.  It  is,  however,  un- 
certain whether  the  AhAUm,  or  Ahdldth  is 
in  reality  the  aloes-wood  of  commerce ;  it 
is  quite  possible  that  some  kind  of  odorifer- 
ous cedar  may  be  the  tree  denoted  by 
these  terms. 

A'loth,  a  place  or  district,  forming  with 
Asher  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ninth  of  Solo- 
mon's commissariat  officers  (1  K.  iv.  16). 

Al'pha,  the  first  letter  of  the  Greek  al- 
phabet, as  Omega  is  the  last.  Its  signifi- 
cance is  plainly  indicated  in  the  context, 
"I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning 
and  the  end,  the  first  and  the  last"  (Rev. 
i.  8,  11,  xxi.  6,  xxii.  13),  which  may  be 
compared  with  Is.  xli.  4.  Both  Greeks  and 
Hebrews  employed  the  letters  of  the  alpha* 
bet  as  numerals. 

Alphabet.     [Writing.] 

Alphae'us,  the  father  of  the  Apostlo 
James  the  Less  (Matt.  x.  3;  Mark  iii.  18; 


ALTAR 


81 


ALTAR 


Luki  vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13),  and  husband  of 
that  Mary  who,  with  the  mother  of  Jesus 
and  others,  was  standing  by  the  cross  dur- 
ing the  crucifixion  (Johnxix.  25).  [Mary.] 
In  tliis  latter  place  he  is  called  Clopas  (not, 
as  in  the  A.  V.,  Cleophas). 

Altar.  (A.)  The  first  altar  of  which 
we  have  any  account  is  that  built  by  Noah 
when  he  left  the  ark  (Gen.  viii.  20).  In 
the  early  times  altars  were  usually  built  in 
certain  spots  hallowed  by  religious  associa- 
tions, e.  g.  where  God  appeared  (Gen.  xii. 
7,  xiii.  18,  xxvi.  25,  xxxv.  1).  Generally 
of  course  they  were  erected  for  the  offer- 
ing of  sacrifice ;  but  in  some  instances  they 
appear  to  have  been  only  memorials.  Al- 
tars were  most  probably  originally  made  of 
earth.  The  Law  of  Moses  allowed  them  to 
be  made  either  of  earth  or  unhewn  stones 
(Ex.  XX.  24,  25).  In  later  times  they 
were  frequently  built  on  high  places,  espe- 
cially in  idolatrous  worship  (Deut.  xii.  2). 
(B.)  The  Law  of  Moses  directed  that  two 
altars  should  be  made,  the  one  the  Altar  of 
Burnt-offering  (called  also  simply  the  Al- 
tar), and  the  other  the  Altar  of  Incense. 
I.  The  Altar  of  Burnt-offering.  It  dif- 
fered in  construction  at  different  times. 
(1.)  In  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvii.  1  ff. 
xxxviii.  1  ff.)  it  was  comparatively  small 
and  portable.  In  shape  it  was  square.  It 
was  five  cubits  in  length,  the  same  in 
breadth,  and  three  cubits  high.  It  was 
made  of  planks  of  shittira  (or  acacia)  wood 
overlaid  with  brass.  The  interior  was  hol- 
low (Ex.  xxvii.  8).  At  the  four  corners 
were  four  projections  called  horns,  made, 
like  the  altar  itself,  of  shittim-wood  over- 
laid with  brass  (Ex.  xxvii.  2).  They  proba- 
bly projected  upwards;  and  to  them  the 
victim  was  bound  when  about  to  be  sacri- 
'ficed  (Ps.  cxviii.  27).  On  the  occasion  of 
the  consecration  of  the  priests  (Ex.  xxix. 
12)  and  the  offering  of  the  sin-offering 
(Lev.  iv.  7  ff.)  the  blood  of  the  victim  was 
sprinkled  on  the  horns  of  the  altar. 
Round  the  altar,  midway  between  the  top 
and  bottom,  ran  a  projecting  ledge  (A.  V. 
"  compass  "),  on  which  perhaps  the  priests 
stood  when  they  ofliciated.  To  the  outer 
edge  of  this,  again,  a  grating  or  net-work 
of  brass  was  affixed,  and  reached  to  the 
bottom  of  the  altar,  which  thus  presented 
the  appearance  of  being  larger  below  than 
above.  At  the  four  corners  of  the  net- 
work were  four  brazen  rings,  into  which 
were  inserted  the  staves  by  which  the  altar 
was  carried.  These  staves  were  of  the 
same  materials  as  the  altar  itself.  As  the 
priests  were  forbidden  to  ascend  the  altar 
by  steps  (Ex.  xx.  26),  it  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  a  slope  of  earth  led  gradually  up 
to  the  ledge  from  which  they  officiated. 
The  place  of  the  altar  was  at  "  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation "  (Ex. 
3d.  29).     (2.)   In  Solomon's  Te  nple  the 


I  altar  was  considerably  larger  in  its  dimen* 
I  sions.  Like  the  former  it  was  square;  but 
I  the  length  and  breadth  were  now  twenty  cu- 
bits, and  the  height  ten   (2  Chr.  iv.  1).     It 


Altar  of  Bnrnt  Offering.    From  Surenhasius'  Uithna. 

differed,  too,  in  the  material  of  which  it  was 
made,  being  entirely  of  brass  (1  K.  viii.  G4 ; 
2Chr.  vii.  7).  It  had  no  grating:  and  in- 
stead of  a  single  gradual  slope,  the  ascent 
to  it  was  probably  made  by  three  succes- 
sive platforms,  to  each  of  which  it  has  been 
supposed  that  steps  led,  as  in  the  figure 
annexed.  (3.)  The  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ing in  the  second  (Zerubbabel's)  temple. 
Of  this  no  description  is  given  in  the  Bible. 
We  are  only  told  (Ezr.  iii.  2)  that  it  was 
built  before  the  foundations  of  the  Templo 
were  laid.  According  to  Josephus  it  was 
placed  on  the  same  spot  on  which  that  of 
Solomon  had  originally  stood.  (4.)  The 
altar  erected  by  Herod,  which  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Josephus  :  "In  front  of  the  Tem- 
ple stood  the  altar,  15  cubits  in  height,  and 
in  breadth  and  length  of  equal  dimensions, 
viz.  50  cubits ;  it  was  built  foursquare,  with 
horn-like  corners  projecting  from  it;  and 
on  the  south  side  a  gentle  acclivity  led  up 
to  it.  Moreover  it  was  made  without  any 
iron  tool,  neither  did  iron  ever  touch  it  at 
any  time."  According  to  Lev.  vi.  12,  13, 
a  perpetual  fire  was  to  be  kept  burning  on 
the  altar.  Tliis  was  the  symbol  and  token 
of  the  perpetual  worship  of  Jehovah.  II. 
The  Altar  of  Incense,  called  also  the  golden 
altar  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Altar  of 
Burnt-offering,  which  was  called  the  bra- 
zen sliar  (Ex.  xxxviii.  30).  (a.)  That  in 
the  Tabernacle  was  made  of  acacia-wood, 
overlaid  with  pure  gold.  In  shape  it  was 
square,  being  a  cubit  in  length  and  breadth, 
and  2  cubits  in  height.  Like  the  Altar  of 
Burnt-offering  it  had  horns  at  the  four  cor- 
ners, which  were  of  one  piece  with  the  rest 
of  the  altar.  Its  appearance  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  following  figure.  This  altar 
stood  in  the  Holy  Place,  "before  the  vail 
that  is  by  the  ark  of  the  testimony  "  (Ex. 
XXX.  6,  xl.  6).    (i.)  The  Altar  in  Solomon's 


ALTASCHITH 


32 


AMARIAH 


Temple  was  similar  (1  K.  vii.  48 ;  1  Chr. 
xxviii.  18),  but  was  made  of  cedar  overlaid 
with  gold,  (c.)  The  Altar  of  Incense  is 
mentioned  as  having  been  removed  from 


Supposed  form  of  the  Altar  of  Incense. 


the  Temple  of  Zerubbabel  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (1  Mace.  i.  21).  Judas  Macca- 
baeus  restored  it,  together  with  the  holy 
vessels,  &c.  (1  Mace.  iv.  49).  (C.)  Other 
altars.  (1.)  Altars  of  brick.  There  seems 
to  be  an  allusion  to  such  in  Is.  Ixv.  3.  (2.) 
An  Altar  to  an  Unknown  God.  What  altar 
this  was  has  been  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion. St.  Paul  merely  mentions  in  his 
speech  on  the  Areopagus  that  he  had  him- 
Eolf  seen  such  an  altar  in  Athens.  As  to 
the  origin  of  these  altars,  we  are  told  by 
Diogenes  Laertius  that  in  the  time  of  a 
plague,  when  the  Athenians  knew  not  what 
god  to  propitiate  in  order  to  avert  it,  Epi- 
menides  caused  black  and  white  sheep  to 
be  let  loose  from  the  Areopagus,  and  wher- 
ever they  lay  down,  to  be  offered  to  the 
respective  divinities.  It  was  probably  on 
tliis  or  similar  occasions  that  altars  were 
dedicated  to  an  Unknown  God,  since  they 
know  not  what  god  was  offended  and  re- 
quired to  be  propitiated. 

Al-tas'chith,  found  in  the  introductory 
verse  to  the  four  following  Psalms,  Ivii., 
Iviii.,  lix.,  Ixxv.  Literally  rendered,  the 
import  of  the  words  is  "destroy  not,"  prob- 
ably the  beginning  of  some  song  or  poem 
to  the  tune  of  which  those  psalms  were  to 
be  chanted. 

A'lush,  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Isra- 
elHes  on  their  journey  to  Sinai,  the  last 
bifore  Rephidim  (Num.  xxxiii.  13,  14). 

Al'vah,  a  duke  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
40),  written  Aliah  in  1  Chr.  i.  51. 

Al'van,  a  Horite,  son  of  Shobal  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  23),  written  Alian  in  1  Chr.  i.  40. 

A'mad,  an  unknown  place  in  Asher, 
between  Alammelech  and  Misheal  (Josh. 
six.  26  only). 


Amad'atha  (Esth.  xvi.  10,  17),  and 
Amad'athus  (Esth.  xii.  6).    [Hammki>- 

ATHA.] 

A'mal,  an  Asherite,  son  of  Helem  (1 
Chr.  vii.  35). 

Am'alek,  son  of  Eliphaz  by  his  concu- 
bine Timnah,  grandson  of  Esau,  and  chief- 
tain ("duke "  A.  V.)  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
12,  16;  ]  Chr.  i.  36). 

Am'alekites,  a  nomadic  tribe,  which 
occupied  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  the 
wilderness  intervening  between  the  south- 
ern hill-ranges  of  Palestine  and  the  border 
of  Egypt  (Num.  xiii.  29;  1  Sam.  xv.  7: 
xxvii.  8).  Arabian  historians  represent 
them  as  originally  dwelling  on  the  shores 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  whence  they  were 
pressed  westwards  by  the  growth  of  the 
Assyrian  empire,  and  spread  over  a  portion 
of  Arabia  at  a  period  antecedent  to  its  occu- 
pation by  the  descendants  of  Joktan.  The 
physical  character  of  the  district  which  the 
Amalekites  occupied  necessitated  a  nomadic 
life,  which  they  adopted  to  its  fullest  extent, 
taking  their  families  with  them  even  on 
their  military  expeditions  (Judg.  vi.  6). 
Their  wealth  consisted  in  flocks  and  herds. 
Mention  is  made  of  a  "  town"  (1  Sam.xv.  5), 
but  their  towns  could  have  been  little  more 
than  stations,  or  nomadic  enclosures.  The 
kings  or  chieftains  were  perhaps  distin- 
guished by  the  hereditary  title  Agag  (Num. 
xxiv.  7;  1  Sam.  xv.  8).  The  Amalekites 
first  came  in  contact  with  the  Israelites  at 
Rephidim,  but  were  signally  defeated  (Ex. 
xvii.).  In  union  with  the  Canaanites  they 
again  attacked  the  Israelites  on  the  borders 
of  Palestine,  and  defeated  them  near  Hor- 
mah  (Num.  xiv.  45).  Saul  undertook  an 
expedition  against  them,  overrunning  their 
whole  district  from  Havilah  to  Shur,  and  in- 
flicting an  immense  loss  upon  them  (1  Sam. 
xv).  Their  power  was  thenceforth  broken, 
and  they  degenerated  into  a  horde  of  ban- 
ditti. Their  destruction  was  completed  by 
David  (1  Sam.  xxvii.,  xxx.). 

A'mam,  a  city  in  tlie  south  of  Judah, 
named  with  Shema  and  Moladah  in  Josh. 
XV.  26  only. 

A'man.  [Haman.]  (Esth.  X.  7,  xii.  6, 
xiii.  3,  12,  xiv.  17,  xvi.  10,  17). 

Am'ana,  apparently  a  mountain  in  or 
near  Lebanon  (Cant.  iv.  8).  It  is  common- 
ly assumed  that  this  is  the  mountain  in 
which  the  river  Abana  (2  K.  v.  12)  has  its 
source,  but  in  the  absence  of  further  re- 
search in  the  Lebanon  this  is  mere  assump- 
tion. 

Amari'ah.  1.  Father  of  Ahitub,  ac- 
cording to  1  Chr.  vi.  7,  52,  and  son  of  Me- 
raioth,  in  the  line  of  the  high-priests.  2. 
The  high-priest  in  the  reign  of  Jehosliaphat 
(2  Chr.  xix.  11).  He  was  the  son  of  Aza- 
riah.  3.  The  head  of  a  Levitical  house 
of  the  Kohathitcs  in  the  time  of  David  (1 
Chr.  xxiii.  19,  xxiv.  23).     4.  The  head  of 


AMASA 


83 


AMETHYST 


one  of  the  twenty -four  courses  of  priests, 
which  was  named  after  him,  in  the  times  of 
David,  of  Hczekiah,  and  of  Nehemiah  (1 
Chr.  xxiv.  14 ;  2  Chr.  xxxi.  15 ;  Neh.  x.  3, 
xii.  2,  13).  In  the  first  passage  the  name 
is  written  Immer,  but  it  seems  to  be  the 
same  name.  Another  form  of  the  name  is 
Imri  (1  Chr.  ix.  4),  a  man  of  Judah,  of  the 
sons  of  Bani.  5.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani 
in  the  time  of  Ezra,  who  had  married  a  for- 
eign wife  (Ezr.  x.  42).  6.  A  priest  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbahel  (Neh.  x.  3,  xii.  2, 13). 
7.  A  descendant  of  Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah 
(Neh.  xi.  4),  probably  the  same  as  Imri  in 
1  Chr.  ix.  4.  8.  An  ancestor  of  Zepha- 
niah  the  prophet  (Zeph.  i.  1). 

Atn'asa.  1.  Son  of  Itln-a  or  Jether,  by 
Abigail,  David' s  sister  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25). 
He  joined  Absalom  in  his  rebellion,  and 
was  by  him  appointed  commander-in-chief 
in  the  place  of  Joab,  by  whom  he  was  to- 
tally defeated  in  the  forest  of  Ephraira  (2 
Sam.  xviii.  C).  AYhen  Joab  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  David  for  killing  Absalom, 
David  forgave  the  treason  of  Amasa,  rec- 
ognized him  as  his  nephew,  and  appointed 
him  Joab's  successor  (xix.  13).  Joab  after- 
wards, when  they  were  both  in  pursuit  of 
the  rebel  Sheba,  pretending  to  salute  Amasa, 
stabbed  him  with  his  sword  (xx.  10),  which 
he  held  concealed  in  his  left  hand.  2.  A 
prince  of  Ephraim,  son  of  Hadlai,  in  the 
reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  12). 

Amasa'i.  1.  A  Kohathite,  father  of 
Mahath,  and  ancestor  of  Samuel  and  He- 
man  the  singer  (1  Chr.  vi.  25,  35).  2. 
Chief  of  the  captains  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, who  deserted  to  David  while  an 
outlaw  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  18).  3.  One 
of  the  priests  who  blew  trumpets  before  the 
Ark,  when  David  brought  it  from  the  house 
of  Obededom  (1  Chr.  XV.  24).  4.  Another 
Kohathite,  father  of  another  Mahath,  in 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12), 
unless  the  name  is  tliat  of  a  family. 

Amasha'i,  son  of  Azarcel,  a  priest  in 
the  time  of  Kehemiah  (Neh.  xi.  13),  ap- 
parently the  same  as  Maasiai  (1  Chr.  ix. 
12). 

Amasi  ah,  son  of  Zichri,  and  captain 
of  200,000  warriors  of  Judah,  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  16). 

A'math.    [Hamath.] 

Amazi'ah.  1.  Son  of  Joash,  and  eighth 
king  of  Judah,  reigned  b.  c.  837-809.  He 
succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of 
25,  on  the  murder  of  his  father,  and  pun- 
ished the  murderers.  In  order  to  restore 
his  kingdom  to  the  greatness  of  Jehosha- 
phat's  days,  he  made  war  on  the  Edomites, 
defeated  them  in  the  valley  of  Salt,  south 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  took  their  capital, 
Selah  or  Petra,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Jokteel,  i.  e.  "God-subdued."  Flushed 
with  his  success,  he  had  the  foolish  arro- 
gance to  challenge  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  to 
8 


battle.  But  Judah  was  completely  defeated, 
and  Amaziah  himself  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  conveyed  by  Joash  to  Jerusalem,  which 
opened  its  gates  to  the  conqueror.  Ama- 
ziah lived  15  years  after  the  death  of  Joash; 
and  in  the  29th  year  of  Ms  reign  was  mur- 
dered by  conspirators  at  Lachish,  whither 
he  had  retired  for  safety  from  Jerusalem  (2 
Chr.  XXV.  27).  2.  A  descendant  of  Simeon 
(1  Chr.  iv.  34).  3.  A  Levite  (1  Chr.  vi. 
45).  4.  Priest  of  the  golden  calf  at  Bethel, 
who  endeavored  to  drive  the  prophet  Amos 
from  Israel  into  Judah  (Am.  vii.  10,  12,  14). 

Ambassador.  The  earliest  examples 
of  ambassadors  employed  occur  in  the 
cases  of  Edom,  Moab,  and  the  Amorites 
(Num.  XX.  14,  xxi.  21;  Judg.  xi.  17-19), 
afterwards  in  that  of  the  fraudulent  Gibeon- 
ites  (Josh.  ix.  4,  &c.),  and  in  the  instances 
of  civil  strife  mentioned  Judg.  xi.  12,  and 
XX.  12.  They  are  alluded  to  more  fre- 
quently during  and  after  the  contact  of  the 
great  adjacent  monarchies  of  Syria,  Baby- 
lon, &c.,  with  those  of  Judah  and  Israel,  as 
in  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib.  They 
were  usually  men  of  high  rank.  In  the 
case  quoted  the  chief  captain,  the  chief  cup- 
bearer, and  chief  of  the  eunuchs,  were  met 
by  delegates  of  similar  dignity  from  Heze- 
kiah (2  K.  xviii.  17,  18;  see  also  Is.  xxx. 
4).  Ambassadors  are  found  to  have  been 
employed,  not  only  on  occasions  of  hostile 
challenge  or  insolent  menace  (2  K.  xiv.  8 ; 
1  K.  XX.  2,  6),  but  of  friendly  compliment, 
of  request  for  alliance  or  other  aid,  of  sub- 
missive deprecation,  and  of  curious  inquiry 
(2  K.  xiv.  8,  xvi.  7,  xviii.  14;  2  Clir.  xxxii. 
31). 

Atnber  (Heb.  chashmal)  occurs  only  in 
Ez!  i.  4,  27,  viii.  2.  It  is  usually  supposed 
that  the  Hebrew  word  chashmal  denotes  a 
metal,  and  not  the  fossil  resin  called  amber. 

Amen,  literally,  "true;"  and,  used  as 
a  substantive,  "  that  which  is  true," 
"truth"  (Is.  Ixv.  16);  a  word  used  in 
strong  asseverations,  fixing  as  it  were  the 
stamp  of  truth  upon  the  assertion  which  it 
accompanied,  and  making  it  binding  as  an 
oath  (comp.  Num.  v.  22).  According  to 
the  Rabbins,  "Amen"  involved  the  ideas 
of  swearing,  acceptance,  and  truthfulness. 
In  the  synagogues  and  private  houses  it 
was  customary  for  the  people  or  members 
of  the  family  who  were  present  to  say 
"  Amen  "  to  the  prayers  which  were  offered 
by  the  minister  or  the  master  of  the  house, 
and  the  custom  remained  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian Church  (Matt.  vi.  13;  1  Cor.  xiv.  16). 
And  not  only  public  prayers,  but  those  of- 
fered in  private,  and  doxologies  were  ap- 
propriately concluded  with  "  Amen  "  (Rom. 
ix.  5,  xi.  36,  XV.  33,  xvi.  27 ;  2  Cor.  xiii. 
13,  &c.). 

Amethyst  (Heb.  achUmAh).  Men- 
tion is  made  of  this  precious  stone,  which 
formed  the  third  in  the  third  row  of  the 


AMI 


34 


AMMON 


high-priest's  breastplate,  in  Ex.  xxviii.  19, 
xxix.  12),  "  And  the  third  row  a  ligure,  an 
agate,  and  an  amethyst."  It  occurs  also  in 
the  N.  T.  (Rev.  xxi.  20)  as  the  twelfth  stone 
which  garnished  the  foundations  of  the  wall 
of  tlie  heavenly  Jerusalem.  Commentators 
generally  are  agreed  that  the  amethyst  is 
the  stone  indicated  by  the  Hebrew  word,  an 
opinion  which  is  abundantly  supported  by 
the  ancient  versions. 

A'mi,  one  of  "  Solomon's  servants " 
(Ezr.  ii.  57)  :  called  Amon  in  Neh.  vii.  59. 

Amin'adab  (Matt.  i.  4;  Luke  iii.  33). 
[Ammixadab  I.] 

Amit'tai,  father  of  the  prophet  Jonah 
(2  K.  xiv.  25;  Jon.  i.  1). 

Am'mah,  The  hill  of,  a  hill  "  facing  " 
Giah  by  the  way  of  the  wilderness  of 
Gibeon,  named  as  the  point  to  which  Joab's 
pursuit  of  Abner  after  the  death  of  Asahel 
extended  (2  Sam.  ii.  24). 

Am'mi,  i.  e.  as  explained  in  the  marg. 
of  A.  V.  "  my  people,"  a  figurative  name, 
applied  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  token 
of  God's  reconciliation  with  them,  in  con- 
trast with  the  equally  significant  name  Lo- 
ammi  given  by  the  prophet  Hosea  to  his 
second  son  by  Gomer  the  daughter  of  Dib- 
laim  (Hos.  ii.  1).  In  the  same  manner 
Ruhamah  contrasts  with  Lo-Ruhamah. 

Am'miel.  1.  The  spy  selected  by 
Moses  from  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Num.  xiii. 
12).  2.  Father  of  Machir  of  Lodebar  (2 
Sam.  ix.  4,  5,  xvii.  27).  3.  Father  of 
Bathsheba  (1  Chr.  iii.  5),  called  Eliam  in 
2  Sam.  xi.  3.  He  was  tlie  son  of  Ahitho- 
phel,  David's  prime  minister.  4.  The 
sixth  son  of  Obed-Edom  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  5), 
and  one  of  the  doorkeepers  of  the  Temple. 

Am'mihud.  1.  An  Ephraimite,  father 
of  Elishama,  the  chief  of  the  tribe  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  10,  ii.  18,  vii. 
48,  53,  X.  22 ;  1  Chr.  vii.  26),  and,  through 
him,  ancestor  of  Joshua.  2.  A  Simeon- 
ite,  father  of  Shemuel,  prince  of  the  tribe 
(Num.  xxxiv.  20)  at  the  time  of  the  divis- 
ion of  Canaan.  3.  The  fatiier  of  Pedahel, 
prince  of  the  tribe  of  Naplithali  at  the 
eame  time  (Num.  xxxiv.  28).  4.  The 
father  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  37).  5.  A  descendant  of  Pharez,  son 
of  Judah  (1  Chr.  ix.  4). 

Aram.in'ad.ab.  1.  Son  of  Ram  or 
Aram,  and  father  of  Nahshon,  or  Naasson 
(as  it  is  written,  Matt.  i.  4;  Luke  iii.  32), 
who  was  the  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
at  the  first  numbering  of  Israel  in  the  sec- 
ond year  of  the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  7,  ii.  3 ; 
Ruth  iv.  19,  20;  1  Chr.  i.  10).  He  was  the 
fourth  generation  after  Judah,  the  patri- 
arch of  his  tribe,  and  one  of  the  ancestors 
of  Jesus  Christ.  2.  The  chief  of  the 
112  sons  of  Uzziel,  a  junior  Levitical  house 
of  the  family  of  the  Kohathites  (Ex.  vi. 
18),  in  the  days  of  David,  whom  that  king 
sent  for,  together  with  other  chief  fathers 


of  Levitical  houses,  to  bring  the  ark  of 
God  to  Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  xv.  10-12).  3. 
In  1  Chr.  vi.  22,  Izhar,  the  son  of  Kohath, 
and  fother  of  Korah,  is  called  Amminadab, 
but  it  is  probably  only  a  clerical  error. 

Ammin'adib.  In  Cant.  vi.  12,  it  is 
uncertain  whether  we  ought  to  read,  Am- 
minadib,  with  the  A.  V.,  or  my  willing  peo- 
ple, as  in  the  margin. 

Ammishad'dai,  the  father  of  Ahie- 
zer,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  at  the  time 
of  the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  12,  ii.  25,  vii.  6(5, 
71,  X.  25)_. 

Ammiz'abad,  the  son  of  Benaiah,  who 
apparently  acted  as  his  father's  lieutenant, 
and  commanded  the  third  division  of  Da- 
vid's army,  which  was  on  duty  for  the 
third  month  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  6). 

Am'mon,  Am'monites,  Children 
of  Ammon,  a  people  descended  from 
Ben-Arami,  the  son  of  Lot  by  his  j^ounger 
daughter  (Gen.  xix.  38 ;  comp.  Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
7,  8),  as  Moab  was  by  the  elder;  and  dat- 
ing from  the  destruction  of  Sodom.  Tlie 
near  relation  between  the  two  peoples  indi- 
cated in  the  story  of  their  origin  continued 
throughout  their  existence  (comp.  Judg.  x. 
6 ;  2  Chr.  xx.  1 ;  Zeph.  ii,  8,  &c.).  Indeed, 
so  close  was  their  union,  and  so  near  their 
identity,  that  each  would  appear  to  be  oc- 
casionally spoken  of  under  the  name  of  the 
other,  ijniike  Moab,  the  precise  position 
of  the  territory  of  the  Ammonites  is  not 
ascertainable.  In  the  earliest  mention  of 
them  (Deut.  ii.  20)  they  are  said  to  have 
destroyed  the  Rephaim,  whom  they  called' 
the  Zamzummim,  and  to  liave  dwelt  in  their 
place,  Jabbok  being  their  border  (Num. 
xxi.  24;  Deut.  ii.  37,  iii.  16).  "Land" 
or  "country"  is,  however,  but  rarely 
ascribed  to  them,  nor  is  there  any  reference 
to  tliose  habits  and  circumstances  of  civili- 
zation, which  so  constantly  recur  in  the  al- 
lusions to  Moab  (Is.  xv.,xvi. ;  Jcr.  xlviii.). 
On  the  contrary,  we  find  everywhere  traces 
of  the  fierce  habits  of  marauders  in  their 
incursions  (1  Sam.  xi.  2;  Am.  i.  13),  and 
a  very  liigh  degree  of  crafty  cruelty  to  their 
foes  (Jer.  xli.  6,  7 ;  Jud.  vii.  11, 12).  It  ap- 
pears that  Moab  was  the  settled  and  civ- 
ilized half  of  the  nation  of  Lot,  and  that 
Ammon  formed  its  predatory  and  Bedouin 
section.  On  the  west  of  Jordan  they  never 
obtained  a  footing.  The  hatred  in  which 
the  Ammonites  were  held  by  Israel  is  stated 
to  have  arisen  partly  from  their  opposition, 
or,  rather,  their  denial  of  assistance  (Deut. 
xxiii.  4),  to  thelsraeUtes  on  their  approach 
to  Canaan.  But  whatever  its  origin  the 
animosity  continued  in  force  to  the  latest 
date.  The  last  appearances  of  the  Am- 
monites in  the  biblical  narrative  are  in  the 
books  of  Judith  (v.,  vi.,  vii.)  and  of  the 
Maccabees  (1  Mace,  v,  6,  30-43),  and  it 
has  been  already  remarked  that  their  chief 
characteristics  —  close  alliance  with  Moab, 


AMMONITESS 


35 


AMOS 


hatred  of  Israel,  and  cunning  cruelty  — 
are  maintained  to  the  end.  The  tribe  was 
governed  by  a  king  (Judg.  xi.  12,  &c. ;  1 
Sam.  xii.  12 ;  2  Sam.  x.  1 ;  Jer.  xl.  li)  and 
by  "  princes  "  (2  Sam.  x.  3 ;  1  Chr.  xix.  3). 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  Nahash  (1 
Sam.  xi.  1 ;  2  Sam.  x.  2)  was  the  official 
title  of  the  king,  as  Pharaoh  was  of  the 
Egyptian  monarchs ;  but  this  is  without  any 
sure  foundation.  The  divinity  of  the  tribe 
was  Molech,  generally  named  in  the  O.  T. 
under  the  altered  form  of  Milcom  —  "the 
abomination  of  the  children  of  Ammon ;  " 
and  occasionally  as  Malchara.  In  more 
than  one  passage  under  the  word  rendered 
"  their  king"  in  the  A.  V.  an  allusion  is  in- 
tended to  this  idol.     [Molech.] 

Ammoni'tess,  a  woman  of  Ammonite 
race.  Such  were  Naamah,  the  mother  of 
Rehoboam,  one  of  Solomon's  foreign  wives 
(1  K.  xiv.  21,  31 ;  2  Chr.  xii.  13),  and  Shim- 
eath,  whose  eon  Zabad  or  Jozachar  was 
one  of  the  murderers  of  Joash  (2  Chr. 
xxiv.  26).  For  allusions  to  these  mixed 
marriages  see  1  K.  xi.  1,  and  Neh.  xiii.  23. 

Am'non.  1.  Eldest  son  of  David  by 
Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess,  born  in  Hebron 
while  his  father's  royalty  was  only  acknowl- 
edged in  Judah.  He  dishonored  his  half- 
sister  Tamar,  and  was  in  consequence  mur- 
dered by  her  brother  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-29). 
2.  Son  of  Shimon  (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

A'mok,  a  priest  who  returned  with  Ze- 
nibbabel  (Neh. 'xii.  7,  20). 

A'mon,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  whose 
name  occurs  in  that  of  No  Araon  (Nah.  iii. 
8),  in  A.  V.  "populous  No,"  or  Thebes, 
jiLso  called  No.     [No.]     The  Greeks  called 


The  god  Amon  (Wilkinson). 

this  divinity  Ammon.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tian name  is  Amen.  Amen  was  one  of  the 
eight  gods  of  the  first  order,  and  chief  of 
the  triad  of  Thebes.  He  was  worshipped  at 
that  city  as  Amen-Ra,  or  "Amen  the  sun." 


A'mon.  King  of  Judah,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Manasseh,  reigned  two  years, 
from  B.  c.  642  to  640.  Following  his 
father's  example,  Amon  devoted  himself 
wholly  to  the  service  of  false  gods,  but  was 
killed  in  a  conspiracy.  The  people  avenged 
him  by  putting  all  the  conspirators  to  death, 
and  secured  the  succession  to  his  son  Jo- 
siah.  To  Amon's  reign  we  must  refer  the 
terrible  picture  which  the  prophet  Zepha- 
niah  gives  of  the  moral  and  religious  state 
of  Jerusalem. 

Amorite,  the  Amorites,  i.  e.  the 
dwellers  on  the  summits  —  mountaineers  — 
one  of  the  chief  nations  who  possessed  the 
land  of  Canaan  before  its  conquest  by  the 
Israelites.  In  the  genealogical  table  of 
Gen.  X.  "the  Amorite"  is  given  as  the 
fourth  son  of  Canaan,  with  "  Zidon,  Heth 
[Hittite],  the  Jebusite,"  &c.  As  dwelling 
on  the  elevated  portions  of  the  country, 
they  are  contrasted  with  the  Canaanites, 
who  were  the  dwellers  in  the  lowlands : 
and  the  two  thus  formed  the  main  broad 
divisions  of  the  Holy  Land  (Num.  xiii.  29 ; 
and  see  Josh.  v.  1,  x.  6,  xi.  3 ;  Deut.  i.  7, 
20,  "mountain  of  the  A.;"  44).  In  the 
very  earliest  times  (Gen.  xiv.  7)  they  are 
occupying  the  barren  heights  west  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  at  the  place  which  afterwards 
bore  the  name  of  Engedi.  From  this  point 
they  stretched  west  to  Hebron,  where 
Abram  was  then  dwelling  under  the  "  oak- 
grove  "  of  the  three  brothers,  Aner,  Eshcol, 
and  Mamre  (Gen.  xiv.  13;  comp.  xiii.  18). 
At  the  date  of  the  invasion  of  the  country, 
Sihon,  their  then  king,  had  taken  the  rich 
pasture-land  south  of  the  Jabbok,  and  had 
driven  the  Moabites,  its  former  possessors, 
across  the  wide  chasm  of  the  Amon  (Num. 
xxi.  13,  26),  which  thenceforward  formed 
the  boundary  between  the  two  hostile  peo- 
ples (Num.  xxi.  13).  This  rich  tract, 
bounded  by  the  Jabbok  on  the  north,  the 
Amon  on  the  south,  Jordan  on  the  west, 
and  "  the  wilderness "  on  the  east  (Judg. 
xi.  21 ,  22),  was,  perhaps,  in  the  most  special 
sense  the  "land  of  the  Amorites"  (Num. 
xxi.  31 ;  Josh.  xii.  2,  3,  xiii.  9 ;  Judg.  xi. 
21, 22)  ;  but  their  possessions  are  distinctly 
stated  to  have  extended  to  the  very  foot  of 
Hermon  (Deut.  iii.  8,  iv.  48),  embracing 
"  all  Gilead  and  all  Bashan"  (iii.  10),  with 
the  Jordan  valley  on  the  east  of  the  river 
(iv.  49).  After  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
nothing  is  heard  in  the  Bible  of  the  Am- 
orites, ex-cept  the  occasional  mention  of 
their  name  among  the  early  inhabitants  of 
the  country. 

A'mos.  A  native  of  Tekoa  in  Judah, 
about  six  miles  S.  of  Bethlehem,  originally 
a  shepherd  and  dresser  of  sycamore-trees, 
who  was  called  by  God's  Spirit  to  be  a 
prophet,  although  not  trained  in  any  of  the 
regular  prophetic  schools  (i.  1,  vii.  14, 15). 
He  travelled  from  Judah  into  the  northern 


AMOZ 


86 


ANAKIM 


kingdom  of  Israel  or  Ephraim,  and  there 
exercised  his  ministry,  apparently  not  for 
any  long  time.  His  date  cannot  be  later 
than  the  15th  year  of  Uzziali's  reign  (b.  c. 
808) ;  for  he  tells  us  that  he  prophesied 
"in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  king  of  Judah, 
and  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Joash  king  of 
Israel,  two  years  before  the  earthquake." 
But  his  ministry  probably  took  place  at 
an  earlier  period,  perhaps  about  the  mid- 
dle of  Jeroboam's  reigti.  The  book  of  the 
prophecies  of  Amos  seems  divided  into  four 
principal  portions  closely  connected  to- 
gether. (1)  From  i.  1  to  ii.  3  he  denounces 
the  sins  of  the  nations  bordering  on  Israel 
and  Judah,  as  a  preparation  for  (2),  in 
which,  from  ii.  4  to  vi.  14,  he  describes  the 
state  of  those  two  kingdoms,  especially  the 
former.  This  is  followed  by  (3)  vii.  1  to  ix. 
10,  in  wliich,  after  reflecting  on  the  previous 
prophecy,  he  relates  his  visit  to  Bethel,  and 
sketches  the  impending  punishment  of 
Israel  which  he  predicted  to  Amaziah. 
After  this  in  (4)  he  rises  to  a  loftier  and 
more  evangeUcal  strain,  looking  forward  to 
the  time  when  the  hope  of  the  Messiah's 
kingdom  will  be  fulfilled,  and  His  people 
forgiven  and  established  in  the  enjoyment 
of  God's  blessings  to  all  eternity.  The 
chief  peculiarity  of  the  style  consists  in  the 
number  of  allusions  to  natural  objects  and 
agricultural  occupations,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  early  life  of  the  author. 
See  i.  3,  ii.  13,  iii.  4,  5,  iv.  2,  7,  9,  v.  8,  19, 
vi.  12,  vii.  1,  ix.3,9, 13, 14.  The  references 
to  it  in  the  N.  T.  are  two :  v.  25,  26,  27  is 
quoted  by  St.  Stephen  in  Acts  vii.  42,  43, 
and  ix.  11  by  St.  James  in  Acts  xv.  16. 

A'moz,  father  of  the  prophet  Isaiah, 
and,  according  to  Rabbinical  tradifion, 
brother  of  Amaziah  king  of  Judah  (2  K. 
xix.  2,  20,  XX.  1 ;  2  Chr.  xxvi.  22,  xxxii.  20, 
32 ;  Is.  i.  1,  ii.  1,  xiii.  1,  xx.  2,  xxxvii.  2, 
21,  xxxviii.  1). 

Amphip'olis,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
through  ^wliich  Paul  and  Silas  passed  on 
their  way  from  Phihppi  to  Thessalonica 
(Acts  xvii.  1).  It  was  distant  33  Roman 
miles  from  Philippi.  It  stood  upon  an 
eminence  on  the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  the 
river  Strymon,  just  below  its  egress  from 
the  lake  Cercinitis,  and  at  the  distance  of 
about  three  miles  from  the  sea.  Its  site  is 
now  occupied  by  a  village  called  Neokhdrio, 
in  Turkish  Jeni-Keniy  or  "New  Town." 

Am'plias,  a  Christian  at  Rome  (Rora. 
xvi.  8). 

Arn'ram.  1.  A  Levite  of  the  family 
of  the  Kohathites,  and  father  of  Moses, 
Aaron,  and  Miriam  (Ex.  vi.  18,  20;  Num. 
iii.  19;  1  Chr.  vi.  2,  3,  18).  He  is  called 
the  "  son"  of  Kohath,  but  it  is  evident  that 
in  the  genealogy  several  generations  must 
have  been  omitted;  for  from  Joseph  to 
Joshua  ten  generations  are  recorded,  while 
from  Levi  to  Moses  there  are  but  three. 


2.  A  son  of  Dishon  and  descendant  of  Self 
(1  Chr.  i.  41);  properly  "  Hamran  "  =» 
Hemdan  in  Gen.  xxxvi.'26.  3.  One  of 
the  sons  of  Bani  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  34). 

Am'ramites.  A  branch  of  the  great 
Kohathite  family  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Num. 
iii.  27 ;  1  Chr.  xxvi.  23) ;  descended  from 
Amram  the  father  of  Moses. 

Am'rapliel,  perhaps  a  Hamite  king  of 
Shinar  or  Babylonia,  who  joined  the  victo- 
rious incursion  of  theElamite  Chedorlaomer 
against  the  kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
and  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  xiv.). 

Amvilets  were  ornaments,  gems,  scrolls, 
&c.,  worn  as  preservatives  against  the  power 
of  enchantments,  and  generally  inscribed 
with  mystic  forms  or  characters.  The 
word  does  not  ocfcur  in  the  A.  V.,  but  the 
"  earrings  "  in  Gen.  xxxv.  4  were  obviously 
connected  with  idolatrous  worship,  and 
were  probably  amulets  taken  from  the 
bodies  of  the  slain  Shechemites.  They  are 
subsequently  mentioned  among  the  spoils 
of  Midian  (Judg.  viii.  24).  Again,  in  Hos. 
ii.  13,  "  decking  herself  with  earrings  "  is 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  signs  of  the  "days 
of  Baalim."  The  "  earrings  "  in  Is.  iii.  20 
were  also  amulets. 

Am'zi.  1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of 
Merari,  and  ancestor  of  Ethan  the  minstrel 
(1  Chr.  vi.  46).  2.  A  priest,  whose  de- 
scendant Adaiah  with  his  brethren  did  the 
service  for  the  temple  in  the  time  of  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  xi.  12). 

A'nab,  a  town  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  60),  named,  with  Debir 
and  Hebron,  as  once  belonging  to  the 
Anakim  (Josh.  xi.  21). 

A'nah,  the  son  of  Zibeon,  the  son  of 
Scir  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  24),  a 
"  duke  "  or  prince  of  liis  tribe,  and  father 
of  Aholibamah,  one  of  the  wives  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  2, 14,  25).  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  he  is  other  than  the  same 
Anah  Avho  found  the  "  hot  springs  "  (not 
"  mules,"  as  in  the  A.  V.)  in  the  desert  as 
he  fed  the  asses  of  Zibeon  his  father,  though 
Bunsen  considers  him  a  distinct  personage, 
the  son  of  Seir  and  brother  of  Zibeon. 

Anah'arath,  a  place  within  the  border 
of  Issachar,  named  with  Shihon  and  Rab- 
bith  (Josh.  xix.  19). 

Anal' ah.  1.  Probably  a  priest:  one 
of  those  who  stood  on  Ezra's  right  hand  as 
he  read  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 
2.  One  of  "  the  heads  of  the  people"  who 
signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
X.  22). 

An'akim,  a  race  of  giants,  descendants 
of  Arba  (Josh.  xv.  13,  xxi.  11),  dwelling  in 
the  southern  part  of  Canaan,  and  particu- 
larly at  Hebron,  which  from  their  progeni- 
tor received  the  name  of  "  city  of  Arba." 
Besides  the  general  designation  Anakim, 
they,  are  variously  caUed  sons  of  Anak 


ANAMIM 


37 


ANDREW 


(Num.  xiii.  33),  descendants  of  Anak  (Num. 
xiii.  22),  and  sons  of  Anakim  (Deut.  i.  28). 
These  designations  serve  to  show  that  we 
must  regard  Anak  as  the  name  of  the  race 
rather  tlian  that  of  an  individual,  and  this 
is  confirmed  by  what  is  said  of  Arba,  their 
progenitor,  that  he  "was  a  great  man 
among  the  Anakim"  (Josh.  xiv.  15).  The 
race  appears  to  have  been  divided  into 
three  tribes  or  families,  bearing  the  names 
Sheshai,  Ahiman,  and  Talmai.  Though 
the  warlike  appearance  of  the  Anakim  had 
struck  the  Israelites  with  terror  in  the  time 
of  Moses  (Num.  xiii.  28 ;  Deut.  ix.  2),  they 
■were  nevertheless  dispossessed  by  Joshua, 
and  utterly  driven  from  the  land,  except  a 
small  remnant  that  found  refuge  in  the 
Philistine  cities,  Gaza,  Gath,  and  Ashdod 
(Josh.  xi.  21,  22).  Their  chief  city  Hebron 
became  the  possession  of  Caleb,  who  is  said 
to  have  driven  out  from  it  the  three  sons 
of  Anak  mentioned  above,  that  is  the  three 
families  or  tribes  of  the  Anakim  (Josh.  xv. 
14: ;  Judg.  i.  20).  After  this  time  they 
vanish  from  history. 

Au'amim,  a  Mizraite  people  or  tribe, 
respecting  the  settlements  of  which  nothing 
certain  is  known  (Gen.  x.  13 ;  1  Chr.  i.  11). 

Anani'melech,  one  of  the  idols  wor- 
shipped by  the  colonists  introduced  into 
Samaria  from  Sepliarvaim  (2  K.  xvii.  31). 
He  was  worshipped  with  rites  resembling 
those  of  Molech,  children  being  burnt  in 
his  honor,  an^  is  the  companion-god  to 
Adrammelech.  As  Adraramelech  is  the 
male  power  of  the  sun,  so  Anammelech  is 
the  female  power  of  the  sun. 

A'nan.  One  of  "  the  heads  of  the  peo- 
ple "  wiio  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  x.  2G). 

Ana'ili,  the  seventh  son  of  Elioenai, 
descended  through  Zerubbabel  from  the 
royal  line  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iii.  24). 

Ananfah.  Probably  a  priest,  and  an- 
cestor of  Azariah,  who  assisted  in  rebuild- 
ing the  city  wall  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  ui.  23). 

Auani'ata.,  a  place,  named  between 
Nob  and  Hazor,  in  which  the  Benjamites 
lived  after  their  return  from  captivity  (Neh. 
xi.  32). 

Anani'as.  1.  A  high-priest  in  Acts 
xxiii.  2-5,  xxiv.  1.  He  was  the  son  of 
Nebedaeus,  succeeded  Joseph  son  of  Camy- 
dus,  and  preceded  Ismael  son  of  Phabi. 
He  was  nominated  to  the  office  by  Herod 
king  of  Chalcis,  in  a.d.  48;  was  deposed 
shortly  before  Felix  left  the  province,  and 
assassinated  by  the  sicarii  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  Jewish  war.  2.  A  disciple  at 
Jerusalem,  husband  of  Sapphira  (Acts  v. 
1-11).  Having  sold  his  goods  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  church,  he  kept  back  a  part  of 
the  price,  bringing  to  the  apostles  the  re- 
mainder, as  if  it  were  the  whole,  his  wife 
also  being  privy  to  the  sf'heme.     St.  Peter 


denounced  the  fraud,  and  Ananias  fell  down 
and  expired.  3.  A  Jewish  disciple  at 
Damascus  (Acts  ix.  10-17),  of  high  repute 
(Acts  xxii.  12),  who  sought  out  Saul  dur- 
ing the  period  of  blindness  and  dejection 
which  followed  his  conversion,  and  an- 
nounced to  him  his  future  commission  as  a 
preacher  of  the  Gospel.  Tradition  makes 
him  to  have  been  afterwards  bishop  of 
Damascus,  and  to  have  died  by  martyrdom. 

A'nath,  father  of  Shamgar  (Judg.  iii. 
31,  v.  G). 

Anath'ema,  which  literally  means  a 
thing  suspended,  is  the  equivalent  of  the 
Hebrew  word  signifying  a  thing  or  person 
devoted.  Any  object  so  devoted  to  Jehovah 
was  irredeemable :  if  an  inanimate  object, 
it  was  to  be  given  to  the  priests  (Num. 
xviii.  14) ;  if  a  living  creature  or  even  a 
man,  it  was  to  be  slain  (Lev.  xxvii.  28, 29). 
The  word  anathema  frequently  occurs  in 
St.  Paul's  writings,  and  is  generally  trans- 
lated accursed.  Many  expositors  have  re- 
garded his  use  of  it  as  a  technical  term  for 
judicial  excommunication.  That  the  word 
was  so  used  in  the  early  Church  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  but  an  examination  of  the 
passages  in  which  it  occurs  shows  that  it 
had  acquired  a  more  general  sense  as  ex- 
pressive either  of  strong  feeling  (Rom.  ix. 
3)  or  of  dislike  and  condemnation  (1  Cor. 
xii.  3,  xvi.  22;  Gal.  i.  9). 

An'athoth.  1.  Son  of  Becher,  a  son 
of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  vii.  8).  2.  One  of 
the  heads  of  the  people  who  signed  the 
covenant  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x. 
19) ;  unless,  as  is  not  unlikely,  the  name 
stands  for  "the  men  of  Anathoth"  enu- 
merated in  Neh.  vii.  27. 

An'athoth,  a  priests'  city,  belonging  to 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  with  "  suburbs " 
(Josh,  xxi,  18;  1  Chr.  vi.  GO).  Anathoth 
lay  on  or  near  the  great  road  from  the 
north  to  Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  30),  and  is  placed 
by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  at  3  miles  from 
the  city.  Its  position  has  been  discovered 
by  Robinson  at  An&ta,  on  a  broad  ridge  1^ 
hour  N.  N.  E.  from  Jerusalem.  The  culti- 
vation of  the  priests  survives  in  tilled  fields 
of  grain,  with  figs  and  olives.  There  are 
the  remains  of  walls  and  strong  foundations, 
and  the  quarries  still  supply  Jerusalem 
with  building  stones. 

An'drew,  one  among  the  first  called  of 
the  Apostles  of  our  Lord  (John  i.  40 ;  Matt, 
iv.  18)  ;  brother  (whether  elder  or  younger 
is  uncertain)  of  Simon  Peter  (ibid.).  He 
was  of  Bethsaida,  and  had  been  a  disciple 
of  John  the  Baptist.  On  hearing  Jesus  a 
second  time  designated  by  him  as  the  Lamb 
of  God,  he  left  his  former  master,  and,  in 
company  with  another  of  John's  disciples, 
attached  himself  to  our  Lord.  By  his 
means  his  brother  Simon  was  brought  to 
Jesus  (John  i.  41).  The  apparent  dis- 
crepancy in  Matt.  iv.  18  fi" ,  Mark  i.  IG  ff., 


ANDRONICUS 


38 


ANGELS 


where  the  two  appear  to  have  been  called 
together,  is  no  real  one ;  St.  John  relating 
the  first  introduction  of  the  brothers  to 
Jesus,  the  other  Evangelists  their  formal 
call  to  follow  Him  in  his  ministry.  In  the 
catalogue  of  the  Apostles,  Andrew  appears, 
in  Matt.  x.  2,  Luke  vi.  14,  second,  next 
after  Ids  brother  Peter ;  but  in  Mark  iii.  16, 
Acts  i.  13,  fourth,  next  after  the  three, 
Peter,  James,  and  John,  and  in  company 
•with  I'hilip.  And  this  appears  to  have  been 
his  real  place  of  dignity  among  the  Apostles. 
The  traditions  about  him  are  various.  Eu- 
sebias  makes  him  preach  in  Scythia ;  Je- 
rome and  Theodoret  in  Achaia  (Greece)  ; 
Nicephorus  in  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  crucified  at  Patrae 
in  Achaia.  Some  ancient  writers  speak  of 
an  apocryphal  Acts  of  Andrew. 

Androni'cus.  1.  An  otficer  left  as 
viceroy  (2  Mace.  iv.  31)  in  Antioch  by  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes  during  his  absence  (b. 
c.  171).  At  the  instigation  of  Menelaus, 
Andronicus  put  to  death  the  high-priest 
Onias.  This  murder  excited  general  indig- 
nation :  and  on  the  return  of  Antiochus, 
Andronicus  was  publicly  degraded  and  exe- 
cuted (2  Mace.  iv.  31-38).  2.  Another 
officer  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  who  was 
left  by  him  on  Garizem  (2  Mace.  v.  23), 
probably  in  occupation  of  the  temple  there. 
3.  A  Christian  at  Rome,  saluted  by  St. 
Paul  (Rom.  xvi.  7)  together  with  Junias. 

A'nem,  a  city  of  Issachar,  with  "  sub- 
urbs," belonging  to  the  Gershonites  (1  Chr. 
vi.  73). 

A'ner,  a  city  of  Manasseh  west  of  Jor- 
dan, with  "suburbs"  given  to  the  Koha- 
thites  (1  Chr.  vi.  70). 

A'ner,  one  of  the  three  Amorite  chiefs 
of  Hebron  who  aided  Abraham  in  the  pur- 
suit after  the  four  invading  kings  (Gen. 
xiv.  13,  24). 

Aneth'othite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  27), 
Anet'othite  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  12),  and  An'- 
tothite  (1  Chr.  xi.  28,  xii.  3),  an  inliabi- 
tant  of  Anathoth  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 

Angels.  By  the  word  "angels"  (i.  e. 
"  messengers  "  of  God)  we  ordinarily  xm- 
derstand  a  race  of  spiritual  beings,  of  a 
nature  exalted  far  above  that  of  man,  al- 
though infinitely  removed  from  that  of  God, 
whose  office  is  "to  do  Him  service  in 
heaven,  and  by  His  appointment  to  succor 
and  defend  men  on  earth."  I.  Scriptural 
use  of  the  word. — There  are  many  passages 
in  wliich  the  expression  the  "  angel  of 
God,"  "  the  angel  of  Jehovah,"  is  certainly 
used  for  a  manfestation  of  God  himself. 
This  is  especially  the  ease  in  the  earlier 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  may  be 
seen  at  once  by  a  comparison  of  Gen.  xxii. 
11  with  12,  and  of  Ex.  iii.  2  with  6  and  14; 
where  He,  who  is  called  the  "  angel  of 
Jehovah"  in  one  verse,  is  called  "God," 
and  even  "Jehovah"  in  those  which  fol- 


low, and  accepts  the  worship  due  to  God 
alone.  It  is  to  be  observed  also,  that,  side 
by  side  with  these  expressions,  we  read  of 
God's  being  manifested  in  the  form  of  man; 
as  to  Abraham  at  Mamre  (Gen.  xviii.  2,  22, 
comp,  xix.  1),  to  Jacob  at  Penuel  (Gen. 
xxxii.  24,  30),  to  Joshua  at  Gilgal  (Josh.  v. 
13,  15),  &c.  It  is  hardly  to  be  doubted 
that  both  sets  of  passages  refer  to  the  same 
kind  of  manifestation  of  the  Divine  Pres- 
ence. The  inevitable  inference  is  that  by 
the  "Angel  of  the  Lord"  in  such  passages 
is  meant  He,  who  is  from  the  beginning 
the  "  Word,"  i.  e.  the  Manifester  or  Re- 
vealer  of  God.  Besides  this,  which  is  the 
higliest  application  of  the  word  "  angel," 
we  find  the  phrase  used  of  any  messengers 
of  God,  such  as  the  prophets  (Is.  xlii.  19; 
Hag.  i.  13;  Mai.  iii.  1),  the  priests  (Mai. 
ii.  7),  and  the  rulers  of  the  Christian 
churches  (Rev.  i.  20).  II.  Nature  of  an- 
gels.—  Little  is  said  of  their  nature  as  dis- 
tinct from  tlieir  office.  They  are  termed 
"spirits"  (as  in  Heb.  i.  14);  but  it  is  not 
asserted  that  the  angelic  nature  is  incor- 
poreal. The  contrary  seems  expressly  im- 
plied by  the  words  in  which  our  Lord  de- 
clares, that,  after  the  Resurrection,  men 
shall  be  "  like  the  angels  "  (Luke  xx.  36)  ; 
because  (Phil.  iii.  21)  their  bodies,  as  well 
as  their  spirits,  shall  have  been  made  en- 
tirely like  His.  The  angels  are  revealed  to 
us  as  beings,  such  as  man  niiglit  be  and 
will  be  when  the  power  of  sin  and  death  is 
removed,  partaking  in  their  measure  of  the 
attributes  of  God,  Truth,  Purity,  and  Love, 
because  always  beholding  His  face  (Matt, 
xviii.  10),  and  therefore  being  "made  like 
Him"  (1  John  iii.  2).  lliis,  of  course, 
implies  finiteness,  and  therefore  (in  the 
strict  sense)  "  imperfection  "  of  nature,  and 
constant  progress,  both  moral  and  intellec- 
tual, through  all  eternity.  Such  imperfec- 
tion, contrasted  with  the  infinity  of  God, 
is  expressly  ascribed  to  them  in  Job  iv.  18 ; 
Matt.  xxiv.  36;  1  Pet.  i.  12.  The  finite- 
ness of  nature  implies  capacity  of  tempta- 
tion; and  accordingly  we  hear  of  "fallen 
angels."  Of  the  nature  of  their  tempta- 
tion and  the  circumstances  of  their  fall,  we 
know  absolutely  nothing.  All  that  is  cer- 
tain is,  that  they  "  left  their  first  estate," 
and  that  they  are  now  "angels  of  the 
devil"  (Matt,  xxv,  41;  Rev.  xii.  7,  9), 
partaking  therefore  of  the  falsehood,  un- 
cleanness,  and  hatred,  which  are  his  pecu- 
liar characteristics  (John  viii.  44).  On  the 
ether  hand,  the  title  especially  assigned  to 
the  angels  of  God,  that  of  the  "holy  ones" 
(see  Dan.  iv.  13,  23,  viii.  13 ;  Matt,  xxv.- 
31),  is  precisely  the  one  which  is  given. to 
those  men  who  are  renewed  in  Christ's 
image,  but  which  belongs  to  them  in  actual- 
ity and  in  perfection  only  hereafter.  (Comp. 
Heb.  ii.  10,  v.  9,  xii.  23.).  III.  Office  of 
the  angels. —  Of  their  office  in  heaven,  w« 


ANIAM 


39 


ANOINTING 


have,  of  course,  only  vaorue  prophetic 
glimpses  (as  in  1  K.  xxii.  19 ;  Is.  vi.  1-3 ; 
Dan.  vii.  9,  10;  Rev.  vi.  11,  &c.),  -which 
show  us  nothing  but  a  never-ceasing  adora- 
tion. Tlieir  office  towards  man  is  far  more 
fully  described  to  us.  They  are  represent- 
ed as  being,  in  the  widest  sense,  agents  of 
God's  Providence,  natural  and  supernat- 
ural, to  the  body  and  to  the  soul.  More 
particularly,  however,  angels  are  spoken 
of  as  ministers  of  what  is  called  supernat- 
ural Providence  of  God  ;  as  agents  in  the 
great  scheme  of  the  spiritual  redemption  and 
sanctification  of  man,  of  which  the  Bible  is 
the  record.  During  the  prophetic  and 
kingly  period,  angels  are  spoken  of  only  as 
ministers  of  God  in  the  operations  of  na- 
ture. But  in  tlie  captivity  angels  are  re- 
vealed in  a  fresh  light,  as  watching,  not 
only  over  Jerusalem,  but  also  over  heathen 
kingdoms,  under  the  Providence,  and  to 
work  out  the  designs,  of  the  Lord.  (See 
Zech.  passim,  and  Dan.  iv.  13,  23,  x.  10, 
13,  20,  21,  &c.)  The  Incarnation  marks  a 
new  epoch  of  angelic  ministration.  "  The 
Angel  of  Jehovah,"  the  Lord  of  all  created 
angels,  having  now  descended  from  heaven 
to  earth,  it  was  natural  that  His  servants 
should  continue  to  do  Him  service  there. 
The  New  Testament  is  the  history  of  the 
Church  of  Christ,  every  member  of  wliich 
is  united  to  Him.  Accordingly,  the  angels 
are  revealed  now,  as  "  ministering  spirits  " 
to  each  individual  member  of  Christ  for 
His  spiritual  guidance  and  aid  (Heb.  i.  14). 
In  one  word  they  are  Christ's  ministers  of 
grace  now,  as  they  shall  be  of  judgment 
hereafter  (Matt.  xiii.  3i),  41,  49,  xvi.  27, 
xxiv.  31,  &c.).  That  there  are  degrees  of 
the  angelic  nature,  fallen  and  unfallen,  and 
special  titles  and  agencies  belonging  to 
each,  is  clearly  declared  by  St.  Paul  (Eph. 
i.  21;  Rom.  viii.  38),  but  what  their  gen- 
eral nature  is,  it  is  useless  to  speculate. 

Aniam,  a  Manassite,  son  of  Shemidah 
(1  Chr.  vii.  19). 

A'nim,  a  city  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
named  with  Eshtemoh  and  Goshen  (Josh. 
XV.  50). 

Anise.  This  word  occurs  only  in  Matt, 
xxiii.  23.  It  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of 
certainty  whether  the  anise  (Pimpinella 
a'lisum,  Lin.)  or  the  dill  (^ An ethum graveo- 
lens^  is  here  intended,  though  the  proba- 
bility is  more  in  favor  of  the  latter  plant. 

Aliklet.  This  word  does  not  occur  in 
the  A.  v.,  but  anklets  are  referred  to  in  Is. 
iii.  16,  18,  20.  They  were  fastened  to  the 
ankle-band  of  each  leg,  were  as  common 
as  bracelets  and  armlets,  and  made  of 
much  the  same  materials ;  the  pleasant 
jingling  and  tinkling  which  they  made  as 
they  knocked  against  each  other,  was  no 
doubt  one  of  the  reasons  why  they  were  ad- 
mired ("  the  bravery  of  their  tinkling  orna- 
ments ").     They  are  still  worn  in  the  East. 


An'na.  A  "  prophetess  "  in  Jerusalem, 
at  tlie  time  of  our  Lord's  presentation  in 
the  Temple  (Luke  ii.  36).  She  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Asher. 

An'nas,  the  son  of  one  Seth,  was  ap- 
pointed high-priest  in  the  year  a.  d.  7,  by 
Quirinus,  the  imperial  governor  of  Syria ; 
but  was  obliged  by  Valerius  Gratus,  pro- 
curator of  Judaea,  to  give  way  to  Ismael, 
son  of  Pliabi,  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Tiberius,  a.  d.  14.  Ismael  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Eleazar,  son  of  Annas ;  then  fol- 
lowed, after  one  year,  Simon,  son  of  Cami- 
thus,  and  then,  after  anotlier  year  (about 
A.  D.  25),  Joseph  Caiaphas,  son-in-law  of 
Annas  (Johnxviii.  13).  But  in  Luke  iii.  2, 
Annas  and  Caiaphas  are  both  called  high- 
priests,  Annas  being  mentioned  first.  Our 
Lord's  first  hearing  (John  xviii.  13)  was 
before  Annas,  who  then  sent  liim  bound  to 
Caiaphas.  In  Acts  iv.  6,  Annas  is  plainly 
called  the  high-priest,  and  Caiaphas  merely 
named  with  others  of  his  family.  Some 
maintain  that  the  two,  Annas  and  Caiaphas, 
were  together  at  the  head  of  the  Jewish 
people,  —  Caiaphas  as  actual  high-priest, 
Annas  as  president  of  the  Sanhedrim. 
Others  again  suppose  that  Annas  held  the 
office  of  sagan,  or  substitute  of  the  high- 
priest.  He  lived  to  old  age,  having  had 
five  sons  high-priests. 

Anointing,  in  Holy  Scripture,  is  either 
I.  Material,  with  oil,  or  II.  Spiritual, 
with  the  Holy  Ghost.  I.  Material. — 
1.  Ordinary.  Anointing  the  body  or 
head  with  oil  was  a  common  practice  with 
the  Jews,  as  with  other  Oriental  nations 
(Deut.  xxviii.  40;  Ruth  iii.  3;  Mic.  vi.  15). 
Abstinence  from  it  was  a  sign  of  mourning 
(2  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Dan.  x.  3;  Matt.  vi.  17). 
Anointing  the  head  with  oil  or  ointment 
seems  also  to  have  been  a  mark  of  resjiect 
sometimes  paid  by  a  host  to  his  guests 
(Luke  vii.  46  and  Ps.  xxiii.  5).  2.  Official. 
It  was  a  rite  of  inauguration  into  each  of 
the  three  typical  offices  of  the  Jewish  com- 
monwealth, (a)  Prophets  were  occasion- 
ally anointed  to  their  office  (1  K.  xix.  16), 
and  are  called  messiahs,  or  anointed  (1 
Chr.  xvi.  22;  Ps.  cv.  15).  (5)  Priests,  at 
the  first  institution  of  the  Levitical  priest- 
hood, were  all  anointed  to  their  offices,  the 
sons  of  Aaron  as  well  as  Aaron  himself 
(Ex.  xl.  15 ;  Num.  iii.  3)  ;  but  afterwards, 
anointing  seems  not  to  have  been  repeated 
at  the  consecration  of  ordinary  priests,  but 
to  have  been  especially  reserved  for  the 
high-priest  (Ex.  xxix.  29 ;  Lev.  xvi.  32) ; 
so  that  "the  priest  that  is  anointed"  (Lev. 
iv.  3)  is  generally  thought  to  mean  i\-^ 
high-priest,  (c)  Kings.  Anointing  was 
tiie  "principal  and  divinely-appointed  cere- 
mony in  the  inauguration  of  the  Jewish 
kings  (1  Sam.  ix.  16,  x.  1 ;  1  K.  i.  34,  39). 
The  rite  was  sometime?  performed  more 
than  once.     David  was  tlirice  anointed  to 


ANT 


40 


ANTICHRIST 


be  king.  After  the  separation  into  two 
kingdoms,  the  kings  both  of  Judah  and  of 
Israel  seem  still  to  have  been  anointed  (2 
K.  ix.  3r  xi.  12).  (d)  Inanimate  objects 
also  were  anointed  with  oil  in  token  of  their 
being  set  apart  for  religious  service.  Tlius 
Jacob  anointed  a  pillar  at  Bethel  (Gen. 
xxxi.  13) ;  and  at  the  introduction  of  the 
Mosaic  economy,  the  tabernacle  and  all  its 
furniture  were  consecrated  by  anointing 
(Ex.  XXX.  26-28).  3.  Ecclesiastical.  An- 
ointing with  oil  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  is 
prescribed  by  St.  James  to  be  used  to- 
gether with  prayer,  by  the  elders  of  the 
church,  for  the  recovery  of  the  sick  (James 
V.  14).  Analogous  to  this  is  the  anointing 
with  oil  practised  by  the  twelve  (Mark  vi. 
13).  II.  Spiritual.  — 1.  In  the  O.  T.  a 
Deliverer  is  promised  under  the  title  of 
Messiah,  or  Anointed  (Ps.  ii.  2 ;  Dan.  ix. 
25,  26)  ;  and  the  nature  of  Ms  anointing  is 
described  to  be  spiritual,  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Is.  Ixi.  1 ;  see  Luke  iv.  18).  In  the 
N.  T.  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  shown  to  be  the 
Messiah,  or  Christ,  or  Anointed  of  the  Old 
Testament  (John  i,  41 ;.  Acts  ix.  22,  xvii. 
2,  3,  xviii.  4,  28)  ;  and  the  historical  tact 
of  his  being  anointed  with  the  Holy  Ghost 
is  asserted  and  recorded  (John  i.  32,  33 ; 
Acts  iv.  27,  X.  38).  2  Spiritual  anointing 
with  the  Holy  Ghost  is  conferred  also  upon 
Christians  by  God  (2  Cor.  i.  21),  and  they 
are  described  as  having  an  unction  from 
the  Holy  One,  by  which  they  know  all 
things  (  1  John  ii.  20,  27). 

Ant  (Heb.  nemdidh).  This  insect  is 
mentioned  twice  in  the  0.  T. :  in  Prov.  vi. 
6,  XXX.  25.  In  the  former  of  these  passages 
the  diligence  of  this  insect  is  instanced  by 
the  wise  man  as  an  example  worthy  of  imi- 
tation ;  in  the  second  passage  the  ant's  wis- 
dom is  especially  alluded  to,  for  these  in- 
sects, "  though  they  be  little  on  the  earth, 
are  exceeding  wise."  It  is  well  known  that 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  believed 
that  the  ant  stored  up  food,  which  it  col- 
lected in  the  summer,  ready  for  the  win- 
ter's consumption ;  but  this  is  an  error. 
The  European  species  of  ants  are  all  dor- 
mant in  the  winter,  and  consequently  re- 
quire no  food:  and  the  observations  of 
modern  naturalists  seem  almost  conclusive 
that  no  ants  lay  up  for  future  consumption. 

Antichrist.  This  term  is  employed 
by  the  Apostle  John  alone,  and  is  de- 
fined by  him  in  a  manner  which  leaves 
no  doubt  as  to  its  intrinsic  meaning.  With 
regard  to  its  application  there  is  less  cer- 
tainty. In  the  first  passage  (1  John  ii.  18) 
in  which  it  occurs  the  apostle  makes  direct 
reference  to  the  false  Christs,  whose  com- 
ing, it  had  been  foretold,  should  mark  'the 
last  days.  "Little  children,  it  is  the  last 
time  :  and  as  ye  have  heard  that  the  Anti- 
cfirist  Cometh,  even  now  have  there  been 
many  Antichrists ;  whereby  we  know  that 


it  is  the  last  time."  The  allusic  n  to  Matt- 
xxiv.  24  was  clearly  in  the  mind  of  the  Syr- 
iac  translator,  who  rendered  Antichrist  by 
"the  false  Christ."  In  ver.  22  we  find, 
"he  is  the  Antichrist  that  dcnieth  the  Fa- 
ther and  the  Son  ;  "  and  still  more  positive- 
ly, "  every  spirit  that  confesseth  not  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh"  is  of 
Antichrist  (comp.  2  John  7).  Prom  these 
emphatic  and  repeated  definitions  it  has 
been  supposed  that  tlie  object  of  the  apostle 
in  his  first  epistle  was  to  combat  the  errors 
of  Cerinthus,  the  Docetae,  and  the  Gnos- 
tics on  the  subject  of  the  Incarnation.  The 
Antichrists,  against  which  he  warned  the 
churches  of  Asia  Minor  as  being  already  in 
the  world,  had  been  of  their  own  number ; 
"they  went  out  from  us,  but  they  were  not 
of  us  "  (1  John  ii.  19)  ;  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  referred  to  implies  that  the 
name  was  already  familiar  to  those  to  whom 
the  epistle  was  addressed,  througli  the  apos- 
tle's oral  teaching  (2  Thess.  ii.  5).  The 
coming  of  Antichrist  was  believed  to  be 
foretold  in  the  "vile  person"  of  Daniel's 
prophecy  (xi.  21),  which  received  its  first 
accomplishment  in  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
but  of  which  the  complete  fulfilment  was 
reserved  for  the  last  times.  He  is  identi- 
fied with  "  the  man  of  sin,  the  son  of  per- 
dition" (2  Thess.  ii.  3),  who  should  be  re- 
vealed when  he  "who  now  letteth"  was 
removed ;  that  is,  according  to  the  belief  of 
the  primitive  clmrch,  when  the  Roman 
order  of  things  ceased  to  be.  Tliis  inter- 
pretation brings  Antichrist  into  close  con- 
nection with  the  gigantic  poAver  of  evil, 
symbolized  by  the  "beast"  (Rev.  xiii.), 
who  received  liis  power  from  the  dragon 
(i.  e.  the  devil,  the  serpent  of  Genesis), 
continued  for  forty  and  two  months,  and 
was  invested  with  the  kingdom  of  the  ten 
kings  who  destroyed  the  harlot  Babylon 
(Rev.  xvii.  12,  17),  the  city  of  seven  hills. 
The  destruction  of  Babylon  is  to  be  followed 
by  the  rule  of  Antichrist  for  a  short  period 
(Rev.  xvii.  10),  to  be  in  his  turn  ()verthrown 
in  "  the  battle  of  that  great  day  of  God 
Almighty"  (Rev  xvi.  14)  with  the  false 
prophet  and  all  his  followers  (Rev.  xix.). 
The  personality  of  Antichrist  is  to  be  in- 
ferred as  well  from  the  personality  of  his 
historical  precursor,  as  from  that  of  Him  to 
whom  he  stands  opposed.  Such  an  inter- 
pretation is  to  be  preferred  to  that  which 
regards  Antichrist  as  the  embodiment  and 
personification  of  all  powers  and  agencies 
inimical  to  Ciirist,  or  of  the  Antichristian 
might  of  the  world.  But  the  language-  of 
the  apostles  is  intentionally  obscure,  and 
this  obscurity  has  been  rather  deepened 
than  removed  by  the  conflicting  interpreta- 
tions of  expositors.  All  that  the  dark  hints 
of  the  apostles  teach  us  is,  that  they  re- 
garded Antichrist  as  a  power  whose  influ- 
ence was  beginning  to  be  felt  even  ir  their 


ANTIOCH 


41 


ANTIOCHUa  ni. 


time,  but  whose  full  deyelopment  was  re-  I  island.     One  feature,  which  seems  to  hare 
served  till  the  passins  awav  of  thonrinf^inlo  I  hoor^   '''^"""'■*  — ■  *'~    -^    ■' 

^    'i   .  i, .  •  I  ^  1  ,•  ■'  ■ '  ■  . 

■  iz>^d  1.V  ti  ■  ^     • 

1.   f«f    S        .  I.--- 


tir- 

T 

0). 
hr 

O 

A.. 

P- 

«• 


structur 

rn..an.Jl., 

d  aiul  a 

'S  xiii.    ] 


Miice  wa- 


ll tu  be  pat  ti-  u..'.4:U,  ii. 


iiifl  hor  in- 
H6(Daiu 


i   wliiwli  ke  ecuL-il   Xfj   Mjio   me  dis?. 


ot  great  t-x-  j  At  tba  cud  oi'  iL.'s  uru"',  i:    c  u^- 

y.     Some  of    Pbilopi. ■  ar  died,  and  i  n\  hj,s  k 

uuci  uc  i.uji((  ;j^a  were  on  the ,  hi.,  eo'a  Ptol.  EpiflMinci,,  wliQ  wa 


ANTIOCHUS  IV. 


42 


ANTIOCHUS  IV. 


years  old.  Aotiochus  availed  himself  of 
the  opportunity  which  was  offered  by  the 
weakness  of  a  minority  and  the  unpopu- 
larity of  the  regent,  to  unite  with  Philip 
III.  of  Macedon  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
quering and  dividing  the  Egyptian  domin- 
ions. He  succeeded  in  occupying  the  three 
disputed  provinces,  but  was  recalled  to 
Asia  by  a  war  which  broke  out  with  At- 
tains, king  of  Pergamus ;  and  his  ally 
Philip  was  himself  embroiled  with  the  Ro- 
mans. In  consequence  of  this  diversion, 
Ptolemy,  by  the  aid  of  Scopas,  again  made 
himself  master  of  Jerusalem,  and  recov- 
ered the  territory  which  he  had  lost.  In 
B.  c.  198  Antiochus  reappeared  in  the  field 
and  gained  a  decisive  victory  near  the 
sources  of  the  Jordan ;  and  afterwards 
captured  Scopas  and  the  remnant  of  his 
forces  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Sidon. 
His  further  designs  against  Egypt  were 
frustrated  by  the  intervention  of  the  Ro- 
mans. From  Egypt  Antiochus  turned 
again  to  Asia  Minor,  and  after  various  suc- 
cesses in  the  Aegaean  crossed  over  to 
Greece,  and  by  the  advice  of  Hannibal 
entered  on  a  war  with  Rome.  His  vic- 
torious course  -was  checked  at  Thermopy- 
lae (b.  c.  191),  and  after  subsequent  re- 
verses he  was  finally  defeated  at  Alagnesia 
in  Lydia,  b.  c.  190.  In  b.  c.  187  he  at- 
tacked a  rich  temple  of  Belus  in  Elymais, 
and  was  slain  by  the  people  who  rose  in  its 
defence. 


Head  of  Antiochus  III.    (From  a  coin.) 

Anti'oehus  IV.,  Epiph'anes  {the 
Illustrious),  was  the  youngest  son  of  An- 
tiochus the  Great.  He  was  given  as  a 
hostage  to  the  Romans  (b.  c.  188)  after  his 
father's  defeat  at  IMagnesia.  In  b.  c.  175 
he  was  released  by  the  intervention  of  his 
brother  Seleucus,  who  substituted  his  own 
eon  Demetrius  in  his  place.  Antiochus 
was  at  Athens  when  Seleucus  was  assassi- 
nated by  Heliodorus.  He  took  advantage 
of  his  position,  and,  by  the  assistance  of 
Eumenes  and  Attains,  easily  expelled  Heli- 
odorus who  had  usurped  the  crown,  and 
himself  "  obtained  the  kingdom  by  flat- 
teries "  (Dan.  xi.  21)  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  nephew  Demetrius  (Dan.  viii.  7).  The 
accession  of  Antiochus  was  immediately 
followed  by  desperate  efforts  of  the  Hel- 


lenizing  party  at  Jerusalem  to  assert  their 
supremacy.  Jason,  the  brother  of  Onias 
III.,  the  high-priest,  persuaded  the  king  to 
transfer  the  high-priesthood  to  him,  and  at 
the  same  time  bought  permission  (2  Mace, 
iv.  9)  to  carry  out  his  design  of  habituat- 
ing the  Jews  to  Greek  customs  (2  Mace, 
iv.  7,  20).  Three  years  afterwards,  Mene- 
laus,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  supplanted 
Jason  by  offering  the  king  a  larger  bribe, 
and  was  himself  appointed  high-priest  (2 
Maec.  iv.  23-26).  Antiochus  undertook 
four  campaigns  against  Egypt,  b.  c.  171, 
170,  169,  168,  with  greater  success  than 
had  attended  his  predecessor,  and  the  com- 
plete conquest  of  the  country  Avas  pre- 
vented only  by  the  interference  of  the  Ro- 
mans (Dan.  xi.  24;  1  Mace.  i.  16  ff. ;  2 
Mace.  V.  11,  ff.).  On  his  return  from  his 
second  Egyptian  campaign  (b.  c.  170)  he 
attacked  Jerusalem.  The  Temple  was 
plundered,  a  terrible  massacre  took  place, 
and  a  Phrygian  governor  was  left  with 
Menelaus  in  charge  of  the  city  (2  Mace.  v. 
1-22;  1  Mace.  i.  20-28).  Two  years  af- 
terwards, at  the  close  of  the  fourth  expedi- 
tion, Antiochus  detached  a  force  under 
Apollonius  to  occupy  Jerusalem  and  fortify 
it  (1  Mace.  iv.  61,  v.  3  ff. ;  Dan.  xi.  41). 
The  decrees  then  followed  which  have 
rendered  his  name  infamous.  The  Temple 
was  desecrated,  and  the  observance  of  the 
law  was  forbidden  (1  Mace.  i.  54).  Ten 
days  afterwards  an  offering  was  made  upon 
the  altar  to  Jupiter  Olympius.  At  Jerusa- 
lem all  opjwsition  appears  to  have  ceased ; 
but  Mattatliias  and  liis  sons  organized  a 
resistance,  wliich  preserved  inviolate  the 
name  and  faith  of  Israel.  Meanwhile  An- 
tiochus turned  his  arms  to  the  East,  to- 
wards Partliia  and  Armenia  (Dan.  xi.  40). 
Hearing  not  long  afterwards  of  the  riches 
of  a  temple  of  Nanaea  in  Elymais,  hung 
M'ith  the  gifts  of  Alexander,  he  resolved  to 
plunder  it.  The  attempt  was  defeated; 
and  though  he  did  not  fall  like  his  father 
in  the  act  of  sacrilege,  the  event  hastened 
his  death.  He  retired  to  Babylon,  and 
thence  to  Tabae  in  Persia,  where  he  died 


Ilead  of  AntiochuB  IV.,  Epiphanes.    (From  a  coin.) 

B.  c.  164,  having  first  heard  of  the  suc- 
cesses of  the  Maccabees  in  restoring  the 
Temple-worship  at  Jerusalem  (1  Mace.  vL 
1-16;  comp.  2  Mace.  i.  7-17?). 


ANTIOCHUS  V. 


43 


APHARSATHCHITES 


Anti'ochus  V.,  Eu'pator  {of  noble 
descent),  succeeded  his  father  Antiochus 
IV.  B.  c.  164,  while  still  a  cliild,  under  the 
gua>-dianship  of  Lysias  (1  Mace.  iii.  32,  vi. 
17),  though  Antiochus  had  on  his  death- 
bod  assignel  this  otflce  to  Pliilip,  his  own 
foster-brother  (1  Mace.  vi.  14,  15,  55 ;  2 
Dilacc.  ix.  29),  Shortly  after  his  accession 
he  marched  against  Jerusalem  with  a  large 
army  to  relieve  the  Syrian  garrison,  which 
was  hard  pressed  by  Judas  Maccabaeus  (1 
Mace.  vi.  19  ff.).  He  repulsed  Judas  at 
Bethzacharia,  and  took  Bethsura  (Bethzur) 
after  a  vigorous  resistance  (1  Mace.  vi. 
31-50).  But  when  the  Jewish  force  in  the 
Temple  was  on  the  point  of  yielding,  Lys- 
ias persuaded  the  king  to  conclude  a 
hasty  peace  that  he  might  advance  to  meet 
Philip,  who  had  returned  from  Persia  and 
made  himself  master  of  Antioch  (1  Mace, 
vi.  51  fF.).  Philip  was  speedily  over- 
powered; but  in  the  next  year  (b.  c.  162) 
Antiochus  and  Lysias  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Demetrius  Soter,  the  son  of  Seleucus 
Philopator,  who  caused  them  to  be  put 
to  death  (1  Mace.  vii.  2-4;  2  Mace.  xiv. 
1,2). 

Anti'ochus  VI.  was  the  son  of  Alex- 
ander Balas  and  Cleopatra.  After  his 
father's  death  (14G  b.  c.)  he  remained  in 
Arabia;  but  though  still  a  child  (1  Mace, 
xi.  54),  he  was  soon  afterwards  brought 
forward  (c.  145  b.  c.)  as  a  claimant  to  the 
throne  of  Syria  against  Demetrius  Nicator 
by  Tryphon  or  Diodotus  (1  Mace.  xi.  39), 
who  had  been  an  officer  of  his  father. 


Hand  of  Antioehus  VL    (From  a  coin.) 

Tryphon  succeeded  in  gaining  Antioch  (1 
Mace.  xi.  56)  ;  and  afterwards  the  greater 
part  of  Syria  submitted  to  the  young  An- 
tiochus. He  afterwards  defeated  the  troops 
of  Demetrius  at  Hazor  (1  Mace.  xi.  67) 
near  Cadesh  (ver.  73) ;  and  repulsed  a 
second  attempt  which  he  made  to  regain 
Palestine  (1  Mace.  xii.  24  ff.).  Tryphon 
having  now,  with  the  assistance  of  Jona- 
than the  high-priest,  gained  the  supreme 
power  in  the  name  of  Antiochus,  no  longer 
concealed  his  design  of  usurping  the  crown. 
As  a  first  step  he  took  Jonathan  by  treach- 
ery and  put  him  to  death,  b.  c.  143  (1 
Mace.  xii.  40) ;  and  afterwarda  murdered 


the  young  king,  and  ascended  the  throne 
(1  Mace.  xiii.  31). 

Anti'ochus  VII.,  Side'tes  {of  Side, 
in  Pamphylia) ,  king  of  Syria,  was  the  second 
son  of  Demetrius  I.  When  his  brother 
Demetrius  Nicator,  was  taken  prisoner  (c. 
141  B.  c.)  by  Mithridates  I.  (Arsaees  VI.,  1 
Mace.  xiv.  1)  king  of  Parthia,  he  married 
his  wife  Cleopatra  and  obtained  possession 
of  the  throne  (137  b.  c),  having  expelled 
the  usurper  Tryphon  (1  Mace.  xv.  1  ff.). 
At  first  he  made  a  very  advantageous  treaty 
with  Simon,  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  but 
when  he  grew  independent  of  his  help,  he 
withdrew  the  concessions  which  he  had 
made,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  the 
fortresses  which  the  Jews  held,  or  an  equiv- 
alent in  money  (1  Mace.  xv.  26  ff.).  As 
Simon  was  unwilling  to  yield  to  his  de- 
mands, he  sent  a  force  under  Cendebaeus 
against  him,  who  occupied  a  fortified  posi- 
tion at  Cedron  (?  1  Mace.  xv.  41),  near 
Azotus,  and  harassed  the  surrounding 
country.  After  the  defeat  of  Cendebaeu« 
by  the  sons  of  Simon  and  the  destruction 
of  his  works  (1  Mace.  xvi.  1-10),  Antiochus 
laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  but  gninted  honor- 
able terras  to  John  Hyrcanus  (b.  c.  133), 
who  had  made  a  vigorous  resistance.  In  a 
campaign  against  the  Partliians  he  was 
entirely  defeated  by  Phraortes  II.  (Arsaces 
VII.),  and  fell  in  the  battle  c.  b.  c.  127-6. 

An'tipas,  martyr  at  Pergamos  (Rev.  ii. 
13),  and  according  to  tradition  the  bishop 
of  that  place. 

An'tipas.    [Hekod.] 

Antipa'tris,  a  town  to  which  the  sol- 
diers conveyed  St.  Paul  by  night  on  their 
march  (Acts  xxiii.  31).  Its  ancient  name 
was  Capharsaba;  and  Herod,  when  he  re- 
built the  city,  changed  it  to  Antipatris,  in 
honor  of  his  father  Antipater.  The  village 
Kef  r- Saba  still  retains  the  ancient  name  of 
Antipatris. 

An'tothite,  a  dweller  at  Anathoth  (1 
Chr.  xi.  28,  xii.  3).     [Anathoth.] 

Antothi'jah.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Jeroham  (1  Chr.  viii.  24). 

A'nub.  Son  of  Coz  and  descendant  of 
Judah,  through  Ashur  the  father  of  Tekoa 
(1  Chr.  iv.  8). 

Apel'les,  a  Christian  saluted  by  St. 
Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  10.  Tradition  makes 
him  bishop  of  Smyrna  or  Heraclea. 

Apes  (Heb.  kdphim)  are  mentioned  in 
1  K.  x.  22,  and  2  Chr.  ix.  21.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  but  that  the  apes  were  brought 
from  the  same  country  which  supplied  ivory 
and  peacocks,  both  of  which  are  common 
in  Ceylon ;  and  Sir  E.  Tennent  has  drawn 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Tamil  names 
for  apes,  ivory,  and  peacocks,  are  identical 
with  the  Hebrew. 

Aphar'sathchites,  Aphar'sites, 
Aphar'sacites,  the  names  of  certain 
tribes,  colonies  from  which  had  been  plant* 


APHEK 


44 


APOSTLE 


ed  in  Samaria  by  the  Assyrian  leader  As- 
napper  (Ezr.  iv.  9,  v.  6).  The  first  and 
last  are  i-egarded  as  the  same.  Whence 
these  tribes  came  is  entirely  a  matter  of 
conjecture. 

A'phek,  the  name  of  several  places  in 
Palestine.  1.  A  royal  city  of  the  Canaan- 
ites,  the  king  of  which  was  killed  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xii.  18),  probably  the  same  as  Aphe- 
KAH  in  Josh.  XV.  53.  2.  A  city,  appar- 
ently in  the  extreme  north  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  30),  from  which  the  Canaanites  were 
not  ejected  (Judg.  i.  31 ;  though  here  it  is 
Aphik).  This  is  probably  the  same  "place 
as  Aphek  (Josh.  xiii.  4),  on  the  extreme 
north  "  border  of  the  Amorites,"  identi- 
fied with  the  Aphaca  of  classical  times,  the 
modern  Afka.  3.  A  place  at  which  the 
Philistines  encamped  while  the  Israelites 
pitched  in  Eben-ezer,  before  the  fatal  bat- 
tle in  which  the  sons  of  Eli  were  killed  and 
the  ark  taken  (1  Sam.  iv.  1).  This  would 
be  somewhere  to  the  N.  W.  of,  and  at  no 
great  distance  from  Jerusalem.  4.  The 
scene  of  another  encampment  of  the  Phi- 
listines, before  an  encounter  not  less  dis- 
astrous than  that  just  named,  —  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1).  It  is 
possible  that  it  may  be  the  same  place  as 
the  preceding.  5.  A  city  on  the  military 
road  from  Syria  to  Israel  (1  K.  xx.  2(i). 
It  is  now  found  in  Fik^  at  the  head  of  the 
Wady  Fik,  6  miles  east  of  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
ilee. 

Aphe'kall,  a  city  of  Judah,  in  the 
mountains  (Josh.  xv.  53),  probably  the 
same  as  Aphek  (1). 

ApM'ah,  one  of  the  forefathers  of  king 
Saul  (1  Sam.  Lx.  1). 

A'phik,  a  city  of  Asher  from  which  the 
Canaanites  were  not  driven  out  (Judg.  i. 
31).  Probably  the  same  place  as  Aphek 
(2). 

Aph'rah,  the  house  of,  a  place  men- 
tioned in  Mic.  i.  10.     Its  site  is  uncertain. 

Apll'sea,  chief  of  the  18th  of  the  24 
courses  in  the  service  of  the  Temple  (1 
Chr.  xxiv.  15). 

Apoc'alypse.     [Revelation.] 

Apoe'rypha.  Tlie  collection  of  Books 
to  wliich  this  term  is  popularly  applied  in- 
cludes the  following  (the  order  given  is 
that  in  which  they  stand  in  the  English 
version)  :  I.  1  Esdras ;  II.  2  Esdras ;  III. 
Tobit;  IV.  Judith;  V.  The  rest  of  the 
chapters  of  the  Book  of  Esther,  which  are 
found  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  in  the 
Chaldee ;  VI.  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon ; 
VII.  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of 
Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus ;  VIII.  Baruch ; 

IX.  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children ; 

X.  The  History  of  Susanna;  XI.  The  His- 
tory of  the  destruction  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon;  XII.  The  Prayer  of  Manasses, 
king  of  Judah ;  XIII.  1  Maccabees ;  XIV.  2 
Maccabees.   The  primary  meaning  of  Apoc- 


rypha, "  hidden,  secret,"  seems,  towards 
the  close  of  the  2d  century,  to  liave  been 
associated  with  the  signification  '•  spuri- 
ous," and  ultimately  to  have  settled  down 
into  the  latter.  The  separate  books  of  this 
collection  are  treated  of  in  distinct  Articles. 
Their  relation  to  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  discussed  under  Canon. 

Apollo'nia,  a  .city  of  Macedonia, 
through  which  Paul  and  Silas  passed  in 
their  way  from  Pliilippi  and  Amphipolis  to 
Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii.  1).  According  to 
the  Antonine  Itinerary  it  was  distant  30 
Roman  miles  from  Amphipolis,  and  37 
Roman  miles  from  Thessalonica. 

Apol'los,  a  Jew  from  Alexandria,  elo- 
quent (which  may  also  mean  learned')  and 
mighty  in  the  Scriptures ;  one  instructed  in 
the  way  of  the  Lord,  according  to  the  im- 
perfect view  of  the  disciples  of  John  the 
Baptist  (Acts  xviii.  25),  but  on  his  coming 
to  Ephesus  during  a  temporary  absence  of 
St.  Paul,  A.  D.  54,  more  perfectly  taught 
by  Aquila  and  Priscilla.  After  this  lie 
became  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel,  first  in 
Achaia  and  then  in  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  27, 
xix.  1),  where  he  watered  that  which  Paul 
had  planted  (1  Cor.  iii.  6).  When  the 
apostle  wrote  his  First  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, Apollos  was  with  or  near  him  (1 
Cor.  xvi.  12),  probably  at  Ephesus  in  a.  d. 
57 :  we  hear  of  him  then  that  lie  was  un- 
willing at  that  time  to  journey  to  Corinth, 
but  would  do  so  wlien  he  should  have  con- 
venient time.  He  is  mentioned  but  once 
more  in  the  N.  T.,  in  Tit.  iii.  13.  After 
this  nothing  is  known  of  him.  Tradition 
makes  him  bishop  of  Caesarea.  It  has 
been  supposed  by  some  that  Apollos  was 
the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 

Apol'lyon,  or,  as  it  is  literally  in  the 
margin  of  the  A.  V.  of  Rev.  ix.  11,  "a  de- 
stroyer," is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Abaddon,  "  the  angel  of  the  bottom- 
less pit."  The  angel  Apollyon  is  further 
described  as  the  king  of  the  locusts  which 
rose  from  the  smoke  of  the  bottomless  pit 
at  the  sounding  of  the  fifth  trumpet.  From 
the  occurrence  of  the  word  in  Ps.  Ixxxviii. 
11,  the  Rabbins  have  made  Abaddon  the 
nethermost  of  the  two  regions  into  which 
they  divide  the  lower  world.  But  that  in 
Rev.  ix.  11,  Abbadon  is  the  angei  and  not 
the  abyss,  is  perfectly  evident  in  the  Greek. 
There  is  no  authority  for  connecting  it  with 
"the  destroyer"  alluded  to  in  1  Cor.  x.  10. 

Apostle  (one  sent  forth),  in  the  N.  T., 
originally  the  ofloicial  name  of  those  Twelve 
of  the  disciples  whom  Jesus  chose  to  send 
forth  first  to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  to  be 
with  Him  during  the  course  of  his  ministry 
on  earth.  The  word  also  appears  to  have 
been  used  in  a-  non-ofiScial  sense  to  desig- 
nate a  much  wider  circle  of  Christian  mes- 
sengers and  teachers.  (See  2  Cor.  viii.  23 ; 
Phil.  ii.  25.)    It  is  only  of  those  who  wero 


APOSTLE 


45 


APPEAL 


oflScially  designated  Apostles,  that  we  treat 
in  this  article.  The  original  qualification 
of  an  Apostle,  as  stated  by  St.  Peter,  on 
the  occasion  of  electing  a  successor  to  the 
traitor  Judas,  was,  that  he  should  have 
been  personally  acquainted  with  the  whole 
ministerial  course  of  our  Lord,  from  his 
baptism  by  John  till  the  day  when  he  was 
taken  up  into  Heaven.  The  Apostles  were 
from  the  lower  ranks  of  life,  simple  and 
uneducated;  some  of  them  were  related 
to  Jesus  according  to  the  flesh ;  some  had 
previously  been  disciples  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist. Our  Lord  chose  them  early  in  his 
public  career,  though  it  is  uncertain  pre- 
cisely at  what  time.  Some  of  them  had 
certainly  partly  attached  themselves  to  Him 
before ;  but  after  their  call  as  Apostles 
they  appear  to  have  been  continuously 
with  Him,  or  in  his  service.  They  seem 
to  have  been  all  on  an  equality,  both  during 
and  after  the  ministry  of  Christ  on  earth. 
Early  in  our  Lord's  ministry,  He  sent  them 
out  two  and  two  to  preach  rei^entance,  and 
perform  miracles  in  his  name  (Matt.  x. ; 
Luke  ix.).  This  their  jtnission  was  of  the 
nature  of  a  solemn  call  to  the  children  of 
Israel,  to  whom  it  was  confined  (Matt.  x. 
6,  6).  The  Apostles  were  early  warned  by 
their  Master  of  the  solemn  nature  and  the 
danger  of  their  calling  (Matt.  x.  17).  They 
accompanied  Him  in  his  journeys  of  teach- 
ing and  to  the  Jewish  feasts,  saw  his 
wonderful  works,  heard  his  discourses  ad- 
dressed to  the  people,  and  made  inquiries 
of  Him  on  religious  matters.  They  recog- 
nized Him  as  the  Christ  of  God  (Matt.  xvi. 
16 ;  Luke  ix.  20),  and  ascribed  to  Him  su- 
pernatural power  (Luke  ix.  54)  ;  but  in  the 
recognition  of  the  spiritual  teaching  and 
mission  of  Christ,  they  made  very  slow 
progress,  held  back  as  they  were  by  weak- 
ness of  apprehension  and  by  national  preju- 
dices. Even  at  the  removal  of  our  Lord 
from  the  earth,  they  were  yet  weak  in  their 
knowledge  (Luke  xxiv.  21 ;  John  xvi.  12), 
though  he  had  for  so  long  been  carefully 
preparing  and  instructing  them.  And  when 
that  happened  of  which  He  had  so  often  fore- 
warned them  —  his  apprehension  by  the 
chief  priests  and  Pharisees  —  they  all  for- 
sook Him  and  fled  (Matt.  xxvi.  5G).  They 
left;  his  burial  to  one  who  was  not  of  their 
number  and  to  the  women,  and  were  only 
convinced  of  his  resurrection  on  the  very 
plainest  proofs  furnished  by  himself.  On 
the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  ten  days  after  our 
Lord's  ascension,  the  Holy  Spirit  came  down 
on  the  assembled  church  (Acts  ii.)  ;  and  from 
that  time  the  Apostles  became  altogether  dif- 
ferent men,  giving  witness  with  power  of  the 
life  and  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  as 
He  had  declared  they  should  (Luke  xxiv. 
48;  Acts  i.  8,  22,  ii.  32,  iii.  15,  v.  32,  xiii. 
31).  First  of  all  the  mother-church  at 
Jerusalem  grew  up  under  their  hands  (Acts 


iii.-vii.),  and  their  superior  dignity  and 
power  were  universally  acknowledged  by 
the  rulei-s  and  the  people  (Acts  v.  12  fi".). 
Even  the  persecution  which  arose  about 
Stephen,  and  put  the  first  check  on  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel  in  Judaea,  does  not 
seem  to  liave  brought  peril  to  the  Apostles 
(Acts  viii.  1).  Their  first  mission  out  of 
Jerusalem  was  to  Samaria  (Acts  viii.  5-25), 
where  the  Lord  himself  had,  during  his 
ministry,  sown  the  seed  of  the  Gospel. 
Here  ends,  properly  speaking  (or  rather 
perhaps  with  the  general  visitation  hinted 
at  in  Acts  ix.  31),  the  first  period  of  the 
Apostles'  agency,  during  which  its  centre  is 
Jerusalem,  and  the  prominent  figure  is 
that  of  St.  Peter.  —  The  centre  of  the 
second  period  of  the  apostolic  agency  is 
Antioch,  where  a  church  soon  was  built  up, 
consisting  of  Jews  and  Gentiles;  and  the 
central  figure  of  this  and  of  the  subsequent 
period  is  St.  Paul.  The  third  apostolic 
period  is  marked  by  the  almost  entire  dis- 
appearance of  the  Twelve  from  the  sacred 
narrative,  and  the  exclusive  agency  of  St. 
Paul,  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 
Of  the  missionary  work  of  the  rest  of  the 
Twelve,  we  know  absolutely  nothing  from 
the  sacred  narrative.  —  As  regards  the 
apostolic  office,  it  seems  to  have  been  pre- 
eminently that  of  founding  the  churches, 
and  upholding  them  by  supernatural  power 
specially  bestowed  for  that  purpose.  It 
ceased,  as  a  matter  of  course^  with  its  first 
holders ;  all  continuation  of  it,  from  the 
very  conditions  of  its  existence  (cf.  1  Cor. 
ix.  ]),  being  iraposwble. 

Appa'im.  Son  of  Nadab,  and  descend- 
ed from  Jerahmeel,  the  founder  of  an  im- 
portant family  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  ii.  30,  31). 

Appeal.  The  principle  of  appeal  was 
recognized  by  the  Mosaic  law  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  central  court  under  the 
presidency  of  the  judge  or  ruler  for  the 
time  being,  before  which  all  cases  too  diffi- 
cult for  the  local  courts  were  to  be  tried 
(Deut.  xvii.  8,  9).  According  to  the  above 
regulation,  the  appeal  lay  in  the  time  of 
the  Judges  to  the  judge  (Judg.  iv.  5),  and 
under  the  monarchy  to  the  king,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  deputed  certain  persons  to 
inquire  into  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  record 
his  decision  thereon  (2  Sam.  xv.  3).  Je- 
hoshaphat  delegated  his  judicial  author- 
ity to  a  court  permanently  established  for 
the  purpose  (2  Chr.  xix.  8).  These  courts 
were  re-established  by  Ezra  (Ezr.  vii.  25). 
After  the  institution  of  the  Sanhedrim  the 
final  appeal  lay  to  them.  St.  Paul,  as  a 
Roman  citizen,  exercised  a  right  of  appeal 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  court  at 
Jerusalem  to  the  emperor  (Acts  xxv.  11). 
Since  the  procedure  in  the  Jewish  courts  at 
that  period  was  of  a  mixed  and  undefined 
character,  he  availed  himself  of  his  un- 


APPHIA 


46 


ARABIA 


doubted  privilege  to  be  tried  by  the  pure 
Roman  law. 

Ap'phia,  a  Christian  woman  addressed 
jointly  with  Philemon  and  Archippus  in 
Pliilem.  2,  apparently  a  member  of  Phile- 
mon's household,  and  not  improbably  his 
vdfe. 

Ap'pii  Po'rum,  a  well-known  station 
on  the  Appian  Way,  the  great  road  which 
led  from  Rome  to  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Bay  of  Naples  (Acts  xxviii.  13).  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  identifying  the  site  with 
some  ruins  near  Treponti.     [Thkee  Tav- 

EKNS.] 

Apple-Tree,  Apple  (Heb.  tappxiach). 
Mention  of  the  apple-tree  occurs  in  the  A. 
V.  in  Cant.  ii.  3,  viii.  5,  and  Joel  i.  12.  The 
fruit  of  this  tree  is  alluded  to  in  Prov.  xxv. 
11,  and  Cant.  ii.  5,  vii.  8.  It  is  a  difficult 
matter  to  say  what  is  the  specific  tree  de- 
noted by  the  Hebrew  word  tappuach. 
Most  modern  writers  maintain  that  it  is 
eitlier  the  quince  or  the  citron.  The  quince 
has  some  plausible  arguments  in  its  favor. 
Its  fragrance  was  held  in  high  esteem  by 
the  ancients.  The  quince  was  sacred  to 
Venus.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Royle 
says,  "Tlie  rich  color,  fragrant  odor,  and 
handsome  appearance  of  the  citron,  wheth- 
er in  flower  or  in  fruit,  are  particularly 
Baited  to  the  passages  of  Scripture  men- 
tioned above."  But  neither  the  quince  nor 
the  citron  nor  the  apple  appears  fully  to 
answer  to  all  the  Scriptural  allusions.  The 
orange  would  answer  all  the  demands  of 
the  Scriptural  passages,  and  orange-trees 
are  found  in  Palestine;  but  there  does  not 
appear  sufficient  evidence  that  this  tree  was 
known  in  the  earlier  times  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  Palestine.  The  question  of  iden- 
tification, therefore,  must  still  be  left  an 
open  one. 

Aq'uila,  a  Jew  whom  St.  Paul  found  at 
Corinth  on  his  arrival  from  Athens  (Acts 
xviii.  2).  He  was  a  native  of  Pontus,  but 
had  fled,  with  his  wife  Priscilla,  from  Rome, 
in  consequence  of  an  order  of  Claudius 
commanding  all  Jews  to  leave  the  city.  He 
became  acquainted  with  St.  Paul,  and  they 
abode  together,  and  wrought  at  their  com- 
mon trade  of  making  the  Cilician  tent  or 
hair-cloth.  On  the  departure  of  the  Apos- 
tle from  Corinth,  a  year  and  six  months 
after,  Priscilla  and  Aquila  accompanied 
him  to  Ephesus.  There  they  remained, 
and  there  they  taught  ApoUos.  At  what 
time  they  became  Christians  is  uncertain. 

Ar,  or  Ar  of  Moab,  one  of  the  chief 
places  of  Moab  (Is.  xv.  1;  Num.xxi.  28). 
In  later  times  the  place  was  known  as 
Areopolis  and  Rabbath-Moab.  The  site  is 
still  called  Rabha ;  it  lies  about  half  way 
between  Kerak  and  the  Wady  Mojeb,  10  or 
11  miles  from  each,  the  Roman  road  pass- 
ing through  it. 
-    A'ra,     One  of  the  sons  of  Jether,  the 


head  of  a  family  of  Asherites  (1  Chr.  vii. 
38). 

A'rab,  a  city  of  Judah  in  the  mountain- 
ous district,  probably  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Hebron,  mentioned  only  in  Josh.  xv.  52. 

Ar'abah.  Although  this  word  appears 
in  the  A.  V.  in  its  original  shape  only  in 
Josh,  xviii.  18,  yet  in  the  Hebrew  text  it  is 
of  frequent  occurrence.  It  indicates  more 
particularly  the  deep-sunken  valley  or 
tren(^i  which  forms  the  most  striking  among 
the  many  striking  natural  features  of  Pal- 
estine, and  which  extends  with  great 
uniformity  of  formation  from  the  slopes 
of  Herraon  to  the  Elanitic  Gulf  {Gulf 
of  Akabah)  of  the  Red  Sea;  the  most 
remarkable  depression  known  to  exist  on 
the  surface  of  the  globe.  Through  the 
northern  portion  of  this  extraordinary  fis- 
sure the  Jordan  rushes  through  the  lakes 
of  Huleh  and  Gennesareth  down  its  tortu- 
ous course  to  the  deep  chasm  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  This  portion,  about  150  miles  in 
length,  is  known  amongst  the  Arabs  by  the 
name  of  el-  Ghor.  The  southern  boundary 
of  the  Ghor  is  the  wall  of  cliflTs  which  crosses 
the  valley  about  10  miles  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  From  their  summits,  southward  to 
the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  the  valley  changes  its 
name,  or,  it  would  be  more  accurate  to  say, 
retains  its  old  name  of  Wady  el-Arabah. 

Ara'bia,  a  country  known  in  tlie  O.  T. 
under  two  designations.  —  1.  The  East 
Country  (Gen.  xxv.  6) ;  or  perhaps  the 
East  (Gen.  x.  30 ;  Num.  xxiii.  7 ;  Is.  ii. 
6) ;  and  Land  of  the  Sons  of  the  East 
(Gen.  xxix.  1)  ;  Gentile  name,  So7is  of  the 
East  (Judg.  vi.  3,  vii.  12 ;  IK.  iv.  30 ;  Job 
i.  3;  Is.  xi.  14;  Jer.  xlix.  28;  Ez.  xxv. 
4).  From  these  passages  it  appears  that 
the  Land  of  the  East  and  Sons  of  the  East 
indicate,  primarily,  the  country  east  of 
Palestine,  and  the  tribes  descended  from 
Ishmael  and  from  Keturah;  and  that  this 
original  signification  may  have  become  grad- 
ually extended  to  Arabia  and  its  inhabitants 
generally,  though  without  any  strict  limi- 
tation. 2.  'Ardb  and  'Arab,  whence  Arabia 
(2  Chr.  ix.  14 ;  Is.  xxi.  13 ;  Jer.  xxv.  24 ;  Ez. 
xxvii.  21).  This  name  seems  to  have  the 
same  geographical  reference  as  the  former 
name  to  the  country  and  tribes  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  chiefly  north  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula. —  Arabia  may  be  divided  into 
Arabia  Proper,  containing  the  whole  penin- 
sula as  far  as  the  limits  of  the  northern 
deserts;  No}-thern  /Irafim,  constituting  the 
great  desert  of  Arabia ;  and  Western  Ara- 
bia, the  desert  of  Petra  and  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  or  the  country  that  has  been  called 
Arabia  Petraea.  I.  Arabia  Proper,  or  the 
Arabian  peninsula,  consists  of  high  table- 
land, declining  towards  the  north ;  its  most 
elevated  portions  being  the  chain  cf  moun- 
tains running  nearly  parallel  to  the  Red 
Sea,  and  the  territory  east  of  the  southern 


ARABIA 


47 


ARABIA 


part  of  this  chain.  So  far  as  the  interior 
has  been  explored,  it  consists  of  mountain- 
ous and  desert  tracts,  relieved  by  large 
districts  under  cultivation,  well  peopled, 
watered  by  wells  and  streams,  and  enjoying 
periodical  rains.  The  most  fertile  tracts 
are  those  on  the  south-west  and  south.  II. 
Northern  Arabia,  or  the  Arabian  Desert, 
is  a  high,  undulating,  parched  plain,  of 
which  the  Euplirates  forms  the  natural 
boundary  from  the  Persian  Gulf .  to  the 
frontier  of  Syria,  whence  it  is  bounded  by 
the  latter  country  and  the  desert  of  Petra 
on  the  north-west  and  west,  the  peninsula 
of  Arabia  forming  its  southern  limit.  It 
has  few  oases,  the  water  of  the  wells  is  gen- 
erally either  brackish  or  unpotable,  and  it 
is  visited  by  the  sand-wind  called  Samoom. 
The  inhabitants  were  known  to  the  ancients 
as  "  dwellers  in  tents"  (comp.  Is.  xiii.  20; 
Jer.  xlix.  31 ;  Ezck.  xxxviii.  11)  ;  and  they 
extended  from  Babylonia  on  the  east  (comp. 
Num.  xxiii.  7 ;  2  Chr.  xxi.  16 ;  Is.  ii.  6, 
xiii.  20),  to  the  borders  of  Egypt  on  the 
west.  These  tribes,  principally  descended 
from  Ishmael  and  from  Keturah  have  always 
led  a  wandering  and  pastoral  life.  They  con- 
ducted a  considerable  trade  of  merchan- 
dise of  Arabia  and  India  from  the  shores 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  (Ez.  xxvii.  20-24), 
whence  a  chain  of  oases  still  forms  caravan- 
Btations ;  and  they  likewise  traded  from  the 
western  portions  of  the  peninsula.  The 
latter  traffic  appears  to  be  frequently  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Ishmaelites, 
Keturahites,  and  other  Arabian  peoples 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  28;  IK.  x.  15,  25;  2 
Chr.  ix.  14,  24 ;  Is.  Ix.  6 ;  Jer.  vi.  20)  :  it 
seems,  however,  to  have  been  chiefly  in 
the  hands  of  the  inhabitants  of  Idumaea. 
III.  Western  Arabia  includes  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai  [Sinai],  and  the  desert  of  Petra, 
corresponding  generally  with  the  limits  of 
Arabia  Petraea.  The  latter  name  is  proba- 
bly derived  from  that  of  its  chief  city ;  not 
from  its  stony  character.  It  was  in  the 
earliest  times  inhabited  by  a  people  whose 
genealogy  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
the  Horites  or  Horim  (Gen.  xiv.  6,  xxxvi. 
20,  21,  22,  29,  30;  Deut.  ii.  12,  22).  [Ho- 
BiTES.]  But  it  was  mostly  peopled  by  de- 
scendants of  Esau,  and  was  generally 
known  as  the  land  of  Edom,  or  Idumaea 
[Edom]  ;  as  well  as  by  its  older  appellation, 
the  desert  of  Seir,  or  Mount  Seir.  [Seir.] 
The  common  origin  of  the  Idumaeans  from 
Esau  and  Ishmael  is  found  in  the  mar- 
riage of  the  former  with  a  daughter  of  the 
latter  (Gen.  xxviii.  9,  xxxvi.  3).  The 
Nabathaeans  succeeded  to  the  Idumaeans. 
— Inhabitants.  1.  The  descendants  of  Jok- 
TAN  occupied  tlie  principal  portions  of  the 
south  and  south-acpst  of  the  peninsula,  with 
colonies  in  the  interior.  In  Genesis  (x.  30) 
it  is  said,  "and  their  dwelling  was  from 
Mesha,  as  thou  goest  unto  Sephar,  a  mount 


of  the  East  {Kedeni)."  The  principal 
Joktanite  kingdom,  and  the  chief  state  of 
ancient  Arabia,  was  that  of  the  Yemen, 
founded  (according  to  the  Arabs)  by  Yaa- 
rub,  the  son  (or  descendant)  of  Kahtin 
(Joktan).  This  was  the  Biblical  kingdom 
of  Sheba.  Its  rulers,  and  most  of  its  peo- 
ple, were  descendants  of  Sebi  (=  Sheba), 
whence  the  classical  Sabaei.  The  domi- 
nant famly  was  apparently  that  of  Him- 
yer,  son  (or  descendant)  of  Sebd.  A  mem- 
ber of  this  family  founded  the  more  mod- 
ern kingdom  of  the  Himyerites.  Native 
tradition  seems  to  prove  that  the  latter 
appellation  represented  the  former  only 
shortly  before  the  Christian  era.  The  rule 
of  the  Himyerites  (whence  the  Homeriiae 
of  classical  authors)  probably  extended 
over  the  modern  Yemen,  Iladramdwt,  and 
Mahreh.  Their  kingdom  lasted  until  A.  d. 
525,  when  it  fell  before  an  Abyssinian  in- 
vasion. The  other  chief  Joktanite  king- 
dom was  that  of  the  Ilijdz,  founded  by 
Jurhum,  the  brother  of  Yaarub,  who  left 
the  Yemen  and  settled  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Mehkeh.  This  kingdom,  situate  in  a 
less  fertile  district  than  the  Yemen,  and 
engaged  in  conflict  with  aboriginal  tribes, 
never  attained  the  importance  of  that  of 
the  south.  2.  The  Ishmaelites  appear  to 
have  entered  the  peninsula  from  the  north- 
west. That  they  have  spread  over  the 
whole  of  it  (with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two  districts  on  the  south  coast),  and  that 
the  modern  nation  is  predominantly  Ish- 
maelite,  is  asserted  by  the  Arabs.  They 
extended  northwards  from  the  Hijaz  into 
the  Arabian  desert,  where  they  mixed  with 
Keturahites  and  other  Abrahamic  peoples ; 
and  westwards  to  Idumaea,  where  they 
mixed  with  Edomites,  &c.  The  tribes 
sprung  from  Ishmael  have  always  been  gov- 
erned by  petty  chiefs  or  heads  of  families 
(sheykhs  and  emeers)  :  *  they  have  gener- 
ally followed  a  patriarchal  life,  and  have 
not  originated  kingdoms,  though  they  have 
in  some  instances  succeeded  to  those  of 
the  Joktanites,  the  principal  one  of  these 
being  that  of  El-Heereh.  With  reference 
to  the  Ishmaelites  generally,  there  is  doubt 
as  to  the  wide  extension  given  to  them  by 
Arab  tradition.  3.  Of  the  descendants  of 
Keturah  the  Arabs  say  little.  They  appear 
to  have  settled  chiefly  north  of  the  penin- 
sula in  Desert  Arabia,  from  Palestine  to 
the  Persian  Gulf.  4.  In  Northern  and 
Western  Arabia  are  other  peoples,  which, 
from  their  geographical  position  and  mode 
of  life,  are  sometimes  classed  with  the 
Arabs.  Of  these  are  Amalek,  'he  de- 
scendants of  Esau,  &c. —  Religicn.  The 
most  ancient  idolatry  of  the  Arabs  we  must 
conclude  to  have  been  fetishism,  of  wliich 
there  are  striking  proofs  iu  the  sacred  trees 
and  stones  of  historical  times,  and  in  the 
worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  Sabae* 


ARABIA 


48 


ARAM 


ism.  Magianism,  an  importation  from 
Chaldaea  and  Persia,  must  be  reckoned 
among  the  religions  of  tlie  Pagan  Arabs ; 
but  it  never  had  very  numerous  followers. 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  Southern 
Arabia  towards  the  close  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury, and  about  a  century  later  it  had  made 
great  progress.  It  tlourished  chiefly  in  the 
Yemen,  where  many  clmrches  were  built. 
Judaism  was  propagated  in  ArJna,  princi- 
pally by  Karaites,  at  the  captivity,  but  it 
was  introduced  before  that  time  :  it  became 
very  prevalent  in  the  Yemen,  and  in  the 
Hijiiz,  especially  at  Kheybar  and  El-Me- 
deeneh,  where  there  are  said  to  be  still 
tribes  of  Jewish  extraction. —  Language. 
Arabic,  the  language  of  Arabia,  is  the  most 
developed  and  the  richest  of  Shemitic  lan- 
guages, and  the  only  one  of  which  we  have 
an  extensive  literature ;  it  is,  therefore,  of 
great  importance  to  the  study  of  Hebrew. 
Of  its  early  phases  we  know  nothing ;  while 
we  have  archaic  monuments  of  the  Him- 
yeritic  (the  ancient  language  of  Southern 
Arabia),  though  we  cannot  fix  their  precise 
ages.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  14th  or  13th 
cent.  B.  c,  the  Shemitic  languages  differed 
much  less  than  in  after  times.  But  it  ap- 
pears from  2  K.  xviii.  26,  that  in  the  8th 
cent.  B.  c.  only  the  educated  classes  among 
the  Jews  understood  Aramaic.  With  these 
evidences  before  us,  we  tliink  that  the  Him- 
yeritic  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  sister  of  the 
He'o'ew,  and  the  Arabic  (commonly  so 
called)  as  a  sister  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Aramaic,  oi,  in  its  classical phasis,  as  a  de- 
scendant of  a  sister  of  these  two,  but  that 
the  Himyeritic  is  mixed  with  an  African  lan- 
guage, and  that  the  other  dialects  of  Arabia 
are  in  like  manner,  though  in  a  much  less 
degree,  mixed  witli  an  African  language. — 
The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Arabs  are 
of  great  value  in  illustrating  the  Bible. 
Ko  one  can  mix  with  this  people  without 
being  constantly  and  forcibly  reminded 
either  of  the  early  patriarchs  or  of  the 
settled  Israelites.  We  may  instance  their 
pastoral  life,  their  hospitality,  their  univer- 
sal respect  for  age  (comp.  Lev.  xix.  32), 
their  familiar  deference  (comp.  2  K.  v.  13), 
their  superstitious  regard  for  the  beard. 
References  in  the  Bible  to  the  Arabs  them- 
selves are  still  more  clearly  illustrated  by 
tlie  manners  of  the  modern  people,  in  their 
predatory  expeditions,  their  mode  of  war- 
fare, their  caravan  journeys,  &c.  —  Com- 
merce. Direct  mention  of  the  commerce 
of  tlie  south  does  not  appear  to  be  made  in 
the  Bible,  but  it  seems  to  have  passed  to 
Palestine  principally  through  the  northern 
tribes.  The  Joktanite  people  of  Southern 
Arabia  have  always  been,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  Ishmaelite  tribes,  addicted  to  a 
seafaring  life.  The  latter  were  caravan- 
merchants  ;  the  former,  the  chief  traders 
of  the  Red  Sea,  carrying  their  commerce 


to  the  shores  of  India,  as  well  as  to  the 
nearer  coasts  of  Africa. 

Ara'bians,  the  nomadic  tribes  inhabit- 
ing the  country  to  the  east  and  south  of 
Palestine,  who  in  the  early  times  of  He- 
brew history  were  known  as  Ishmaelites 
and  descendants  of  Koturah. 

A'rad,  a  Benjamite,  son  of  Bcriah,  who 
drove  out  the  inhabitants  of  Gath  (1  Chr. 
viii.  15). 

A'rad,  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites, 
named  with  Hormah  and  Libnah  (Josh.  xii. 
14).  The  wilderness  of  Judah  was  to  "  the 
south  of  Arad"  (Judg.  i.  16).  It  may  be 
identified  with  a  hill,  Tel  'Ardd,  an  hour 
and  a  half  N.  E.  by  E.  from  Milh  (Mola- 
dah),  and  8  hours  from  Hebron. 

A'rah.  1.  An  Asherite,  of  the  sons  of 
Ulla  (1  Chr.  vii.  39).  2.  The  sons  of 
Arab  returned  with  Zerubbabel  in  number 
775  according  to  Ezr.  ii.  5,  but  652  accord- 
ing to  Neh.  vii.  10.  One  of  his  descend- 
ants, Shechaniali,  was  the  father-in-law  of 
Tobiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh.  vi.  10). 

A'ram.  1.  The  name  by  which  the  He- 
brews designated,  generally,  the  country  ly- 
ing to  the  north-east  of  Palestine ;  the  great 
mass  of  that  high  table-land  which,  rising 
with  sudden  abruptness  from  the  Jordan 
and  the  very  margin  of  the  Lake  of  Gennes- 
areth,  stretches,  at  an  elevation  of  no  less 
than  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  itself,  con- 
trasting strongly  with  tlie  low  land  border- 
ing on  the  Mediterranean,  the  ' '  land  of 
Caanan,"  or  the  low  country  (Gen.  xxxi.  18, 
xxxiii.  18,  &c.).  Throughout  the  A.  V.  the 
word  is,  with  only  a  very  few  exceptions, 
rendered,  as  in  the  Vulgate  and  LXX., 
Syria.  Its  earliest  occurrence  in  the  book 
of  Genesis  is  in  the  form  of  Aram-naha- 
raim,  i.  e.  the  "  highland  of  or  between  the 
two  rivers"  (Gen.  xxiv.  10,  A.  V.  "  Meso- 
potamia"), but  in  several  succeeding  chap- 
ters, and  in  other  parts  of  the  Pentateuch, 
the  word  is  used  without  any  addition,  to 
designate  a  dweller  in  Aram-naharaim.  In 
the  later  history  we  meet  with  a  numbe* 
of  small  nations  or  kingdoms  forming  parts 
of  the  general  land  of  Aram  :  —  1.  Arara- 
Zobah,  or  simply  Zobah  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47; 
2  Sam.  viii.  3;  1  Chr.  xviii.  xix.).  [Zobar.] 
2.  Aram  beth-rehob  (2  Sam.  x.  G),  or  Be- 
hob  (x.  8).  [Rehob.]  3.  Aram-maachah 
(1  Chr.  xix.  6),  or  Maachah  only  (2  Sam. 
x.  6).  [Maachah.]  4.  Geshur,  "  in  Aram  " 
(2  Sam.  XV.  8),  usually  named  in  connection 
with  Maachah  (Deut.  iii.  14;  Josh.  xiii.  11, 
13,  &c.).  [Geshur.]  5.  Aram-Damrae- 
sek  (Damascus)  (2  Sam.  viii.  5,  6 ;  1  Chr. 
xviii.  5,  6).  The  whole  of  these  petty 
states  are  spoken  of  collectively  under  the 
name  of  "Aram"  (2  Sara.  x.  13),  but  as 
Damascus  increased  in  importance  it  grad- 
ually absorbed  the  smaller  powers  (1  K. 
XX.  1),  and  the  name  of  Aiam  was  at  last 


ARAM-NAHARAIM 


49 


ARBELA 


applied  to  it  alone  (Is.  vii.  8 ;  also  1  K.  xi. 
24,  25,  XV.  18,  &c.).  In  three  passages 
Aram  would  seem  to  denote  Assyria  (2  K. 
xviii.  2G;  Is.  xxxvi.  11;  Jer.  xxxv.  11). 
2.  Another  Aram  is  named  in  Gen.  xxii. 
21,  as  a  son  of  Kemuel,  and  descendant  of 
Nahor.  3.  An  Asherite.  one  of  the  sons 
of  Shamer  (1  Chr.  vii.  34).  4.  Son  of 
Esrora,  or  Hezron,  and  the  same  as  Ram 
(Matt.  i.  3,  4;  Luke  iii.  33). 

ATam-uaharaim  (Ps.  Ix.  title). 
[Akam.] 

A'ram-ZO'bah  (Ps.  Ix.  title).  [Aram,  1.] 

Arami'tess,  a  female  inhabitant  of 
Aram  (1  Chr.  vii.  14). 

A'ran,  a  Horite,  son  of  Dishan  and 
brother  of  Uz  (Gen.  xxxvi.  28 ;  1  Chr.  i. 
42). 

Ar'arat,  a  mountainous  district  of  Asia 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  in  connection  with 
the  following  events:  —  (1.)  As  the  rest- 
ing-place of  the  Ark  after  the  Deluge  (Gen. 
viii.  4)  :  (2.)  as  the  asylum  of  the  sons  of 
Sennacherib  (2  K.  xix.  37 ;  Is.  xxxvii.  38 ; 
A.  V.  has  "the  land  of  Armenia"):  (3.) 
as  the  ally,  and  probably  the  neighbor,  of 
Minni  and  Ashchenaz  (Jer.  li.  27).  [Ar- 
menia.] The  name  Ararat  was  unknown 
to  the  geographers  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
as  it  still  is  to  the  Armenians  of  the  pres- 
ent day  :  but  that  it  was  an  indigenous  and 
an  ancient  name  for  a  portion  of  Armenia, 
appears  from  the  statement  of  Moses  of 
Chorene,  who  gives  Araratia  as  the  des- 
ignation of  the  central  province.  In  its 
Biblical  sense  it  is  descriptive  generally  of 
the  Armenian  highlands  —  the  lofty  plateau 
which  overlooks  the  plain  of  the  Araxes  on 
the  N.,  and  of  Mesopotamia  on  the  S. 
Various  opinions  have  been  put  forth  as 
to  the  spot  where  the  Ark  rested,  as  de- 
scribed in  Gen.  viii.  4 ;  but  Berosus  the 
Chaldaean,  contemporary  with  Alexander 
the  Great,  fixes  the  spot  on  the  mountains 
of  Kurdistan.  Tradition  still  points  to  the 
Jehel  Judi  as  the  scene  of  the  event.  Eu- 
ropeans have  given  the  name  Ararat  ex- 
clusively to  the  mountain  which  is  called 
Massis  by  the  Armenians,  Agri-Dagh,  i.  e. 
Steep  Mountain,  by  the  Turks,  and  Kuh-i- 
Nuh,  i.  e.  Noah^s  Mountain,  by  the  Per- 
sians. It  rises  immediately  out  of  the 
plain  of  the  Araxes,  and  terminates  in  two 
conical  peaks,  named  the  Great  and  Less 
Ararat,  about  seven  miles  distant  from 
each  other ;  the  former  of  which  attains  an 
elevation  of  17,260  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  and  about  14,000  above  the  plain  of 
the  Araxes,  while  the  latter  is  lower  by 
4000  feet.  The  summit  of  the  higher  is 
covered  with  eternal  snow  for  about  3000  I 
feet.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin.  The  sum-  | 
mit  of  Ararat  was  long  deemed  inacces- 
sible. It  was  first  ascended  in  1829  by 
Parrot,  who  approached  it  from  the  N.  W. 
Arguri,  the  only  vilhige  known   to  have ; 


been  built  on  its  slopes,  was  the  spot  where, 
according  to  tradition,  Noah  planted  his 
vineyard.  Lower  down,  in  the  plain  of 
Araxes,  is  Naxhdjevan,  where  the  patriarch 
is  reputed  to  have  been  buried.  Return- 
ing to  the  broader  signification  we  have 
assigned  to  the  term,  "the  mountains  of 
Ararat,"  as  co-extensive  witli  the  Armenian 
plateau  from  the  base  of  Ararat  in  the  N. 
to  the  range  of  Kurdistan  in  the  S.,  we 
notice  the  following  characteristics  of  that 
region  as  illustrating  the  Bible  narrative : 
(1.)  Its  elevation.  It  rises  to  a  height  of 
from  6000  to  7000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  (2.)  Its  geographical  position. 
The  Armenian  plateau  stands  equidistant 
from  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian  seas  on 
the  N.,  and  between  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  S.  Viewed  with 
reference  to  the  dispersion  of  the  nations, 
Armenia  is  the  true  centre  of  the  world : 
and  at  the  present  day  Ararat  is  the  g*eat 
boundary-stone  between  the  empires  of 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  Persia.  (3.)  Its  phys- 
ical character.  The  plains  as  well  as  the 
mountains  supply  evidence  of  volcanic 
agency.  Armenia,  however,  differs  ma- 
terially from  other  regions  of  similar  geo- 
logical formation,  inasmuch  as  it  does  not 
rise  to  a  sharp  well-defined  central  crest, 
but  expands  into  plains  or  steppes,  sepa- 
rated by  a  graduated  series  of  subordinate 
ranges.  (4.)  The  climate.  Winter  lasts 
from  October  to  May,  and  is  succeeded  by 
a  brief  spring  and  summer  of  intense  heat. 
In  April  the  Armenian  plains  are  still  cov- 
ered with  snow ;  and  in  the  early  part  of 
September  it  freezes  keenly  at  night.  (5.) 
The  vegetation.  Grass  grows  luxuriantly 
on  the  plateau,  and  furnishes  abundant 
pasture  during  the  summer  months  to  the 
flocks  of  the  nomad  Kurds.  Wheat,  barley, 
and  vines  ripen  at  far  higher  altitudes  thaa 
on  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees ;  and  the: 
harvest  is  brought  to  maturity  with  won- 
derful speed. 

Arau'nah,  a  Jebusite  who  sold  hi» 
threshing-floor  on  Mount  Moriah  to  David 
as  a  site  for  an  altar  to  Jehovah,  together- 
with  his  oxen  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  18-24 ;  1  Chr. 
xxi.  25). 

Ar'ba,  the  progenitor  of  the  Anakim,  or 
sons  of  Anak,  from  whom  their  chief  city 
Hebron  received  its  name  of  Kirjath-Arba^ 
(Josh.  xiv.  15,  XV.  13,  xxi.  11). 

Ar'bah.  Hebron,  or  Kirjath-Arba,  a* 
"the  city  of  Arbah"  is  always  rendered! 
elsewhere  (Gen.  xxxv.  27). 

Ar'bathite,  The, «.  e.  a  native  of  the 
Arabah  or  Ghor,      [Ababah.]      Abialboni  . 
the  A.  was   one  of  David's   mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  31 ;  1  Chr.  xi.  32). 

Arbe'la,  mentioned  in  the  Bible  only 
in  1  Mace.  ix.  2.  It  is  identified  with.  thJ& 
modern  Irbid,  a  site  with  a  few  ruins,  west 
of  Mejdel,  on  the  south-east  aide  of  ths 


AEBITE 


50 


ARETAS 


Wady  ITamdvi.,  in  a  small  plain  at  the  foot 
of  the  hill  of  Kurun  Hattin. 

Ar'bite,  The.  Paarai  the  Arbite  was 
one  of  David's  guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 
The  word  signifies  a  native  of  Arab. 

Archela'us,  son  of  Herod  the  Great, 
by  a  Samaritan  woman,  Malthake,  and, 
with  his  brother  Antipas,  brought  up  at 
Home.  At  the  death  of  Herod  (b.  c.  4) 
his  kingdom  was  divided  between  his  three 
Bons,  Herod  Antipas,  Archelaus,  and  Philip. 
Archelaus  never  properly  bore  the  title  of 
king  (Matt.  ii.  22),  but  only  that  of  eth- 
narch.  In  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  or 
the  ninth,  according  to  Dion  Cassius,  i,  e. 
A.  D.  6,  a  complaint  was  preferred  against 
him  by  his  brothers  and  his  subjects  on  the 
ground  of  his  tyranny,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  banished  to  Vienne  in  Gaul, 
where  he  is  generally  said  to  have  died. 

Archery.    [Arms.] 

Ar'chevites,  perhaps  the  inhabitants 
of  Erech,  some  of  whom  had  been  placed 
as  colonists  in  Samaria  (Ezr.  iv.  9). 

Arehip'pus,  a  Christian  teacher  in 
Colossae  (Col.  iv.  17),  called  by  St.  Paul 
his  "fellow-soldier,"  (Philem.  2).  He  was 
probably  a  member  of  Philemon's  family. 

Ar'chite,The  ("as  if  from  a  place  named 
Erech),  the  usual  designation  of  David's 
friend  Hushai  (2  Sam.  xv.  32,  xvii.  5,  14 ; 
1  Chr.  xxvii.  33).  The  word  also  appears 
in  Josh.  xvi.  2,  where  "the  borders  of 
Archi"  (t.  e.  "the  Archite")  are  named  as 
somewhere  in  thp  neighborhood  of  Bethel. 

Architecture.  The  book  of  Genesis 
(iv.  17,  20,  22)  appears  to  divide  mankind 
into  great  characteristic  sections,  viz.,  the 
"dwellers  in  tents"  and  the  "dwellers  in 
cities."  To  the  race  of  Shem  is  attributed 
(Gen.  X.  11,  12,  22,  xi.  2-9)  the  foundation 
of  those  cities  in  the  plain  of  Shinar,  Baby- 
lon, Nineveh,  and  others ;  of  one  of  which, 
Resen,  the  epithet  "great"  sufficiently 
marks  its  importance  in  the  time  of  the 
writer.  It  is  in  connection  with  Egypt 
that  the  Israelites  appear  first  as  builders 
of  cities,  compelled  to  labor  at  the  build- 
ings of  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  Pithom 
and  Eaarases  are  said  to  have  been  built  by 
them  (Ex.  i.  11).  They  were  by  occupa- 
tion shepherds,  and  by  habit  dwellers  in 
tents  (Gen.  xlvii.  3).  They  had  therefore 
originally,  speaking  properly,  no  archi- 
tecture. From  the  time  of  the  occupation 
of  Canaan  they  became  dwellers  in  towns 
and  in  houses  of  stone  (Lev.  xiv.  34,  45 ; 
1  K.  vii.  10)  ;  but  these  were  not  in  all,  nor 
indeed  in  most  eases,  built  by  themselves 
(Deut.  vi.  10;  Num.  xiii.  19).  The  peace- 
ful reign  and  vast  wealth  of  Solomon  gave 
great  impulse  to  architecture ;  for  besides 
the  Temple  and  his  other  great  works,  he 
built  fortresses  and  cities  in  various  places, 
among  which  Baalath  and  Tadmor  are  in 
jdl  probability  represented  by  Baalbec  and 


Palmyra  (1  K.  ix.  15,  24).  Among  the 
succeeding  kings  of  Israel  and  of  Judah, 
more  than  one  is  recorded  as  a  builder : 
Asa  (1  K.  XV.  23),  Baasha  (xv.  17),  Omri 
(xvi.  24),  Ahab  (xvi.  32,  xxii.  39),  Heze- 
kiah  (2  K.  xx.  20 ;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  27-30), 
Jehoash,  and  Josiah  (2  K.  xii.  11,  12,  xxii. 
6) ;  and,  lastly,  Jehoiakim,  whose  winter 
palace  is  mentioned  (Jer.  xxii.  14,  xxxvi. 
22;  see  also  Am.  iii.  15).  On  tlie  return 
from  captivity  the  chief  care  of  the  rulers 
was  to  rebuild  the  Temple  and  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  in  a  substantial  manner,  with 
stone,  and  with  timber  from  Lebanon  (Ezr. 
iii.  8,  V.  8 ;  Neh.  ii.  8,  iii.).  But  the  reigns 
of  Herod  and  his  successors  were  espe- 
cially remarkable  for  their  great  archi- 
tectural works.  Not  only  was  the  Temple 
restored,  but  the  fortifications  and  other 
public  buildings  of  Jerusalem  were  enlarged 
and  embellished  (Luke  xxi.  5).  The  town 
of  Caesarea  was  built  on  the  site  of  Strato's 
Tower;  Samaria  was  enlarged,  and  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Sebaste.  Of  the  original 
splendor  of  these  great  works  no  doubt  can 
be  entertained ;  but  of  their  style  and  ap- 
pearance we  can  only  conjecture  that  they 
were  formed  on  Greek  and  Roman  models. 
The  enormous  stones  employed  in  the 
Assyrian,  Pcrsepolitan,  and  Egyptian  build- 
ings, find  a  parallel  in  the  substructions  of 
Baalbec  and  in  the  huge  blocks  which  still 
remain  at  Jerusalem,  relics  of  the  buildings 
either  of  Solomon  or  of  Herod.  But  few 
monuments  are  known  to  exist  in  Palestine 
by  which  we  can  form  an  accurate  idea  of 
its  buildings,  and  even  of  those  which  do 
remain  no  trustworthy  examination  has  yet 
been  made.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  reservoirs  known  under  the  names  of 
the  Pools  of  Solomon  and  Hezekiah  con- 
tain some  portions  at  least  of  the  original 
fabrics. 

Arctu'rus.  The  Hebrew  words  ^Ash 
and  'Aish,  rendered  "Arcturus"  in  the 
A.  V.  of  Job  ix.  9,  xxxviii.  32,  in  conformity 
with  the  Vulg.  of  the  former  passage,  are 
now  generally  believed  to  be  identical,  and 
to  represent  the  constellationUrsa  Major, 
known  commonly  as  the  Great  Bear,  or 
Charles's  Wain. 

Ard,  the  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of 
Benjamin  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  40). 
In  1  Chr.  viii.  3,  he  is  called  Addar. 

Ard'ites,  the  descendants  of  Ard  or 
Addar  the  grandson  of  Benjamin  (Num. 
xxvi.  40). 

Ar'don,  a  son  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hez- 
ron,  by  his  wife  Azubah  (1  Chr.  ii.  18). 

Are'li,  a  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi.  16; 
Num.  xxvi.  17).  His  descendants  are 
called  THE  Arelites  (Num.  xxvi.  17). 

Areop'agite,  a  member  of  the  court  of 
Areopagus  (Acts  xvii.  34).    [Mars'  Hill.] 

Areop'agus.     [Mars'  Hill.] 

Are'tas.     1.  A  contemporary  of  Anti- 


AEGOB 


51    ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 


ochus  Epiphanes  (b.  c.  170)  and  Jason 
(2  Mace.  V.  8).  2.  The  Aretas  alluded  to 
by  St.  Paul  (2  Cor.  xi.  32)  was  father-in- 
law  of  Herod  Antipas. 

Ar'gob,  a  tract  of  country  on  the  east 
of  the  Jordan,  in  Bashan,  the  kingdom  of 
Og,  containing  60  great  and  fortified  cities. 
In  later  times  it  was  called  Trachonitis, 
and  it  is  now  apparently  identified  with  the 
LejaJiy  a  very  remarkable  district  south  of 
Damascus,  and  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
(Deut.  iii.  4,  13,  U). 

Ar'gob,  perhaps  a  Gileadite  officer,  who 
was  governor  of  Argob.  He  was  either  an 
accomplice  of  Pekah  in  the  murder  of 
Pekahiah,  or  was  slain  by  Pekah  (2  K.  xv. 
25). 

Ariara'thes,  properly  MithridatesIV., 
Philopator,  king  of  Cappadocia  b.  c.  168- 
130,  mentioned  1  Mace.  xv.  22.  He  fell  in 
B.  c.  130,  in  the  war  of  the  Bomans  against 
Aristonicus. 

Arid'ai,  ninth  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix. 
9). 

Arid'atlia,  sixth  son  of  Haman  (Esth. 
ix.  8). 

Ari'eh.  Either  one  of  the  accomplices 
of  Pekah  in  his  conspiracy  against  Pekahiah, 
or  one  of  the  princes  of  Pekahiah,  who  was 
put  to  death  with  him  (2  K.  xv.  25). 

A'riel.  1.  One  of  the  "  chief  men  "  who 
under  Ezra  directed  the  caravan  which  he 
led  back  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  (Ezr. 
viii.  16).  —  The  word  occurs  also  in  refer- 
ence to  two  Moabites  slain  by  Benaiah  (2 
Sam.'xxiii.  20;  1  Chr.  xi.  22).  Many  re- 
gard the  word  as  an  epithet,  "  lion-like ;  " 
but  it  seems  better  to  look  upon  it  as  a 
proper  name,  and  translate  "  two  [sons]  of 
Ariel."  2.  A  designation  given  by  Isaiah 
to  the  city  of  Jerusalem  (Is.  xxix.  1,  2,  7). 
Its  meaning  is  obscure.  We  must  under- 
stand by  it  either  "Lion  of  God,"  or 
"  Hearth  of  God."  The  latter  meaning  is 
suggested  by  the  use  of  the  word  in  Ez. 
xliii.  15, 16,  as  a  synonyme  for  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering.  On  the  whole  it  seems 
most  probable  that,  as  a  name  given  to 
Jerusalem,  Ariel  means  "Lion  oi'  God," 
whilst  the  word  used  by  Ezekiel  means 
"  Hearth  of  God." 

Arimathae'a  (Matt,  xxvii.  57;  Luke 
xxiii.  51;  John  xix.  38).  St.  Luke  calls  it 
"  a  city  of  Judaea."  It  is  identified  by 
many  with  the  modern  Ramlah. 

A'rioch.  1.  The  king  of  Ellasar,  one 
of  the  allies  of  Chedorlaomer  in  his  expedi- 
tion against  his  rebellious  tributaries  (Gen. 
xiv.  1).  2.  The  captain  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's body-guard  (Dan.  ii.  14,  &c.).  3. 
Properly  Eirioch,  or  Erioch,  mentioned  in 
Jud.  i.  6  as  king  of  the  Elymaeans. 

Aris'ai,  eighth  son  of  Haman  (Esth. 
ix.  9). 

Aristar'chus,  a  Thessalonian  (Acts 
XX.  4,  xxvii.  2),  who  accompanied  St.  Paul 


on  his  third  missionary  journey  (Acts  xix. 
29).  He  was  with  the  apostle  on  his  return 
to  Asia  (Acts  xx.  4)  ;  and  again  (xxvii.  2) 
on  his  voyage  to  Rome.  We  trace  hira 
afterwards  as  St.  Paul's  fellow-prisoner  in 
Col.  iv.  10,  and  Philem.  24.  Tradition 
makes  him  bishop  of  Apamea. 

Aristobu'lus.  1.  A  Jewish  priest  (2 
Mace.  i.  10),  who  resided  in  Egypt  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemaeus  VI.  Philometor.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  he  is  identical  with 
the  peripatetic  philosopher  of  that  name, 
who  dedicated  to  Ptol.  Philometor  his  alle- 
goric exposition  of  the  Pentateuch.  2.  A 
resident  at  Rome,  some  of  whose  house- 
hold are  greeted  in  Rom.  xvi.  10.  Tradi- 
tion makes  him  one  of  the  70  disciples,  and 
reports  that  he  preached  the  Gospel  in 
Britain. 

Ark,  Noah's.     [Noah.] 

Ark  of  the  Covenant.  The  first 
piece  of  the  tabernacle's  furniture,  for 
which  precise  directions  were  delivered 
(Ex.  XXV.).  —  I.  It  appears  to  have  been 
an  oblong  chest  of  shittim  (acacia)  wood, 
2i  cubits  long,  by  li  broad  and  deep. 
Within  and  without  gold  was  overlaid  on 
the  wood,  and  on  the  upper  side  or  lid, 
which  was  edged  round  about  with  gold, 
the  mercy  seat  was  placed.  The  ark  was 
fitted  with  rings,  one  at  each  of  the  four 
corners,  and  through  these  were  passed 
staves  of  the  same  wood  similarly  overlaid, 
by  which  it  was  carried  by  the  Kohathites 
(Num.  vii.  9,  x.  21).  The  ends  of  the 
staves  were  visible  without  the  veil  in  the 
holy  place  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon  (IK. 
viii.  8).  The  ark,  when  transported,  was 
enveloped  in  the  "veil"  of  the  dismantled 
tabernacle,  in  the  curtain  of  badgers'  skins, 
and  in  a  blue  cloth  over  all,  and  was  there- 
fore not  seen  (Num.  iv.  6,  20). --II.  Its 
purpose  or  object  was  to  contain  inviolate 
the  Divine  autograph  of  the  two  tables, 
that  "covenant"  from  which  it  derived  its 
title.  It  was  also  probably  a  reliquary  for 
the  pot  of  manna  and  the  rod  of  Aaron. 


Egyptian  Ark.     (Wilkinson,  Jnc.  Egvpt-) 


Occupying  the  most  holy  spot  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, it  tended  to  exclude  any  idol  from 
the  centre  of  worship.  It  was  also  the 
support  of  the  mercy  seat,  materiaUy  sym- 


ARKITE 


52 


ARMS,  ARMOR 


bolizing,  perhaps,  the  "covenant"  as  that 
on  which  "  mercy  "  rested.  —  III.  The  chief 
facts  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  ark 
(see  Josh.  iii.  and  vi.)  need  not  be  recited. 
Before  David's  time  its  abode  was  fre- 
quently shifted.  It  sojourned  among  sev- 
eral, probably  Levitical,  families  (1  Sam. 
vii.  1 ;  2  Sam.  vi.  3,  11 ;  1  Chr.  xiii.  13,  xv. 
24,  25)  in  the  border  villages  of  Eastern 
Judah,.and  did  not  take  its  place  in  the 
tabernacle,  but  dwelt  in  curtains,  t.  e.  in  a 
separate  tent  pitched  for  it  in  Jerusalem  by 
David.  Its  bringing  up  by  David  thither 
was  a  national  festival.  Subsequently  the 
Temple,  when  completed,  received,  in  the 
installation  of  the  ark  in  its  shrine,  the 
signal  of  its  inauguration  by  the  eflfulgence 
of  Divine  glory  instantly  manifested.  When 
idolatry  became  more  shameless  in  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  Manasseh  placed  a 
"carved  image"  in  the  "house  of  God," 
and  probably  removed  the  ark  to  make  way 
for  it.  This  may  account  for  the  subse- 
quent statement  that  it  was  reinstated  by 
Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxiii.  7,  xsacv.  3).  It  was 
probably  taken  captive  or  destroyed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (2  Esdr.  x.  22).  Pri- 
deaux's  argument  that  there  must  have 
been  an  ark  in  the  second  Temple  is  of  no 
weight  against  express  testimony,  such  as 
that  of  Josephus. 

Ark'ite,  The,  one  of  the  families  of 
the  Canaanites  (Gen.  x.  17;  1  Chr.  i.  15), 
and  from  the  context  evidently  located  in 
the  north  of  Phoenicia.  The  site  which 
now  bears  the  name  of  'Arha  lies  on  the 
coast,  2  to  2i  hours  from  the  shore,  about 
12  miles  north  of  Tripoli,  and  5  south  of 
the  Ndhr  el-Kehir. 

Armaged'don,  "the  hill,  or  city 
ef  Megiddo"  (Rev.  xvi.  16).  The  scene 
of  the  struggle  of  good  and  evil  is  suggested 
by  that  battle-field,  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
,  which  was  famous  for  two  great  victories, 
of  Barak  over  the  Canaanites,  and  of 
Gideon  over  the  Midianites ;  and  for  two 
great  disasters,  the  death  of  Saul  and  of 
Josiah. 

Arme'nia  is  nowhere  mentioned  under 
that  name  in  the  original  Hebrew,  though 
it  occurs  in  the  English  version  (2  K.  xix. 
37)  for  Ararat.  Armenia  is  that  lofty  pla- 
teau whence  the  rivers  Euphrates,  Tigris, 
Araxes,  and  Acampsis,  pour  down  their 
waters  in  different  directions ;  the  two  first 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  last  two  respectively 
to  the  Caspian  and  Euxine  seas.  It  may 
be  termed  the  niicleus  of  the  mountain  sys- 
tem of  Western  Asia ;  from  the  centre  of 
the  plateau  rise  two  lofty  chains  of  moun- 
tains, which  run  from  E.  to  W.,  converging 
towards  the  Caspian  sea,  but  parallel  to 
each  other  towards  the  W.  The  slight 
acquaintance  which  the  Hebrews  had  with 
this  country  was  probably  derived  from  the 
Phoemcians.     There  are  signs  of  their 


knowledge  having  been  progressive.  Isaiah, 
in  his  prophecies  regarding  Babylon,  speaks 
of  the  hosts  as  coming  from  the  "moun- 
tains" (xiii.  4),  while  Jeremiah  employs 
the  specific  names  Ararat  and  Minni  (li. 
27) .  Ezekiel,  apparently  better  acquainted 
with  the  country,  uses  a  name  which  waa 
familiar  to  its  own  inhabitants,  Togarmah. 
(1.)  Abakat  is  mentioned  as  the  place 
whither  the  sons  of  Sennacherib  fled  (Is. 
xxxvii.  38).  It  was  the  central  district 
surrounding  the  mountain  of  that  name. 
(2.)  Minni  only  occurs  in  Jer.  li.  27.  It 
is  probably  identical  with  the  district  Min- 
yas,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Murad-su 
branch  of  the  Euphrates.  (3.)  Togarmah 
is  noticed  in  two  passages  of  Ezekiel 
(xxvii.  14,  xxxviii.  6),  both  of  which  are  in 
favor  of  its  identity  with  Armenia. 

Armlet,  an  ornament  universal  in  the 
East,  especially  among  women;  used  by 
princes  as  one  of  the  insignia  of  royalty, 
and  by  distinguished  persons  in  general. 
The  word  is  not  used  in  the  A.  V.,  as  even 
in  2  Sam.  i.  10  they  render  it  by  "  the  brace- 
let on  his  arm."  Sometimes  only  one  was 
worn,  on  the  right  arm  (Ecclus.  xxi.  21). 
From  Cant.  viii.  6,  it  appears  that  the  signet 
sometimes  consisted  of  a  jewel  on  the  arm 


Aa«rn>i>  Armlet.    (From  Ntnereh  Marblei,  Brttiah 
Mufcuiu.) 

let.  These  ornaments  were  used  by  most 
ancient  princes.  They  are  frequent  on  the 
sculptures  of  Persepolis  and  Nineveh,  and 
were  worn  by  the  kings  of  Persia. 

Armo'ni,  son  of  Saul  by  Rizpah  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  8). 

Arms,  Armor.  The  subject  natu- 
rally divides  itself  into  —  I.  Offensive 
weapons  :  Arms.  II.  Defensive  weapons  : 
Armor. — I.  Offensive  weapons.  1.  Ap- 
parently the  earliest  known  and  most  widely 
used  was  the  Chereb,  or  "  Sword."  Very 
little  can  be  gathered  as  to  its  shape,  size, 
material,  or  mode  of  use.  Perhaps  if  any- 
thing is  to  be  inferred  it  is  that  the  Chereb 
is  both  a  lighter  and  a  shorter  weapon  than 
the  modern  sword.  It  was  carried  in  a 
sheath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  51 ;  2  Sam.  xx.  8 ;  1 
Chr.  xxi.  27),  slung  by  a  girdle  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  13)  and  resting  upon  the  thigh  (Ps. 
xlv.  3;  Judg.  iii.  16),  or  upon  the  hips  (2 
Sam.  XX.  8).  Doubtless  it  was  of  metal, 
from  the  allusion  to  its  brightness  and 
"glittering;  "  but  from  Josh.  v.  2,  3,  we 
may  perhaps  infer  that  in  early  times  tne 
material  was  flint.     2.  Next  to  the  sword 


ARMS,  ARMOR 


53 


ARMY 


was  the  Speak;  and  of  this  weapon  we 
meet  with  at  least  three  distinct  kinds,  a. 
The  Chantth,  a  '*  Spear,"  and  that  of  the 
largest  kind.  It  was  the  weapon  of  Goli- 
ath (1  Sam,  xvii.  7,  45 ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  19 ;  1 
Chr.  XX.  5),  and  also  of  other  giants  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  21 ;  1  Chr.  xi.  23)  and  mighty 
warriors  (2  Sara.  ii.  23,  xxiii.  18 ;  1  Chr. 
xi.  11,  20).  b.  Apparently  lighter  than  the 
preceding  was  the  Ciddn,  or  "Javelin." 
When  not  in  action  the  Ciddn  was  carried 
on  the  back  of  the  warrior  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
6,  A.  V.  "target"),  c.  Another  kind  of 
spear  was  the  Rdmach.  In  the  historical 
books  it  occurs  in  Num.  xxv.  7,  and  1  K. 
xviii.  28,  and  frequently  in  the  later  books, 
as  in  1  Chr.  xii.  8  ("  buckler"),  2  Chr.  xi. 
1 2.  d.  The  Shelach  was  probably  a  lighter 
missile  or  "  dart."  See  2  Chr.  xxiii.  10, 
xxxii.  5  (".  darts  "  )  ;  Neh.  iv.  17,  23  (see 
margin) ;  Job  xxxiii.  18,  xxxvi.  12 ;  Joel 
ii.  8.  e.  Shebet,  a  rod  or  staff,  is  used  once 
only  to  denote  a  weapon  (2  Sam.  xviii.  14). 
3.  Of  missile  weapons  of  offence  the  chief 
was  undoubtedly  the  Bow,  Kesheth.  It  is 
met  with  in  the  earliest  stages  of  the  his- 
tory, in  use  both  for  the  chase  (Gen.  xxi. 
20,  xxvii.  3)  and  war  (xlvii.  22).  The  Ar- 
rows were  carried  in  a  quiver  (Gen.  xxvii. 
3;  Is.  xxii.  6,  xlix.  2;  Ps.  cxxvii.  5). 
From  an  allusion  in  Job  vi.  4,  they  would 
seem  to  have  been  sometimes  poisoned; 
and  Ps.  cxx.  4  may  point  to  a  practice  of 
using  arrows  with  some  burning  material 
attached  to  them.  4.  The  Sling  is  first 
mentioned  in  Judg.  xx.  16.  This  simple 
weapon  with  whicli  David  killed  the  giant 
Philistine  was  the  natural  attendant  of  a 
shepherd.  Later  in  the  monarchy,  slingers 
formed  part  of  the  regular  army  (2  K.  iii. 
25).  II.  Armor.  I.  The  Breastplate, 
enumerated  in  the  description  of  the  arms 
of  Goliath,  a  "  coat  of  mail,"  literally  a 
^' breastplate  of  scales"  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5). 
This  word  has  furnished  one  of  the  names 
of  Mount  Hermon  (see  Deut.  iii.  9).  2. 
The  habergeon  is  mentioned  but  twice  — 


Aasyrian  Helmet*. 

in  reference  to  the  gown  of  the  high-priest 
(Ex.  xxviii.  32,  xxxix.  23).  It  was  prob- 
ably a  quilted  shirt  or  doublet.  3.  The 
Helmet  is  referred  to  in  1  Sam.  xvii.  5 ;  2 
Chr.  xxvi.  14 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  10.  4.  Greaves, 


or  defences  for  the  feet  made  of  brass,  are 
named  in  1  Sam.  xvii.  6,  only.  6.  Two 
kinds  of  Shield  are  distinguishable,  a. 
The  large  shield,  encompassing  (Ps.  v.  12) 
the  whole  person.  When  not  in  actual  con- 
flict, it  was  carried  before  the  warrior  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  7,  41),  b.  Of  smaller  dimen- 
sions was  the  buckler  or  target,  probably 
for  use  in  hand-to-hand  fight  (1  K.  x.  IG, 
47;  2  Chr.  ix.  15,  16).  6.  What  kind  of 
arm  was  the  Shelet  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine. By  some  translators  it  is  ren- 
dered a  ".quiver,"  by  some  "weapons" 
generally,  by  others  a  "  shield."    It  denot- 


AMyrian  Shields. 


Egyptian  Shield. 


ed  certain  weapons  of  gold  taken  by  David 
from  Hadadezer  king  of  Zobah  (2  Sam. 
viii.  7;  1  Chr.  xviii.  7),  and  dedicated  in 
the  Temple  (2  K.  xi.  10;  2  Chr.  xxiii.  9 
Cant.  iv.  4).  In  Jer.  Ii.  11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii. 
11,  the  word  has  the  force  of  a  foreign  arm. 
Army.  I.  Jewish  Armt.  —  The  mili- 
tary organization  of  the  Jews  commenced 
with  their  departure  from  the  land  of  Egypt, 
and  was  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  expe- 
dition on  which  they  then  entered.  Every 
man  above  20  years  of  age  was  a  soldier 
(Num.  i.  3)  :  each  tribe  formed  a  regiment 
with  its  own  banner  and  its  own  leader 
(Num.  ii.  2,  x.  14)  :  their  positions  in  the 
camp  or  on  the  march  were  accurately 
fixed  (Num.  ii.)  :  the  whole  army  started 
and  stopped  at  a  given  signal  (Num.  x.  5, 
6)  :  thus  they  came  up  out  of  Egypt  ready 
for  the  fight  (Ex.  xiii.  18).  On  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy,  a  conscription  was 
made  from  the  general  body  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  muster-master  (Deut.  xx.  5 ;  2 
K.  xxv.  19),  by  whom  also  the  officers  were 
appointed  (Deut.  xx.  9).  The  army  was 
then  divided  into  thousands  and  hundreds 
under  their  respective  captains  (Num.  xxxi. 
14),  and  still  further  into  families  (Num.ii. 
34;  2  Chr.  xxv.  5,  xxvi.  12),  the  family 
being  regarded  as  the  unit  in  the  Jewish 
polity.  With  the  kings  arose  the  custom 
of  maintaining  a  body-guard,  which  formed 
tlie  nucleus  of  a  standing  army.  Thus  Saul 
had  a  band  of  3000  select  warriors  (1  Sam. 


ARMY 


54 


•  ARPHAXAD 


xiii.  2,  xiv.  52,  xxiv.  2),  and  David,  before 
his  accession  to  the  throne,  600  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  13,  XXV.  13).  This  band  he  retained 
after  he  became  king,  and  added  the  Cher- 
ETHiTES  and  Pelethites  (2  Sam.  xv.  18, 
XX.  7),  together  with  anotlier  class,  Shali- 
shim,  officers  of  high  rank,  the  chief  of 
whom  (2  K.  vii.  2 ;  1  Chr.  xii.  18)  was  im- 
mediately about  the  king's  person.  David 
further  organized  a  national  militia,  divided 
into  twelve  regiments  under  their  respec- 
tive officers,  each  of  which  was  called  out 
for  one  month  in  the  year  (1  Chr.  xxvii. 
1)  ;  at  the  head  of  the  army  when  in  active 
service  he  appointed  a  commander-in-chief 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  50).  Hitherto  the  army  had 
consisted  entirely  of  infantry  (1  Sam.  iv. 
10,  XV.  4),  the  use  of  horses  having  been 
restrained  by  divine  command  (Deut.  xvii. 
16);  but  we  find  that  as  the  foreign  rela- 
tions of  the  kingdom  extended,  much  im- 
portance was  attached  to  them.  David  had 
reserved  a  hundred  chariots  from  the  spoils 
of  the  Syrians  (2  Sam.  viii.  4)  ;  these  prob- 
ably served  as  the  foundation  of  the  force 
which  Solomon  afterwards  enlarged  through 
his  alliance  with  Egypt  (1  K.  x.  26,  28,  29). 
It  does  not  appear  that  the  system  estab- 
lished by  David  was  maintained  by  the 
kings  of  Judah ;  but  in  Israel  the  proximity 
of  the  hostile  kingdom  of  Syria  necessitated 
the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army.  The 
militia  was  occasionally  called  out  in  time 
of  peace  (2  Chr.  xiv.  8,  xxv.  6,  xxvi.  11) ; 
but  such  cases  were  exceptional.  On  the 
other  hand  the  body-guard  appears  to  have 
been  regularly  kept  up  (1  K.  xiv.  28 ;  2  K. 
xi.  4,  11).  Occasional  reference  is  made 
to  war-chariots  (2  K.  viii.  21) ;  but  in  Hez- 
ekiah's  reign  no  force  of  the  kind  could  be 
maintained,  and  the  Jews  were  obliged  to 
seek  the  aid  of  Egypt  for  horses  and  char- 
iots (2  K.  xviii.  23,  24;  Is.  xxxi.  1).  The 
maintenance  and  equipment  of  the  soldiers 
at  the  public  expense  dates  from  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  standing  army.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  soldier  ever  received  pay 
even  under  the  kings.  The  numerical 
strength  of  the  Jewish  army  cannot  be  as- 
certained with  any  degree  of  accuracy  :  the 
numbers,  as  given  in  the  text,  are  mani- 
festly incorrect,  and  the  discrepancies  in 
the  various  statements  irreconcilable. 

II.  Roman  Army.  —  The  Roman  army 
was  divided  into  legions,  the  number  of 
which  varied  considerably,  each  under  six 
tribuni  ("  chief  captains,"  Acts  xxi.  31),  who 
commanded  by  turns.  The  legion  was  sub- 
divided into  ten  cohorts  ("  band,"  Acts  x. 
1),  the  cohort  into  three  maniples,  and  the 
maniple  into  two  centuries,  containing  ori- 
ginally 100  men,  as  the  name  implies,  but 
subsequently  from  50  to  100  men,  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  legion.  There 
were  thus  60  centuries  in  a  legion,  each 
imdei  the  command  of  a  centurion  (Acts  x. 


1,  22;  Matt.  viii.  5,  xxvii.  54).  In  addi- 
tion to  the  legionary  cohorts,  independent 
cohorts  of  volunteers  served  under  the  Ro- 
man standards.  One  of  these  cohorts  was 
named  the  Italian  (Acts  x.  1),  as  consist- 
ing of  volunteers  from  Italy.  The  cohort 
named  "Augustus"  (Acts  xxvii.  1)  may 
have  consisted  of  the  volunteers  from  Se- 
baste.  Others,  however,  tliink  that  it  was 
a  cohors  Augusta,  similar  to  the  legio  Au- 
gusta. The  head-quarters  of  the  Roman 
forces  in  Judaea  were  at  Caesarea. 

Ar'nan.  In  the  received  Hebrew  text 
"  the  sons  of  Arnan"  are  mentioned  in  the 
genealogy  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chr.  iii.  21). 

Ar'non,  the  river  or  torrent  which 
formed  the  boundary  between  Moab  and 
the  Amorites,  on  the  north  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxi.  13,  14,  24,  26;  Judg.  xi.  22),  and  after- 
wards between  Moab  and  Israel  (Reuben) 
(Deut.  ii.  24,  36,  iii.  8,  12,  ]  6,  iv.  48 ;  Josh, 
xii.  1,  2,  xiii.  9,  16;  Judg.  xi.  13,  26). 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Wady  el- 
Mojeh  of  the  present  day  is  the  Arnon.  Its 
principal  source  is  near  Katrane,  on  the 
Haj  route. 

A'rod,  a  son  of  Gad  (Num.  xxvi.  17), 
called  Arodi  in  Gen.  xlvi.  16. 

Ar'odi.    [Abod.j 

Ar'odites.    [Arod.] 

Ar'oer.  1.  A  city  on  the  torrent  Ar- 
non, the  southern  point  of  the  territory  of 
Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  and  afterwards 
of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Deut.  ii.  36,  iii.  12, 
iv.  48 ;  Josh  xii.  2,  xiii.  9,  16 ;  Judg.  xi.  26 ; 
2  K.  X.  33;  1  Chr.  v.  8),  but  later  again  in 
possession  of  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii.  19).  It  is 
the  modern  Ar&'ir,  upon  the  very  edge  of 
the  precipitous  north  bank  of  the  Wady 
Mojeb.  2.  Aroer  "that  is  'facing'  Rab- 
bah"  (Rabbah  of  Ammon),  a  town  built  by 
and  belonging  to  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  34 ; 
Josh.  xiii.  25;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5).  This  is 
probably  the  place  mentioned  in  Judg.  xi. 
33,  which  was  shown  in  Jerome's  time. 
3.  Aroer,  in  Is.  xvii.  2,  if  a  place  at  all, 
must  be  still  farther  north  than  either  of 
the  two  already  named.  4.  A  town  in  Ju- 
dah, named  only  in  1  Sam.  xxx.  28,  perhaps 
Wady  Ar'drah,  on  the  road  from  Petra  to 
Gaza. 

Aro'erite.  Hothan  the  Arocrite  was 
the  father  of  two  of  David's  captains  (1  Chr. 
xi.  44). 

Ar'pad  or  Ar'phad  (Is.  xxxvi.  19, 
xxxvii.  13),  a  city  or  district  in  Syria,  ap- 
parently dependent  on  Damascus  (Jer. 
xlix.  23).  No  trace  of  its  existence  has 
yet  been  discovered  (2  K.  xviii.  34,  xix.  13 ; 
Is.  X.  9). 

Arpnax'ad.  1.  The  son  of  Shem  and 
ancestor  of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  22,  24,  xi.  10).  2. 
Arphaxad,  a  king  "  who  reigned  over  the 
Medes  in  Ecbatana"  (Jud.  i.  1-4)  :  perhaps 
the  same  as  Phraortes,  who  fell  in  a  battle 
with  the  Assyrians,  633  B.  0. 


ARROWS 


55 


ASAPH 


ArrOiXrs.     [Arms.] 

Ar'saces  VI.,  a  king  of  Parthia,  who 
assumed  the  royal  title  of  Arsaces  in  addi- 
tion to  his  proper  name,  Mithridates  I. 
(1  Mace.  xiv.  1-3). 

Artaxerx'es.  1.  The  first  Artaxerxes 
is  mentioned  in  Ezr.  iv.  7,  and  appears 
identical  with  Smerdis,  the  Magian  impos- 
tor, and  pretended  brother  of  Cambyses, 
who  usurped  the  throne  b.  c.  522,  and 
reigned  eight  months.  2.  In  Neh.  ii.  1  we 
have  another  Artaxerxes.  We  may  safely 
identify  him  with  Artaxerxes  Macrocheir 
or  Longimanus,  the  son  of  Xerxes,  who 
reigned  b.  c.  464-425. 

Ar'temas,  a  companion  of  St.  Paul 
(Tit.  iii.  12).  According  to  tradition  he 
was  bishop  of  Lystra. 

Ar'uboth,  the  third  of  Solomon's  com- 
missariat districts  (1  K.  iv.  10).  It  in- 
cluded Sochoh,  and  was  therefore  probably 
a  name  for  the  rich  corn-growing  lowland 
country. 

Aru'inah,  a  place  apparently  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Shechem,  at  which  Abim- 
elech  resided  (Judg.  ix.  41). 

Ar'vad  (Ez.  xxvii.  8,  11).  The  island 
of  Ruad,  which  lies  off  Tortosa  (^Tartus), 
2  or  3  miles  from  the  Phoenician  coast.  In 
agreement  with  this  is  the  mention  of  "  the 
Arvadite  "  in  Gen.  x.  18,  and  1  Chr.  i.  1 6, 
as  a  son  of  Canaan,  with  Zidon,  Hamatb, 
and  other  northern  localities. 

Ar'vadite.    [Abvad.] 

Ar'za,  prefect  of  the  palace  at  Tirzah  to 
Elah  king  of  Israel,  who  was  assassinated 
at  a  banquet  in  his  house  by  Zimri  (1  K. 
xvi.  9). 

A'sa.  1.  Son  of  Abijah,  and  third  king  of 
Judah  (b.  c.  956-916).  In  his  zeal  against 
heathenism  he  did  not  spare  his  grand- 
mother Maaehah,  who  occupied  the  special 
dignity  of  "  King's  Mother,"  to  which  great 
importance  was  attached  in  the  Jewish 
court.  Asa  burnt  the  symbol  of  her  re- 
ligion (1  K.  XV.  13),  and  threw  its  ashes 
into  the  brook  Kidron,  and  then  deposed 
Maaehah  from  her  dignity.  He  also  placed 
in  the  Temple  certain  gitls  which  his  father 
had  dedicated,  and  renewed  the  gi'eat  altar 
which  the  idolatrous  priests  apparently  had 
desecrated  (2  Chr.  xv.  8).  Besides  this, 
he  fortified  cities  on  his  frontiers,  and 
raised  an  army,  amounting,  according  to 
2  Chr.  xiv.  8,  to  680,000  men,  a  number 
probably  exaggerated  by  an  error  of  the 
copyist.  During  Asa's  reign,  Zerah,  at  the 
head  of  an  enormous  host  (2  Chr.  xiv.  9), 
attacked  Marcshah.  There  he  was  utterly 
defeated,  and  driven  back  with  immense 
loss  to  Gerar.  The  peace  wliich  followed 
tliis  victory  was  broken  by  the  attempt  of 
Baasha  of  Israel  to  fortify  Ramah.  To 
stop  this  Asa  purchased  the  help  of  Ben- 
hadad  I.  king  of  Damascus,  by  a  large  pay- 
ment of  treasure,  forced  Baasha  to  aban- 


don his  purpose,  and  destroyed  the  works 
which  he  had  begun  at  Raraah.  In  his  old 
age  Asa  suffered  from  the  gout.  He  died 
greatly  loved  and  honored  in  the  4l8t 
year  of  his  reign.  2.  Ancestor  of  Bere- 
cliiah,  a  Levite  who  resided  in  one  of  the 
villages  of  the  Netophathites  after  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon  (1  Chr.  ix.  16). 

As'ahel.  1.  Nephew  of  David,  being  the 
youngest  son  of  his  sister  Zcruiah.  He 
was  celebrated  for  liis  swiftness  of  foot. 
When  fighting  under  the  command  of  his 
brother  Joab  against  Ishbosheth's  army  at 
Gibeon,  he  pursued  Abner,  who  was  obliged 
to  kill  him  in  self-defence  (2  Sam.  ii.  18  ff.). 
[Abner.]  2.  One  of  the  Levites  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  who  went  throughout 
the  cities  of  Judah  to  instruct  the  people  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  law,  at  the  time  of 
the  revival  of  the  true  worship  (2  Chr. 
xvii.  8).  3.  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Hez- 
ekiah,  who  had  charge  of  the  tithes  and 
dedicated  things  in  the  Temple  under  Cono- 
niah  and  Shimei  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  13).  4.  A 
priest,  father  of  Jonathan  in  the  time  of 
Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  15).     He  is  called  Azael  in 

1  Esd.  ix.  14. 

Asahi'ah.,  a  servant  of  king  Josiah, 
sent  by  him,  together  with  others,  to  seek 
information  of  Jehovah  respecting  the  book 
of  the  law  which  Hilkiah  found  in  the  Tem- 
ple (2  K.  xxii.  12,  14 ;  also  called  Asaiaa, 

2  Chr.  xxxiv.  20). 

Asai'ah.  1.  A  prince  of  one  of  the 
families  of  the  Simeonites  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  who  prove  out  the  Hamite  shep- 
herds from  Gedor  (1  Chr.  iv.  36).  2.  A 
Levite  in  the  reign  of  David,  chief  of  the 
family  of  Merari  (1  Chr.  vi.  30).  With 
120  of  his  bretliren  he  took  part  in'  the  sol- 
emn service  of  bringing  the  ark  from  the 
house  of  Obed-edom  to  tlie  city  of  David 
(1  Chr.  XV.  6,  11).  3.  The  firstborn  of 
"the  Shilonite,"  according  to  1  Chr.  ix.  6, 
who  with  his  family  dwelt  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  return  from  Babylon.  In  Neh.  xi. 
5  he  is  called  Maaseiah,  and  his  descent 
is  there  traced  from  Shiioni.    4.  2   Chr. 

XXX^J.  20.       [ASAHIAH.] 

A^saph.  1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Berechiah, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  David's  choir  (1  Chr. 
vi.  39).  Psalms  1.  and  Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.  are 
attributed  to  liim;  and  he  was  in  after 
times  celebrated  as  a  seer  as  well  as  a  mu- 
sical composer  (2  Chr.  xxix.  30 ;  Neh.  xii. 
46).  2.  The  father  or  ancestor  of  Joah, 
the  recorder  or  chronicler  to  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  K. 
xviii.  18,  37;  Is.  xxxvi.  3,  22).  It  is  not 
improbable  that  this  Asaph  is  the  same  as 
the  preceding.  3.  The  keeper  of  the 
royal  forest  or  "paradise"  of  Artaxerxes 
(Neh.  ii.  8).  His  name  would  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  he  was  a  Jew,  who,  like  Nehe- 
miah,  was  in  high  office  at  the  court  of 
Persia.     4.   Ancestor  of  Mattaniah,  Mi» 


ASAREEL 


56 


ASHKENAZ 


conductor  of  the  temple-choir  after  the  re- 
tnrn  from  Babylon  (1  Chr.  ix.  16 ;  Neh.  xi. 
17).     Most  probably  the  same  as  1  and  2. 

Asax'eel,  a  son  of  Jehaleleel,  whose 
name  is  abruptly  introduced  into  the  gen- 
ealogies of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  16). 

Asare'lEh,  one  of  the  sons  of  Asaph, 
set  apart  by  David  to  "  prophesy  with  harps 
and  with  psalteries'  and  with  cymbals  "  (1 
Chr.  xxT.  2)  ;  called  Jesharelah  in  ver. 
14. 

As'calon.    [Ashkelon.] 

As'enath,  daughter  of  Potipherah, 
priest,  or  possibly  prince,  of  On  [Potiphe- 
bah],  wife  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  45),  and 
mother  of  Manasseh  and  Ephraim  (xli.  50, 
xlvi.  20). 

A'ser,  Luke  ii.  36 ;  Rev.  vii.  6.  [Asher.] 

Ash  (Heb.  dren)  occurs  only  in  Is.  xliv. 
14.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  what  is 
the  tree  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  word ;  the 
LXX.  and  the  Vulg.  understand  some 
species  of  pine-tree.  Perhaps  the  larch 
{Laryx  Europaed)  may  be  intended. 

A'sh.an,  a  city  in  the  low  country  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  42).  In  Josh.  xix.  7,  and 
1  Chr.  iv.  32,  it  is  mentioned  again  as  be- 
longing to  Simeon.  It  has  not  yet  been 
identified,  unless  it  be  the  same  as  Ain 
(comp.  Josh.  xxi.  16  with  1  Chr.  vi.  59)  ;  in 
whic^  case  Robinson  found  it  at  El  Ghu- 
wein. 

Ash'bea,  a  proper  name,  but  whether 
of  a  person  or  place  is  uncertain  (1  Chr.  iv. 
21). 

Ash'bel,  2d  son  of  Benjamin  and  an- 
cestor of  the  Ashbelites  (Gen.  xlvi.  21; 
Num.  xxvi.  38;  1  Chr.  viii.  1). 

Ash'chenaz  (l  Chr.  i.  6;  Jer.  Ii.  27). 

[ASHKEXAZ.] 

Ash'dod,  or  A'zo'tus  (Acts  viii.  40), 
one  of  the  five  confederate  cities  of  the 
Pliilistines,  situated  about  30  miles  from 
the  southern  frontier  of  Palestine,  3  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  nearly  mid- 
way between  Gaza  and  Joppa.  It  was 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
47),  but  was  never  subdued  by  the  Israel- 
ites. Its  chief  importance  arose  frorn  its 
position  on  the  high  road  from  Palestine  to 
Egypt.  It  is  now  an  insignificant  village, 
with  no  memorials  of  its  ancient  impor- 
tance, but  is  still  called  Esdud. 

Ash'dodltes,  the  inhabitants  of  Ash- 
dod  (Neh.  iv.  7) ;  called  Ashdothites  in 
Josh.  xiii.  3. 

Ash'doth-pis'gah,  a  curious  and  prob- 
ably a  very  ancient  term  of  doubtful 
meaning,  found  only  in  Deut.  iii.  17 ;  Josh. 
*  xii.  3,  xiii.  20 ;  and  in  Deut.  iv.  49,  A.  V. 
"  springs  of  Pisgah." 

Ash'er,  Apocr.  and  N.  T.  A'ser,  the 
flth  son  of  Jacob,  by  Zilpah,  Leah's  hand- 
maid [Gen.  XXX.  13].  The  general  posi- 
tion of  his  tribe  was  on  the  sea-shore  from 
Carmel  northwards,  with  Manasseh  on  the 


south,  Zebulun  and  Issachar  on  the  south- 
east, and  Naphtali  on  the  north-east.  The 
boundaries  and  towns  are  given  in  Josh, 
xix.  24-31,  xvii.  10,  11;  and  Judg.  i.  31, 
32.  They  possessed  the  maritime  portion 
of  the  rich  plain  of  Esdraelon,  probably 
for  a  distance  of  8  or  10  miles  from  the 
shore.  Tliis  territory  contained  some  of 
the  richest  soil  in  all  Palestine ;  and  to  this 
fact,  as  well  as  to  their  proximity  to  the 
Phoenicians,  the  degeneracy  of  the  tribe 
may  be  attributed  (Judg.  i.  31,  v.  17). 

Ash'er,  a  place  which  formed  one 
boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  on  tlie 
south  (Josh.  xvii.  7).  Mr.  Porter  suggests 
that  Teydslr  may  be  the  Asher  of  Manas- 
seh {Handb.  p.  348). 

Ash'erah,  the  name  of  a  Phoenician 
goddess,  or  rather  of  the  idol  itself  (A.  V. 
"  grove  ").  Asherah  is  closely  connected 
with  Ashtoreth  and  her  worship  (Judg. 
iii.  7,  comp.  ii.  3 ;  Judg.  vi.  25 ;  IK.  xviii. 
19)  ;  Ashtoreth  being,  perhaps,  the  proper 
name  of  the  goddess,  whilst  Asherah  is 
the  name  of  her  image  or  symbol,  which 
was  of  wood  (see  Judg.  vi.  25-30 ;  2  K. 
xxiii.  14). 

Ash'erites,  descendants  of  Asher,  and 
members  of  his  tribe  (Judg.  i.  32). 

Ashes.  The  ashes  on  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  were  gathered  into  a  cavity  in  its 
surface.  On  the  days  of  the  three  solemn 
festivals  the  ashes  were  not  removed,  but 
the  accumulation  was  taken  away  after- 
wards in  the  morning,  the  priests  casting 
lots  for  the  office.  The  ashes  of  a  red 
heifer  burnt  entire,  according  to  regula- 
tions prescribed  in  Num.  xix.,  had  the  cere- 
monial efficacy  of  purifying  the  unclean 
(Heb.  ix.  13),  but  of  polluting  the  clean. 
[Sacrifice.]  Ashes  about  the  person, 
especially  on  the  head,  were  used  as  a 
sign  of  sorrow.     [Mourning.] 

Ash'ima,  a  god  of  the  Hamathite  col- 
onists in  Samaria  (2  K.  xvii.  30).  It  has 
been  regarded  as  identical  with  the  Mcn- 
desian  god  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Pan  of  the 
Greeks,  and  has  also  been  identified  with 
the  Phoenician  god  Esmftn. 

Ash'kelon,  As'kelon,  Apocr.  As'- 
calon, one  of  the  five  cities  of  the  lords 
of  the  Philistines  (Josh.  xiii.  3 ;  1  Sam.  vi. 
17),  but  less  often  mentioned  and  apparent- 
ly less  known  to  the  Jews  than  the  otlier 
four.  Samson  went  down  from  Timnath 
to  Ashkelon  (Judg.  xiv.  19),  as  if  to  a  re- 
mote place  whence  his  exploit  was  not 
likely  to  be  heard  of.  In  the  post-biblical 
times  Ashkelon  rose  to  considerable  im- 
portance. Near  the  town  were  the  temple 
and  sacred  lake  of  Derceto,  the  Syrian 
Venus.  The  soil  around  was  remarkable 
for  its  fertility.  Ascalon  played  a  memora- 
ble part  in  the  struggles  of  the  Crusades. 

Ash'kenaz,  one  of  the  three  sons  of 
Gromer,  son  of  Japhet  (Gen.  x.  3).    Wa 


ASHNAH 


57 


ASP 


may  probably  recognize  the  tribe  of  Ash- 
kenaz  on  the  northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor, 
in  the  name  of  Lake  Ascanius,  and  in  Eu- 
rope in  the  name  Scand-i^.  Scand-ina.ria„ 
Knobel  considers  that  Ashkenaz  is  to  be 
identified  witli  the  German  race. 

Asta.'liah,  the  name  of  two  cities,  both 
in  the  Lowlands  of  Judah  :  (1)  named  be- 
tween Zoreah  and  Zanoah,  and  therefore 
probably  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem  (Josh.  xv. 
33) ;  and  (2)  between  Jiphtah  and  Nezib, 
and  therefore  to  the  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem 
(Josh.  XV.  43).  Each,  according  to  Rob- 
inson's Map  (1857),  would  be  about  16 
miles  from  Jerusalem. 

Ash'penaz,  the  master  of  the  eunuchs 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  i.  3). 

Ash'riel,  properly  As'riel  (1  Chr.  vii. 
U). 

Asn'taroth,  and  once  As'taroth,  a 
city  on  the  E.  of  Jordan,  in  Bashan,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Og,  doubtless  so  called  from 
being  a  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  goddess 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  generally  men- 
tioned as  a  description  or  definition  of  Og 
(Deut.  i.  4;  Josh.  ix.  10,  xii.  4,  xiii.  12). 
The  only  trace  of  the  name  yet  recovered 
in  these  interesting  districts  is  Tell-Ashte- 
rah,  or  Asherah,  and  of  this  nothing  more 
than  the  name  is  known. 

Ashte'rathite,  a  native  or  inhabitant 
of  Ashtaroth  (1  Chr.  xi.  44)  beyond  Jor- 
dan. 

Ash'teroth  Kama'im  =  "  Ashtaroth 
of  the  two  horns  or  peaks,"  a  place  of  very 
great  antiquity,  the  abode  of  the  Rephaim 
(Gen.  xiv.  5).  The  name  reappears  but 
once,  as  Carnaim,  or  Carnion  (1  Mace.  v. 
26,43,44;  2  Mace.  xu.  21,26),  in  "the 
land  of  Galaad."  It  is  probably  the  mod- 
ern Es- Sanamein,  on  the  Haj  route,  about 
25  miles  S.  of  Damascus. 

Ash'toreth,  the  principal  female  di- 
vinity of  the  Phoenicians,  called  Ishtar 
by  the  Assyrians,  and  Astarte  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  She  was  by  some 
ancient  writers  identified  with  the  moon. 
But  on  the  other  hand  the  Assyrian  Islitar 
was  not  the  moon-goddess,  but  the  planet 
Venus ;  and  Astarte  was  by  many  identi- 
fied with  the  goddess  Venus  (or  Aphrodite) 
as  well  as  with  the  planet  of  that  name. 
It  is  certain  that  the  worship  of  Astarte  be- 
came identified  with  that  of  Venus,  and 
that  this  worship  was  connected  witli  the 
most  impure  rites  is  apparent  from  the 
close  connection  of  tliis  goddess  with  Ashe- 
EAH  (1  K.  xi.  5,  33;  2  K.  xxiii.  13). 

Ash'ur,  the  posthumous  son  of  Hezron 
by  his  wife  Abiah  (1  Chr.  ii.  24,  iv.  5).  He 
became  "  father  "  or  founder  of  the  town 
of  Tekoa. 

Ash'urites,  The.  This  name  occurs 
only  in  2  Sam.  ii.  9.  By  some  of  the  old 
interi)reters  the  name  is  taken  as  meaning 
the  Geshurites,  but  if  we  follow  the  Tar- 


!  gum  of  Jonathan,  which  has  Beth-AsTier, 
!"the  house  of  Asher,"  «' the  Ashcrites  " 
I  will  denote  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  of 
j  the  country  W.  of  the  Jordan  above  Jea- 
reel. 

Ash'vath,  one  of  the  sons  of  Japhlet, 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  33). 

Asia.  The  passages  in  the  N.  T.,  where 
this  word  occurs,  are  the  following:  Acts 
ii.  9,  vi.  9,  xvi.  6,  xix.  10,  22,  26,  27,  xx.  4, 
16,  18,  xxi.  27,  xxvii.  2;  Rom.  xvi.  5;  1 
Cor.  xvi.  19;  2  Cor.  i.  8;  2  Tim.  i.  15;  1 
Pet.  i.  I;  Rev.  i.  4,  11.  In  all  these  it 
may  be  confidently  stated  that  the  Avord  is 
used  for  a  Roman  province  which  embraced 
the  western  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  of  which  Ephesus  was  the 
capital. 

Asiar'chae  {chief  of  Asia,  A.  v.;  Acts 
xix.  31),  officers  chosen  annually  by  the 
cities  of  that  part  of  the  province  of  Asia, 
of  which  Ephesus  was,  under  Roman  gov- 
ernment, the  metropolis.  They  had  charge 
of  the  public  games  and  religious  theatri- 
cal spectacles,  the  expenses  of  which  they 
bore. 

A'siel.  1.  A  Simeonite  whose  descend- 
ant Jehu  lived  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (1 
Chr.  iv.  35).  2.  One  of  the  five  swift 
writers  whom  Esdras  was  commanded  to 
take  to  write  the  law  and  the  history  of  the- 
world  (2  Esd.  xiv.  24). 

Asmode'us  (Tob.  iii.  8,  17),  the  same 
as  Abaddon  or  Apollyon  (Rev.  ix.  11; 
comp.  Wisd.  xviii.  25).  From  the  fact 
that  the  Talmud  calls  him  "  king  of  the 
demons,"  some  assume  him  to  be  identical 
with  Beelzebub,  and  others  with  Azrael.  In 
the  book  of  Tobit  this  evil  spirit  is  repre- 
sented as  loving  Sara,  the  daughter  of 
Raguel,  and  causing  the  death  of  her  seven 
husbands. 

As'nah.  The  children  of  Asnah  were 
among  the  Nethinim  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  50). 

Asnap'per,  mentioned  in  Ezr.  iv.  10  as 
the  person  who  settled  the  Cuthaeans  in 
the  cities  of  Samaria.  He  was  probably  a 
general  of  Esarhaddon. 

Asp  (pethen).  The  Hebrew  word  occurs 
in  the  six  following  passages  :  Deut.  xxxii. 
33;  Job  XX.  14,  16;  Ps.  Iviii.  5,  xci.  13; 
Is.  xi.  8).  It  is  expressed  in  the  passages 
from  the  Psalms  by  adder  in  the  text  of  the 
A.  v.,  and  by  asp  in  the  margin :  else- 
where the  text  of  the  A.  V.  has  asp  as  the 
representative  of  the  original  word  pethen. 
That  some  kind  of  poisonous  serpent  is  de- 
noted by  the  Hebrew  word  is  clear  from 
the  passages  quoted  above.  We  further 
learn  from  Ps.  Iviii.  6,  tluit  the  pethen  was 
a  snake  upon  which  the  serpent-charmers 
practised  their  art.  From  Is.  xi.  8,  it 
would  appear  that  the  pethen  was  a  dweller 
in  holes  of  walls,  &c.  As  the  Egyptian 
cobra  is  more  frequently  than  any  other 


ASPALATHUS 


58 


ASSYEIA 


species  the  subject  upon  which  the  serpent- 
charmers  of  the  Bible  lands  practise  their 
art,  and  as  it  is  fond  of  concealing  itself  in 
walls  and  in  holes  (Is.  xi.  8),  it  appears  to 
liave  the  best  claim  to  represent  the  pethen. 

Aspal'athus,  the  name  of  some  sweet 
perfume  mentioned  in  Ecclus.  xxiv.  15. 
The  Lignum  Khodianum  is  by  some  sup- 
posed to  be  the  substance  indicated  by  the 
aspalathus ;  the  plant  which  yields  it  is 
the  Convolvulus  scoparius  of  Linnaeus. 

As'patha,  tliird  son  of  Hainan  (£sth. 
ix.  7). 

As'phar,  the  pool  in  the  "wilderness 
of  Thecoe"  (1  Mace.  ix.  33).  Is  it  possi- 
ble that  the  name  is  a  corruption  of  lacus 
Asphaltites  f 

As'riel,  the  son  of  Gilead,  and  great- 
grandson  of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  31; 
Josh.  xvii.  2).  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
family  of  the  Asrielites. 

Ass.  Five  Hebrew  naraea  of  the  genus 
Asinus  occur  in  the  O.  T.  1.  Chamdr 
denotes  the  male  domestic  ass,  though  the 
word  was  no  doubt  used  in  a  general  sense 
to  express  any  ass  whether  male  or  female. 
The  ass  in  E.ostern  countries  is  a  very  dif- 
ferent animal  from  what  he  is  in  Western 
Europe.  The  most  noble  and  honorable 
amongst  the  Jews  were  wont  to  be  mounted 
on  asses ;  and  in  this  manner  our  Lord  him- 
self made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Jeru- 
salem (Matt.  xxi.  2).  2.  Athdn,  the  com- 
mon domestic  she-ass.  Balaam  rode  on  a 
•he-ass.  The  asses  of  Kish  which  Saul 
sought  were  she-asses.  The  Shunaramite 
(2  K.  iv.  22,  24)  rode  on  one  when  she  went 
to  seek  Elisha.  They  were  she-asses  which 
formed  the  special  care  of  one  of  David's 
ofllcers  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  30).  3.  'Air,  the 
name  of  a  wild  ass,  wliich.  occurs  Gen. 
xxxii.  16,  xlix.  11 ;  Judg.  x.  4,  xii.  14;  Job 
xi.  12;  Is.  XXX.  6,  24;  Zech.  ix.  9.  4. 
Pere,  a  species  of  wild  ass  mentioned  Gen. 
xvi.  12;  Ps.  civ.  11;  Job  vi.  6,  xi.  12,  xxiv. 
6,  xxxix.  5;  Hos.  viii.  9;  Jer.  ii.  24,  xiv. 
6;  Is.  xxxii.  14.  5.  Ar6d  occurs  only  in 
Job  xxxix.  6 ;  but  in  what  respect  it  differs 
from  the  Pere  is  uncertain.  —  The  species 
known  to  the  ancient  Jews  are  Asinus 
hemippus,  which  inhabits  the  deserts  of 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  the  northern  parts 
of  Arabia;  the  Asinus  vulgaris  of  the  N. 
E.  of  Africa,  the  true  onager  or  aboriginal 
wild  ass,  whence  the  domesticated  breed 
has  sprung;  and  probably  the  Asinus  on- 
ager, the  Koulan  or  Ghorkhur,  which  is 
found  in  Western  Asia,  from  48°  N.  lati- 
tude southward  to  Persia,  Beluchistan,  and 
Western  India.  Mr.  Layard  remarks 
that  in  flcetness  the  wild  ass  (^Asinus 
hemippus)  equals  the  gazelle,  and  to  over- 
take them  is  a  feat  wliich  only  one  or  two 
of  the  most  celebrated  mares  have  been 
known  to  accomplish. 

Assh'ur.    [Abstkia.] 


Assh'urim,  a  tribe  descended  from 
Dedan,  the  grandson  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
XXV.  3).  Like  the  other  descendants  of 
Keturah,  they  have  not  been  identified  with 
any  degree  of  certainty.  Knobel  considers 
them  the  same  with  the  Asshur  of  Ez. 
xxvii.  23,  and  connected  with  Southern 
Arabia. 

Asside'ans,  i.  e.  the  pious,  "  puritans," 
the  name  assumed  by  a  section  of  the  or- 
thodox Jews  (1  Mace.  ii.  42,  vii.  13;  2 
Mace.  xiv.  6)  as  distinguished  from  the 
Hellenizing  faction.  They  appear  to  have 
existed  as  a  party  before  the  Maccabaean 
rising,  and  were  probably  bound  by  some 
peculiar  vow  to  the  external  observance  of 
the  Law. 

As'sir.  1.  Son  of  Korah  (Ex.  vi.  24 ; 
1  Clir.  vi.  22).  2.  Son  of  Ebiasaph,  and  a 
forefather  of  Samuel  (1  Chr.  vi.  23,  37). 
3.  Son  of  Jeconiah  (1  Chr.  iii.  17),  unless 
"  Jeconiah  the  captive  "  be  the  true  render- 
ing. 

As'sos  or  As'sus,  a  seaport  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Asia,  in  the  district 
anciently  called  Mysia.  It  was  situated  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Adramyt- 
TXCM,  and  was  only  about  seven  miles  from 
the  opposite  coast  of  Lesbos,  near  Methym- 
na  (Acts  xx.  13,  14). 

As'sur.  (Ezr.  iv.  2;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  8.) 
[Asshur;  Assyria.] 

Assyr'ia,  Assh'ur,  was  a  great  and 
powerful  country  lying  on  the  Tigris  (Gen. 
ii.  14),  the  capital  of  which  was  Nineveh 
(Gen.  X.  11,  &e.).  It  derived  its  name  ap- 
parently from  Asshur,  the  son  of  Shem 
(Gen.  X.  22),  who  in  later  times  was  wor- 
shipped by  tlie  Assyrians  as  their  chief  god. 
The  boundaries  of  Assyria  differed  greatly 
at  different  periods.  Probably  in  the  ear- 
liest times  it  was  confined  to  a  small  tract 
of  low  country,  lying  chiefly  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tigris.  Gradually  its  limits 
were  extended,  until  it  came  to  be  regarded 
as  comprising  the  whole  region  between 
the  Armenian  mountains  (lat.  37-  30')  upon 
the  north,  and  upon  the  south  the  country 
about  Baghdad  (lat.  33-'  30').  Eastward 
its  boundary  was  the  high  range  of  Zagros, 
or  mountains  of  Kurdistdn ;  westward,  it 
was,  according  to  the  views  of  some, 
bounded  by  the  Mesopotamian  desert,  while, 
according  to  others,  it  reached  the  Euphra- 
tes. 1.  General  character  of  the  country.  — 
On  the  N.  and  E.  the  high  mountain-chains 
of  Armenia  and  KurdisUin  are  succeeded 
by  low  ranges  of  limestone-hills  of  a  some- 
what arid  aspect.  To  these  ridges  there 
succeeds  at  first  an  undulating  zone  of 
country,  well  watered  and  fairly  productive, 
which  extends  in  length  for  250  miles,  and 
is  interrupted  only  by  a  single  limestone- 
range.  Above  and  below  this  barrier  is  an 
immense  level  tract,  now  for  the  most  part 
a  wilderness,  which  bears  marks  of  having 


ASSYRIA 


69 


ASSYRIA 


been  in  early  times  well  cultivated  and 
thickly  peopled  throughout.  2.  Provinces 
of  Assyria.  —  The  classical  geographers 
divided  Assyria  into  a  number  of  regions, 
wldch  appear  to  be  chiefly  named  from 
cities,  as  Arbelitia  from  Arbela;  Calacene 
(or  Calachine)  from  Calah  or  Halah  (Gen. 
X.  11;  2  K.  xvii.  6);  Apolloniatis  from 
Apollonia;  Sittacene  from  Sittace,  &c. 
Adiabene,  however,  the  richest  region  of 
all,  derived  its  appellation  from  the  Zab 
(^Diab)  river  on  which  it  lay.  3.  Chief 
cities.  —  The  chief  cities  of  Assyria  in  the 
time  of  its  greatness  appear  to  have  been 
the  following:  — Nineveh,  which  is  marked 
by  the  mounds  opposite  Mosul  {Nehi-  Yunua 
and  Kouyunjik) ;  Calah  or  Halah,  now 
Nimrud  ;  Asshur,  now  Kileh  Shei-ghat ; 
Sargina,  or  Dur-Sargina,  now  Khorsahad ; 
Arbela,  still  Arbil ;  Opis  at  the  junction  of 
the  Diyaleh  with  the  Tigris ;  and  Sittiice, 
a  little  farther  down  the  latter  river,  if  this 
place  should  not  rather  be  reckoned  to 
Babylonia.  4.  History  of  Assyria — origi- 
nal peopling.  —  Scripture  informs  us  that 
Assyria  was  peopled  from  Babylon  (Gen.  x. 
11),  and  both  classical  tradition  and  the 
monuments  of  the  country  agree  in  this 
representation.  5.  Date  of  the  foundation 
of  the  kingdom.  —  As  a  country,  Assyria 
was  evidently  known  to  Moses  (Gen.  ii.  14, 
xxv.  18;  Num.  xxiv.  22,  24);  but  it  does 
not  appear  in  Jewish  history  as  a  kingdom 
till  the  reign  of  Menahem  (about  b.  c.  770). 
Herodotus  relates  that  the  Assyrians  were 
"lords  of  Asia"  for  520  years,  till  the 
Median  kingdom  was  formed,  b.  c.  708. 
He  would  thus,  it  appears,  have  assigned  to 
the  foundation  of  the  Assyrian  empire  a 
date  not  very  greatly  anterior  to  b.  c.  1228. 
This  is,  perhaps,  the  utmost  that  can  be  de- 
termined with  any  approach  to  certainty. 
6.  Early  kings  from  the  foundation  of  the 
kingdom  to  Pul.  —  The  Mesopotamian  re- 
searches have  rendered  it  apparent  that  the 
original  seat  of  government  was  not  at 
Nineveh,  but  at  Kileh- Sherghat,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Tigris.  The  kings  proved 
to  have  reigned  there  are  fourteen  in  num- 
ber, divisible  into  three  groups ;  and  their 
reigns  are  thought  to  have  covered  a  space 
of  nearly  350  years,  from  b.  c.  1273  to  b.  c. 
930.  The  most  remarkable  monarch  of  the 
series  was  called  Tiglath-pileser.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  king  towards  the  close 
of  the  twelfth  century,  and  thus  to  have  been 
contemporary  with  Samuel.  The  later  kings 
of  the  series  are  only  known  to  us  as  the 
ancestors  of  two  great  monarchs ;  Sarda- 
napalus  the  first,  and  liis  son,  Shalmaneser 
or  Shalmanubar,  a  still  greater  conqueror. 
His  son  and  grandson  followed  in  his  steps, 
but  scarcely  equalled  his  glory.  The  latter 
is  thouglit  to  be  identical  with  the  Biblical  | 
Pul,  Phul,  or  Phalock.  [Pul.]  7.  The  kings'. 
from  Fui  to  Esarliaddon.  —  la   the  2d  1 


book  of  Kings  we  find  the  names  of  Pul, 
Tiglath-pileser,  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherib, 
and  Esarliaddon  (2  K.  xv.  19,  29,  xvii.  8, 
xviii.  13,  xix.  37)  ;  and  in  Isaiah  wc  have  the 
name  of  "  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria"  (xx. 
1).  The  inscriptions,  by  showing  us  that 
Sargon  was  the  father  of  Sennacherib,  fix 
his  place  in  the  list,  and  give  us  for  the 
monarchs  of  the  last  half  of  the  8th  and 
the  first  half  of  the  7th  century  b.  c.  the 
(probably)  complete  list  of  Tiglath-pileser 
XL,  Shalmaneser  II.,  Sargon,  Sennacherib, 
and  Esarhaddon.  8.  Lower  dynasty.  —  It 
seems  to  be  certain  that  at,  or  near,  the 
accession  of  Pul,  about  b.  c.  770,  a  great 
change  of  some  kind  or  other  occurred  in 
Assyria.  Probably  the  Pul  or  Phaloch  of 
Scripture  was  really  the  last  king  of  the 
old  monarchy,  and  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  liis 
successor,  was  the  founder  of  wliat  has 
been  called  the  "Lower  Empire."  9.  Sup' 
posed  loss  of  the  empire  at  this  period.  — 
Many  writers  of  repute  have  been  inclined 
to  accept  the  statement  of  Herodotus  with 
respect  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  whole 
empire  at  this  period.  It  is  evident,  how- 
ever, both  from  Scripture  and  from  the 
monuments,  that  the  shock  sustained 
through  the  domestic  revolution  has  been 
greatly  exaggerated.  It  is  plain  from  Scrip- 
ture, that  in  th^  reigns  of  Tiglath-pileser, 
Shalmaneser,  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and 
Esarhaddon,  Assyria  was  as  great  as  at  any 
former  era.  On  every  ground  it  seems 
necessary  to  conclude  that  the  second 
Assyrian  kingdom  was  really  greater  and 
more  glorious  than  the  first ;  that  under  it 
the  limits  of  the  empire  reached  their  full- 
est extent,  and  the  internal  prosperity  was 
at  the  highest.  10.  Successors  of  Esarhad- 
don. —  By  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Esarhad- 
don the  triumph  of  the  arms  of  Assyria 
had  been  so  complete  that  scarcely  an 
enemy  was  left  who  could  cause  her  serious 
anxiety.  In  Scripture  it  is  remarkable  that 
we  hear  notliing  of  Assyria  after  the  reign 
of  Esarhaddon,  and  profane  liistory  is 
equally  silent  until  the  attacks  begin  which 
brought  about  her  downfall.  11.  Fall  of 
Assyria.  —  The  fall  of  Assyria,  long  pre- 
viously prophesied  by  Isaiah  (x.  5-\^),  was 
effected  by  the  growing  strength  and  bold- 
ness of  the  Medes.  If  we  may  trust  He- 
rodotus, the  first  Median  attack  on  Nineveh 
took  place  about  the  year  b.  c.  633.  For 
some  time  their  eflbrts  were  unsuccessful ; 
but  after  a  while,  having  won  over  the 
Babylonians  to  their  side,  they  became 
superior  to  the  Assyrians  in  the  field,  and 
about  B.  c.  625,  or  a  little  earlier,  laid  final 
siege  to  the  capital.  12.  Fuljihneni  of" 
prophecy.  —  The  prophecies  of  Nahum  and 
Zephaniah  (ii.  13-15)  again.st  Assyria  were 
probably  delivered  shortly  before  the  catas- 
trophe. In  accordance  with  Nahum's  an- 
nouncement (uL  19)  we  find  that  Assyria 


ASTAROtH 


60 


ATHAIAH 


never  succeeded  in  maintaining  a  distinct 
nationality.  13.  General  character  of  the 
empire.  —  The  Assyrian  monarchs  bore 
sway  over  a  number  of  petty  kings  through 
the  entire  extent  of  their  dominions.  These 
native  princes  were  feudatories  of  the 
Great  Monarch,  of  whom  they  held  their 
crown  by  the  double  tenure  of  homage  and 
tribute.  It  is  not  quite  certain  how  far 
Assyria  required  a  religious  conformity 
from  the  subject  people.  Her  religion  was 
a  gross  and  complex  polytheism,  compris- 
ing the  worship  of  thirteen  principal  and 
numerous  minor  divinities,  at  the  head  of 
all  of  whom  stood  the  chief  god,  Asshur, 
who  seems  to  be  the  deified  patriarch  of  the 
nation  (Gen.  x.  22).  The  inscriptions  ap- 
pear to  state  that  in  all  countries  over 
which  the  Assyrians  established  their  su- 
premacy, they  set  up  "the  laws  of  Asshur," 
and  "  altars  to  the  Great  Gods."  14.  Its 
extent.  —  On  the  west  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  river  Halys  appear  to  have  been 
the  boundaries ;  on  the  north  a  fluctuating 
line,  never  reaching  the  Euxine  nor  extend- 
ing beyond  the  northern  frontier  of  Ar- 
menia ;  on  the  east,  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
the  Great  Salt  Desert;  on  the  south  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Desert  of  Arabia. 
The  countries  included  within  these  limits 
are  the  following :  —  Susuina,  Chaldaea, 
Babylonia,  Media,  Matiene,  Armenia,  As- 
syria Proper,  Mesopotamia,  parts  of  Cap- 
padocia  and  Cilicia,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Pal- 
estine, and  Idumaea.  Cyprus  was  also  for 
a  wliile  a  dependency  of  the  Assyrian  kings, 
and  they  may  perhaps  have  held  at  one 
time  certain  portions  of  Lower  Egypt.  15. 
Civilization  of  the  Assyrians. — The  civil- 
ization of  the  Assyrians  was  derived  origi- 
nally from  the  Babylonians.  They  were  a 
Shemitic  race,  originally  resident  in  Baby- 
lonia (which  at  that  time  was  Cushite),  and 
thus  acquainted  with  the  Babylonian  inven- 
tions and  discoveries,  who  ascended  the 
valley  of  the  Tigris  and  established  in  the 
tract  immediately  below  the  Armenian 
mountains  a  separate  and  distinct  nation- 
ality. Still,  as  their  civilization  developed, 
it  became  in  many  respects  peculiar.  Their 
art  is  ,of  home  growth.  But  they  were 
still  in  the  most  important  points  barbari- 
ans. Their  government  was  rude  and  in- 
artificial; their  religion  coarse  and  sen- 
sual ;  and  their  conduct  of  war  cruel. 

As'taroth,  Deut.  i.  4.     [Ashtakoth.] 

Astar'te.    [Ashtoketh.] 

Asty'ages,  the  last  king  of  the  Medes, 
B.  c.  595-560,  or  b.  c.  592-558,  wh«  was 
conquered  by  Cyrus  (Bel  and  Dragon,  1). 
The  name  is  identified  by  Rawlinson  and 
Niebuhr  with  Deioces  =  Ashdahik,  the 
emblem  of  the  Median  power. 

Asup'pim,  and  House  of,  1  Chr.  xxvi. 
15,  17,  literally  "  house  of  the  gatherings." 
Some  imderstand  it  as  a  proper  name  of 


chambers  on  the  south  of  the  Temple; 
others  of  certain  store-rooms,  or  of  the 
council-chambers  in  the  outer  court  of  the 
Temple  in  which,  the  elders  held  their 
deliberations. 

Asya'critus,  a  Christian  at  Rome, 
saluted  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 

A'tad,  The  Threshing-Floor  of, 
called  also  Abel-Mizraim  (Gen.  1.  10,  11). 
According  to  Jerome  it  was  in  liis  day 
called  Bethgla  or  Bethacla  (Beth-Hogla). 
Beth-Hogla  is  known  to  have  lain  between 
the  Jordan  and  Jericho,  therefore  on  the 
west  side  of  Jordan. 

At'arah,  a  wife  of  Jerahmeel,  and 
mother  of  Onam  (1  Chr.  ii.  26). 

Atar'gatis,  or  Dkrceto,  a  Syrian  god- 
dess, represented  generally  with  the  body 
of  a  woman  and  the  tail  of  a  fish  (comp. 
Dagon).  Her  most  famous  temples  were 
at  Hierapolis  (Mabug)  and  Ascalon.  There 
was  a  temple  of  Atargatis  (2  Mace.  xii.  26) 
at  Karnion,  which  was  destroyed  by  Judaa 
Maccabaeus  (1  Mace.  v.  44). 

At'aroth.  1.  One  of  the  towns  in  the 
"  land  of  Jazer  and  land  of  Gilead  "  (Num. 
xxxii.  3),  taken  and  built  by  the  tribe  of 
Gad  (xxxii.  34).  From  its  mention  with 
places  which  have  been  identified  on  the 
N.  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea  near  the  mountain 
of  the  Jebel  Attarxts,  a  connection  has  been 
assumed  between  Ataroth  and  that  moun- 
tain. But  some  other  identification  is 
necessary.  2.  A  place  on  the  (south?) 
boundary  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (Josh, 
xvi.  2,  7).  It  is  impossible  to  say  whether 
Ataroth  is  or  is  not  the  same  place,  as,  3. 
Ataroth-adah,  or  -addar,  on  the  west 
border  of  Benjamin,  "  near  the  '  mountain' 
that  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  nether  Beth- 
horon"  (Josh.  xvi.  5,  xviii.  13).  In  the 
Onomasticon  mention  is  made  of  an  Ath- 
aroth  in  Ephraim,  in  the  mountains,  4  miles 
N.  of  Sebaste ;  as  well  as  two  places  of  the 
name  not  far  from  Jerusalem.  4.  "  Ata- 
roth, THE  HOUSE  OP  JoA«,"  a  place  ( ?) 
occurring  in  the  list  of  the  descendants  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  54). 

A'ter.  1.  The  children  of  Ater  were 
among  the  porters  or  gate-keepers  of  the 
Temple  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
ii.  42;  Neh.  vii.  45).  2.  The  children  of 
Ater  of  Hezekiah  to  the  number  of  98 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  16 ;  Neh. 
vii.  21),  and  were  among  the  heads  of  the 
people  who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah  (x.  17). 

A'thach  (1  Sam.  xxx.  30).  As  the  name 
does  not  occur  elsewhere,  it  has  been  sug- 
gested that  it  is  an  error  of  the  transcriber 
for  Ether,  a  town  in  the  low  country  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  42). 

Athai'ah,  a  descendant  of  Pharez,  the 
son  of  Judah,  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem  after 
the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi.  4),  called 
Uthai  in  1  Chr.  ix.  4. 


ATHALIAH 


61 


ATHENS 


Athali'ah,  daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jeze- 
bel, married  Jehoram  the  son  of  Jehosha- 
pHat  king  of  Judah,  and  introduced  into 
the  S.  kingdom  the  worship  of  Baal.  After 
the  great  revolution,  by  wliich  Jehu  seated 
himself  on  the  throne  of  Samaria,  she  killed 
all  the  members  of  the  royal  family  of 
Judah  who  had  escaped  his  sword  (2  K. 
xi.  1),  availing  herself  probably  of  her 
position  as  King's  Mother  [Asa]  to  per- 
petrate the  crime.  From  the  slaughter  of 
the  royal  house,  one  infant  named  Joash, 
the  youngest  son  of  Ahaziah,  was  rescued 
by  his  aunt  Jehosheba,  wife  of  Jehoiada 
(2  Chr.  xxiii.  11)  the  high-priest  (2  Chr. 
xxiv.  6).  The  child  was  brought  up  un- 
der Jehoiada's  care,  and  concealed  in  the 
Temple  for  six  years,  during  which  period 
Athaliah  reigned  over  Judah.  At  length 
Jehoiada  thought  it  time  to  produce  the 
lawful  king  to  the  people,  trusting  to  their 
*eal  for  the  worship  of  God,  and  loyalty  to 
the  house  of  David,  which  had  been  so 
strenuously  called  out  by  Asa  and  Jehosha- 
phat.  His  plan  was  successful,  and  Atha- 
liah was  put  to  death. 

Athenians,  natives  of  Athens  (Acts 
xvii.  21). 

Ath'ens,  the  capital  of  Attica,  and  the 
chief  seat  of  Grecian  learning  and  civiliza- 
tion during  the  golden  period  of  the  his- 
tory of  Greece.  St.  Paul  visited  it  in  his 
journey  from  Macedonia,  and  appears  to 
have  remained  there  some  time  (Acts  xvii. 
14-34 :  comp.  1  Thess.  iii.  1).  In  order 
to  understand  the  localities  mentioned  in 
the  narrative  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  brief 
account  of  the  topography  of  the  city. 
Athens  is  situated  about  three  miles  from 
the  sea-coast,  in  the  central  plain  of  Attica. 
In  this  plain  rise  several  eminences.  Of 
these  the  most  prominent  is  a  lofty  insulated 
mountain,  with  a  conical  peaked  summit, 
now  called  the  Hill  of  St.  George,  and 
which  bore  in  ancient  times  the  name  of 
Lycabettus.  This  mountain,  which  was  not 
included  within  the  ancient  walls,  lies  to 
the  north-east  of  Athens,  and  forms  the 
most  striking  feature  in  the  environs  of  the 
city.  It  is  to  Athens  what  Vesuvius  is  to 
Naples,  or  Arthur's  Seat  to  Edinburgh. 
South-west  of  Lycabettus  there  are  four 
hills  of  moderate  height,  all  of  which 
formed  part  of  the  city.  Of  these  the  near- 
est to  Lycabettus,  and  at  the  distance  of  a 
mile  from  the  latter,  was  the  Acropolis,  or 
citadel  of  Athens,  a  square  craggy  rock  ris- 
ing abruptly  about  150  feet,  with  a  flat 
summit  of  about  1000  feet  long  from  east 
to  west,  by  500  feet  broad  from  north  to 
south.  Immediately  west  of  the  Acropolis 
is  a  second  hill  of  irregular  form,  the  Are- 
opagus {Mars'  Iltll).  To  the  south-west 
tliere  rises  a  third  hill,  the  Pnyx,  on  which 
the  assemblies  of  the  citizens  were  held; 


and  to  the  south  of  the  latter  is  a  fourth 
hill,  known  as  the  Museum.  On  the  eastern 
and  western  sides  of  the  city  there  run  two 
small  streams,  which  are  nearly  exhausted 
before  they  reach  the  sea,  by  the  heats  of 
summer  and  by  the  channels  for  artificial 
irrigation.  That  on  the  east  is  the  Ilissus, 
which  flowed  through  the  southern  quarter 
of  the  city :  that  on  the  west  is  the  Cephis- 
sus.  South  of  the  city  was  seen  the  Saronic 
gulf,  with  the  harbors  of  Athens.  —  Athens 
is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the 
prominence  given  to  the  worship  of  the 
goddess  Athena  (Minerva)  by  its  king 
Erechtheus.  The  inhabitants  were  previ- 
ously called  Cecropidae,  from  Cecrops, 
who,  according  to  tradition,  was  the  ori- 
ginal founder  of  the  city.  This  at  first  oc- 
cupied only  the  hill  or  rock  which  after- 
wards became  the  Acropolis  ;  but  gradually 
the  buildings  spread  over  the  ground  at  the 
southern  foot  of  this  hill.  It  was  not  till 
the  time  of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons  (b.  c. 
560-514)  that  the  city  began  to  assume  any 
degree  of  splendor.  The  most  remarkable 
building  of  these  despots  was  the  gigantic 
temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 
Xerxes  reduced  the  ancient  city  almost  to 
a  heap  of  ashes.  After  the  departure  of 
the  Persians,  its  reconstruction  on  a  much 
larger  scale  was  commenced  under  the 
superintendence  of  Themistocles,  whose 
first  care  was  to  provide  for  its  safety  by 
the  erection  of  walls.  The  AcropoUs  now 
formed  the  centre  of  the  city,  round  which 
the  new  walls  described  an  irregular  circle 
of  about  60  stadia  or  7i  miles  in  pircumfer- 
ence.  But  the  views  of  Themistocles  were 
not  confined  to  the  mere  defence  of  Athens  : 
he  contemplated  making  her  a  great  naval 
power,  and  for  this  purpose  adequate  docks 
and  arsenals  were  required.  Previously 
the  Athenians  had  used  as  their  only  harbor 
the  open  roadstead  of  Phalcrum  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Phaleric  bay,  where  the 
sea-shore  is  nearest  to  Athens.  But  The- 
mistocles transferred  the  naval  station  of 
the  Athenians  to  the  peninsula  of  Piraeus, 
which  is  distant  about  4i  miles  from  Athens, 
and  contains  three  natural  harbors.  It  was 
not  till  the  administration  of  Pericles  that 
the  walls  were  built  which  connected  Athens 
with  her  ports.  Under  the  administration 
of  Pericles,  Athens  was  adorned  with  nu- 
merous public  buildings,  which  existed  in 
all  their  glory  when  St.  Paul  visited  the  city. 
The  Acropolis  was  the  centre  of  the  archi- 
tectural splendor  of  Athens.  After  the 
Persian  wars  the  hill  had  ceased  to  be  in- 
habited, and  was  appropriated  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Athena  and  to  the  other  guardian 
deities  of  the  city.  It  was  covered  with 
the  temples  of  gods  and  heroes ;  and  thus 
its  platform  presented  not  only  a  sanctuary, 
but  a  museum,  containing  the  finest  pro- 


ATHENS 


62 


ATHENS 


ducHons  of  the  architect  and  the  sculptor, 
in  which  the  whiteness  of  the  marble  was 
relieved  by  brilliant  colors,  and  rendered 
still  more  dazzling  by  the  transparent  clear- 
ness of  the  Athenian  atmosphere.  The 
only  approach  to  it  was  from  the  Agora  on 
its  western  side.  At  the  top  of  a  magnifi- 
cent flight  of  marble  steps,  70  feet  broad, 
stood  the  PropyJaea,  constructed  under  the 
auspices  of  Pericles,  and  which  served  as  a 
Buitable  entrance  to  the  exquisite  works 
within.  The  Propylaea  were  themselves 
one  of  the  masterpieces  of  Athenian  art. 
They  were  entirely  of  Pentelic  marble,  and 
covered  the  whole  of  the  western  end  of  the 
Acropolis,  having  a  breadth  of  168  feet. 
On  passing  through  the  Propylaea  all  the 
glories  of  the  Acropolis  became  visible. 
The  chief  building  was  the  Parthenon  (i.  e. 
House  of  the  Virgin),  the  most  perfect 
production  of  Grecian  architecture.  It 
derived  its  name  from  its  being  the  temple 
of  Athena  Parthenos,  or  Athena  the  Virgin, 
the  invincible  goddess  of  war.  It  stood  on 
the  highest  part  of  the  Acropolis,  near  its 
centre.  It  was  entirely  of  Pentelic  marble, 
on  a  rustic  basement  of  ordinary  limestone, 
and  its  architecture,  which  was  of  the  Doric 
order,  was  of  the  purest  kind.  It  was 
adorned  with  the  most  exquisite  sculptures, 
executed  by  various  artists  under  the  di- 
rection of  Phidias.  A  large  number  of 
these  sculptures  were  brought  to  England 
by  Lord  Elgin,  of  whom  they  were  purchased 
by  the  nation  and  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum.  But  the  chief  wonder  of  the 
Parthenon  was  the  colossal  statue  of  the 
Virgin  Goddess  executed  by  Phidias  him- 
self. The  Acropolis  was  adorned  with>an- 
other  colossal  figure  of  Athena,  in  bronze, 
also  the  work  of  Phidias.  It  stood  in  the 
open  air,  nearly  opposite  the  Propylaea. 
With  its  pedestal  it  must  have  been  about 
70  feet  high,  and  consequently  towered 
above  the  roof  of  the  Parthenon,  so  that  the 
point  of  its  spear  and  the  crest  of  its  helmet 
were  visible  off  the  promontory  of  Sunium 
to  ships  approaching  Athens.  Another 
magnificent  building  on  the  Acropolis  was 
the  Erechthium,  or  temple  of  Erechtheus. 
It  was  one  of  the  finest  models  of  the  Ionic 
order,  as  the  Parthenon  was  of  the  Doric. 
It  stood  to  the  north  of  the  latter  building, 
and  close  to  the  northern  wall  of  the  Acrop- 
olis. Among  the  remarkable  places  in 
other  parts  of  the  city  we  may  mention, 
first,  the  Dionysiac  theatre,  which  occupied 
the  slope  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of 
the  Acropolis.  The  middle  of  it  was  ex- 
cavated out  of  the  rock,  and  the  rows  of 
seats  ascended  in  curves  one  above  another, 
the  diameter  increasing  with  the  height. 
It  was  no  doubt  sufficiently  large  to  ac- 
commodate the  whole  body  of  Athenian 
citizens,  as  well  as  the  strangers  who  flocked 
to  Athens  during  the  Dionysiac  festival, 


but  its  dimensions  cannot  now  be  accurately 
ascertained.  It  had  no  roof,  but  the  spec- 
tators were  probably  protected  from  the 
sun  by  an  awning,  and  from  their  elevated 
seats  they  had  a  distinct  view  of  the  sea, 
and  of  the  peaked  hills  of  Salaniis  in  the 
horizon.  Above  them  rose  the  Parthenon 
and  the  other  buildings  of  the  Acropolis,  so 
that  they  sat  under  the  shadow  of  the  an- 
cestral gods  of  the  country.  The  Areopa- 
gus, or  Hill  of  Ares  (M^rs)  is  described 
elsewhere.  [Maes'  Hill.]  The  Pnyx,  or 
place  for  holding  the  public  assemblies  of 
the  Athenians,  stood  on  the  side  of  a  low 
rocky  hill,  at  the  distance  of  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  the  Areopagus.  Projecting 
from  the  hill,  and  hewn  out  of  it,  still  stands 
a  solid  rectangular  block,  called  the  Bema 
or  pulpit,  from  whence  the  orators  ad- 
dressed the  multitude  in  the  area  before 
them.  The  position  of  the  Bema  com- 
manded a  view  of  the  Propylaea  and  the 
other  magnificent  edifices  of  the  Acropolis, 
while  beneath  it  was  the  city  itself  studded 
with  monuments  of  Athenian  glory.  The 
Athenian  orators  frequently  roused  the  na- 
tional feelings  of  their  audience  by  pointing 
to  the  Propylaea  and  to  the  other  splendid 
buildings  before  them.  Between  the  Pnyx 
on  the  west,  the  Areopagus  on  the  north, 
and  the  Acropolis  on  the  east,  and  closely 
adjoining  the  base  of  these  hills,  stood  the 
Agora  or  ^^ Market,"  where  St.  Paul  dis- 
puted daily.  In  a  direction  from  north-west 
to  south-east  a  street  called  the  Ceramicus 
ran  diagonally  through  the  Agora,  entering 
it  through  the  valley  between  the  Pnyx  and 
the  Areopagus.  The  street  was  named 
after  a  district  of  the  city,  which  was  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  Inner  and  Outer  Cerami- 
cus. The  former  lay  within  the  city  walls, 
and  included  the  Agora.  The  Outer  Cerami- 
cus, which  formed  a  handsome  suburb  on 
the  north-west  of  the  city,  was  the  burial- 
place  of  all  persons  honored  with  a  public 
funeral.  Through  it  ran  the  road  to  the 
gymnasium  and  gardens  of  the  Academy, 
which  were  situated  about  a  mile  from  the 
walls.  The  Academy  was  the  place  where 
Plato  and  his  disciples  taught.  On  each 
side  of  this  road  were  monuments  to  illus- 
trious Athenians,  especially  those  who  had 
fallen  in  battle.  East  of  the  city,  and  out- 
side the  walls,  was  the  Lyceum,  a  gymna- 
sium dedicated  to  Apollo  Lycfius,  and  cele- 
brated as  the  place  in  which  Aristotle 
taught.  —  The  remark  of  the  sacred  histo- 
rian respecting  the  inquisitive  character  of 
the  Athenians  (Acts  xvii.  21)  is  attested  by 
the  unanimous  voice  of  antiquity.  Demos- 
thenes rebukes  his  countrymen  for  their 
love  of  constantly  going  about  in  the  mar- 
ket, and  asking  one  another,  What  news  ? 
Their  natural  liveliness  was  partly  owing 
to  the-  purity  and  clearness  of  the  atmos- 
phere of  Attica,  which  also  allowed  them  to 


ATHLAI 


63 


AtONEMENT 


pass  much  of  their  time  in  the  open  air. 
The  transparent  clearness  of  the  atmos- 
phere is  noticed  by  Euripides  {Medea,  829), 
who  describes  the  Athenians  as  "  delicately 
marching  through  most  pellucid  air."  Mod- 
ern travellers  have  not  failed  to  notice  the 
same  peculiarity.  Thus  Dean  Stanley 
speaks  "of  the  transparent  clearness,  the 
brilliant  coloring  of  an  Athenian  sky ;  of 
the  flood  of  fire,  with  which  the  marble 
columns,  the  mountains,  and  the  sea  are 
all  bathed  and  penetrated  by  an  illumination 
of  an  Athenian  sunset."  —  St.  Paul  began 
his  address  at  Athens  by  speaking  of  their 
"  carefulness  in  religion,"  which  is  trans- 
lated in  the  A.  V.  "  too  superstitious,"  an 
unfortunate  mistranslation,  as  Conybeare 
and  Howson  remark,  "  because  it  entirely 
destroys  the  graceful  courtesy  of  St.  Paul's 
opening  address,  and  represents  him  as 
beginning  his  speech  by  offending  his  audi- 
ence." The  Athenian  carefulness  in  re- 
ligion is  confirmed  by  the  ancient  writers. 
Thus  Pausanias  says  that  the  Athenians 
surpassed  all  other  states  in  the  attention 
which  they  paid  to  the  worship  of  the  gods ; 
and  hence  the  city  was  crowded  in  every 
direction  with  temples,  altars,  and  other 
sacred  buildings.  The  altar  "to  the  Un- 
known God,"  which  St.  Paul  mentions,  has 
been  spoken  of  elsewhere.  [Altar,  p.  31, 
6.]  Of  the  Christian  church,  founded  by 
St.  Paul  at  Athens,  according  to  ecclesiasti- 
cal tradition,  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  was 
the  first  bishop.     [Dionysius.] 

Atll'lai,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bebai,  who 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  at  the  exhorta- 
tion of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  28). 

Atonement,  The  day  of.  I.  The 
great  day  of  national  humiliation,  and  the 
only  one  commanded  in  the  Mosaic  law. 
[Fasts.]  The  mode  of  its  observance  is 
described  in  Lev.  xvi.,  and  the  conduct  of 
the  people  is  emphatically  enjoined  in  Lev. 
xxiii.  26-32.  II.  It  was  kept  on  the  tenth 
day  of  Tisri,  that  is,  from  the  evening  of 
the  ninth  to  the  evening  of  the  tenth  of 
that  month,  five  days  before  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles.  [Festivals.]  III.  The 
observances  of  the  day,  as  described  in  the 
law,  were  a.s  follow.  It  was  kept  by  the 
people  as  a  high  solemn  sabbath.  On  this 
occasion  only  the  high  priest  was  permitted 
to  enter  into  the  Holy  of  Holies.  Having 
bathed  his  person  and  dressed  himself  en- 
tirely in  the  holy  white  linen  garments,  he 
brought  forward  a  young  bullock  for  a  sin- 
offering,  purchased  at  his  own  cost,  on 
account  of  himself  and  his  family,  and  two 
young  goats  for  a  sin-offering  with  a  ram 
for  a  burnt-offering,  which  were  paid  for 
out  of  the  public  treasury,  on  account  of 
the  people.  He  then  presented  the  two 
goats  before  the  Lord  at  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  and  cast  lots  upon  theiiK  On 
one  lot  "  For  Jehovah"  was  inscribed,  and 


on  the  other  "  For  Azazel."  He  next  sacri- 
ficed the  young  bullock  as  a  sin-offering 
for  himself  and  his  family  Taking  with 
him  some  of  the  blood  of  ihe  bullock,  he 
filled  a  censer  with  burning  coals  from  the 
brazen  altar,  took  a  handful  of  incense, 
and  entered  into  the  most  holy  place.  He 
then  threw  the  incense  upon  the  coals  and 
enveloped  the  mercy-seat  in  a  cloud  of 
smoke.  Then,  dipping  his  finger  into  the 
blood,  he  sprinkled  it  seven  times  before 
the  mercy-seat  eastward.  The  goat  upon 
which  the  lot  "For  Jehovah"  had  fallen 
was  then  slain  and  the  high  priest  sprinkled 
its  blood  before  the  mercy-seat  in  the  same 
manner  as  he  had  done  that  of  the  bullock. 
Going  out  from  the  Holy  of  Holies  he  puri- 
fied the  holy  place,  sprinkling  some  of  the 
blood  of  both  the  victims  on  the  altar  of 
incense.  At  this  time  no  one  besides  the 
high  priest  was  suffered  to  be  present  in 
the  holy  place.  The  purification  of  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  and  of  the  holy  place,  being 
thus  completed,  the  high  priest  laid  his 
hands  upon  the  head  of  the  goat  on  which 
the  lot  "  For  Azazel"  had  fallen,  and  con- 
fessed over  it  all  the  sins  of  the  people. 
The  goat  was  then  led,  by  a  man  chosen  for 
the  purpose,  into  the  wilderness,  into  "  a 
land  not  inhabited,"  and  was  there  let  loose. 
The  high  priest  after  this  returned  into  the 
holy  place,  bathed  himself  again,  put  on 
his  usual  garments  of  office,  and  offered 
the  two  rams  as  burnt-offerings,  one  for 
himself  and  one  for  the  people.  He  also 
burnt  upon  the  altar  the  fat  of  the  two  sin- 
offerings,  while  their  flesh  was  carried  away 
and  burned  outside  the  camp.  They  who 
took  away  the  flesh  and  the  man  who  had 
led  away  the  goat  had  to  bathe  their  per- 
sons and  wash  their  clothes  as  soon  as  their 
service  was  performed.  The  accessory 
burnt-offerings  mentioned  Num.  xxix.  7-11, 
were  a  young  bullock,  a  ram,  seven  lambs, 
and  a  young  goat.  IV.  There  has  been 
much  discussion  regarding  the  meaning  of 
the  word  Azazel.  The  opinions  which  seem 
most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  following :  — 
1.  It  has  been  regarded  as  a  designation  of 
the  goat  itself.  This  view  has  been  most 
favored  by  the  old  interpreters,  who  in  gen- 
eral supposed  it  to  mean  the  goat  sent  away, 
or  let  loose.  But  in  this  case  it  does  not 
seem  possible  to  make  sense  out  of  Lev. 
xvi.  10  and  26.  2.  Some  haye  taken  Azazel 
for  the  name  of  the  place  to  which  the  goat 
was  sent.  3.  a)  Gesenius  supposes  it  to  be 
some  false  deity  who  was  to  be  appeased 
by  such  a  sacrifice  as  that  of  the  goat,  b) 
But  others  have  regarded  him  as  an  evil 
spirit,  or  the  devil  himself  4.  An  expla- 
nation of  the  word  which  seems  less  objec- 
tionable, if  it  is  not  wholly  satisfactory, 
would  render  the  designation  of  the  lot 
"  for  complete  sending  away."  V.  In  con- 
sidering the  meaning  of  the  particular  rites 


ATROTH 


64 


AXE 


of  the  day,  three  points  appear  to  be  of  a 
very  distinctive  character.  1.  The  white 
garments  of  the  high  priest.  2.  His  en- 
trance into  the  Holy  of  Holies.  3.  The 
scapegoat.  The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  (ix.  7-25)  teaches  us  to  apply 
the  first  two  particulars.  The  liigh  priest 
himself,  with  his  person  cleansed  and 
dressed  in  white  garments,  was  the  best 
outward  type  which  a  living  man  could  pre- 
sent in  his  own  person  of  that  pure  and 
holy  One  who  was  to  purify  His  people  and 
to  cleanse  them  from  their  sins.  But 
respecting  the  meaning  of  the  scapegoat, 
we  have  no  such  light  to  guide  us,  and  the 
subject  is  one  of  great  doubt  and  difficulty. 
It  has  been  generally  considered  that  it  was 
dismissed  to  signify  the  carrying  away  of 
the  sins  of  the  people,  as  it  were,  out  of 
the  sight  of  Jehovah.  If  we  keep  in  view 
that  the  two  goats  are  spoken  of  as  parts 
of  one  and  the  same  sin-offering,  we  shall 
not  have  much  difficulty  in  seeing  that  they 
form  together  but  one  symbolical  expres- 
sion ;  the  slain  goat  setting  forth  the  act  of 
sacrifice,  in  giving  up  its  own  life  itt  athers 
"  to  Jehovah ;  "  and  the  goat  which  carried 
off  its  load  of  sin  "  for  complete  removal," 
as  signifying  the  cleansing  influence  of  faith 
in  that  sacrifice. 

At'roth,  a  city  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  35). 

At'tai.  1.  Grandson  of  Sheshan  the 
Jorahmeelite  through  his  daughter  Ahlai, 
whom  he  gave  in  marriage  to  Jarha,  his 
Egyptian  slave  (1  Chr.  ii.  35,  36).  His 
grandson  Zabad  was  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Chr.  xi.  41).  2.  One  of  the  hon- 
faced  warriors  of  Gad,  captains  of  the  host, 
who  forded  the  Jordan  at  the  time  of  its 
overflow,  and  joined  David  in  the  wilder- 
ness (1  Chr.  xii.  11).  3.  Second  son  of 
king  Rehoboam  by  Maachah  the  daughter 
of  Absalom  (2  Chr.  xi.  20). 

Attali'a,  a  coast-town  of  Pamphylia, 
mentioned  Acts  xiv.  25.  It  was  built  by 
Attains  Philadelphus,  king  of  Pergamus, 
and  named  after  the  monarch.  All  its  re- 
mains are  characteristic  of  the  date  of  its 
foundation.  Leake  fixes  Attalia  at  Adalia, 
on  the  S.  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  N.  of  the 
Duden  Su,  the  ancient  Catarrhactes. 

At'talus,'the  name  of  three  kings  of 
Pergamus  who  reigned  respectively  b.  c. 
241-197,  159-138  (Philadelphus),  138-133 
(Pliilometor).  It  is  uncertain  whether  the 
letters  sent  from  Rome  in  favor  of  the  Jews 
(1  Mace.  XV.  22)  were  addressed  to  Attains 
II.  or  Attalus  III.,  as  their  date  falls  in 
B.  c.  139-8,  about  the  time  when  the  latter 
succeeded  his  uncle. 

Augus'tus  Caes'ar,  the  first  Roman 
emperor.  He  was  born  a.  v.  c.  691,  b.  c. 
63.  His  father  was  Caius  Octavius;  his 
mother  Atia,  daughter  of  Julia  the  sis- 
ter of  C.  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  princi- 
pally educated  by  his  great-uncle  Julius 


Caesar,  and  was  made  his  heir.  After  his 
murder,  the  young  Octavius,  then  Caius 
Julius  Caesar  Octavianus,  was  taken  into 
the  Triumvirate  with  Antony  and  Lepidus, 
and,  after  the  removal  of  the  latter,  divided 
the  empire  with  Antony.  The  struggle  for 
the  supreme  power  was  terminated  in  fa- 
vor of  Octavianus  by  the  battle  of  Actium, 
B.  c.  31.  On  this  victory  he  was  saluted 
Imperator  by  the  senate,  who  conferred  on 
him  the  title  Augustus  (b.  c.  27).  The  first 
link  binding  him  to  N.  T.  history  is  his 
treatment  of  Herod  after  the  battle  of 
Actium.  That  prince,  who  had  espoused 
Antony's  side,  found  himself  pardoned, 
taken  into  favor  and  confirmed,  nay  even 
increased  in  his  power.  After  Herod's 
death  in  A.  d.  4,  Augustus  divided  his 
dominions  almost  exactly  according  to  his 
dying  directions,  among  his  sons.  Augus- 
tus died  in  Nola  in  Campania,  Aug.  19, 
A.  u.  c.  767,  A.  D.  14,  in  his  76th  year ;  but 
long  before  his  death  he  had  associated 
Tiberius  with  him  in  the  empire. 

Augustus'  Band  (Acts  xxvii.  1). 
[Army.] 

A'va,  a  place  in  the  empire  of  Assyria, 
apparently  the  same  as  Ivah  (2  K.  xvii. 
24). 

A  V  aran,  the  surname  of  Eleazar,  broth- 
er of  Judas  Maccabeus  (1  Mace.  ii.  5). 

A'ven.  1.  The  "  plain  of  Aven "  is 
mentioned  by  Amos  (i.  6)  in  his  denuncia- 
tion of  Syria  and  the  country  to  the  N.  of 
Palestine.  It  has  not  been  identified  with 
certainty.  2.  In  Hos.  x.  8  the  word  is 
clearly  an  abbreviation  of  Bethaven,  that 
is.  Bethel  (comp.  iv.  15,  &c.).  3.  The 
sacred  city  of  Heliopolis  or  On,  in  Egypt 
(Ez.  XXX.  17). 

A' vim.  A' vims,  or  A'vites.  1.  A 
people  among  the  early  inhabitants  of  Pal- 
estine, whom  we  meet  with  in  the  S.  W. 
corner  of  the  sea-coast,  whither  they  may 
have  made  their  way  northwards  from  the 
Desert.  The  only  notice  of  them  which 
has  come  down  to  us  is  contained  in  a 
remarkable  fragment  of  primeval  history 
preserved  in  Deut.  ii.  23.  It  is  a  curious 
fact  that  both  the  LXX.  and  Jerome  iden- 
tified the  Avvim  with  the  Hivites.  2.  The 
people  of  Avva,  among  the  colonists  who 
were  sent  by  the  king  of  Assyria  to  re- 
inhabit  the  depopulated  -cities  of  Israel  (2 
K.  xvii.  31). 

A'vith,  the  city  of  Hadad  ben-Bedad, 
one  of  the  kings  of  Edom  before  there  were 
kings  in  Israel  (Gen.  xxxvi.  35 ;  1  Chr.  i. 
46). 

Awl,  a  tool  of  which  we  do  not  know 
the  ancient  form.  The  only  notice  of  it  is 
in  connection  with  the  custom  of  boring 
the  ear  of  the  slave  (Ex.  xxi.  6 ;  Deut.  xv. 
17). 

AxO.  Seven  Hebrew  words  are  ren- 
dered "  axe  "  in  the  A.  V. :  the  one  of  most 


AZAL 


65 


AZAEIVII 


common  occurrence  being  Garzen,  from  a 
root  signifying  '-to  cut  or  sever,"  as 
'•  hatchet,"  from  "  hack,"  corresponds  to 
tlie  Lat.  securis.  It  consisted  of  a  head  of 
iron  (cf.  Is.  x.  34),  fastened,  with  thongs 
or  otherwise,  upon  a  handle  of  wood,  and 
so  liable  to  slip  off  (Deut.  xix.  5 ;  2  K.  vi. 
5).  It  was  used  for  felling  trees  (Deut.  xx. 
19),  and  also  for  shaping  the  wood  when 


Epyptian  Axe.    (British  Museum). 


felled,  perhaps  like  the  modern  adze  (IK. 
vi.  7).  The  "battle-axe"  (mappets,  Jer. 
li.  20)  was  probably,  as  its  root  indicates,  a 
heavy  mace  or  maul,  like  that  wliich  gave 
his  surname  to  Charles  Martel. 

A'zal,  a  name  only  occurring  in  Zech. 
xiv.  5.  It  is  mentioned  as  the  limit  to 
which  the  ravine  of  the  Mount  of  Olives 
will  extend  when  "  Jehovah  shall  go  forth 
to  fight." 

AzaU'ah,  the  father  of  Shaphan  the 
scribe  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  K.  xxii.  3 ; 
2  Chr.  xxxiv.  8). 

Azani'ah,  the  father  or  immediate  an- 
cestor of  Jeshua  the  Levite  in  the  time  of 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  9). 

Aza'rael,  a  Levite  musician  (Neh.  xii. 
36). 

Aza'reel.  1.  A  Korhite  who  joined 
David  in  his  retreat  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii. 
G).  2.  A  Levite  musician  of  the  family  of 
Heman  in  the  time  of  David,  1  Chr.  xxv. 
18 :  called  Uzziel  in  xxv.  4.  3.  Son  of 
Jerohara,  and  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
when  David  numbered  the  people  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  22).  4.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani, 
who  put  away  his  foreign  wife  on  the 
remonstrance  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  41).  5. 
Father  or  ancestor  of  Maasiai,  or  Amashai, 
a  priest  who  dwelt  in  Jerusalem  after  the 
return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi.  13,  comp.  1 
Chr.  ix.  12). 

Azari'ah,  a  common  name  in  Hebrew, 
and  especially  in  the  families  of  the  priests 
of  the  line  of  Eleazak,  whose  name  has 
precisely  the  same  meaning  as  Azariah. 
It  is  nearly  identical,  and  is  often  con- 
founded with  Ezra  as  well  as  with  Zerahiah 
and  Seraiah.  The  principal  persons  who 
bore  this  name  were  :  1.  Son  of  Ahimaaz  (1 
Chr.  vi.  9).  He  appears  from  1  K.  iv.  2, 
to  have  .succeeded  Zadok,  his  grandfather, 
in  the  high-priesthood,  in  the  reign  of  Sol- 
omon, Ahimaaz  having  died  before  Zadok. 
[Ahimaaz.]  To  him,  it  can  scarcely  be 
doubted,  instead  of  to  his  grandson,  Aza- 
riah the  son  of  Johanan,  belongs  the  notice 
in  1  Chr.  vi.  10.  Josephus  merely  men- 
tions Azarias  as  the  son  and  successor  of 
5 


Ahimaaz.  2.  A  chief  officer  of  Solomon's, 
the  son  of  Natlian,  perhaps  David's  grand- 
son (1  K.  iv.  5).  3.  Tenth  king  of  Judah, 
more  frequently  called  Uzziah  (2  K.  xiv 
21,  XV.  1,  6,  7,  8,  17,  23,  27;  1  Chr.  iii.  12)! 
4.  Son  of  Ethan,  of  the  sons  of  Zerah, 
where,  perhaps,  Zerahiah  is  the  more  prob- 
able reading  (1  Chr.  ii.  8).  5.  Son  of 
Jehu  of  the  family  of  the  Jerahmeelites, 
and  descended  from  Jarha  the  Egyptian 
slave  of  Sheshan  (1  Chr.  ii.  38,  39).  He 
was  probably  one  of  the  captains  of  hun- 
dreds in  the  time  of  Athaliah  mentioned  in 
in  2  Chr.  xxiii.  1 ;  and  there  called  the  son 
of  Obed.  This  fact  assigns  the  compila- 
tion of  the  genealogy  in  1  Chr.  ii.  3G-41  to 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  6.  The  son  of  Jo- 
hanan (1  Chr.  vi.  10).  He  must  have  been 
high-priest  in  the  reigns  of  Abijah  and  Asa. 
7.  Anotlier  Azariah  is  inserted  between 
Iliikiah,  in  Josiah's  reign,  and  Saraiah  who 
was  put  to  death  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  I 
Chr.  vi.  13,  14.  8.  Son  of  Zephaniah,  a 
Kohathite,  and  ancestor  of  Samuel  the 
prophet  (1  Chr.  vi.  3G).  Apparently  the 
same  as  Uzziah  in  ver.  24.  9.  Azariah, 
the  son  of  Oded  (2  Chr.  xv.  1),  called 
simply  Oded  in  ver.  8,  was  a  remarkable 
prophet  in  the  days  of  king  Asa,  and  a 
contemporary  of  Azariah  the  son  of  Jo- 
hanan the  high-priest,  and  of  Hanani  the 
seer.  10.  Son  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of 
Judah  (2  Chr.  xxi.  2).  11.  Another  sob 
of  Jehoshaphat,  and  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding (2  Chr.  xxi.  2).  12.  In  2  Chr. 
xxii.  6,  Azariah  is  a  clerical  error  for  Aha- 
ziah.  13.  Son  of  Jeroham,  one  of  the 
captains  of  Judah  in  the  time  of  Athaliah 
(2  Chr.  xxiii.  1).  14.  The  high-priest  in 
the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  whose 
name,  perhaps  from  this  circumstance,  is 
often  corrupted  into  Azariah  (2  K.  xiv.  21, 
XV.  1,  G,  7,  8,  &c.).  The  most  memorable 
event  of  his  life  is  that  which  is  recorded 
in  2  Chr.  xxvi.  17-20.  When  king  Uzziah, 
elated  by  his  great  prosperity  and  power, 
"transgressed  against  the  Lord  his  Grod, 
and  went  into  the  Temple  of  tho  Lord  to 
burn  incense  upon  the  altar  of  incense," 
Azariah  the  priest,  accompanied  by  eighty 
of  his  brethren,  went  in  boldly  after  him, 
and  withstood  him.  Azariah  was  contem- 
porary with  Isaiah  the  prophet,  and  with 
Amos  and  Joel,  and  doubtless  witnessed 
the  great  earthquake  in  Uzziah's  reign 
(Am.  i.  1;  Zech.  xiv.  5).  15.  Son  of  Jo- 
hanan, one  of  the  captsiins  of  Ephraim  ia 
the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  12),  who 
sent  back  the  captives  and  spoil  that  were 
taken  in  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Pekah. 
16.  A  Kohathite,  father  of  Joel  in  the 
reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12).  17. 
A  Merarite,  son  of  Jehalelel,  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12).  18-  The 
high-priest  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr. 
xxxi.   10,  13).     He  appears  to  have  co- 


AZAZ 


66 


AZZAN 


operated  zealously  with  the  king  in  that 
thorough  purification  of  the  Temple  and 
restoration  of  the  temple  services  -which  was 
80  conspicuous  a  feature  in  his  reign.  He 
succeeded  Urijah,  who  was  high-priest  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz.  19.  Son  of  Maaseiah, 
who  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  23,  24). 
20.  One  of  the  leaders  of  the  children  of 
the  province  who  went  up  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii.  7).  21.  One 
of  the  Levites  who  assisted  Ezra  in  instruct- 
ing the  people  in  the  knowledge  of  the  law 
(Neh.  viii.  7).  22.  One  of  the  priests  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
X.  2),  and  probably  the  same  with  the 
Azariah  who  assisted  in  the  dedication  of 
the  city  wall  (Neh.  xii.  33),  23.  Jer.  xliii. 
2  (Jezaniah).  24.  The  original  name 
of  Abed-nego  (Dan.  i.  6,  7,  11,  19).  He 
appears  to  have  been  of  the  seed-royal  of 
Judah. 

A'zaz,  a  Reuhenite,  father  of  Bela  (1 
Chr.  V.  8). 

Azazi'ah.  1.  A  Levite  musician  in  the 
reign  of  David,  appointed  to  play  the  harp 
in  the  service  which  attended  the  procession 
by  which  the  ark  was  brought  up  from  the 
house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chr.  xv.  21).  2. 
The  father  of  Hoshea,  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Ephraira  when  David  numbered  tlie  peo- 
ple (1  Chr.  xxvii.  20).  3.  One  of  the  Le- 
vites in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  who  had 
charge  of  the  tithes  and  dedicated  things  in 
the  Temple  under  Cononiah  and  Shimei  (2 
Chr.  xxxi.  13). 

Az'buk,  father  or  ancestor  of  Nehe- 
miah the  prince  of  part  of  Bethzur  (Neh. 
iii.  16).^ 

Aze'kall,  a  town  of  Judah,  with  de- 
pendent villages,  lying  in  the  Shefelah  or 
rich  agricultural  plain.  It  is  most  clearly 
defined  as  being  near  Shochoh  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  1)  ;  but  its  position  has  not  yet  been 
recognized. 

A'zel,  a  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii. 
87,  38,  ix.  43,  44). 

A'zem,  a  city  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  29),  afterwards  allotted  to 
Simeon  (xix.  3).     Elsewhere  it  is  Ezesi. 

Az'gad.  The  children  of  Azgad,  to  the 
number  of  1222  (2322  according  to  Neh. 
vii.  17),  were  among  the  laymen  who  re- 
turned with  Zorobabel  (Ezr.  ii.  12).  A 
second  detachment  of  110,  with  Johanan  at 
their  head,  accompanied  Ezra  in  the  second 
caravan  (Ezr.  viii.  12).  With  the  other 
heads  of  the  people  they  joined  in  the  cove- 
nant with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  15). 

Alziel,  a  Levite  (1  Chr.  xv.  20).  The 
name  is  a  shortened  form  of  Jaaziel  in 
ver.  18. 

Azi'za,  a  layman  of  the  family  of  Zattu, 
■who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  after  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon  (Ezr.  x.  27). 

Az'maveth.     1.  One  of  David's  mighty 


men,  a  native  of  Bahurim  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  31 ; 
1  Chr.  xi.  33),  and  therefore  probably  a 
Benjamite.  2.  A  descendant  of  Mephib- 
osheth,  or  Merib-baal  (1  Chr.  viii.  3G,  ix. 
42).  3.  The  father  of  Jeziel  and  Pelet, 
two  of  the  skilled  Benjamite  slingers  and 
archers  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr. 
xii.  3),  perhaps  identical  with  No.  1.  4. 
Overseer  of  tlie  royal  treasures  in  the  reign 
of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  25). 

Az'mavetll,  a  place  to  all  appearance 
in  Benjamin,  being  named  with  Anathoth, 
Kirjath-Jearim,  and  otiier  towns  belonging 
to  that  tribe.  (Ezr.  ii.  24).  The  name 
elsewhere  occurs  as  Beth-Azmaveth. 

Az'moiL,  a  place  named  as  being  on  the 
S.  boundary  of  the  Holy  Land,  apparently 
near  the  torrent  of  Egypt  (  Wadi  el-ArisK) 
(Num.  xxxiv.  4,  5  ;  Josh.  xv.  4).  It  has  not 
yet  been  identified. 

Az'noth-ta'bor,  the  ears  (i.  e.  possibly 
the  summits)  of  Tabor,  one  of  the  land- 
marks of  the  boundary  of  Naphtali  (Josh, 
xix.  34).  The  town,  if  town  it  be,  has 
hitherto  escaped  recognition. 

A'zor,  son  of  Eliakim,  in  the  line  of  our 
Lord  (Matt.  i.  13,  14). 

AZO'tUS.       [ASHDOD.] 

Az'riel.  1.  The  head  of  a  house  of 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  beyond  Jordan, 
a  man  of  renown  (1  Chr.  v.  24).  2.  A 
Naphtalite,  ancestor  of  Jerimoth  the  head 
of  the  tribe  at  the  time  of  David's  C3nsus 
(1  Chr.  xxvii.  19).  3.  The  father  of  Se- 
raiah,  an  officer  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
26). 

Az'rikam.  1.  A  descendant  of  Zerub- 
babel, and  son  of  Neariah  of  the  royal  line 
of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iii.  23).  2.  Eldest  son 
of  Azel,  and  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Chr. 
viii.  38,  ix.  44).  3.  A  Levite,  ancestor  of 
Shemaiah  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Nehe- 
miah (1  Chr.  ix.  14;  Neh.  xi.  15).  4.  Gov- 
ernor of  the  house,  or  prefect  of  the  palace, 
to  king  Ahaz,  who  was  slain  by  Zichri,  an 
Ephraimite  hero,  in  the  successful  invasion 
of  the  southern  kingdom  by  Pekah  king  of 
Israel  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  7). 

Azu/bah.  1.  Wife  of  Caleb,  son  of 
Hezron  (1  Chr.  ii.  18,  19).  2.  Mother  of 
king  Jehoshaphat  (1  K.  xxii.  42;  2  Chr. 
XX.  31). 

A'ZUT,  properly  Az'ZUr.  1.  A  Ben- 
jamite of  Gibeon,  and  father  of  Hananiah 
the  false  prophet  (Jer.  xxviii.  1).  2.  Father 
of  Jaazaniah,  one  of  the  princes  of  the  peo- 
ple against  whom  Ezekiel  was  commanded 
to  prophesy  (Ez.  xi.  1). 

Az'zah.  The  more  accurate  rendering 
of  the  name  of  the  well-known  Philistine 
city,  Gaza  (Deut.  ii.  23 ;  1  K.  iv.  24 ;  Jer. 
XXV.  20). 

Az'zan,  the  father  of  Paltiel  prince  of 
the  tribe  of  Issachar,  who  represented  his 
tribe  in  the  division  of  the  promised  land 
(Num.  xxxiv.  2G).     » 


AZZUR 


67 


BAAL 


Az'ztir,  one  of  the  heads  of  the  people 
who  signed  the  covenant  with  Neheniiah 
(Neh.  X.  17).  The  name  is  probably  that 
of  a  family,  and  in  Hebrew  is  the  same  as 
is  elsewhere  represented  by  Azdr. 


B. 


Ba'al.  1.  A  Reubenite,  whose  son  or 
descendant  Beerah  was  carried  off  by  the 
invading  army  of  Assyria  under  Tiglath- 
Pileser  (1  Chr.  v.  5).  2.  The  son  of  Je- 
hiel,  father  or  founder  of  Gibeon,  by  his  wife 
Maachah ;  brother  of  Kish.  and  grandfather 
of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  30,  ix.  36). 

Ba'al,  the  supreme  male  divinity  of  the 
Phoenician  and  Canaanitish  nations,  as 
AsHTORETH  was  their  supreme  female  di- 
Tinity.  Both  names  have  the  peculiarity 
of  being  used  in  the  plural,  and  it  seems 
certain  that  these  plurals  designate  not 
statues  of  the  divinities,  but  different  modi- 
fications of  the  divinities  themselves.  The 
plural  Baalim  is  found  frequently  alone. 
The  word  BaoJ,  is  in  Hebrew  a  common 
noun  of  frequent  occurrence,  having  the 
meaning  Lord,  not  so  much,  however,  in 
the  sense  of  Ruler  as  of  Master,  Owner, 
Possessor.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the 
very  high  antiquity  of  the  worship  of  Baal. 
We  find  it  established  amongst  the  Moab- 
ites  and  their  allies  the  Midianites  in  the 
time  of  Jloses  (Num.  xxii.4I),  and  through 
these  nations  the  Israelites  were  seduced 
to  the  worship  of  this  god  under  the  par- 
ticular form  of  Baal-Peor  (Num.  xxv.  3-18 ; 
Deut.  iv.  3).  In  the  times  of  the  kings 
the  worship  of  Baal  spread  greatly,  and 
together  with  that  of  Asherah  became  the 
religion  of  the  court  and  people  of  the  ten 
tribes  (1  K.  xvi.  31-33,  xviii.  19,  22).  And 
though  this  idolatry  was  occasionally  put 
down  (2  K.  iii.  2,  x.  28)  it  appears  never 
to  have  been  permanently  abolished  among 
them  (2  K.  xvii.  16).  In  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  also  Baal-worship  extensively  pre- 
vailed. The  worship  of  Baal  amongst  the 
Jews  seems  to  have  been  appointed  with 
much  pomp  and  ceremonial.  Temples 
were  erected  to  him  (1  K.  xvi.  32;  2  K. 
xi.  18) ;  his  images  were  set  up  (2  K.  x. 
26)  ;  his  altars  were  very  numerous  (Jer. 
xi.  13),  were  erected  particularly  on  lofty 
eminences  (1  K.  xviii.  20),  and  on  the 
roofs  of  houses  (Jer.  xxxii.  29) ;  there 
were  priests  in  great  numbers  (IK.  xviii. 
19),  and  of  various  classes  1^2  K.  x.  19) ; 
the  worshippers  appear  to  have  been  ar- 
rayed in  appropriate  robes  (2  K.  x.  22); 
the  worship  was  performed  by  burning  in- 
cense (Jer.  vii.  9)  and  offering  burnt  sacri- 
fices, which  occasionally  consisted  of  hu- 
man victims  (Jer.  xix.  5).  The  oflSciating  I 
priests  danced  with  frantic  shouts  around  i 


the  altar,  and  cut  themselves  with  kniveb 
to  excite  the  attention  and  compassion  of 
the  god  (1  K.  xviii.  26-28).  Throughout 
all  the  Phoenician  colonies  we  continually 
find  traces  of  the  worship  of  this  god;  nor 
need  we  hesitate  to  regard  the  Babylonian 
Bel  (Is.  xlvi.  1)  or  Bolus,  as  essentially 
identical  with  Baal,  though  perhaps  under 
some  modified  form.  Among  the  compounds 
of  Baal  which  appear  in  the  O.  T.  are  :  1. 
Ba'al-be'rith  (Judg.  viii.  33,  ix.  4).  The 
name  signifies  the  Covenant- Baal,  the  god 
who  comes  into  covenant  with  the  wor- 
shippers. 2.  Ba'al-ze'bub,  worshipped 
at  Ekron  (2  K.  i.  2,  3,  16).  The  meaning 
of  the  name  is  Baal  or  Lord  of  the  fly. 
The  name  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  in  the  well- 
known  form  Beelzebub.  3.  Ba'al-ha'- 
NAN.  1.  The  name  of  one  of  the  early 
kings  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  38,  39 ;  1  Chr. 
i.  49,  50).  2.  The  name  of  one  of  David's 
officers,  who  had  the  superintendence  of 
his  olive  and  sycamore  plantations  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  28).  4.  Ba'al-pe'or.  We  have 
already  referred  to  the  worship  of  this  god. 
The  narrative  (Num.  xxv.)  seems  clearly 
to"  show  that  this  form  of  Baal-worship  was 
connected  with  licentious  rites.  Baal-Peor 
was  identified  by  the  Eabbins  and  early 
fathers  with  Priapus. 

Baal,  geographical.  This  word  occurs 
as  the  prefix  or  suffix  to  the  names  of  sev- 
eral places  in  Palestine.  It  never  seems 
to  have  become  a  naturalized  Hebrew 
word ;  and  such  places  called  by  this  name 
or  its  compounds  as  can  be  identified,  were 
either  near  Phoenicia,  or  in  proximity  to 
some  other  acknowledged  seat  of  heathen 
worship.  Some  of  the  places  in  the  names 
of  which  Baal  forms  a  part  are  as  follows  : 
—  1.  Ba'al,  a  town  of  Simeon,  named  only 
in  1  Chr.  iv.  33,  which  from  the  parallel 
list  in  Josh.  xix.  seems  to  have  been  iden- 
tical with  Baalath-Beer.  2.  Ba'alah. 
(a.)  Another  name  for  Kirjath-Jearim, 
or  Kir,tath-Baal,  the  well-known  town, 
now  Kririet  el  Enah.  It  is  mentioned  in 
Josh.  XV.  9,  10 ;  1  Chr.  xiii.  6.  In  Josh. 
XV.  11,  it  is  called  Mount  Baalah,  and  in 
XV.  60,  and  xviii.  14,  Kirjath-Baal.  It 
would  seem  as  if  Baalah  were  the  earlier 
or  Canaanite  appellation  of  the  place.  In 
2  Sam.  vi.  2,  the  name  occurs  slightly  al- 
tered as  "Baale  of  Judah."  (J.)  A  town 
in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  29),  which 
in  xix.  3  is  callek  Balah,  and  in  the  paral- 
lel list  (1  Chr.  iv.  29)  Bilhaii.  3.  Ba'al- 
ATH,  a  town  of  Dan  named  with  Gibbethon, 
Gath-rimmon,  and  other  Philistine  places 
(Josh.  xix.  44).  4.  Ba'alath-be'er  == 
B4AL  1,  a  town  among  those  in  the  south 
part  of  Judah,  given  to  Simeon,  which  also 
bore  the  name  of  Ramatii-negeb,  or  "the 
height  ofthe  South"  (Josh.  xix.  8).  5.  Ba- 
al-gad, used  to  denote  the  mast  northern 
(Josh.  xi.  17,  xii.  7),  or  perhaps  north- 


BAxiLAH 


BABEL,  BABYLON 


■western  (xiii.  5),  point  to  which  Joshua's 
victories  extended.  It  was  in  all  probabil- 
ity a  Phoenician  or  Canaanite  sanctuary 
of  Baal  under  the  aspect  of  Gad,  or  For- 
tune. 6.  Ba'al-ha'mon,  a  place  at  which 
Solomon  had  a  vineyard,  evidently  of  great 
extent  (Cant.  viii.  11).  7.  Ba'al-ha'zor, 
a  place  "by  Ephraim,"  where  Absalom 
appears  to  have  had  a  sheep-farm,  and 
where  Amnon  was  murdered  (2  Sam.  xiii. 
23).  8.  Mount  Ba'al-hek'mon  (Judg. 
iii.  3),  and  simply  Baal-hermon  (1  Chr.  v. 
23).  This  is  usually  considered  as  a  dis- 
tinct place  from  Mount  Hermon;  but  we 
know  that  this  mountain  had  at  least  three 
names  (Deut.  iii.  9),  and  Baal-hermon  may 
have  been  a  fourth  in  use  among  the  Phoe- 
nician worshippers  of  Baal.  9.  Ba'al-me'- 
ON,  one  of  the  towns  which  were  built  by 
the  Eeubenites  (Num.  xxxii.  38),  and  to 
which  they  "  gave  other  names."  It  also 
occurs  in  1  Chr.  v.  8,  and  on  each  occasion 
with  Nebo.  In  the  time  of  Ezekiel  it  was 
Moabite,  one  of  the  cities  which  were  the 
"glory  of  the  country"  (Ez.  xxv.  9).  10. 
Ba'al-per'azim,  the  scene  of  a  victory  of 
David  over  the  Philistines,  and  of  a  great 
destruction  of  their  images  (2  Sam.  v.  20 ; 
1  Chr.  xiv.  11).  The  place  and  the  cir- 
cumstance appear  to  be  again  alluded  to  in 
Is.  xxviii.  21,  where  it  is  called  Mount  P. 
•  11.  Ba'al-shal'isha,  a  place  named  only 
in  2  K.  iv.  42 ;  apparently  not  far  from  Gil- 
gal  (comp.  ver.  38).  12.  Ba'al-ta'mar, 
a  place  named  only  in  Judg.  xx.  33,  as  near 
Gibeah  of  Benjamin.  The  palm-tree  (t&- 
•m&r)  of  Deborah  (iv.  5)  was  situated  some- 
where in  the  locality,  and  is  possibly  alluded 
to.  13.  Ba'al-ze'phon,  a  place  in  Egypt 
near  where  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Red 
Sea  (Ex.  xiv.  2,  9 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  7).  From 
the  position  of  Goshen  and  the  indications 
afforded  by  the  narrative  of  the  route  of  the 
Israelites,  we  place  Baal-zephon  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  a  little 
below  its  head,  which  at  that  time  was 
about  30  or  40  miles  northward  of  the  pres- 
ent head. 
Ba'alah.  [Baal,  No.  2.] 
Ba'alath.  [Baal,  Nos.  3,  4.] 
Ba'ale  of  Judah.  [Baal,  No.  2,  o.] 
Ba'ali  (Hos.  ii.  16).  [Baal.] 
Ba'alim.  [Baal.] 
Ba'alis,  king  of  the  Ammonites  at  the 
time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xl.  14). 

Ba'ana.  1.  The  son  of  Ahilud,  Solo- 
mon's commissariat  officer  in  Jezreel  and 
the  north  of  the  Jordan  valley  (1  K.  iv.  12). 
2.  Father  of  Zadok,  who  assisted  in  re- 
building the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Ne- 
liemiah  (Neh.  iii.  4)-. 

Ba'anah.  1.  Sonof  Rimmon,  aBenja- 
mite  who  with  his  brother  Rechab  mur- 
dered Ishbosheth.  For  this  they  were 
killed  by  David,  and  their  mutilated  bodies 


hung  up  over  the  pool  at  Hebron  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2,  5,  6,  9).  2.  A  Nctophatliitc,  father 
of  Helcb  or  Helcd,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  29;  1  Chr.  xi.  30).  3. 
Accurately  Baana,  son  of  Hushai,  Solomon's 
commissariat  officer  in  Asher  (1  K.  iv.  16)» 
4.  A  man  who  accompanied  Zorobabel  on 
his  return  from  the  captivity  (Ezr.  ii.  2 ; 
Neh.  vii.  7).  Possibly  the  same  person  is 
intended  in  Neh.  x.  27. 

Ba'ara,  one  of  the  wives  of  Sharahaim, 
a  descendant  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  viii.  8). 

Baasei'ah,  a  Gershonite  Levite,  one  of 
the  forefathers  of  Asaph  the  singer  (1  Chr. 
vi.  40  [25]). 

Ba'asha,  b.  c.  953-931,  third  sovereign 
of  the  separate  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  the 
founder  of  its  second  dynasty.  lie  was 
son  of  Ahijah  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  and 
conspired  against  king  Nadab,  son  of  Jero- 
boam, when  he  was  besieging  the  Philistine 
town  of  Gibbethon  (1  K.  xv.  27),  and  killed 
him  with  his  whole  family.  He  appears  to 
have  been  of  humble  origin  (IK.  xvi.  2). 
It  was  probably  in  the  13th  year  of  his  reign 
tliat  he  made  war  on  Asa,  and  began  to  for- 
tify Ramah.  He  was  defeated  by  the  un- 
expected alliance  of  Asa  with  Benhadad  I. 
of  Damascus.  Baasha  died  in  the  24th 
year  of  his  reign,  and  was  honorably  buried 
in  the  beautiful  city  of  Tirzah  (Cant.  vi.  4), 
which  he  had  made  his  capital  (1  K.  xvi. 
C;  2  Chr,  xvi.  1-6). 

Ba'bel,  Bab'ylon,  is  properly  the  capi- 
tal city  of  the  country,  which  is  called  in 
Genesis  Shinar,  and  in  the  later  books  Chal- 
daea,  or  the  land  of  the  Chaldaeans.  The  ar- 
chitectural remains  discovered  in  Southern 
Babylonia,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the 
monumental  records,  seem  to  indicate  that 
it  was  not  at  first  the  capital,  nor,  indeed,  a 
town  of  very  great  importance.  The  first 
rise  of  the  Chaldaean  power  was  in  the  re- 
gion close  upon  the  Persian  Gulf;  thence 
the  nation  spread  northwards  up  the  course 
of  the  rivers,  and  the  seat  of  government 
moved  in  the  same  direction,  being  finally 
fixed  at  Babylon,  perhaps  not  earlier  than 
B.  c.  1700.  1.  Topography  of  Babylon  — 
Ancient  descriptions  of  the  city.  — The  de- 
scriptions of  Babylon  which  have  come 
down  to  us  in  classical  writers  are  derived 
cliiefly  from  two  sources,  the  woi-ks  of  He- 
rodotus and  of  Ctesias.  According  to  the 
former,  the  city,  which  was  built  on  both 
sides  of  the  Euphrates,  formed  a  vast 
square,  enclosed  within  a  double  line  of 
high  walls,  the  extent  of  the  outer  circuit 
being  480  stades,  or  about  56  miles.  The 
entire  area  included  would  thus  have  been 
about  200  square  miles.  The  houses,  which 
were  frequently  three  or  four  stories  high, 
were  laid  out  in  straight  streets  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles.  In  each  divis- 
ion of  the  town  there  was  a  fortress  or 
stronghold,  consisting  in  the  one  case  of 


BABEL,   BABYLON 


69 


BABEL,  BABYLON 


the  royal  palace,  in  the  other  of  the  great 
temple  of  Belus.  The  two  portions  of  the 
city  were  united  by  a  bridge,  composed  of 
a  series  of  stone  piers  with  movable  plat- 
forms of  wood  stretching  from  one  pier  to 
another.  According  to  Ctesias  the  circuit 
of  the  city  was  not  480  but  360  stades,  — 
which  is  a  little  under  42  miles.  It  lay,  he 
says,  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
the  two  parts  were  connected  together  by  a 
stone  bridge  five  stades  (above  1000  yards) 
long,  and  30  feet  broad,  of  the  kind  de- 
scribed by  Herodotus.  At  either  extremity 
of  the  bridge  was  a  royal  palace,  tiiat  in  the 
eastern  city  being  the  more  magnificent  of 
the  two.  The  two  palaces  were  joined,  not 
only  by  the  bridge,  but  by  a  tunnel  under 
the  river !  Ctesias'  account  of  the  temple 
of  Belus  has  not  come  down  to  us.  In  ex- 
amining the  truth  of  these  descriptions,  we 
shall  most  conveniently  commence  from 
the  outer  circuit  of  the  town.  All  the  an- 
cient writers  appear  to  agree  in  the  fact  of 
a  district  of  vast  size,  more  or  less  inhab- 
ited,, having  been  enclosed  within  lofty 
walls,  and  included  under  the  name  of 
Babylon.  With  respect  to  the  exact  extent 
of  the  circuit  they  differ.  The  estimate  of 
Herodotus  and  of  Pliny  is  480  stades,  of 
Strabo  385,  of  Q.  Curtius  368,  of  Clitarchus 
365,  and  of  Ctesias  360  stades.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  here  we  have  merely  the  moder- 
ate variations  to  be  expected  in  independent 
measurements,  except  in  the  first  of  the 
numbers.  Perhaps  the  true  explanation  is 
that  Herodotus  spoke  of  the  outer  wall, 
which  could  be  traced  in  his  time.  Taking 
the  lowest  estimate  of  the  extent  of  the 
circuit,  we  shall  have  for  the  space  within 
the  rampart  an  area  of  above  100  square 
miles ;  nearly  five  times  the  size  of  Lon- 
don !  It  is  evident  that  this  vast  space 
cannot  have  been  entirely  covered  with 
houses.  With  regard  to  the  height  and 
breadth  of  the  walls  there  is  nearly  as  much 
difference  of  statement  as  with  regard  to 
their  extent.  The  gates  and  walls  are  alike 
mentioned  in  Scripture ;  the  height  of  the 
one  and  the  breadth  of  the  other  being 
specially  noticed  (Jer.  li.  58 ;  comp.  1.  15, 
and  li.  53).  II.  Present  siate  of  the  ruins. 
—  About  five  miles  above  Ililah,  on  the 
opposite  or  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  oc- 
curs a  series  of  artificial  mounds  of  enor- 
mous size.  •  They  consist  chiefly  of  three 
great  masses  of  building,  —  the  high  pile 
of  unbaked  brickwork  called  by  Rich  '  Mu- 
jellibe,'  but  which  is  known  to  the  Arabs  as 
'■Bahil;'  the  building  denominated  the 
*  Kasr'  or  palace ;  and  a  lofty  mound,  upon 
which  stands  the  modern  tomb  of  Amrdrti- 
ihn-Mh.  On  the  west,  or  right  bank,  the 
remains  are  very  slight  and  scanty.  Scat- 
tered over  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates,  are  a  number  of  remarkable 
mounds,  usually  standing  single,  which  are 


plainly  of  the  same  date  with  the  great  mass 
of  ruins  upon  the  river  bank.  Of  these,  by 
far  the  most  striking  is  the  vast  ruin  called 
the  Birs-Nirarud,  which  many  regard  as 
the  tower  of  Babel,  situated  about  six  miles 
to  the  S.  W.  of  Hillah.  [Babel,  Tower 
OF.]  III.  Identification  of  sites.  —  The 
great  mound  of  Babil  is  probably  the  an- 
cient temple  of  Belus.  The  mound  of  the 
Kasr  marks  the  site  of  the  great  Palace  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  The  mound  of  A^nrdm 
is  thought  by  M.  Oppert  to  represent  the 
•'  hanging  gardens  "  of  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
but  most  probably  it  represents  the  ancient 
palace,  coeval  with  Babylon  itself,  of  which 
Nebuchadnezzar  speaks  in  his  inscriptions 
as  adjoining  his  own  more  magnificent  res- 
idence. The  most  remarkable  fact  con- 
nected with  the  magnificence  of  Babylon, 
is  the  poorness  of  the  material  with  which 
such  wonderful  results  were  produced. 
With  bricks  made  from  the  soil  of  the  coun- 
try, in  many  parts  an  excellent  clay,  and  at 
first  only  "slime  for  mortar"  (Gen.  xi.  3), 
were  constructed  edifices  of  so  vast  a  size 
that  they  still  remain  among  the  most  enor- 
mous ruins  in  the  world.  IV.  History  of 
Babylon.  —  Scripture  represents  the  "  be- 
ginning of  the  kingdom"  as  belonging  to 
the  time  of  Nimrod,  the  grandson  of  Ham 
(Gen.  X.  6-10).  The  most  ancient  inscrip- 
tions appear  to  show  that  the  primitive  in- 
habitants of  the  country  were  really  Cushite, 
i.  e.  identical  in  race  with  the  early  inhab- 
itants of  Southern  Arabia  and  of  Ethiopia. 
The  early  annals  of  Babylon  are  filled  by 
Berosus,  the  native  historian,  with  three 
dynasties ;  one  of  49  Chaldean  kings,  who 
reigned  458  years  ;  another  of  9  Arab  kings, 
who  reigned  245  years ;  and  a  third  of  49 
Assyrian  monarchs,  who  held  dominion  for 
526  years.  The  line  of  Babylonian  kings 
becomes  exactly  known  to  us  from  the  year 
B.  c.  747.  The  "  Canon  of  Ptolemy"  gives 
us  the  succession  of  Babylonian  monarchs, 
with  the  exact  length  of  the  reign  ^of  each, 
from  the  year  b.  c.  747,  when  Nabonassar 
mounted  the  throne,  to  b.  c.  331,  when  the 
last  Persian  king  was  dethroned  by  Alex- 
ander. Of  the  earlier  kings  of  the  Canon, 
the  only  one  worthy  of  notice  is  Mardocem- 
palus  (b.  c.  721),  the  MEnoDACH-BALADAN 
of  Scripture,  but  it  is  not  till  we  come  to 
Nabopolassar,  the  father  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, that  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Baby- 
lon commences.  On  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
(b.  c.  625)  Babylon  became  not  only  an 
independent  kingdom,  but  an  empire.  The 
city  was  taken  by  a  surprise  (b.  c.  539),  as 
Jeremiah  had  prophesied  (li.  31),  by  an 
army  of  Medes  and  Persians  under  Cyrus, 
as  intimated  170  years  earlier  by  Isaiah 
(xxi.  1-9),  and,  as  Jeremiah  had  also  fore- 
shown (li.  39),  during  a  festival.  Accord- 
ing to  the  book  of  Daniel,  it  would  seem  as 
if  Babylon  was  taken,  not  by  Cyrus,  king 


BABEL,   TOWER   OF 


70 


BACA 


of  Persia,  but  by  a  Median  king,  named 
Darius  (v.  31).  There  is,  however,  suffi- 
cient indication  tliat  "Darius  tlie  Mede" 
was  not  the  real  conqueror,  but  a  monarch 
with  a  certain  delegated  authority  (see  Dan. 
V.  81,  and  ix.  1).  With  the  conquest  by 
Cyrus  commenced  the  decay  and  ruin  of 
Baljylon,  though  it  continued  a  royal  resi- 
dence through  the  entire  period  of  the  Per- 
sian empire.  The  defences  and  public 
buildings  suffered  grievously  from  neglect 
during  the  long  period  of  peace  which  fol- 
lowed the  reign  of  Xerxes.  After  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  removal  of  the 
seat  of  empire  to  Antioch  under  the  Seleu- 
cidae  gave  the  finisliing  blow  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  place.  Since  then  Babylon 
has  been  a  quarry  from  which  all  the  tribes 
in  the  vicinity  have  derived  the  bricks  with 
which  they  have  built  their  cities.  The 
"  great  city,"  "  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees' 
excellency,"  has  thus  emphatically  "  be- 
come heaps"  (Jer.  li.  37). 

Ba'bel,  Tower  of.  The  "tower  of 
Babel "  is  only  mentioned  once  in  Scripture 
(Gen.  xi.  4,  5),  and  then  as  incomplete.  It 
was  built  of  bricks,  and  the  "  slime  "  used 
for  mortar  was  probably  bitumen.  Such 
authorities  as  we  possess  represent  the 
building  as  destroyed  soon  atler  its  erec- 
tion. When  the  Jews,  however,  were  car- 
ried captive  into  Babylonia,  they  were 
struck  with  the  vast  magnitude  and  peculiar 
character  of  certain  of  the  Babylonian  tem- 
ples, in  one  or  other  of  which  they  thought 
to  recognize  the  very  tower  itself.  The  pre- 
dominant opinion  was  in  favor  of  the  great 
temple  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa,  the  modern 
Birs-Nimrud.  But  the  Birs-Nimrud, 
though  it  cannot  be  the  tower  of  Babel  itself, 
may  well  be  taken  to  show  the  probable  shape 
and  character  of  the  edifice.  This  building 
appears  to  have  been  a  sort  of  oblique  pyr- 
amid built  in  seven  receding  stages.  "  Upon 
a  platform  of  crude  brick,  raised  a  few  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  alluvial  plain,  was 
built  of  burnt  brick  the  first  or  basement 
stage,  —  an  exact  square,  272  feet  each 
way,  and  26  feet  in  perpendicular  height. 
Upon  this  stage  was  erected  a  second,  230 
feet  each  way,  and  likewise  26  feet  high; 
which,  however,  was  not  placed  exactly  in 
the  middle  of  the  first,  but  considerably 
nearer  to  the  south-western  end,  which  con- 
stituted the  back  of  the  building.  The  other 
stages  were  arranged  similarly;  the  third 
being  188  feet,  and  again  26  feet  high ;  the 
fourth,  146  feet  square,  and  15  feet  high ; 
the  fifth  104  feet  square,  and  the  same 
height  as  the  fourth ;  the  sixth  62  feet 
square,  and  again  the  same  height ;  and  the 
seventh  20  feet  square,  and  once  more  the 
same  height.  On  the  seventh  stage  there 
•was  probably  placed  the  ark  or  tabernacle, 
which  seems  to  have  been  again  15  feet 
high,  and  must  have  nearly,  if  not  entirely, 


covered  the  top  of  the  seventh  story.  The 
entire  original  hciglit,  allowing  three  feet  for 
the  platform,  would  thus  have  been  156  feet, 
or,  without  the  platform,  153  feet.  The 
whole  formed  a  sort  of  oblique  pyramid,  the 
gentler  slope  facing  the  N.  E.,  and  the 
steeper  inclining  to  the  S.  W.  On  the 
N.  E.  side  was  the  grand  entrance,  and  here 
stood  the  vestibule,  a  separate  building,  the 
debris  from  which  having  joined  those  from 
the  temple  itself,  fill  up  the  intermediate 
space,  and  very  remarkably  prolong  the 
mound  in  this  direction  "  (liawlinson's  Jle- 
rodotus,  vol.  ii.  pp.  582-3). 

Bab'ylon.  The  occurrence  of  this 
name  in  1  Pet.  v.  13  has  given  rise  to  a 
variety  of  conjectures,  which  may  be  briefly 
enumerated.  —  1.  That  Babylon  tropically 
denotes  -liome.  —  2.  Some  take  Babylon, 
with  as  little  reason,  to  mean  Jerusalem. — 

3.  Bar-Hebraeus  understands  by  it  the 
house  in  Jerusalem  where  the  Apostles 
were  assembled  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost. — 

4.  Others  place  it  on  the  Tigris,  and  iden- 
tify it  with  Seleucia  or  Ctcsiphon,  but  for 
this  there  is  no  evidence.  The  two  theories 
which  remain  are  wortliy  of  more  consid- 
eration. —  5.  That  by  Babylon  is  intended 
the  small  fort  of  that  name  which  formed 
the  boundary  between  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt,  the  modern  Bahoul.  —  6.  The  most 
natural  supposition  of  all  is  that  by  Baby- 
lon is  intended  the  old  Babylon  of  Assyria, 
which  was  largely  inhabited  by  Jews  at  the 
time  in  question. 

Bab'yloU)  iii  t^i®  Apocalypse,  is  the 
symbolical  name  by  which  Kome  is  denoted 
(Rev.  xiv.  8,  xvii.,  xviii.).  The  power  of 
Rome  was  regarded  by  the  later  Jews  as 
that  of  Babylon  by  their  forefathers  (comp. 
Jer.  li.  7  with  Rev.  xiv.  8),  and  hence, 
whatever  the  people  of  Israel  be  under- 
stood to  symbolize,  Babylon  represents  the 
antagonistic  principle. 

Babylo'nians,  the  inhabitants  of  Bab- 
ylon, a  race  of  Shemitic  origin,  who  were 
among  the  colonists  planted  in  the  cities  of 
Samaria  by  the  conquering  Assyrians  (Ezr. 
iv.  9). 

Babylonish  Garment,  literally  'robe 
of  Shinar'  (Josh.  vii.  21).  An  ample  robe, 
probably  made  of  the  skin  or  fur  of  an 
animal  (comp.  Gen.  xxv.  25),  and  orna- 
mented with  embroidery,  or  perhaps  a 
variegated  garment  with  figures  inwoven  in 
the  fiishion  for  which  the  Babylonians  were 
celebrated. 

Ba'ca,  The  Valley  of,  a  valley  in 
Palestine,  through  which  the  exiled  Psalm- 
ist sees  in  vision  the  pilgrims  passing  in 
their  march  towards  the  sanctuary  of  Jeho- 
vah at  Zion  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  G).  That  it  was  a 
real  locality  is  most  probable,  from  the  use 
of  the  definite  article  before  the  name. 
The  rendering  of  the  Targum  is  Gehenna, 
1.  e.  the  Ge-Hinnom  or  ravine  below  Mount 


BACCHIDES 


71  BALAAM 


Zion.  This  locality  agrees  well  with  the 
mention  of  Becaim  (A.  V.  "mulberry") 
trees  in  2  Sam.  v.  23. 

Bac'chides,  a  friend  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  and  governor  of  Mesopotamia 
(1  Mace.  vii.  8),  who  was  commissioned  by 
Demetrius  Soter  to  investigate  the  charges 
wliich  Alcimus  preferred  against  Judas 
Maccabaeus. 

Bach'rites,  The,  the  family  of  Bechek, 
son  of  Ephraim  (Num.  xxvi.  35). 

Badger-Skins.  There  is  much  ob- 
scurity as  to  the  meaning  of  the  word 
ituJiash,  rendered  "  badger  "  in  our  A.  V. 
(Ex.  XXV.  5,  XXXV.  7,  &c.) ;  the  ancient 
versions  seem  nearly  all  agreed  that  it 
denotes  not  an  animal,  but  a  color,  either 
black  or  sky-blue.  The  badger  is  not 
found  in  the  Bible  lands.  The  Arabic 
duchash  or  iuchash  denotes  a  dolphin,  but 
in  all  probability  is  not  restricted  in  its 
application,  but  may  refer  to  either  a  seal 
or  a  cetacean.  The  skin  of  tlie  Ilalicore 
from  its  hardness  would  be  well  suited  for 
making  soles  for  shoes  (Ez.  xvi.  10),  and 
it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Arabs  near 
Cape  Mussendum  employ  the  skins  of  these 
animals  for  a  similar  purpose.  The  Hali- 
core  Tahernaculi  is  found  in  the  Red  Sea, 
and  on  the  coral  banks  of  the  Abyssinian 
coast.  Perhaps,  however,  iachash  may 
denote  a  seal,  the  skin  of  which  animal 
would  suit  all  the  demands  of  the  Scrip- 
tural allusions. 

Bag  is  the  rendering  of  several  words 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  1.  Char- 
iiim,  the  "  bags  "  in  which  Naaman  bound 
up  the  two  talents  of  silver  for  Gehazi  (2 
K.  V.  23).  The  word  only  occurs  besides 
in  Is.  iii.  22,  and  there  denotes  the  reticules 
carried  by  the  Hebrew  ladies.  2.  Cis,  a 
bag  for  carrying  weights  (Deut.  xxv.  13 ; 
Prov.  xvi.  11;  Mic.  vi.  11),  also  used  as  a 
purse  (Prov.  i.  14;  Is.  xlvi.  6).  3.  Celt, 
in  Gen.  xlii.  25,  is  tlie  "sack"  in  which 
Jacob's  sons  carried  the  corn  which  they 
brought  from  Egypt,  and  in  1  Sam.  ix.  7, 
xxi.  6,  it  denotes  a  bag,  or  wallet,  for  carry- 
ing food.  The  shepherd's  "  bag  "  which 
David  had  seems  to  have  been  worn  by  him 
as  necessary  to  his  calling,  and  was  proba- 
bly, from  a  comparison  of  Zech.  xi.  15,  16 
(where  A.  V.  "  instruments  "  is  the  same 
word),  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the 
lambs  which  were  unable  to  walk  or  were 
lost,  and  contained  materials  for  healing 
such  as  were  sick  and  binding  up  tliose 
that  were  broken  (comp.  Ez.  xxxiv.  4, 16). 
4.  Tsirdr,  properly  a  "  bundle  "  (Gen.  xlii. 
35;  1  Sam.  xxv.  29),  appears  to  have  been 
used  by  travellers  for  carrying  money  dur- 
ing a  long  journej'  (Prov.  vii.  20 ;  Hag.  i. 
6 ;  comp.  I^uke  xii.  33).  The  "  bag  "  which 
Judas  carried  was  probably  a  small  box  or 
chest  (John  xii.  6,  xiii.  29).  The  Greek 
word  is   the   same  as   tliat   used  in  the 


LXX.  for  "  chest"  in  2  Chr.  xxiv.  8.  10. 
11.  '      • 

Baha'rumite,  The.  [Bahcrim.] 

Bahu'rim,  a  village,  the  slight  notices 
remaining  of  which  connect  it  almost 
exclusively  with  the  flight  of  David  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  5).  It  was  apparently  on,  or  close  to 
the  road  leading  up  from  the  Jordan  valley 
to  Jerusalem,  and  must  have  been  very 
near  the  south  boundary  of  Benjamin.  Dr. 
Barclay  conjectures  that  it  lay  where  somo 
ruins  still  exist  close  to  a  Wady  Ruwahyj 
which  runs  in  a  straight  course  for  3  miles 
from  Olivet  directly  towards  Jordan. 

Ba'jith  ("  the  house  "),  referring  to  the 
"  temple  "  of  the  false  gods  of  Moab,  as 
opposed  to  the  "  high  places  "  in  the  same 
sentence  (Is.  xv.  2,  and  compare  xvi.  12). 

Bakbak'kar,  a  Levite,  apparently  a 
descendant  of  Asaph  (1  Chr.  ix.  15). 

Bak'buk.  "Children  of  Bakbuk" 
were  among  the  Nethinim  who  returned 
from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  51 ; 
Neh.  vii.  53). 

Bakbuki'ah.  1.  A  Levite  in  time  of 
Nehemiah  (Xeh.  xi.  17;  xii.  9).  2.  A  Le- 
vite porter,  apparently  the  same  as  the 
preceding  (Neh.  xii.  25). 

Balaam,  the  son  of  Beor,  a  man  en- 
dowed with  the  gift  of  prophecy  (Num. 
xxii.  5).  He  belonged  to  the  Midianites, 
and  perhaps  as  the  prophet  of  his  people 
possessed  the  same  authority  that  Moses 
did  among  the  Israelites.  At  any  rate  he 
is  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  the  five 
kings  of  Midian,  apparently  sis  a  person  of 
the  same  rank  (Num.  xxxi.  8 ;  cf.  xxxi. 
16).  He  seems  to  have  lived  at  Pethor, 
which  is  said  at  Deut.  xxiii.  4  to  have  been 
a  city  of  Mesopotamia.  He  himself  speaks 
of  being  "  brought  from  Aram  out  of  the 
mountains  of  the  East"  (Num.  xxiii.  7). 
Balaam  is  one  of  those  instances  which 
meet  us  in  Scripture  of  persons  dwelling 
among  heathens  but  possessing  a  certain 
knowledge  of  the  one  true  God.  When 
the  Israelites  were  encamped  in  the  plains 
of  Moab,  Balak,  the  king  of  Moab,  sent 
for  Balaam  to  curse  them.  Balaam  was 
prohibited  by  God  from  going.  The  king 
of  Moab,  however,  sent  again  to  him.  The 
prophet  again  refused,  but  was  at  length 
allowed  to  go.  Balaam  therefore  proceeded 
on  his  journey  with  the  messengers  of 
Balak.  But  God's  anger  was  kindled  at 
this  manifestation  of  determined  self-will, 
and  the  angel  of  the  Lord  stood  in  tJje  way 
for  an  adversary  against  him.  "  The  dumb 
ass,  speaking  with  man's  voice,  forbade  the 
madness  of  the  prophet "  (2  Pet.  ii.  16). 
Balaam  predicted  a  magnificent  career  for 
the  people  whom  he  was  called  to  curse, 
but  he  nevertheless  suggested  to  the  Moab- 
ites  the  expedient  of  seducing  them  to  com- 
mit fornication.  The  efi'ect  of  this  i« 
recorded  in  ch.  xxv.    A  batUe  was  after* 


BALAC 


72 


BAPTISM 


wards  fought  against  the  Midianites,  in 
which  Balaam  sided  with  them  and  was 
slain  by  the  sword  of  the  people  whom  he 
had  endeavored  to  curse  (Num.  xxxi.  8). 

Ba'lac,  Rev.  ii.  U.     [Balak.] 

Baradan.    [Merodacu-Baladan.] 

Ba'lah,  Josh.  xix.  3.  [Baal,  Geogr. 
No.  2.  i.] 

Ba'lak,  son  of  Zippor,  king  of  the  Moab- 
ites,  at  the  time  when  the  children  of  Is- 
rael were  bringing  their  journeyings  in  the 
wilderness  to  a  close.  Balak  entered  into 
a  league  with  Midian  and  hired  Balaam  to 
curse  the  Israelites ;  but  his  designs  were 
frustrated  in  the  manner  recorded  in  Num. 
xxii.-xxiv. 

Baramo.     [Baal,  Geogr.  No.  6.] 

Baldness.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
baldness,  viz.  artificial  and  natural.  The 
latter  seems  to  have  been  uncommon,  since 
it  exposed  people  to  public  derision,  and  is 
perpetually  alluded  to  as  a  mark  of  squalor 
and  misery  (2  K.  ii.  23 ;  Is.  iii.  24,  xv.  2 ; 
Jer.  xlvii.  5 ;  Ez.  vii.  18,  &c.)  In  Lev. 
xiii.  29,  &c.,  very  careful  directions  are 
given  to  distinguish  "the  plague  upon  the 
head  and  beard  "  from  mere  natural  bald- 
ness which  is  pronounced  to  be  clean,  ver. 
40.  Artificial  baldness  marked  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  Nazarite's  vow  (Acts  xviii.  18 ; 
Num.  vi.  9),  and  was  a  sign  of  mourning. 

Baltn  (Heb.  tzoi-i,  izeri)  occurs  in  Gen. 
xxxvii.  25,  xliii.  11;  Jer.  viii.  22,  xlvi.  11, 
Ii.  8 ;  and  Ez.  xxvii.  17.  It  is  impossible 
to  identify  it  with  any  certainty.  It  may 
represent  the  gum  of  the  Pisiacia  lentiscus, 
or  that  of  the  Balsamodendron  opohalsa- 
vnum.  [Spices;  Mastick.]  Hasselquist 
has  given  a  description  of  the  true  balsam- 
tree  of  Mecca.  He  says  that  the  exudation 
from  the  plant  "  is  of  a  yellow  color, 
and  pellucid.  It  has  a  most  fragrant 
smell,  which  is  resinous,  balsamic,  and 
very  agreeable.  It  is  very  tenacious  or 
glutinous,  sticking  to  the  fingers,  and  may 
be  drawn  into  long  threads." 

Ba'mah  (lit.  "high-place").  This 
word  appears  in  its  Hebrew  form  only  in 
one  passage  (Ez.  xx.  29),  very  obscure, 
and  full  of  the  play  upon  words  so  dear  to 
the  Hebrew  poets,  so  difficult  for  us  to 
appreciate  :  "What  is  the  high-place  where- 
unto  ye  hie  f  and  tlie  name  of  it  is  called 
Bamah  unto  this  day." 

Ba'moth-Ba'al,  a  sanctuary  of  Baal  in 
the  country  of  Moab  (Josh.  xiii.  17),  which 
is  probably  mentioned  in  Num.  xxi.  19, 
■under  the  shorter  form  of  Bamoth,  or  Ba- 
moth-in-the-ravine  (20),  and  again  in  Is. 
XV.  2. 

Ba'ni.  1.  A  Gadite,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  30).  2.  A  Le- 
■vite  of  the  line  of  Merari,  and  forefather  to 
Ethan  (1  Chr.  vi.46).  3.  A  manof  Judah 
of  the  line  of  Pharez  (1  Chr.  ix.  4).  4. 
"  Children  of  Bani "   returned  from  cap- 


tivity with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  10 ;  Neh. 
X.  14;  Ezr.  x.  29,  34;  1  Esd.  v.  12). 
[BiNNUi,  Manx.]  5.  An  Israelite  "  of  the 
sons  of  Bani"  (Ezr.  x.  38).  6.  A  Levite 
(Neh.  iii.  17).  7.  A  Levite  (Neh.  viii.  7; 
ix.  4,  5;  X.  13).  8.  Another  Levite,  of 
the  sons  of  Asaph  (Neh.  xi.  22). 

Banq^uets,  among  the  Hebrews,  were 
not  only  a  means  of  social  enjoyment,  but 
were  a  part  of  the  observance  of  religious 
festivity.  At  the  three  solemn  festivals  the 
family  also  had  its  domestic  feast  (Deut. 
xvi.  11).  Probably  both  males  and  females 
went  up  (1  Sam.  i.  9)  together,  to  hold 
the  festival.  Sacrifices,  both  ordinary  and 
extraordinary  (Ex.  xxxiv.  15 ;  Judg.  xvi. 
23),  included  a  banquet,  and  Eli's  sons 
made  this  latter  the  prominent  part.  Birth- 
day-banquets are  only  mentioned  in  the 
cases  of  Pharaoh  and  Herod  (Gen.  xl. 
20 ;  Matt.  xiv.  6).  The  usual  time  of  the 
banquet  was  the  evening,  and  to  begin  early 
was  a  mark  of  excess  (Is.  v.  11;  Eccl.  x. 
16).  The  most  essential  materials  of  the 
banqueting-room,  next  to  the  viands  and 
wine,  which  last  was  often  drugged  with 
spices  (Prov.  ix.  2 ;  Cant.  viii.  2),  were 
perfumed  unguents,  garlands  or  loose  flow- 
ers, white  or  brilliant  robes ;  after  these, 
exhibitions  of  music,  singers,  and  dancers, 
riddles,  jesting  and  merriment  (Is.  xxviii. 
1 ;  Wisd.  ii.  7 ;  2  Sam.  xix.  35  ;  Is.  xxv.  6, 
V.  12;  Judg.  xiv.  12;  Neh.  viii.  10;  Eccl. 
X.  19;  Matt.  xxii.  11;  Am.  vi.  5,  6;  Luke 
XV.  25).  The  posture  at  table  in  early 
times  was  sitting  (1  Sam.  xvi.  11,  xx.  5, 
18),  and  the  guests  were  ranged  in  order  of 
dignity  (Gen.  xliii.  33 ;  1  Sara.  ix.  22)  :  the 
words  which  imply  the  recumbent  posture 
belong  to  the  N.  T.  The  separation  of  the 
women's  banquet  was  not  a  Jewish  custom 
(Esth.  i.  9). 

Baptism.  I.  It  is  well  known  that 
ablution  or  bathing  was  common  in  most 
ancient  nations  as  a  preparation  for  prayers 
and  sacrifice  or  as  expiatory  of  sin.  There 
is  a  natural  connection  in  the  mind  between 
the  thought  of  physical  and  that  of  spirit- 
ual pollution.  In  warm  countries  this  con- 
nection is  probably  even  closer  than  in 
colder  climates ;  and  hence  the  frequency 
of  ablution  in  the  religious  rites  tlirough- 
out  the  east.  II.  The  history  of  Israel 
and  the  Law  of  Moses  abound  with  such 
lustrations  (Gen.  xxxv.  2;  Ex.  xix.  10; 
Lev.  XV.,  xvii.  15.  xxii.  4,  C,  xvi.  26,  28; 
Num.  xix.  10).  It  was  natural,  that  of  all 
people,  the  priests  most  especially  should 
be  required  to  purify  themselves  in  this 
manner.  The  consecration  of  the  high- 
priest  deserves  especial  notice.  It  was 
first  by  b.aptism,  then  by  unction,  and  lastly 
by  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix.  4,  xl.  12 ;  Lev.  viii.). 
From  the  Gospel  history  we  learn  that  at 
that  time  ceremonial  washings  had  been 
greatly  multiplic »  by  tradiuons  of  the  doc* 


BAPTISM 


73 


BAPTISM 


tors  and  elders  (see  Mark  vii.  3,  4).  The 
most  important  and  probably  one  of  the 
earliest  of  these  traditional  customs  was 
the  baptizing  of  proselytes.  III.  Tlie 
baptism  of  John.  —  These  usages  of  the 
Jews  will  account  for  the  readiness  with 
which  all  men  flocked  to  the  baptism  of 
Jolm  the  Baptist.  There  has  been  some 
imoertainty  as  to  the  nature  of  John's  bap- 
tism and  its  spiritual  significance.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  kind  of  transition 
from  the  Jewish  baptism  to  the  Christian. 
The  distinction  between  John's  baptism  and 
Christian  baptism  appears  in  the  case 
of  ApoUos  (Acts  xviii.  26,  27),  and  of  the 
disciples  at  Ephesus,  mentioned  Acts  xix. 
1-6.  We  cannot  but  draw  from  this  his- 
tory the  inference  that  in  Christian  baptism 
there  was  a  deeper  spiritual  significance. 
IV.  The  Baptism  of  Jesus.  —  Plainly  the 
most  important  action  of  John  as  a  baptist 
was  his  baptism  of  Jesus,  which  was  His 
formal  setting  apart  for  His  ministry,  and 
was  a  most  important  portion  of  His  con- 
secration to  be  the  High  Priest  of  God.  He 
was  just  entering  on  the  age  of  thirty  (Luke 
ill.  23),  the  age  at  which  the  Levites  began 
t^.eir  ministry  and  the  rabbis  their  teaching. 
It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the 
consecration  of  Aaron  to  the  high-priest- 
hood was  by  baptism,  unction,  and  sacrifice 
(see  Lev.  viii.).  All  these  were  undergone 
by  Jesus.  Baptism  was  the  beginning  of 
coasecration ;  unction  was  the  immediate 
consequent  upon  the  baptism ;  and  sacri- 
fice was  the  completion  of  the  initiation, 
BO  that  He  was  thenceforth  perfected,  or 
fully  consecrated  as  a  Priest  for  evermore 
(Heb.  vii.  28).  V.  Baptism  of  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ.  —  Whetlier  our  Lord  ever 
baptized  has  been  doul)ted.  The  only  pas- 
sage which  may  distinctly  bear  on  the 
question  is  John  iv.  1,  2,  where  it  is  said 
*'  that  Jesus  made  and  baptized  more  dis- 
ciples than  John,  tliough  Jesus  Himself 
baptized  not,  but  His  disciples."  We  neces- 
sarily infer  from  it.  that,  as  soon  as  our 
Lord  began  His  ministry,  and  gathered  to 
Him  a  company  of  disciples,  He,  like  John 
the  Baptist,  admitted  into  that  company  by 
the  administration  of  baptism.  After  the 
resurrection,  Ijaptism  became  the  initiatory 
rite  of  the  Cliristian  Church,  as  circumcis- 
ion was  the  initiatory  rite  of  Judaism.  VI. 
The  Types  of  Baptism.  —  Baptism  is  com- 
pared to  the  Flood  by  which  Noah  was 
saved  (1  Pet.  iii.  21);  to  the  passage  of 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  shadowing  of  the  mi- 
raculous cloud  (1  Cor.  X.  1,  2);  to  circum- 
cision (Col.  ii.  11);  and  to  death  (Matt.  xx. 
22;  Mark  x.  .39;  Luke  xii.  50).  VII. 
Barnes  of  Baptism.  1.  "Baptism"  prop- 
erly and  literally  means  immersion.  2. 
"The  Water"  is  a  name  of  baptism  which 
occurs  in  Acts  x.  47.  3.  "  Washing  of 
Water"  (lit.  "the  bath  of  the  water")  is 


another  Scriptural  term,  by  which  baptism 
is  signified  (Eph.  v.  2G).  There  appears 
clearly  in  these  words  a  reference  to  the 
bridal  bath ;  but  the  allusion  to  baptism  is 
clearer  still.  4.  "  The  washing  of  regen- 
eration" (lit.  "  the  bath  of  regeneration") 
is  a  phrase  naturally  connected  with  the 
foregoing.  It  occurs  Tit.  iii.  5.  All  an- 
cient and  most  modern  commentators  have 
interpreted  it  of  baptism.  5.  "  Illumina- 
tion "  (Heb.  vi.  4).  VIII.  Recipients  of 
Baptism.  —  The  command  to  baptize  waa 
co-extensive  with  the  command  to  preach 
the  Gospel.  All  nations  were  to  be  evan- 
gelized ;  and  they  were  to  be  made  disci- 
ples, admitted  into  the  fellowship  of  Christ's 
religion,  by  baptism  (Matt,  xxviii.  19). 
The  great  question  has  been,  whether  the 
invitation  extended,  not  to  adults  only,  but 
to  infants  also.  The  universality  of  the 
invitation,  Christ's  declaration  concerning 
the  blessedness  of  infants  and  their  fitness 
for  his  kingdom  (Mar.  x.  14),  the  admis- 
sion of  infants  to  circumcision  and  to  the 
baptism  of  Jewish  proselytes,  the  mention 
of  whole  households,  and  the  subsequent 
practice  of  the  Church,  have  been  princi- 
I  pally  relied  on  by  the  advocates  of  infant 
baptism.  The  silence  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment concerning  the  baptism  of  infants,  the 
constant  mention  of  faith  as  a  pre-requisite 
or  condition  of  baptism,  the  great  spiritual 
blessings  which  seem  attached  to  a  right 
reception  of  it,  and  the  responsibility  en- 
tailed on  those  who  have  taken  its  obliga- 
tions on  tliemselves,  seem  the  chief  ob- 
jections urged  against  paedo-baptisra.  But 
here  we  must  leave  ground  which  has  been 
so  extensively  occupied  by  controversial- 
ists. IX.  The  mode  of  Baptism.  —  The 
language  of  the  New  Testament  and  of  the 
primitive  fathers  sufliciently  points  to  im- 
mersion as  the  common  mode  of  baptism. 
But  in  the  case  of  the  family  of  the  jailer 
at  Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  33),  and  of  the  three 
thousand  converted  at  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.), 
it  seems  hardly  likely  that  immersion  should 
have  been  possible.  Moreover  the  ancient 
Church,  which  mostly  adopted  immersion, 
was  satisfied  witji  effusion  in  case  of  clini- 
cal baptism  —  the  baptism  of  the  sick  and 
dying.  —  Questions  and  Answers.  —  In  the 
earliest  times  of  the  Christian  Church  we 
find  the  catechumens  required  to  renounce 
the  Devil  and  to  profess  their  faith  in  the 
Holy  Trinity  and  in  the  principal  articles 
of  the  Creed.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  St.  Peter  (1  Pet.  iii.  21)  refers  to  a 
custom  of  this  kind  as  existing  from  the 
first.  X.  T  he  formula  of  Bajitisrii.  —  It 
should  seem  from  our  Lord's  own  direction 
(Matt,  xxviii.  19)  that  the  words  made  use 
of  in  the  administration  of  baptism  should 
be  those  which  the  Church  has  generally 
retained.  XI.  Baptism  for  the  Bead. — 
1  Cor.  XV.  27.     "Else  what  shall   they 


BARABBAS 


74 


BARTHOLOMEW 


do  who  are  baptized  for  the  dead,  if  the  dead 
rise  not  at  all?  Why  are  they  then  bap- 
tized for  the  dead  ?  "  1.  TertuUian  tells  us 
of  a  custom  of  vicarious  baptism  as  exist- 
ing among  the  Marcionites ;  and  St.  Chrys- 
ostom  relates  of  the  same  heretics,  tliat, 
when  one  of  their  catechumens  died  with- 
out baptism,  they  used  to  put  a  living  per- 
son under  the  dead  man's  bed,  and  asked 
whether  he  desired  to  be  baptized ;  the  liv- 
ing man  answering  that  he  did,  they  then 
baptized  him  in  place  of  the  departed 
(Chrys.  Horn.  xl.  on  1  Cor.  xv.)  2.  Chrys- 
ostom  believes  the  Apostle  to  refer  to  the 
profession  of  faith  in  baptism,  part  of  which 
was  "  I  believe  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead."  The  former  of  the  two  interpreta- 
tions above  mentioned  commends  itself  to 
us  by  its  simplicity ;  the  latter  by  its  an- 
tiquity. Many  other  explanations  have 
been  given. 

Barab'bas,  a  robber  (John  xviii.  40), 
who  had  committed  murder  in  an  insurrec- 
tion (Mark  xv.  7 ;  Luke  xxiii.  19)  in  Jeru- 
salem, and  was  lying  in  prison  at  the  time 
of  the  trial  of  Jesus  before  Tilate. 

Bar'achel,  "the  Buzite,"  father  of 
Elihu  (Job  xxxii.  2,  6).  [Buz.] 

Barachi'as,  Matt,  xxiii.  35.    [Zacha- 

KIAS.] 

Ba'rak,  son  of  Abinoam  of  Kedesh,  a 
refuge-city  in  Mount  Naphtali,  was  incited 
by  Deborah,  a  prophetess  of  Ephraim,  to 
deliver  Israel  from  the  yoke  of  Jabin  (Judg. 
iv.).  He  utterly  routed  the  Canaanites  in 
the  plain  of  Jezreel  (Esdraelon). 

Barbarian.  "  Every  one  not  a  Greek 
is  a  barbarian  "  is  the  common  Greek  defi- 
nition, and  in  this  strict  sense  the  word  is 
used  in  Rom.  i.  14,  "  I  am  debtor  both  to 
Greeks  and  barbarians."  It  often  retains 
this  primitive  meaning,  as  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  11 
(of  one  using  an  unknown  tongue),  and 
Acts  xxviii.  2,  4  (of  the  Maltese,  who  spoke 
a  Punic  dialect). 

Barhu'mite,  The.  [Bahurim.] 

Bari'ah,  one  of  the  sons  of  Shemaiah, 
a  descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah 
(1  Chr.  iii.  22). 

Bar-Je'sus.    [Eltmas.] 

Bar-Jo'na.     [Peter.] 

Bar'kos.  "  Cliildren  of  Barkos  "  were 
among  the  Nethinira  who  returned  from  the 
captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  63 ;  Neh. 
vii.  55). 

Barley  was  grown  by  the  Hebrews 
(Lev.  xxvii.  16 ;  Deut.  viii.  8  ;  Ruth  ii.  17, 
&c.),  who  used  it  for  baking  into  bread, 
chiefly  amongst  the  poor  (Judg.  vii.  13 ;  2 
K.  iv.  42 ;  John  vi.  9,  13)  ;  for  making  into 
bread  by  mixing  it  with  wheat,  beans,  len- 
tils, millet,  &c.  (Ez.  iv.  9)  ;  and  as  fodder 
for  horses  (1  K.  iv.  28).  The  barley  harvest 
(Ruth  i.  22,  ii.  23 ;  2  Sara.  xxi.  9,  10)  takes 
place  in  Psilestine  in  March  and  April,  and 
in  the  hilly  districts  as  late  as  May ;  but  the 


period  of  course  varies  according  to  the 
localities  where  the  corn  grows.  It  always 
precedes  the  wheat  harvest,  in  some  places 
by  a  week,  in  others  by  fully  three  weeks. 
In  Egj'pt  the  barley  is  about  a  month  ear- 
lier than  the  wheat;  whence  its  total  de- 
struction by  the  hail-storm  (Ex.  ix.  31). 
Barley  was  sown  at  any  time  between  No- 
vember and  March,  according  to  the  sea- 
son. Barley  bread  is  even  to  this  day  lit- 
tle esteemed  in  Palestine.  This  fact  is 
important,  as  serving  to  elucidate  some 
passages  in  Scripture. 

Bar'nabas,  a  name  signifying  "  son  of 
prophecy,"  or  "  exhortation  "  (or,  but  not 
so  probably,  "consolation,"  as  A.  V. ), 
given  by  the  Apostles  (Acts  iv.  36)  to 
Joseph  (or  Joses),  a  Levite  of  the  island 
of  Cyprus,  who  was  early  a  disciple  of 
Christ.  In  Acts  ix.  27,  we  find  him  intro- 
ducing the  newly-converted  Saul  to  the 
Apostles  at  Jerusalem,  in  a  way  which 
seems  to  imply  previous  acquaintance  be- 
tween the  two.  On  tidings  coming  to  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  that  men  of  Cyprus 
and  Cyrene  had  been  preacliiug  to  Gentiles 
at  Antioch,  Barnabas  was  sent  thither  (Acts 
xi.  19-26),  and  went  to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul, 
as  one  specially  raised  up  to  preach  to  the 
Gentiles  (Acts  xxvi.  17).  Having  brought 
him  to  Antioch,  he  was  sent  with  him  \o 
Jerusalem  with  relief  for  the  brethren  in 
Judaea  (Acts  xi.  30).  On  tlieir  return, 
they  (Acts  xiii.  2)  were  ordained  by  the 
church  for  the  missionary  work,  and  sent 
forth  (a.  d.  45).  From  this  time  Barnabas 
and  Paul  enjoy  the  title  and  dignity  of 
Apostles.  Their  first  missionary  journey 
is  related  in  Acts  xiii.,  xiv. ;  it  was  confined 
to  Cyprus  and  Asia  Minor.  Some  time 
after  their  return  to  Antioch  (a.  d.  47  or 
48),  they  were  sent  (a.  d.  50),  with  some 
others,  to  Jerusalem,  to  determine  with  the 
Apostles  and  Elders  the  difficult  question 
respecting  the  necessity  of  circumcision  for 
the  Gentile  converts  (Acts  xv.  1  fi'.).  On 
that  occasion  Paul  and  Barnabas  were 
recognized  as  the  Apostles  of  uncircum- 
cision.  After  another  stay  in  Antioch  on 
their  return,  a  variance  took  place  between 
Barnabas  and  Paul  on  the  question  of 
taking  with  them,  on  a  second  missionary 
journey,  John  Mark,  sister's  son  to  Barna- 
bas (Acts  XV.  36  if.").  They  parted,  and 
Barnabas  took  Mark,  and  sailed  to  Cyprus, 
his  native  island.  Here  the  Scripture 
notices  of  him  cease.  The  Epistle  attrib- 
uted to  Barnabas  is  l>clieved  to  have  been 
written  early  in  the  second  century. 

Bar'sabas.  [Joseph  Baesabas  ;  Judas 
Barsabas.] 

BarthOi'oraew,  one  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  of  Christ  (Matt.  x.  3 ;  Mark  iii. 
18;  Luke  vi.  14;  Acts  i.  13).  It  has  been 
not  improbably  conjectured  that  he  is  iden- 
tical with  Nathanael  (John  i.  45  flf.).    He 


BAETIMAEUS 


75 


BASKET 


is  said  to  have  prcaclicd  the  Gospel  in 
India,  that  is,  probably,  Arabia  Felix,  and 
according  to  some  in  Armenia. 

Bartimae'us,  a  blind  beggar  of  Jericho 
who  (Mark  x.  46  fF.)  sat  by  the  wayside 
begging  as  our  Lord  passed  out  of  Jericho 
on  His  last  journey  to  Jerusalem. 

Ba'ruch.  1.  Son  of  Neriah,  the  friend 
(Jer.  xxxii.  12),  amanuensis  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
4-32),  and  faithful  attendant  of  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  10  ff. ;  b.  c.  G03),  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  prophetic  office.  He  was  of 
a  noble  family  (comp.  Jer.  li.  59 ;  Bar.  i. 
1),  and  of  diitingTiished  acquirements  ;  and 
his  brother  Seraiah  held  an  honorable 
office  in  the  court  of  ^edekiah  (Jer.  li.  59). 
His  enemies  accused  him  of  influencing 
Jeremiah  in  favor  of  the  Chaldaeans  (Jer. 
xliii.  3 ;  cf.  xxxvii.  13)  ;  and  he  was  thrown 
into  prison  with  that  prophet,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  b.  c. 
586.  By  the  permission  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar he  remained  with  Jeremiah  at  Mizpeh 
(Jos.  Ani.  X.  9,  §1) ;  but  was  afterwards 
forced  to  go  down  to  Egypt  (Jer.  xliii.  6). 
Nothing  is  known  certainly  of  the  close  of 
his  life.  2.  The  son  of  Zabbai,  who  as- 
sisted Nehemiah  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of 
Jesusalom  (Neh.  iii.  20).  3.  A  priest,  or 
family  of  priests,  who  signed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  6).  4.  The  son 
of  Col-hozeh,  a  descendant  of  Perez,  or 
Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

Baruch,  The  Book  of,  may  be  divided 
into  two  main  parts,  i.-iii.  8,  and  iii.  9-end. 
1.  It  exists  at  present  in  Greek,  and  in 
several  translations  which  were  made  from 
the  Greek.  Of  the  two  Old  Latin  versions 
which  remain,  that  wliich  is  incorporated 
in  the  Vulgate  is  generally  literal;  the 
other  is  more  free.  The  vulgar  Syriac  and 
Arabic  follow  the  Greek  text  closely.  2. 
The  assumed  author  is  undoubtedly  the 
companion  of  Jeremiah,  but  the  details  of 
the  book  are  inconsistent  with  the  assump- 
tion. 3.  The  book  was  held  in  little  esteem 
among  the  Jews.  From  the  time  of  Irenaeus 
it  was  frequently  quoted  both  in  the  East 
and  in  the  AVest,  and  generally  as  the  work 
of  Jeremiah.  At  the  Council  of  Trent 
Baruch  was  admitted  into  the  Romish 
Canon.  4.  The  two  divisions  of  the  book 
are  distinguished  by  marked  peculiarities 
of  style  and  language.  The  Hebraic  char- 
acter of  the  first  part  is  such  as  to  mark  it 
as  a  translation,  and  not  as  the  work  of  a 
Hebraizing  Greek.  The  second  part,  on  the 
other  hand,  closely  approaches  the  Alex- 
andrine type.  5.  The  most  probable  ex- 
planation of  this  contrast  is  gained  by  sup- 
posing that  some  one  thoroughly  conver- 
sant with  the  Alexandrine  translation  of 
Jeremiah  found  the  Hebrew  fragment  which 
forms  the  basis  of  the  book  already  attached 
to  the  writings  of  that  prophet,  and  wrought 
it  up  into  its  present  form.    0.  The  present 


book  must  be  placed  probably  about  the 
time  of  the  war  of  liberation  (b.  c.  160), 
or  somewhat  earlier.  7.  TJie  Epistle  of 
Jeremiah,  which,  according  to  the  authority 
of  some  Greek  MSS.,  stands  in  the  English 
version  as  the  6th  chapter  of  Baruch,  is  the 
work  of  a  later  period.  It  may  be  assigned 
with  probability  to  the  first  century  b.  c. 

Barzil'lai.  1.  A  wealthy  Gileadite 
who  showed  hospitality  to  David  when  he 
fled  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27).  He 
declined  the  king's  otFer  of  ending  his  days 
at  court  (2  Sam.  xix.  32-39).  2.  A  Meho- 
lathite,  whose  son  Adriel  married  Michal, 
Saul's  daughter  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8). 

Ba'shan,  a  district  on  the  east  of  Jor- 
dan. It  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
"land  of  Bashan "  (1  Chr.  v.  11;  and 
comp.  Num.  xxi.  33,  xxxii.  33),  and  some- 
times as  "all  Bashan"  (Deut.  iii.  10,  13; 
Josh.  xii.  5,  xiii.  12,  30),  but  most  com- 
monly without  any  addition.  It  was  taken 
by  the  children  of  Israel  after  their  con- 
quest of  the  land  of  Sihon  from  Arnon  to 
Jabbok.  The  limits  of  Bashan  are  very 
strictly  defined.  It  extended  from  the 
"  border  of  Gilead  "  on  the  south  to  Mount 
Hermon  on  the  north  (Deut.  iii.  3,  10,  14 ; 
Josh.  xii.  5;  1  Chr.  v.  23),  and  from  the 
Arabah  or  Jordan  valley  on  the  •west  to 
Salchah  (SulJchad)  and  the  border  of  the 
Geshurites  and  the  Maachathites  on  the 
east  (Josh.  xii.  3-5;  Deut.  iii.  10).  This 
important  district  was  bestowed  on  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh  (Josh.  xiii.  29-31), 
together  with  "half  Gilead." 

Ba'shan-ha'voth-ja'ir,  a  name  given 
to  Argob  after  its  conquest  by  Jair  (Deut. 
iii.  14). 

Bash'emath,  daughter  of  Ishmael,  the 
last  married  of  the  three  wives  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13).  In  Gen.  xxviii.  9 
she  is  called  Mahalath;  whilst  the  name 
Bashemath  is  in  Gen.  xxvi.  34  given  to 
another  of  Esau's  wives,  the  daughter  of 
Elon  the  Ilittite.  This  is  probably  due  to 
a  transcriber's  error. 

Basin.  Among  the  smaller  vessels  fot 
the  Tabernacle  or  Temple  service,  many 
must  have  been  required  to  receive  from  the 
sacrificial  victims  the  blood  to  be  sprinkled 
for  purification.  The  form  and  material  of 
these  vessels  can  only  be  conjectured  from 
the  analogy  of  ancient  Assyrian  and  'Egyp- 
tian specimens  of  works  of  the  same  kind. 
The  "  basin  "  from  which  our  Lord  washed 
the  disciples'  feet  was  probably  deeper  and 
larger  than  the  hand-basin  for  sprinkling. 

Basket.  The  Hebrew  terms  ujed  in 
the  description  of  this  article  are  as  follows  t 
(1)  Sal,  so  called  from  the  twigs  of  which 
it  was  originally  made,  specially  used  for 
holding  bread  (Gen.  xl.  16  ff". ;  Ex.  xxix.  3, 
23;  Lev.  viii.  2,  26,  31;  Num.  vi.  15,  17, 
19).  (2)  Salsiimh,  a  word  of  kindred  ori- 
gin, applied  to  the  basket  used  in  gadienng 


BASMATH 


76 


BEAR 


grapes  (Jer.  ri.  9).  (3)  Tene,  in  which  the 
first-fruits  of  the  harvest  were  presented 
(Deut.  xxvi.  2,  4).  We  may  infer  that  it 
was  used  for  household  purposes,  perhaps 
to  bring  the  corn  to  the  mill.  (4)  CSlub,  so 
called  from  its  similarity  to  a  birdcage  or 
trap,  probably  in  regard  to  its  having  a  lid  : 
it  was  used  for  carrying  fruit  (Am.  viii.  1, 
2).  (5)  DAd,  used  for  carrying  fruit  (Jer. 
xxiv.  1,  2),  as  well  as  on  a  larger  scale  for 
carrying  clay  to  the  brickyard  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
6;  pots,  A.  v.),  or  for  holding  bulky 
articles  (2  K.  x.  7).  In  the  N.  T.  baskets 
are  described  under  three  different  terms. 

Bas'math,  a  daughter  of  Solomon,  mar- 
ried to  Ahimaaz,  one  of  his  commissariat 
officers  (1  K.  iv.  15). 

Bastard.  Among  those  who  were  ex- 
cluded from  entering  the  congregation,  even 
to  the  tenth  generation,  was  the  mamzSr 
(A.  V.  bastard),  who  was  classed  in  this 
respect  with  the  Ammonite  and  Moabite 
(Deut.  xxiii.  2).  The  terra  is  not,  however, 
applied  to  any  illegitimate  offspring,  born 
out  of  wedlock,  but  is  restricted  by  the 
Rabbins  to  the  issue  of  any  connection 
within  the  degrees  prohibited  by  the  Law. 

Bat  ('dtaUSph).  There  is  no  doubt 
whatever  that  the  A.  V.  is  correct  in  its 


Bat.    Taphozmts  per/orattis, 

rendering  of  this  word  (Lev.,  xi.  19 ;  Deut. 
xiv.  18).  Many  travellers  have  noticed  the 
immense  numbers  of  bats  that  are  found  in 
caverns  in  the  East,  and  Mr.  Layard  says 
that  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  to  a  cavern 
these  noisome  beasts  compelled  him  to  re- 
treat. 

Bath,  Bathing.  This  was  a  prescribed 
part  of  the  Jewish  ritual  of  purification  in 
cases  of  accident,  leprous  or  ordinary  un- 
cleanness  (Lev.  xv.,  xvi.  28,  xxii.  6 ;  Num. 
six.  7,  19  ;  2  Sara.  xi.  2,  4 ;  2  K.  v.  10)  ;  as 
also  afler  mourning,  which  always  implied 
defilement  (Ruth  iii.  3;  2  Sam.  xii.  20). 
With  bathing,  anointing  was  customarily 
joined;  the  climate  making  both  these 
essential  alike  to  health  and  pleasure,  to 
which  luxury  added  the  use  of  perfumes 
(Susan.  17;  Jud.  x.  3;  Esth.  ii.  12).  The 
"  poole,"  such  as  that  of  Siloam  and  Heze- 
kiah  (Neh.  iii.  15,  16;  2  K.  xx.  20;  Is. 
xxii.  11;  John  ix.  7),  often  sheltered  by 
porticos  (John  v.  2),  are  the  first  indica- 
tions we  have  of  public  bathing  accommo- 
dation. 

Bath.     [Measures.] 

Bath-rab'bim,  The  gate  of,  one  of 


the  gates  jf  the  ancient  city  of  Heshbon 
(Cant.  vii.  4  [5]). 

Bath'aheba  (2  Sam.  xi.  3,  &c. ;  also 
called  Bathshua  in  1  Chr.  iii.  5),  the  daugh- 
ter of  Eliam  (2  Sara.  xi.  3),  or  Ammiel  (1 
Chr.  iii.  5),  the  son  of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  34),  and  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hittitc. 
The  child  which  was  the  fruit  of  her  adul- 
terous intercourse  with  David  died;  but 
after  marriage  she  became  the  mother  of 
four  sons,  Solomon  (Matt.  i.  6),  Shiraea, 
Shobab,  and  Nathan.  When  Adonijah  at- 
tempted to  set  aside,  in  his  own  favor,  the 
succession  promised  to  Solomon,  Bathsheba 
was  employed  by  Nathan  to  inform  tlie  king 
of  the  conspiracy  (1  K.  i.  11,  15,  23). 
After  the  accession  of  Solomon,  she,  as 
queen-mother,  requested  permission  of  her 
son  for  Adonijah  to  take  in  marriage  Abi- 
shag  the  Shunamite  (1  K.  ii.  21-25). 

Bath'shua.    [BAxasnEBA.] 

Bath-zachari'as,  a  place,  named  only 
1  Mace.  vi.  32,  33.  It  is  the  modern  Beit 
Sakdrieh,  nine  miles  north  of  Beit  sHr. 
[Bethzur.] 

Battle-axe,  Jer.  Ii.  20.     [Maul.] 

Bav'ai,  son  of  Henadad,  ruler  of  the 
district  of  Keilah  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  iii.  18). 

Bay-tree  (ezrdch).  Most  of  the  Jew- 
ish doctors  understand  by  the  term  ezrdch 
"  a  tree  which  grows  in  its  own  soil "  — 
one  that  has  never  been  transplanted; 
which  is  the  interpretation  given  in  the 
margin  of  the  A.  V.  (Ps.  xxxvii.  35). 

Baz'lith.  "  Children  of  B."  were  amongst 
the  Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  vii.  54).  In  Ezr.  ii.  52,  the  name  is 
given  as  Bazluth. 

Baz'luth.     [Bazlith.] 

Bdellium  (beddlach),  Gen.  ii.  12 ;  Num. 
xi.  7.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  say  whether 
hedolach  denotes  a  mineral,  or  an  animal 
production,  or  a  vegetable  exudation.  Bdel- 
lium is  an  odoriferous  exudation  from  a  tree 
which  is  perhaps  the  Borassus  flahellifor- 
mis,  Lin.,  of  Arabia  Felix. 

Beali'ah,  a  Benjamite,  who  went  over 
to  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  5). 

Be'aloth,  a  town  in  the  extreme  south 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  24). 

Beans  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28;  Ezr.  iv.  9). 
Beans  are  cultivated  in  Palestine,  which 
produces  many  of  the  leguminous  order 
of  plants,  such  as  lentils,  kidnoy-beans, 
vetches,  &c.  Beans  are  in  blossom  in  Jan- 
uary ;  they  have  been  noticed  in  tiower  at 
Lydda  on  the  23d,  and  at  Sidon  and  Acre 
even  earlier ;  they  continue  in  fl  )wer  till 
March. 

Bear  (l  Sam.  xvii.  34 ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  8). 
The  Syrian  bear  (Ursus  Syriacus),  which 
is  without  doubt  the  animal  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  is  still  found  on  the  higher  moun- 
tains of  Palestine.  During  the  sunnner 
months  these  bears  keep  to  the  snowy  parts 


BEARD 


77 


BED 


of  Lebanon,  but  descend  in  winter  to  the 
villages  and  gardens;  it  is  probable  also 
that  at  this  period  in  former  days  they 
extended  their  visits  to  other  parts  of  Pal- 
estine. 

Beard.     Western  Asiatics  have  always 
cherished  the   beard  as  the  badge  of  the 


Beordi.    Egyptian,  from  Wilkinson  (top  row).    Of  other 
nations,  from  Rosellini  and  Layard. 

dignity  of  manhood,  and  attached  to  it  the 
importance  of  a  feature.  The  Egyptians 
on  the  contrary,  for  the  most  part,  shaved 
the  hair  of  the  face  and  head,  though  we 
find  some  instances  to  the  contrary.  It  is 
impossible  to  decide  with  certainty  the 
meaning  of  the  precept  (Lev.  xix.  27,  xxi. 
5)  regarding  the  "corners  of  the  beard." 
Probably  the  Jews  retained  the  hair  on  the 
sides  of  the  face  between  the  ear  and  the 
eye,  which  the  Arabs  and  others  shaved 
away.  The  beard  is  the  object  of  an  oath, 
and  that  on  which  blessings  or  shame  are 
spoken  of  as  resting.  The  custom  was 
and  is  to  shave  or  pluck  it  and  the  hair  out 
in  mourning  (Is.  1.  6,  xv.  2 ;  Jer.  xli.  5, 
xlviii.  37;  Ezr.  ix.  3;  Bar.  vi.  31);  to 
neglect  it  in  seasons  of  permanent  afilic- 
tion  (2  Sam.  xix.  24),  and  to  regard  any 
insult  to  it  as  tlie  last  outrage  which  enmity 
can  inflict  (2  Sam.  x.  4).  The  beard  was 
the  object  of  salutation  (2  Sam.  xx.  9). 
The  dressing,  trinmiing,  anointing,  &c.,  of 
the  beard,  was  performed  with  much  cere- 
mony by  persons  of  wealth  and  rank  (Ps. 
cxxxiii.  2).  The  removal  of  the  beard  was 
a  part  of  the  ceremonial  treatment  proper 
to  a  leper  (Lev.  xiv.  9). 

Beb'ai.  1.  "  Sons  of  Bebai,"  623  (Neh. 
628)  in  number,  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  11;  Neh.  vii.  16), 
and  at  a  later  period  twenty-eight  more,  un- 
der Zechariah  the  son  of  Bebai,  returned 
withEzra  (Ezr.  viii.  11).  Four  of  this  family 
had  taken  foreign  wives  (Ezr.  x.  28).  The 
name  occurs  also  among  those  who  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  15).  2.  Father  of 
Zechariah,  who  was  the  leader  of  the 
twenty-eight  men  of  his  tribe  mentioned 
above  (Ezr.  viii.  11). 

Be'cher.  1.  The  second  son  of  Ben- 
jamin, according  to  the  list  both  in  Gen. 


xlvi.  21,  and  1  Chr.  vii.  R;  but  omitted  in 
1  Chr.  viii.  1.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
Becher,  or  his  heir  and  head  of  his  house, 
married  an  Ephraimitish  heiress,  a  daughter 
of  Shuthelah  (1  Chr.  vii.  20,  21),  and  so 
that  his  house  was  reckoned  in  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  just  as  Jair,  the  son  of  Segub, 
was  reckoned  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1 
Chr.  ii.  22;  Num.  xxxii.  40,  41).  2.  Son 
of  Ephraim  (Num.  xxvi.  35),  called  Bered 
(1  Chr.  vii.  20).     Same  as  the  preceding. 

Becho'rath,  son  of  Aphiah  or  Abiah, 
and  grandson  of  Becher,  according  to  1 
Sam.  ix.  1 ;    1  Chr.  vii.  8. 

Bed  and  Bed-chamber.  We  may 
distinguish  in  tlie  Jewish  bed  five  principal 
parts :  1.  The  mattress,  which  was  limited 
to  a  mere  mat,  or  one  or  more  quilts.  2. 
The  covering,  a  quilt  finer  than  tliose  used 
in  1.  In  summer  a  thin  blanket  or  the 
outer  garment  worn  by  day  (1  Sam.  xLx. 
13)  sufficed.  Hence  the  law  provided  that 
it  should  not  be  kept  in  pledge  after  sunset, 
that  the  poor  man  might  not  lack  his  need- 
ful covering  (Deut.  xxiv.  13).  3.  The  only 
material  mentioned  for  this  is  that  which 
occurs  1  Sam.  xix.  13,  and  the  word  used 
is  of  doubtful  meaning,  but  seems  to 
signify  some  fabric  woven  or  plaited  of 
goat's  hair.  It  is  clear,  however,  that 
it  was  something  hastily  adopted  to  serve 
as  a  pillow,  and  is  not  decisive  of  the  or- 
dinary use.  Such  pillows  are  common  to 
this  day  in  the  East,  formed  of  sheep's 
fleece  or  goat's  skin,  with  a  stuffing  of  cot- 
ton, &c.  4.  The  bedstead  was  not  always 
necessary,  the  divan,  or  platform  along  the 
side  or  end  of  an  Oriental  room,  sufficing 
as  a  support  for  the  bedding.  Yet  some 
slight  and  portable  frame  seems  implied 
among  the  senses  of  the  word,  which  is 
used  for  a  "  bier"  (2  Sam.  iii.  31),  and  for 
the  ordinary  bed  (2  K.  iv.  10),  for  the  litter 
on  which  a  sick  person  might  be  cfvrried  (1 
Sam.  xix.  15),  for  Jacob's  bed  of  sickness 
(Gen.  xlvii.  31),  and  for  the  couch  on 
which  guests  reclined  at  a  banquet  (Esth. 
i.  6).  5.  The  ornamental  portions  were 
pillars  and  a  canopy  (Jud,  xiii.  9),  ivory 


Bed  and  Head-rest    (Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptiant.) 

carvings,  gold  and  silver,  and  probably  mo- 
saic work,  purple  and  fine  linen  (Esth.  i. 


BED  AD 


78 


BEEEOTH 


6;  Cant.  iii.  9,  10).  The  ordinary  furni- 
ture of  a  bed-chamber  in  private  life  is 
given  in  2  K.  iv.  10.  The  "  bed-chamber" 
in  the  Temple  where  Joash  was  hidden, 
was,  probably,  a  store-chamber  for  keeping 
beds  (2  K.  xi.  2;  2  Chr.  xxii.  11).  The 
position  of  the  bed-chamber  in  the  most 
remote  and  secret  parts  of  the  palace  seems 
marked  in  the  passages,  Ex.  viii.  3,  2  K. 
vi.  12. 

Be'dad,  the  father  of  Hadad  king  of 
Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  85 ;  1  Chr.  i.  46) . 

Be'dan.  1.  Mentioned  1  Sam.  xii.  11, 
as  a  judge  of  Israel  between  Jerubbaal 
(Gideon)  and  Jephthah.  The  Chaldee 
Paraphrast  reads  Samson  for  Bedan;  the 
LXX.,  Syr.,  and  Arab,  all  have  Barak. 
Ewald  suggests  that  it  may  be  a  false  read- 
ing for  Abdon.  2.  The  son  of  Gilead  (1 
Chr.  vii.  17). 

Bedei'ah,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bani,  in 
the  time  of  Ezra,  who  had  taken  a  foreign 
wife  (FiZr.  x.  35). 

Bee  {deh6rdh),  Deut.  i.  44;  Judg.  xiv. 
8;  Ps.  cxviii.  12;  Is.  vii.  18.  That  Pales- 
tine abounded  in  bees  is  evident  from  the 
description  of  that  land  by  Moses,  for  it 
was  a  land  "  flowing  with  milk  and  honey ; " 
nor  is  there  any  reason  for  supposing  that 
this  expression  is  to  be  understood  other- 
wise than  in  its  literal  sense.  English  nat- 
uralists know  little  of  the  species  of  bees 
that  are  found  in  Palestine.  Mr.  F.  Smith, 
our  best  authority  on  the  Hymenoptera,  is 
inclined  to  believe  that  the  honey-bee  of 
Palestine  is  distinct  from  the  honey-bee 
(^A.  mcllifica)  of  this  country.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  attacks  of  bees  in 
Eastern  countries  are  more  to  be  dreaded 
than  they  are  in  more  temperate  climates. 
Swarms  in  the  East  are  far  larger  than 
they  are  with  us,  and,  on  account  of  the 
heat  of  the  climate,  one  can  readily  ima- 
gine that  their  stings  must  give  rise  to  very 
dangerous  symptoms.  The  passage  in  Is. 
vii.  18,  '*  the  Lord  shall  hiss  for  the  bee 
that  is  in  the  land  of  Assyria,"  has  been 
understood  by  some  to  refer  to  the  practice 
of  "calling  out  the  bees  from  their  hives 
by  a  hissing  or  whistling  sound  to  their 
labor  in  the  fields,  and  summoning  them 
again  to  return"  in  the  evening.  In  all 
probabiUty,  however,  the  expression  in 
Isaiah  has  reference,  as  Mr.  Denham  says, 
"to  the  custom  of  the  people  in  the  East 
of  calling  the  attention  of  any  one  by  a 
significant  hiss  or  rather  hist." 

Beeli'ada,  one  of  David's  sons,  born 
in  Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  xiv.  7).  In  the  lists 
in  Samuel  the  name  is  Eliada. 

Beel'zebul,  the  title  of  a  heathen  deity, 
to  whom  the  Jews  ascribed  the  sovereignty 
of  the  evil  spirits  (Matt.  x.  25,  xii.  24 ; 
Mark  iii.  22;  Luke  xi.  15  ff.).  The  cor- 
rect reading  is  without  doubt  Beelzebul,  and 
act  Beelzebub,  as  given  in  the  Syriac,  the 


Vulg.,  and  some  other  versions.  Some 
connect  the  term  with  zehul,  habitation, 
thus  making  Beelzebul  (Matt.  x.  25),  the 
lord  of  the  dwelling.,  whether  as  the  "  prince 
of  the  power  of  the  air  "  (Eph.  ii.  2),  or  as 
the  prince  of  the  lower  world,  or  as  inhab- 
iting human  bodies,  or  as  occupying  a  man- 
sion in  the  seventh  heaven,  like  Saturn  in 
Oriental  mythology.  Others  derive  it  from 
zebel,  dung,  thus  making  Beelzebul,  liter- 
ally, the  lord  of  dung,  or  the  dunghill; 
and  in  a  secondary  sense,  as  zebely/as  used 
by  the  Talmudical  writers  as  —  idol  or 
idolatry,  the  lord  of  idols,  prince  of  false 
gods.  We  have  lastly  to  notice  the  inge- 
nious conjecture  of  Hug  that  the  fly,  under 
which  Baalzebub  was  represented,  was  the 
Scarabaeus  pillularius  or  dunghill  beetle, 
in  which  case  Baalzebub  and  Beelzebul 
might  be  used  indifferently. 

Be'er.  1.  One  of  the  latest  halting- 
places  of  the  Israelites,  lying  beyond  the 
Arnon,  and  so  called  because  of  the  well 
which  was  there  dug  by  the  "princes  "  and 
"  nobles  "  of  the  people,  and  is  perpetuated 
in  a  fragment  of  poetry  (Num.  xxi.  16-18). 
This  is  possibly  the  Beer-elim  referred  to 
in  Is.  XV.  8.  2.  A  place  to  which  Jothani, 
the  son  of  Gideon,  fled  for  fear  of  liis 
brother  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix.  21). 

Bee'ra,  son  of  Zophah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  37). 

Bee'rah,  prince  of  the  Reubenites, 
carried  away  by  Tiglath-pileser  (1  Chr. 
V.  6). 

Beer-E'lim,  a  spot  named  in  Is.  xv.  8 
as  on  the  "  border  of  Moab,"  apparently 
the  south,  Eglaim  being  at  the  north  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  name  points  to  the 
well  dug  by  the  chiefs  of  Israel  on  their 
approach  to  the  promised  land,  close  by  the 
"border  of  Moab"  (Num.  xxi.  16;  comp. 
13). 

Bee'ri.  1.  The  father  of  Judith,  one 
of  the  wives  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxvi.  34). 
[An AH.]  2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Hosea 
(Hos.  i.  1). 

Beer-laha'i-roi,  a  well,  or  rather  a 
living  spring  (A.  V.  fountain,  comp.  Jer. 
vi.  7),  between  Kadesh  and  Bered,  in  the 
wilderness,  "  in  the  way  to  Shur,"  and 
therefore  in  the  "  south  country  "  (Gen. 
xxiv.  62).  Mr.  Rowland  announces  the 
discovery  of  the  well  Lahairoi  at  Moyle  or 
Moilahi,  a  station  on  the  road  to  Beersheba, 
10  hours  south  of  Ruheibeh ;  near  which  is 
a  hole  or  cavern  bearing  the  name  of  Beit 
Hagar  (Ritter,  Sinai,  1086,  7) :  but  this 
requires  confirmation. 

Bee'roth,  one  of  the  four  cities  of  the 
llivites  who  deluded  Joshua  into  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  them  (Josh.  ix.  17).  It  was 
allotted  to  Benjamin  (xviii.  25),  and  is 
identified  with  the  modern  el-Bireh,  which 
stands  at  about  10  miles  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  the  great  road  to  N&Uus.    Nahan 


BEEROTH 


79 


BELLOWS 


"the  Beerotliite"  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  37), 
or  "  the  Berothite  "  (1  Chr.  xi.  39),  was 
one  of  the  "mighty  men"  of  David's 
guard. 

Bee  roth  of  the  Children  of  Jaa- 
kan,  the  wells  of  the  tribe  of  Bene- Jaakan, 
which  formed  one  of  the  halting-places  of 
the  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Dout.  x.  6). 
In  Num.  xxxiii.,  the  name  is  given  as 
Bene  Jaakan  only. 

Beer'-sheba  tlie  name  of  one  of  the 
old  places  in  Palestine,  which  formed  the 
southern  limit  of  the  country.  There  are 
two  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the  name. 
1.  According  to  the  first,  the  well  was  dug 
by  Abraham,  and  the  name  given,  because 
there  he  and  Abiraelech  the  king  of  the 
Philistines  "  sware "  both  of  them  (Gen. 
xxi.  31).  2.  The  other  narrative  ascribes 
the  origin  of  the  name  to  an  occurrence  al- 
most precisely  similar,  in  which  both  Abira- 
elech the  king  of  the  Philistines,  and  Phi- 
chol,  his  chief  captain,  are  again  con- 
cerned, with  the  diiierence  that  the  person 
on  the  Hebrew  side  of  the  transaction  is 
Isaac  instead  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxvi.  31- 
33).  There  are  at  present  on  the  spot 
two  principal  wells,  and  five  smaller  ones. 
The  two  principal  wells  are  on  or  close  to 
the  northern  bank  of  tlie  Wady  es-Seha\ 
They  lie  just  a  hundred  yards  apart,  and 
are  so  placed  as  to  be  visible  fi'om  a  con- 
siderable distance.  The  larger  of  the  two, 
which  lies  to  the  east,  is,  according  to  the 
careful  measurements  of  Dr.  Robinson, 
12i  feet  diam.,  and  at  the  time  of  his  visit 
(Apr.  12)  was  44^  feet  to  the  surface  of 
the  water ;  the  masonry  which  encloses 
the  well  reaches  downwards  for  28^  feet. 
The  other  well  is  5  feet  diam.,  and  was  42 
feet  to  the  water.  The  curb-stones  round 
the  mouth  of  both  wells  are  worn  into  deep 
grooves  by  the  action  of  the  ropes  of  so 
many  centuries,  and  "look  as  if  frilled  or 
fluted  all  round."  The  five  lesser  wells 
are  in  a  group  in  the  bed  of  the  wady.  On 
some  low  hills  north  of  the  large  wells  are 
scattered  the  foundations  and  ruins  of  a 
town  of  moderate  size.  There  are  no 
trees  or  shrubs  near  the  spot.  Beersheba 
was  given  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (xix.  2 ; 
1  Chr.  iv.  28).  In  the  time  of  Jerome  it 
was  still  a  considerable  place ;  and  later  it 
is  mentioned  as  an  episcopal  city  under  the 
Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  It  only  remains  to 
notice  that  it  retains  its  ancient  name  as 
nearly  similar  in  sound  as  an  Arabic  signi- 
fication will  permit  —  Bir  es-Sebd  —  the 
"well  of  the  lion,"  or  "  of  seven." 

Beesh'terah,  one  of  the  two  cities 
allotted  to  the  sons  of  Gershom,  out  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh  beyond  Jordan  (Josh, 
xxi.  27).  It  appears  to  be  identical  with 
Ashtaroth  (1  Chr.  vi.  71). 

Beetle.     [Locust.] 

Beheading.    [Pcnishments.] 


Be'hemoth.  There  can  be  little  or  no 
doubt,  that  by  this  word  (Job  xl.  15-24) 
the  hippopotamus  is  intended,  since  all  the 
details  descriptive  of  the  behemoth  accord 
entirely  with  the  ascertained  habhs  of  that 
animal.  Since  in  the  first  part  of  Jehovah's 
discourse  (Job  xxxviii.,  xxxix.)  land  ani- 
mals and  birds  are  mentioned,  it  suits  the 
general  purpose  of  that  discourse  better  to 
suppose  that  aquatic  or  amphibious  crea- 
tures are  spoken  of  in  the  last  half  of  it : 
and  since  the  leviathan,  by  almost  univer- 
sal consent,  denotes  the  crocodile,  the  be- 
hemoth seems  clearly  to  point  to  the  hip- 
popotamus, his  associate  in  the  Nile.  The 
description  of  the  animal's  lying  under 
"  the  shady  trees,"  amongst  the  "  reeds  " 
and  willows,  is  peculiarly  appropriate. 

Be'kah.     [Weights  and  Measdees.] 

Bel.     [Baal]. 

Be'la.  1.  One  of  the  five  cities  of 
the  plain  which  was  spared  at  the  interces- 
sion of  Lot,  and  received  the  name  of 
Zoar  (Gen.  xiv.  2,  xix.  22).  It  lay  on  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on 
the  frontier  of  Moab  and  Palestine  (Jerome 
on  Is.  XV.),  and  on  the  route  to  Egypt;  the 
connection  in  which  it  is  found.  Is.  xv.  5; 
Jer.  xlviii.  34 ;  Gen.  xiii.  10.  We  first 
read  of  Bela  in  Gen.  xiv.  2,  8.  2.  Son  of 
Beor,  who  reigned  over  Edom  in  the  city  of 
Dinhabah,  eight  generations  before  Saul, 
king  of  Israel,  or  about  the  time  of  the 
Exodus.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
the  same  as  Balaam.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  he  was  a  Chaldean  by  birth,  and 
reigned  in  Edom  by  conquest.  He  may 
have  been  contemporary  with  Moses  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  31-33;  1  Chr.  i.  43,  44).  3.  Eldest 
son  of  Benjamin,  according  to  Gen.  xlvi. 
21  (A.  Y.  "Belah");  Num.  xxvi.  38,  40; 
1  Chr.  vii.  6,  viii.  1,  and  head  of  the  family 
of  the  Belaites.  4.  Son  of  Ahaz,  a 
Reubenite  (1  Chr.  v.  8). 

Be'lah,     [Bela,  3.] 

Belaites,  the,  Num.  xxvi.  38.   [Bela, 

Be'lial.  The  translators  of  our  A,  V., 
following  the  Vulgate,  have  frequently 
treated  this  word  as  a  proper  name,  and 
given  it  in  the  form  Belial,  in  accordance 
with  2  Cor.  vi.  15.  There  can  be  no  ques- 
tion, however,  that  the  word  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  a  proper  name  in  the  O.  T. ; 
its  meaning  is  worihlessness,  and  hence 
recJdessness,  lawlessness.  The  expression 
son  or  man  of  Belial  must  be  understood 
as  meaning  simply  a  worthless,  lawless 
fellow.  The  term  as  used  in  2  Cor.  vi.  15 
is  generally  understood  as  an  appellative 
of  Satan,  as  the  personification  of  all  that 
was  bad. 

Bellows.  The  word  occurs  only  in  Jer. 
vi.  29,  "  The  bellows  are  burned;  "  where 
their  use  is  to  heat  a  smelting  furnace.  A 
picture  of  two  differco"  kinds  of  bellows. 


BELLS 


80 


BEIs'E-JAAKAN 


both  of  highly  ingenious  construction,  may 
be  found  in  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt,  iii. 
338.  "They  consisted,"  lie  says,  "of  a 
leather,  secured  and  fitted  into  a  frame, 
from  which  a  long  pipe  extended  for  car- 
rying the  wind  to  the  fire.  They  were 
worked  by  the  feet,  the  operator  standing 
upon  them,  with  one  under  each  foot,  and 
pressing  them  alternately  while  he  pulled 
up  each  exhausted  skin  with  a  string  he 
held  in  his  hand.  In  one  instance  we  ob- 
serve from  the  painting,  that  when  the  man 
left  the  bellows,  they  were  raised  as  if  in- 
flated with  air;  and  this  would  imply  a 
knowledge  of  the  valve.  The  pipes,  even 
in  the  time  of  Thotmes  II.  [supposed  to  be] 
the  contemporary  of  Moses,  appear  to  have 
been  simply  of  reed,  tipped  with  a  metal 
point  to  resist  the  action  of  the  fire." 

Bells.  In  Ex.  xxviii.  33  the  bells  al- 
luded to  were  the  golden  ones,  according 
to  the  Rabbis  72  in  number,  round  the  hem 
of  the  high-priest's  ephod.  The  object  of 
them  was  "  that  his  sound  might  be  heard 
when  he  went  in  unto  the  holy  place,  and 
when  he  came  out,  that  he  die  not"  (Ex. 
xxviii.  34;  Ecclus.  xlv.  9).  To  this  day 
bells  are  frequently  attached,  for  the  sake 
of  their  pleasant  sound,  to  the  anklets  of 
women.  The  little  girls  of  Cairo  wear 
strings  of  them  round  their  feet.  In  Zech. 
xlv.  20  "bells  of  the  horses"  is  probably 
a  wrong  rendering.  It  is  more  probable 
that  they  are  not  bells,  but  concave  or  flat 
pieces  of  brass,  which  were  sometimes  at- 
tached to  horses  for  the  sake  of  ornament. 

Belshaz'zar,  the  last  king  of  Babylon. 
According  to  the  well-known  narrative  in 
Dan.  v.,  he  was  slain  during  a  splendid 
feast  in  his  palace.  Similarly  Xenophon 
tells  us  that  Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus 
in  the  night,  while  the  inhabitants  were 
engaged  in  feasting  and  revelry,  and  that 
the  king  was  killed.  On  the  other  hand 
the  narratives  of  Berosus  in  Josephus  and 
of  Herodotus  differ  from  the  above  account 
in  some  important  particulars.  Berosus 
calls  the  last  king  of  Babylon  Nabonnedus 
or  Nabonadius,  and  says  that  in  the  17th 
year  of  his  reign  Cyrus  took  Babylon, 
the  king  having  retired  to  the  neighboring 
city  of  Borsippus  or  Borsippa.  According 
to  Herodotus  the  last  king  was  called  La- 
bynetus.  These  discrepancies  have  lately 
been  cleared  up  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson.  From  the  inscriptions 
it  appears  that  the  eldest  son  of  Nabon- 
nedus was  called  Bel-shar-ezar,  contracted 
into  Belshazzar,  and  admitted  by  his  father 
to  a  share  in  the  government.  So  that 
Belshazzar,  as  joint  king  with  his  father, 
may  have  been  governor  of  Babylon,  when 
the  city  was  attacked  by  tlie  combined 
forces  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  and  may 
have  perished  in  the  assault  which  fol- 
lowed; while  Nabonnedus  leading  a  force 


to  the  relief  of  the  place  was  defeated,  and 
obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Borsippa.  In 
Dan.  V.  2,  Nebuchadnezzar  is  called  the 
father  of  Belshazzar.  This,  of  course,  need 
only  mean  grandfather  or  ancestor.  Eaw- 
linson  connects  Belshazzar  with  Nebuchad- 
nezzar through  his  mother;  but  Marcus 
Niebuhr  considers  Belshazzar  to  be  another 
name  for  Evil-merodach,  the  son  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. On  Kawlinson's  view,  Bel- 
shazzar died  B.  c.  538 ;  on  Niebuhr's,  B.  c. 
559. 

Belteshaz'zar.    [Daniel.] 

Ben,  a  Lcvite  "  of  the  second  degree," 
one  of  the  porters  appointed  by  David  for 
the  ark  (1  Chr.  xv.  18). 

Bena'iah.  1.  The  son  of  Jehoiada 
the  chief  priest  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  5),  and  there- 
fore of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  though  a  native 
of  Kabzeel  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20 ;  1  Chr.  xi. 
22),  in  the  south  of  Judah;  set  by  David 
(1  Chr.  xi.  25)  over  his  bodyguard  of 
Cherethites  and  Pcletliites  (2  Sam.  viii.  18 ; 
1  K.  i.  38;  1  Chr.  xviii.  17  ;  2  Sam.  xx.  23), 
and  occupying  a  middle  rank  between  the 
first  three  of  the  "  mighty  men,"  and  tlie 
thirty  "valiant  men  of  the  armies"  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  22,  23;  1  Chr.  xi.  25,  xxvii.  G).  The 
exploits  which  gave  him  this  rank  are  nar- 
rated in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  20,  21 ;  1  Chr.  xi.  22. 
He  was  captain  of  the  host  for  the  third 
month  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  5).  Benaiah  remained 
faithful  to  Solomon  during  Adonijah's  at- 
tempt on  the  crown  (1  K.  i.  8,  10,  32,  38, 
44)  ;  and  was  raised  into  the  place  of  Joab 
as  commander-in-chief  of  tlie  whole  army 
(ii.  35,  iv.  4).  2.  Benaiah  the  Piratho- 
NiTE ;  an  Ephraimite,  one  of  David's  thirty 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  30 ;  1  Chr,  xi. 
31),  and  the  captain  of  the  eleventh 
monthly  course  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  14).  3.  A 
Levite  in  the  time  of  David,  Avho  "  played 
with  a  psaltery  on  Alamoth"  (1  Chr.  xv, 
18,  20,  xvi.  5).  4.  A  priest  in  the  time  of 
David,  appointed  to  blow  the  trumpet  be- 
fore the  ark  (1  Chr.  xv.  24,  xvi.  6).  5.  A 
Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  (2  Chr.  xx. 
14).  6.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah, 
one  of  the  "  overseers  of  offerings "  (2 
Chr.  xxxi.  13).  7.  One  of  the  "princes" 
of  the  families  of  Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv.  36). 
8.  Four  laymen  in  the  time  of  Ezra  who 
had  taken  strange  wives  (Ezr.  x.  25,  30, 
35,  43).  9.  Tbe  father  of  Pelatiah,  "  a 
prince  of  the  people  "  in  the  time  of  Ezekit  1 
(xi.  1,  13). 

Ben-am'mi,  the  son  of  the  younger 
daughter  of  Lot,  and  progenitor  of  the 
Ammonites  (Gen.  xix.  38). 

Ben-eb'erak,  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  mentioned  only  in  Josh.  xix. 
45. 

Bene-ja'akan,  a  tribe  who  gave  their 
name  to  certain  wells  in  the  desert  which 
formed  one  of  the  halting-places  of  the 
Israelites    on    their  journey  to    Canaan. 


BENE-KEDEM 


81 


BENJAMIN 


[Beeroth  Bene-Jaakan.]  The  tribe 
doubtless  derived  its  name  from  Jaakan, 
the  son  of  Ezer  son  of  Seir  the  Horite  (1 
Chr.  i.  42),  whose  name  is  also  given  in 
Genesis  (xxxvi.  27)  as  Akan. 

Bene-ke'dem,  "  the  children  of  the 
East,"  an  appellation  given  to  a  people,  or 
to  peoples,  dwelling  to  the  east  of  Pales- 
tine. .  It  occurs  in  Gen.  xxix.  1 ;  Job  i.  3 ; 
Judg.  vi.  3,  33,  vii.  12,  viii.  10.  From 
Judg.  vii.  11-15,  it  is  to  be  inferred  that 
they  spoke  a  dialect  intelligible  to  an  Isra- 
elite. 

Benha'dad,  the  name  of  three  kings 
of  Damascus.  —  Benhadad  I.  was  either 
s(m  or  grandson  of  Rezon,  and  in  his  time 
Damascus  was  supreme  in  Syria.  He 
made  an  alliance  with  Asa,  and  conquered 
a  great  part  of  the  N.  of  Israel.  From  1 
K.  XX.  34,  it  would  appear  that  he  con- 
tinued to  make  war  upon  Israel  in  Omri's 
time,  and  forced  Mm  to  make  "  streets  "  in 
Samaria  for  Syrian  residents.  This  date  is 
B.  c.  950.  —  Benhadad  II.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  also  king  of  Damascus.  Long 
wars  with  Israel  characterized  his  reign. 
Some  time  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  Ben- 
hadad renewed  the  war  with  Israel,  at- 
tacked Samaria  a  second  time,  and  pressed 
the  siege  so  closely  that  there  was  a  terri- 
ble famine  in  the  city.  But  the  Syrians 
broke  up  in  tlie  night  in  consequence  of  a 
sudden  panic.  Soon  after  Benhadad  fell 
sick,  and  sent  Hazael  to  consult  Elisha  as 
to  the  issue  of  his  malady.  On  the  day 
after  Hazael's  return  Benhadad  was  mur- 
dered, probably  by  some  of  his  own  ser- 
vants (2  K.  viii.  7-15).  Benhadad's  death 
was  about  b.  c.  890,  and  he  must  have 
reigned  some  30  years.  —  Benhadad  III., 
son  of  Hazael,  and  his  successor  on  the 
throne  of  Syria.  When  he  succeeded  to 
the  tlirone,  Jehoash  recovered  the  cities 
which  Jehoahaz  had  lost  to  the  Syrians, 
and  beat  him  in  Aphek  (2  K.  xiii.  17,  25). 
Jehoash  gained  two  more  victories,  but  did 
not  restore  the  dominion  of  Israel  on  the 
E.  of  Jordan.  The  date  of  Benhadad  III. 
is  B.  c.  840. 

Ben-ha'il,  one  of  the  princes  whom  king 
Jehoshaphat  sent  to  teach  in  the  cities  of 
Judah  (2  Chr.  xvii.  7). 

Ben-ha'nan,  son  of  Shimon,  in  the 
line  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

Beni'nu,  a  Levite;  one  of  those  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
X.  13  [14]). 

Ben'jamin.  1.  The  youngest  of  the 
children  of  Jacob,  and  the  only  one  of  the 
thirteen  who  was  born  in  Palestine.  His 
birth  took  place  on  the  road  between  Bethel 
and  Bethloliem,  a  short  distance  from  the 
latter,  and  his  mother  Rachel  died  in  the 
act  of  giving  him  birth,  naming  him  with 
her  last  breath  Ben-oni,  "  son  of  my  sor- 
row." This  was  by  Jacob  changed  into ; 
6 


Benjamin  (Gen.  xxxv.  16-18).  Until  the 
journeys  of  Jacob's  sons  and  of  Jacob  him- 
self into  Egypt  we  hear  nothing  of  Benja- 
min. Henceforward  the  history  of  Benja- 
min is  the  history  of  the  tribe.  And  up  to 
the  time  of  the  entrance  on  the  Promised 
Land  that  history  is  as  meagre  as  it  is 
afterwards  full  and  interesting.  The  prox- 
imity of  Benjamin  to  Ephraim  during  the 
march  to  the  Promised  Land  was  main- 
tained in  the  territories  allotted  to  each. 
Benjamin  lay  immediately  to  the  south  of 
Ephraim  and  between  him  and  Judah.  It 
formed  almost  a  parallelogram,  of  about  26 
miles  in  length  by  12  in  breadth.  Its  eastern 
boundary  was  the  Jordan,  and  from  thenc« 
it  extended  to  the  wooded  district  of  Ivir- 
jath-jearim,  a  point  about  eight  miles  west 
of  Jerusalem,  while  in  the  other  direction 
it  stretched  from  the  valley  of  Hinnom, 
under  the  "  Shoulder  of  the  Jebusite"  on 
the  south,  to  Bethel  on  the  north.  On  the 
south  the  territory  ended  abruptly  with  the 
steep  slopes  of  the  hill  of  Jerusalem,  —  on 
the  north  it  melted  imperceptibly  into  the 
possessions  of  friendly  Ephraim.  —  (1.) 
The  general  level  of  this  part  of  Palestine 
is  very  high,  not  less  than  2000  feet  above 
the  maritime  plain  of  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  one  side,  or  than  3000  feet  above 
the  deep  valley  of  the  Jordan  on  the  other, 
besides  which  this  general  level  or  plateau 
is  surmounted,  in  the  district  now  under 
consideration,  by  a  large  number  of  emi- 
nences, almost  every  one  of  which  has 
borne  some  part  in  the  history  of  the  tribe. 
(2.)  No  less  important  than  these  emi- 
nences are  the  torrent-beds  and  ravines  by 
which  the  upper  country  breaks  down  into 
the  deep  tracts  on  each  side  of  it.  The 
passes  on  the  eastern  side  are  of  a  much 
more  difficult  and  intricate  character  than 
those  of  the  western.  The  contrast  be- 
tween the  warlike  character  of  the  tribes 
and  the  peaceful  image  of  its  progenitor 
comes  out  in  many  scattered  notices.  Ben-- 
jamin  was  the  only  tribe  which  seems  t(v 
have  pursued  archery  to  any  purpose,  an»J 
their  skill  in  the  bow  (^1  Sam.  xx.  20,  36; 
2  Sam.  i.  22 ;  1  Chr.  viii.  40,  xii.  2 ;  2  Chr. 
xvii.  17)  and  the  sling  (Judg.  xx.  Ift)  is. 
celebrated.  The  dreatlful  deed  recorded  in- 
Judg.  xix.,  though  repelled  by  the  whole 
country,  was  unhesitatingly  adopted  andi 
defended  by  Benjamin  with  an  obstinacy 
and  spirit  truly  extraordinary.  That  fright- 
ful transaction  was  indeed  a  crisis  in  the 
history  of  the  tribe :  the  six  hundred  who 
took  refuge  in  the  clifl"  Kimmon  were  the 
only  survivors.  A  long  interval  must  have 
elapsed  between  so  abject  a  condition  and 
the  culminating  point  at  which  we  next 
meet  with  the  tribe.  Several  circumstances 
may  have  conduced  to  its  restoration  to 
that  place  which  it  was  now  to  assume. 
Ramah   (1   Sam.  ix.  12,  &c ),  Mizpeh  (1 


BENJAMIN 


82 


BERODACH-BALADAJV 


Sam.  vii.  6),  Bethel,  and  Gibeon  fl  K.  iii. 
4)  were  all  in  the  land  of  Benjamin.  The 
people  who  resorted  to  these  sanctuaries 
must  gradually  have  been  accustomed  to 
associate  the  tribe  with  power  and  sanctity. 
The  struggles  and  contests  which  followed 
the  death  of  Saul  arose  from  the  natural 
unwillingness  of  the  tribe  to  relinquish  its 
position  at  the  head  of  the  nation,  especial- 
ly in  favor  of  Judah,  and  we  do  not  hear 
of  any  cordial  cooperation  or  firm  union 
between  the  two  tribes  until  the  disruption 
of  the  kingdoms.  Henceforward  the  his- 
tory of  Benjamin  becomes  merged  in  that 
of  the  southern  kingdom.  2.  A  man  of 
the  tribe  of  Benjamm,  son  of  Bilhan,  and 
the  head  of  a  family  of  warriors  (1  Chr. 
yii.  10^.  3.  One  of  the  "  sons  of  Harim," 
an  Israelite  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  32). 

Ben'jamin,  High  gate,  or  gate,  of, 
Jer.  XX.  2,  xxxvii.  13,  xxxviii.  7 ;  Zech. 
xiv.  10.     [Jerusalem.] 

Be'no,  a  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Merari 
(1  Chr.  xxiv.  26,  27). 

Ben-o'ni,  the  name  which  the  dying 
Rachel  gave  to  her  newly-born  son,  but 
which  by  his  father  was  changed  into  Ben- 
jamin (Gen.  xxxv.  18). 

Ben-zo'heth,  a  name  occurring  among 
the  descendants  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

Be'on,  a  place  on  the  east  of  Jordan 
(Num.  xxxii.  3),  doubtless  a  contraction  of 
Baal-meon  (comp.  ver.  38). 

Be'or.  1.  The  father  of  Bela,  one  of 
the  early  Edomite  kings  (Gen.  xxxvi.  32 ; 
1  Chr.  i.  43).  2.  Father  of  Balaam  (Num. 
xxii.  5,  xxiv.  3,  15,  xxxi.  8 ;  Deut,  xxiii.  4 ; 
Josh.  xiii.  22,  xxiv.  9 ;  Mic.  vi.  5).  He  is 
called  BosoR  in  the  N.  T. 

Be'ra,  king  of  Sodom  at  the  time  of  the 
invasion  of  the  five  kings  under  Chedor- 
laomer  (Gen.  xiv.  2;  also  17  and  21). 

Ber'achah,  a  Benjamite,  who  attached 
himself  to  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  3). 

Ber'achah,  Valley  of,  a  valley  in 
which  Jehoshaphat  and  his  people  assem- 
bled to  "bless"  Jehovah  after  the  over- 
throw of  the  hosts  of  Moabites,  Ammonites, 
and  Mehunira,  who  had  come  against  them, 
and  jirhich  from  that  fact  acquired  its  name 
of  "the  valley  of  blessing"  (2  Chr.  xx. 
26).  The  name  of  Bereikut  still  survives, 
attached  to  ruins  in  a  valley  of  the  same 
name  lying  between  Tekua  and  the  main 
xoad  from  Bethlehem  to  Hebron. 

Berachi'ah,  a  Gershonite  Levite,  father 
of  Asaph  the  singer  (1  Chr.  vi.  39).  [Be- 
kechiaii.] 

Berai'ah,  son  of  Shimhi,  a  chief  man  of 
Benjamin  (1  Chr.  viii.  21). 

Bere'a.  1.  A  city  of  Macedonia,  men- 
tioned in  Acts  xvii.  10,  15.  It  is  now 
called  Vcrria  or  Kara-  Verria,  and  is  situ- 
ated on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Olympian 
onountain-range,  commanding  an  extensive 


view  of  the  plain  of  the  Axius  and  HaK« 
acmon,  and  has  now  15,000  or  20,000  in- 
habitants. 2.  The  modern  Aleppo,  men- 
tioned in  2  Mace.  xiii.  4.  3.  A  place  ir 
Judea,  apparently  not  very  far  from  Jeru- 
salem (1  Mace.  ix.  4). 

Berechi'ah.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of 
Zorobabel,  and  a  descendant  of  the  royal 
family  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iii.  20).  2.  A 
man  mentioned  as  the  father  of  Meshullam 
who  assisted  in  rebuldingthe  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  iii.  4,  30,  vi.  18).  3.  A  Le- 
vite of  the  line  of  Elkanah  (1  Chr.  ix.  16). 
4.  A  doorkeeper  for  the  ark  (1  Chr.  xv. 
23).  5.  One  of  the  chief  men  of  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim  in  the  time  of  king  Ahaz  (3 
Chr.  xxviii.  12).  6.  Father  of  Asaph  the 
singer  (1  Chr.  xv.  17).  [Berachiaii.]  7. 
Father  of  Zechariah  the  prophet  (Zech.  i. 
1,  7).^ 

Be'red.  1.  A  place  in  the  south  of 
Palestine,  between  which  and  Kadesh  lay 
the  well  Lahai-roi  (Gen.  xvi.  14).  2.  A 
son  or  descendant  of  Ephraim  (1  Chr.  vii. 
20),  possibly  identical  with  Becher  inNum 
xxvi.  35,  by  a  mere  change  of  letters. 

Bereni'ce.    [Bernice.] 

Be'ri,  son  of  Zophah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  36). 

Beri'ah.  1.  A  son  of  Asher  (Gen. 
xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi.  44,  45),  from  whom 
descended  the  "  fiimily  of  the  Beriites" 
(Num.  xxvi.  44).  2.  A  son  of  Ephraim, 
so  named  on  account  of  the  state  of  his 
father's  house  when  he  was  born  (1  Chr. 
vii.  20-23).  This  short  notice  is  of  no 
slight  historical  importance ;  especially  as 
it  refers  to  a  period  of  Hebrew  history  re- 
specting which  the  Bible  affords  us  no  other 
like  information.  The  event  must  be  as- 
signed to  the  time  between  Jacob's  death 
and  the  beginning  of  the  oppression.  3. 
A  Benjamite.  He  and  his  brother  Shema 
were  ancestors  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ajalon, 
and  expelled  the  inhabitants  of  Gath  (1 
Chr.  viii.  13,  16.)  4.  A  Levite  (1  Chr. 
xxiii.  10,  11). 

Beri'ites.    [Beriah,  1.] 

Be'rites,  The,  a  tribe  or  people  who  are 
named  with  Abel  and  Beth-maachah,  and 
who  were  therefore  doubtless  situated  in 
the  north  of  Palestine  (2  Sam.  xx.  14). 

Be'rith,  The  god  Judg.  ix.  46.    [Baal- 

BERITII.] 

Berni'ce  and  Bereni'ce,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts  xii.  1, 
&c.).  She  was  first  married  to  her  uncle 
Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  and  after  his  death 
(a.  d.  48)  she  lived  under  circumstances 
of  great  suspicion  with  her  own  brother 
Agrippa  II.,  in"  connection  with  whom  she 
is  mentioned  Acts  xxv.  13,  23,  xxvi.  30,  aa 
having  visited  Festus  on  his  appointment  aa 
Procurator  of  Judaea. 

Ber'odach-Bal'adan,  2  K.  xx.  la. 
[Merodach-Baladan.  ] 


BEROTHAH 


83 


BETH-BAAL-MEON 


Bero'thah,  Bero'thai.  The  first  of 
these  two  names  is  given  by  Ezekiel  (xlvii. 
16)  in  connection  with  Haraath  and  Da- 
mascus as  forming  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Promised  Land.  The 
second  is  mentioned  (2  Sam,  viii.  8)  also  in 
connection  with  Haraath  and  Damascus. 
The  well-known  city  BeiriLt  (Berytus) 
naturally  suggests  itself  as  identical  with 
one  at  least  of  the  names ;  but  in  each 
instance  the  circumstances  of  the  case  seem 
to  require  a  position  farther  east. 

Bero'thite,  The  (l  Chr.  xi.  39).   [Bee- 

EOTH.] 

Beryl  {tarshisK)  occurs  in  Ex.  xxviii. 
20,  xxxix.  13;  Cant.  v.  14;  Ez.  i.  16,  x.  9, 
xxviii.  13 ;  Dan.  x.  6.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  the  tarshish  derives  its  name 
from  the  place  so  called.  The  ancient 
chrysolite  or  the  modern  yellow  topaz  ap- 
pears to  have  a  better  claim  than  any  other 
gem  to  represent  the  tarshish  of  the  He- 
brew Bible,  certainly  a  better  claim  than 
the  beryl  of  the  A.  V.,  a  rendering  which 
appears  to  be  unsupported  by  any  kind  of 
pyidence. 

Be'sai.  "Children  of  Besai"  were 
among  the  Nethinim  who  returned  to  Ju- 
daea with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  49;  Neh. 
vii.  52). 

Besodei'ah,  father  of  Meshullam,  one 
of  the  repairers  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii.  6). 

Be'sor,  The  Brook,  a  torrent-bed  or 
wady  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  of 
which  mention  occurs  only  in  1  Sam.  xxx. 
9,  10,  21. 

Be'tah,  a  city  belonging  to  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Zobah,  mentioned  with  Berothai 
(2  Sam.  viii.  8).  In  the  parallel  account 
1  Chr.  xviii.  8,  the  name  is  called  Tibchath. 

Be'ten,  one  of  the  cities  on  the  border 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  25). 

Beth,  the  most  general  word  for  a  house- 
or  habitation.  Like  Aedes  in  Latin  and 
Dom  in  Gerrhan,  it  has  the  special  mean- 
ing of  a  temple  or  house  of  worship. — 
Beth  is  more  frequently  employed  in  com- 
pound names  of  places  than  any  other 
word.  Beth-eked,  the  "  shearing  house  " 
(2  K.  X.  12),  lay  between  Jezreel  and  Sa- 
maria, according  to  Jerome  15  miles  from 
the  town  of  Lcgio,  and  in  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  Beth-haggan,  "  the  garden- 
house"  (2  K.  ix.  27),  is  doubtless  the  same 
place  as  Engannin,  "spring  of  gardens,"- 
the  modern  Jenin. 

Beth-ab'ara,  a  place  beyond  Jordan, 
in  which,  according  to  the  Received  Text 
of  the  N.  T.;  John  was  baptizing  (Johu  i. 
28).  If  this  reading  be  correct,  Bethabara 
may  be  identical  with  Beth-barah,  the  an- 
cient ford  of  Jordan,  or,  which  seems  more 
likely,  with  Beth-nimrah,  on  the  east  of 
the  river,  nearly  opposite  Jericho. 

Beth'-anath,  one  of  the  "fenced  cities  " 


of  Naphtali,  named  with  Bethshemesh 
(Josh.  xix.  38)  ;  from  neither  of  them  were 
the  Canaanites  expelled  (Judg.  i.  33). 

Beth'-anoth,  a  town  in  the  mountain- 
ous district  of  Judah,  named  with  Halbul, 
Bethzur,  and  others,  in  Josh.  xv.  59  only. 

Beth'any,  a  village  which,  scanty  as 
are  the  notices  of  it  contained  in  Scripture, 
is  more  intimately  associated  in  our  minds 
than  perhaps  any  other  place  with  the  most 
familiar  acts  and  scenes  of  the  last  days  of 
the  life  of  Christ.  It  was  situated  "at"  the 
Mount  of  Olives  (Mark  xi.  1;  Luke  xix. 
29),  about  fifteen  stadia  from  Jerusalem 
(John  xi.  18),  on  or  near  the  usual  road 
from  Jericho  to  the  city  (Luke  xix.  29, 
comp.  1 ;  Mark  xi.  1,  comp.  x.  46),  and 
close  by  the  west  (?)  of  another  village 
called  Bethphage,  the  two  being  several 
times  mentioned  together.  Bethany  is  now 
known  by  a  name  derived  from  Lazarus,  — 
el-'Azariyeh  or  Lazarieh.  It  lies  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  fully 
a  mile  beyond  the  summit,  and  not  very  far 
from  the  point  at  which  the  road  to  Jericho 
begins  its  more  sudden  descent  towards  the 
Jordan  valley.  El-'Azariyeh,  is  a  ruinous 
and  wretched  village,  a  wild  mountain  ham- 
let of  some  twenty  families.  Beth-any  has 
been  commonly  explained  "  House  of 
Dates,"  but  it  more  probably  signifies 
"  House  of  Misery '.'  (H.  Dixon,  Holy  Land, 
ii.  214,  foil.). 

Beth-ar'abah,  one  of  the  six  cities  of 
Judah  which  were  situated  down  in  the 
Arabah,  the  sunk  valley  of  the  Jordan  and 
Dead  Sea  (Josh.  xv.  61),  on  the  north  bor- 
der of  the  tribe.  It  is  also  included  in  the 
list  of  the  towns  of  Benjamin  (xviii.  22). 

Beth'-aram,  accurately  Beth-haram, 
one  of  the  towns  of  Gad  on  the  east  of  Jor- 
dan, described  as  in  "  the  valley,"  Josh.  xiii. 
27,  and  no  doubt  the  same,  place  as  that 
named  Beth-haran  in  Num.  xxxii.  36. 

Beth-ar'bel,  named  only  in  Hos.  x.  14, 
as  the  scene  of  a  sack  and  massacre  by 
Shalman. 

Beth-a'.ven,  a  place  on  the  mountains 
of  Benjamin,  east  of  Bethel  (Josh.  vii.  2, 
xviii.  12),  and  lying  between  that  place  and 
Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5,  xiv.  23).  In 
Hos.  iv.  15,  V.  8,  X.  5,  the  name  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  neighboring  Bethel,  —  once 
the  "  house  of  God,"  but  then  the  house  of 
idols,  of  "  naught." 

Beth-az'maveth.  Under  this  name  is 
mentioned,  in  Neh.  vii.  28  only,  the  town 
of  Benjamin  which  is  elsewhere  called  Az- 
mavetii,  and  Beth-samos. 

Beth-baal-me'on,  a  place  in  the  pos- 
sessions of  Reuben,  on  the  downs  (A.  V. 
"plain")  east  of  Jordan  (Josh.  xiii.  17). 
At  the  Israelites'  first  approach  its  name 
was  Baal-meon  (Num.  xxxii.  38,  or  in  its 
contracted  form,  Beon,  xxxii.  3),  to  which 
the  Beth  was  possibly  a  Hebrew  addition. 


BETH-BARAH 


84 


BETH-GADER 


Later  it  would  seem  to  have  come  into  pos- 
session of  Moab,  and  to  be  known  either  as 
Beth-meon  (Jer.  xlviii.  23)  or  Baal-meon 
(Ez.  XXV.  9).  The  name  is  still  attached 
to  a  ruined  place  of  considerable  size,  a 
short  distance  to  the  S.  W.  of  Heshdn,  and 
bearing  the  name  of  "  the  fortress  of  Mi"- 
un"  or  Maiin,  which  appears  to  give  its 
appellation  .to  the  Wady  Zerka  maein. 

Beth-ba'rah,  named  only  in  Judg.  vii. 
24,  as  a  point  apparently  south  of  the  scene 
of  Gideon's  victory.  Beth-barah  derives 
its  chief  interest  from  the  possibility  that 
its  more  modern  representative  may  have 
been  Beth-abara  where  John  baptized.  It 
was  probably  the  chief  ford  of  the  district. 

Beth-bir'ei,  a  town  of  Simeon  (1  Chr. 
Iv.  31),  which  by  comparison  with  the  par- 
allel list  in  Josh.  xix.  appears  to  have  had 
also  the  name  of  Beth-lebaoth.  It  lay 
to  the  extreme  south. 

Beth' -car,  a  place  named  as  the  point 
to  which  the  Israelites  pursued  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  vii.  11),  and  therefore  west 
of  Mizpeh.  Josephus  says  that  the  stone 
Ebenezer  was  set  up  here. 

Beth-da'gon.  1.  A  city  in  the  low 
country  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  41),  and  there- 
fore not  far  from  the  Philistine  territory, 
with  which  its  name  implies  a  connection. 
2.  A  town  apparently  near  the  coast, 
named  as  one  of  the  landmarks  of  the 
boundary  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27). 

Beth-diblatha'im,  a  town  of  Moab 
(Jer.  xlviii.  22),  apparently  the  place  else- 
where called  Almon-Diblathaim. 

Beth'el.  1.  A  well-known  city  and 
holy  place  of  central  Palestine.  Of  the  ori- 
gin of  the  name  of  Bethel  there  are  two 
accounts  extant.  1.  It  was  bestowed  on 
the  spot  by  Jacob  under  the  awe  inspired 
by  the  nocturnal  vision  of  God,  when  on 
his  journey  from  his  father's  house  at  Bcer- 
sheba  to  seek  his  wife  in  Haran  (Gen. 
xxviii.  19).  2.  But  according  to  the  other 
account.  Bethel  received  its  name  on  the 
occasion  of  a  blessing  bestowed  by  God 
upon  Jacob  after  his  return  from  Padan- 
aram ;  at  which  time  also  (according  to  this 
narrative)  the  name  of  Israel  was  given 
him  (Gen.  xxxv.  14,  15).  —  Early  as  is  the 
date  involved  in  these  narratives,  yet,  if  we 
are  to  accept  the  precise  definition  of  Gen. 
xii.  8,  the  name  of  Bethel  would  appear  to 
have  existed  at  this  spot  even  before  the 
arrival  of  Abram  in  Canaan  (Gen.  xii.  8, 
xiii.  3,  4).  In  one  thing,  however,  the 
above  narratives  all  agree,  —  in  omitting 
any  mention  of  town  or  buildings  at  Bethel 
at  that  early  period,  and  in  drawing  a 
marked  distinction  between  the  "city"  of 
Luz  and  the  consecrated  "place"  in  its 
neighborhood  (corap.  Gen.  xxxv.  7).  The 
appropriation  of  the  name  of  Bethel  to  the 
city  appears  not  to  have  been  made  till  still 
later,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  tribe  of 


Ephraim ;  after  which  the  name  of  Luz  oc« 
curs  no  more  (Judg.  i.  22-26).  —  After  the 
conquest  Bethel  is  frequently  heard  of.  In 
the  troubled  times  when  there  was  no  king 
in  Israel,  it  was  to  Bethel  that  the  people 
went  up  in  their  distress  to  ask  counsel  of 
God  (Judg.  XX.  18,  26,  31;  xxi.  2:  A.  V. 
"house  of  God").  Here  was  the  ark  of 
the  covenant  under  the  charge  of  Phinehas 
the  grandson  of  Aaron  (xx.  26-28,  xxi.  4). 
Later  we  find  it  named  as  one  of  the  holy 
cities  to  which  Samuel  went  in  circuit  (1 
Sam.  vii.  16).  Here  Jeroboam  placed  one 
of  the  two  calves  of  gold.  Towards  the 
end  of  Jeroboam's  life  Bethel  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xiii.  19).  Eli- 
jah visited  Bethel,  and  we  hear  of  "sons 
of  the  prophets  "  as  resident  there  (2  K.  ii. 
2,  3),  two  facts  apparantly  incompatible 
with  the  active  existence  of  the  calf-worship. 
But,  after  the  destruction  of  the  Baal  wor- 
ship by  Jehu,  Bethel  comes  once  more  into 
view  (2  K.  X.  29).  After  the  desolation  of 
the  northern  kingdom  by  the  king  of  As- 
syria, Bethel  still  remained  an  abode  of 
priests  (2  K.  xvii.  28,  27).  In  the  account 
of  Josiah's  iconoclasm  we  catch  one  more 
glimpse  of  the  altar  of  Jeroboam,  with  its 
last  loathsome  fire  of  "  dead  men's  bones  " 
burning  upon  it.  In  later  times  Bethel  is 
named  only  once ;  its  ruins  still  lie  on  the 
right  hand  side  of  the  road  from  Jerusalem 
to  Nablous  under  the  scarcely  altered  name 
of  Beitin.  2.  A  town  in  the  south  part 
of  Judah,  named  in  Josh.  xii.  16,  and  1  Sam. 
XXX.  27.  By  comparison  of  the  lists  of  the 
towns  of  Judah  and  Simeon  (Josh.  xv.  30, 
xix.  4 ;  1  Chr.  iv.  29,  30),  the  place  appears 
under  the  names  of  Chesil,  Bethdl,  and 
Bethuel.  —  HiEL,  THE  Bethelite,  is  re- 
corded as  the  rebuilder  of  Jericho  (1  K. 
xvi.34). 

Beth-e'mek,  a  place  on  or  near  the  bor- 
der of  Asher,  on  the  north  side  of  which 
was  the  ravine  of  Jiphthah-el  (Josh.  xix.  27). 

Beth'er,  The  Mountains  of  (Cant, 
ii.  17).  There  is  no  clew  to  gtiide  us  to 
what  mountains  are  intended  here. 

Bethesda,  the  Hebrew  name  of  a  res- 
ervoir or  tank,  with  five  "porches,"  close 
upon  the  sheep-gate  or  "  market"  in  Jeru- 
salem (John  V.  2).  The  porches  —  i.  e. 
cloisters  or  colonnades  —  were  extensive 
enough  to  accommodate  a  large  number  of 
sick  and  infirm  people,  whose  custom  it  was 
to  wait  there  for  the  "troubling  of  the 
water."  The  large  reservoir  Birket  Israil, 
within  the  walls  of  the  city,  close  by  the  St. 
Stephen's  Gate,  and  under  the  north-east 
wall  of  the  Haram  area,  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  the  modern  representative  of 
Bethesda. 

Bethe'zel,  a  place  named  only  m  Mie. 
i.  11.  From  tlie  context  it  was  doubtless 
situated  in  the  plain  of  Philistia. 

Beth-ga'der,  doubtless  a  place,  though 


BETH-GAMUL 


85 


BETH-NIMRAH 


it  occurs  in  the  genealogies  of  Judah  as  if 
a  person  (1  Chr.  ii.  51). 

Beth-ga'mul,  a  town  of  Moab,  in  the 
downs  east  of  Jordan  (Jer.  xlviii.  23, 
conip.  21). 

Beth-hac'cerem  (Neh.  iii.  14).  From 
Jer.  vi.  1,  we  find  that  it  was  used  as  a 
beacon-station,  and  that  it  was  near  Tekoa. 
In  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (iii.  14)  it  had  a 
ruler  or  prince.  By  Jerome  a  village  named 
Beihacharma  is  said  to  have  been  on  a 
mountain  between  Tekoa  and  Jerusalem,  a 
position  in  which  the  eminence  known  as 
the  Frank  mountain  (Herodium)  stands 
conspicuous  ;  and  this  has  accordingly  been 
suggested  as  Beth-haccerem. 

Beth-ha'ran,  one  of  the  fenced  cities  on 
the  east  of  Jordan,  built  by  the  Gadites 
(Num.  xxxii.  36).  It  is  no  doubt  the  same 
place  as  Beth-abam,  Josh.  xiii.  27. 

Beth-hog'la  and  Hog'lah,  a  place  on 
the  border  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  6)  and  of 
Benjamin  (xviii.  19),  to  which  latter  tribe 
it  was  reckoned  to  belong  (xviii.  21).  A 
magnificent  spring  and  a  ruin  between  Jer- 
icho and  the  Jordan  still  bear  the  names  of 
Ainhajla  and  Kusr  IJajla,  and  are  doubt- 
less on  or  near  the  old  site. 

Beth.-llo'ron,  the  name  of  two  towns 
or  villages,  an  "upper"  and  a  "nether" 
(Josh.  xvi.  3,  5 ;  I  Chr.  vii.  24),  on  the  road 
from  Gibeon  to  Azekah  (Josh.  x.  10,  11), 
and  the  Philistine  plain  (1  Mace.  iii.  24). 
Beth-horon  lay  on  the  boundary-line  be- 
tween Benjamin  and  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvi. 
3,  6),  and  (xviii.  13,  14)  was  counted  to 
Ephraim  (Josh.  xxi.  22;  1  Chr.  vii.  24), 
and  given  to  the  Kohatiiites  (JoshI  xxi.  22 ; 
1  Chr.  vi.  68  [53].  There  is  no  room  for 
doubt  that  the  two  Beth-horons  still  survive 
in  the  modern  villages  of  Beit-'ur,  et-tahta 
and  el-foka. 

Beth-jesh'imoth,  or  Jes'imoth,  a 
town  or  place  east  of  Jordan,  on  the  lower 
level  at  the  south  end  of  the  Jordan  valley 
XNum.  xxxiii.  49) ;  and  named  with  Ash- 
dod-pisgah  and  Beth-peor.  It  was  one  of 
the  limits  of  the  encampment  of  Israel  be- 
fore crossing  the  Jordan.  Later  it  was  al- 
lotted to  Reuben  (Josh.  xii.  3,  xiii.  20),  but 
came  at  last  into  the  hands  of  Moab,  and 
formed  one  of  the  cities  wMch  were  "the 
glory  of  the  country"  (Ez.  xxv.  9). 

Betll-leb'aotll,  a  town  in  the  lot  of 
Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  6),  and  therefore  in  the 
extreme  south  of  Judah  (xv.  32,  Lebaoth). 
In  the  parallel  list  in  1  Chr.  iv.  31  the  name 
is  given  Betii-bikei. 

Bethlehem.  1.  One  of  the  oldest 
towns  in  Palestine,  already  in  existence  at 
the  time  of  Jacob's  return  to  the  country. 
Its  earliest  name  was  Ephrath  or  Ephra- 
TAH  (see  Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19,  xlviii.  7),  and 
it  is  not  till  long  after  the  occupation  of  the 
country  by  the  Israelites  that  we  meet  with 
it  under  its  new  name  of  Betlilehem.    After 


the  conquest  Bethlehem  appears  under  its 
own  name  Bethlehem-judah  (Judg.  xvii.  7  • 
1  Sam.  xvii.  12;  Ruth  i.  1,  2).  The  Book 
of  Ruth  is  a  page  from  the  domestic  history 
of  Bethlehem  :  the  names,  almost  the  very 
persons,  of  the  Bethlehemites  are  there 
brought  before  us ;  we  are  allowed  to  assist 
at  their  most  peculiar  customs,  and  to  wit- 
ness the  very  springs  of  those  events  which 
have  conferred  immortality  on  the  name 
of  the  place.  The  elevation  of  David  to 
the  kingdom  does  not  appear  to  have  af- 
fected the  fortunes  of  his  native  town. — 
The  few  remaining  casual  notices  of  Beth- 
lehem in  the  Old  Testament  may  be  quickly 
enumerated.  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Chr.  xi.  6).  By  the  time  of  the  captiv- 
ity, the  Inn  of  Chimham  by  Bethlehem  ap- 
pears to  have  become  the  recognized  point 
of  departure  for  travellers  to  Egypt  (Jer. 
xli.  17).  —  In  the  New  Testament  Bethle- 
hem retains  its  distinctive  title  of  Bethle- 
hem-judah (Matt.  ii.  1,  5),  and  once,  in  the 
announcement  of  the  Angels,  the  "  city  of 
David"  (Luke  ii.  4;  comp.  John  vii.  42). 
The  passages  just  quoted,  and  the  few  which 
follow,  exhaust  the  references  to  it  in  the 
N.  T.  (Matt.  ii.  6,  8,  16 ;  Luke  ii.  15).  The 
modern  town  of  Beit-lahm  lies  to  the  E.  of 
tlie  main  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron, 
6  miles  from  the  former.  It  covers  the  E. 
and  N.  E.  parts  of  the  ridge  of  a  long  gray 
hill  of  Jura  limestone,  which  stands  nearly 
due  ,E.  and  W.,  and  is  about  a  mile  in 
length.  The  hill  has  a  deep  valley  on  the 
N.  and  another  on  the  S.  On  the  top  lies 
the  village  in  a  kind  of  irregular  triangle. 
The  population  is  about  3000  souls,  entirely 
Cliristians.  2.  A  town  in  the  portion  of 
Zebulun  named  nowhere  but  in  Josh.  xix.  15. 
Bethlo'mon,  1  Esd.  v.  17.    [Bethi.e- 

HEM,   1.] 

Beth-ma'achah,  a  place  named  only 
in  2  Sam.  xx.  14,  15.  In  the  absence  of 
more  information,  we  can  only  conclude 
that  it  is  identical  with  Maachah,  or  Aram- 
MAACHAH,  one  of  the  petty  Syrian  kingdoms 
in  the  north  of  Palestine  (comp.  2  K.  xv. 
29). 

Beth-mar'caboth,  "house  of  the  char- 
iots," one  of  the  towns  of  Simeon,  situated 
to  the  extreme  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xix. 
5 ;  1  Chr.  iv.  31).  In  the  parallel  list,  Josh. 
XV.  30,  31,  Madmannah  occurs  in  place  of 
Beth-marcaboth. 

Beth-me'on,  Jer.  xlviii.  23.  A  con- 
tracted form  of  the  name  elsewhere  given 
as  Betu-baal-meon. 

Beth-nim'rah,  one  of  the  fenced  cities 
on  the  east  of  Jordan  token  and  built  by 
the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  36),  and  de- 
scribed as  lying  in  the  valley  beside  Beth- 
haran  (Josh.  xiii.  27).  In  Num.  xxxu.  3 
it  is  called  simply  Nimrah.  The  namo 
still  survives  in  the  Nahr  Nimrtm,  the 
Arab  appellation  of  the  lower  end  of  th« 


BETHORON 


86 


BETHULIA 


Wady  Shoaih,  where  the  waters  of  tliat 
valley  discharge  themselves  into  the  Jor- 
dan close  to  one  of  the  regular  fords  a  few 
miles  above  Jericho. 

Betho'ron,  i.  c.  Bethokon  (Jud.iv.  4). 

Beth-pa'let,  a  town  among  those  in 
the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  named  in 
Josh.  XV.  27. 

Beth-paz'zez,  a  town  of  Issachar  named 
with  En-haddah  (Josh.  xix.  21),  and  of 
which  nothing  is  known. 

Beth-pe'or,  a  place,  no  doubt  dedicated 
to  the  god  Baal-peor,  on  the  east  of  Jor- 
dan, opposite  Jericho,  and  six  miles  above 
Libias  or  Beth-haran.  It  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xiii. 
20).  One  of  the  last  halting-places  of  the 
cMldren  of  Israel  is  designated  "the 
ravine  over  against  Beth-peor"  (Deut. 
jii.  29,  iv.  46). 

Beth'-phage,  the  name  of  a  place  on 
the  mount  of  Olives,  on  the  road  between 
Jericho  and  Jerusalem.  It  was  apparently 
close  to  Bethaxy  (Matt.  xxi.  1 ;  Mark  xi. 
1;  Luke  xix.  29),  and  to  the  eastward  of 
it.  No  remains  however  which  could  an- 
swer to  this  position  have  been  found,  and 
the  traditional  site  is  above  Bethany,  half 
way  between  that  village  and  the  top  of  the 
mount. 

Beth'-phelet,  Neh.  xi.  26.     [Beth- 

PALET.] 

Beth'-rapha,  a  name  which  occurs  in 
the  genealogy  of  Judah  as  the  son  of  Esh- 
ton  (1  Chr.  iv.  12). 

Beth'-rehob,  a  place  mentioned  as  hav- 
ing near  it  the  valley  in  which  lay  the  town 
of  Laish  or  Dan  (Judg.  xviii.  28).  It  was 
one  of  the  little  kingdoms  of  Aram  or 
Syria  (2  Sam.  x.  6).  Robinson  conjectures 
that  this  ancient  place  is  represented  by 
the  modern  Uiinin. 

Beth-sa'ida.  1.  "Bethsaida  of  Gali- 
lee" (John  xii.  21),  a  city  which  was  the 
native  place  of  Andrew,  Peter,  and  Philip 
(John  i.  44,  xii.  21)  in  the  land  of  Gen- 
nesareth  (Mark  vi.  45;  comp.  53),  and 
therefore  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake. 
Dr.  Robinson  places  Bethsaida  at  'Ain  et- 
Tabigah,  a  short  distance  north  of  Khan 
Minyeh,  which  he  identifies  with  Caper- 
naum. 2.  By  comparing  the  narratives  in 
Mark  vi.  31-53,  and  Luke  ix.  10-17,  it  ap- 
pears certain  that  the  Bethsaida  at  which 
the  5000  were  fed  must  have  been  a  second 
place  of  the  same  name  on  the  east  of  the 
lake.  Such  a  place  there  was  at  the  north- 
eastern extremity,  formerly  a  village,  but 
rebuilt  and  adorned  by  Philip  the  Tetrarch, 
and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  town  under 
the  name  of  Julias,  after  the  daughter  of 
the  emperor.  Here  in  a  magnificent  tomb 
Philip  was  buried.  Of  this  Bethsaida  we 
have  certainly  one  and  probably  two  men- 
tions in  the  Gospels:  1.  That  named 
ftbove,  of  the  feeding  of  the  6000  (Luke 


ix.  10).  2.  The  other,  most  probably,  in 
Mark  viii.  22. 

Beth.-8he'an,  or  in  Samuel,  Beth- 
siiAK,  a  city,  which,  with  its  "  daughter " 
towns,  belonged  to  Manasseh  (1  Chr.  vii. 
29),  though  within  the  limits  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xvii.  11),  and  therefore  on  the  west 
of  Jordan  (comp.  1  Mace.  v.  52)  —  but 
not  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  the  latter 
tribe.  The  Canaanitcs  were  not  driven  out 
from  the  town  (Judg.  i.  27).  In  later 
times  it  was  called  Scythopolis  (2  Mace, 
xii.  29)  ;  but  this  name  has  not  survived  to 
the  present  day;  and  the  place  is  still 
known  as  Beisdn.  It  lies  in  the  Ghor  or 
Jordan  valley,  about  twelve  miles  south  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  four  miles  west  of 
the  Jordan. 

Beth-she'mesh.  1.  One  of  the  towns 
which  marked  the  north  boundary  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  10),  but  not  named  in  the  lists 
of  the  cities  of  that  tribe.  It  is  now  'Ain- 
shems,  about  two  miles  from  the  great  Phi- 
listine plain,  and  seven  from  Ekron.  2.  A 
city  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix. 
22).  3.  One  of  the  "fenced  cities"  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38;  Judg.  i.  33).  4. 
An  idolatrous  temple  or  place  in  Egypt 
(Jer.  xliii.  13).  In  the  middle  ages  Heli- 
opolis  was  still  called  by  the  Arabs  Ain 
Sliepis. 

Beth-shit'tah,  one  of  the  spots  to 
which  the  flight  of  the  host  of  the  Midian- 
ites  extended  after  their  discomfiture  by 
Gideon  (Judg.  vii.  22). 

Beth-tap'puah,  one  of  the  towns  of 
Judah,  in  tlie  mountainous  district,  and 
near  Hebron  (Josh.  xv.  53 ;  comp.  1  Chr. 
ii.  43).  Here  it  has  actually  been  discov- 
ered by  Robinson  under  the  modern  name 
of  Teffuh  5  miles  W.  of  Hebron,  on  a  ridge 
of  high  table-land. 

Bethu'el,  the  son  of  Nahor  by  Milcah; 
nephew  of  Abraham,  and  father  of  Rebekah 
(Gen.  xxii.  22,  23,  xxiv.  15,  24,  47,  xxviii. 
2).  In  XXV.  20,  and  xxviii.  5,  he  is  called 
"  Bethuel  the  Syrian."  Though  often  re- 
ferred to  as  above  in  the  narrative,  Bethuel 
only  appears  in  person  once  (xxiv.  50). 
Upon  this  an  ingenious  conjecture  is  raised 
by  Prof.  Blunt  that  he  was  the  subject  of 
some  imbecility  or  other  incapacity. 

Be'thul,  a  town  of  Simeon  in  the  south, 
named  with  El-tolad  and  Hormah  (Josh, 
xix.  4),  called  also  Chesil  and  Bethuel 
(Josh.  XV.  30;  1  Chr.  iv.  29). 

Beth'Uli'a,  the  city  which  was  the  scene 
of  the  chief  events  of  the  Book  of  Judith, 
in  wluch  book  only  the  name  occurs.  Its 
position  is  there  described  with  very  mi- 
nute detail.  Notwithstanding  this  detail, 
however  the  identification  of  the  site  of 
Bethulia  has  hitherto  defied  all  attempts, 
and  is  one  of  the  greatest  puzzles  of  sacred 
geography.  Von  Raumer  suggests  Sanur, 
which  is  perhaps  the  nearest  to  probability. 


BETH-ZACHARIAS 

It  is  about  three  miles  from  Dothan,  and 
some  six  or  seven  from  Jenin  (Engannim), 
which  stand  on  the  very  edge  of  tlie  great 
plain  of  Esdraelon. 
Beth-zachari'as.       [Bath-Zachaki- 

ASj 

Beth.'-Zlir,  a  town  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah,  named  between  Halhul  and  Gedor 
(Josh.  XV.  58).  The  recovery  of  the  site 
of  Bethzur,  under  the  almost  identical 
name  of  Beit-sur,  explains  its  impregna- 
bility, and  also  the  reason  for  the  choice  of 
its  position,  since  it  commands  the  road 
from  Beersheba  and  Hebron,  which  has 
always  been  the  main  approach  to  Jeru- 
salem from  the  south. 

Bet'onim,  a  town  in  the  inheritance  of 
the  children  of  Gad,  apparently  on  their 
northern  boundary  (Josh.  xiii.  26). 

Betrothing.     [Marriage.] 

Beu'lah,  "married,"  the  name  which 
the  land  of  Israel  is  to  bear,  when  "  the 
land  shall  be  married  "  (Is.  Ixii.  4). 

Be'zai,  "  Children  of  Bezai,"  to  the 
number  of  323,  returned  from  captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  17 ;  Neh.  vii.  23). 
The  name  occurs  again  among  those  who 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  18). 

Bezal'eel.  1.  The  son  of  Uri,  the  son 
of  Ilur,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  one  of 
the  architects  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi. 
1-6).  His  charge  was  chiefly  in  all  works 
of  metal,  wood,  and  stone.  2.  One  of  the 
sons  of  Pahath-moab  who  had  taken  a  for- 
eign wife  (Ezr.  x.  30). 

Be'zek.  1.  The  residence  of  Adoni- 
bezek,  t.  e.  the  "  lord  of  Bezek  "  (Judg.  i. 
6);  in  the  lot  of  Judah  (verse  3),  and  in- 
habited by  Canaanites  and  Perizzites  (verse 
4).  This  must  have  been  a  distinct  place 
from  2.  Where  Saul  numbered  the  forces 
of  Israel  and  Judah  before  goina:  to  the  re- 
lief of  JaJjesh-Gilead  (1  Sam.  xi.  8).  This 
was  doubtless  somewhere  in  the  centre  of 
the  country,  near  the  Jordan  valley.  No 
identification  of  either  place  has  been 
made  in  modern  times. 

Be'zer,  son  of  Zophah,  one  of  the 
heads  of  the  houses  of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii. 
37)^ 

Be'zer  in  the  Wilderness,  a  city  of 
the  Reubenites,  with  suburbs,  set  apart  by 
Moses  as  one  of  the  three  cities  of  refuge 
in  the  downs  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  and 
allotted  to  the  Merarites  (Deut.  iv.  43; 
Josh.  XX.  8,  xxi.  36;  1  Chr.  vi.  78). 

Bible.  I.  When  the  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament  were  formed  into  a  Canon 
[Canon]  it  was  natural  to  give  a  general 
name  to  the  collection.  The  earliest  in- 
stance of  such  a  title  occurs  in  Daiflel,  who 
refers  to  "  the  books "  (Dan.  ix.  2)  in  a 
manner  which  seems  to  mark  the  prophetic 
writings  as  already  collected  into  one  whole. 
The  same  word  was  applied  by  the  Jews  in  i 
Alexandria  to  the  collected  books  of  the  | 


87 


BIBLE 


Old  Testament  —  ixi  (ii^loi,  more  frequently 
Tu  (iifiXtu  —  whence  the  word  Bible,  or 
The  Book,  has  been  given  to  the  collected 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  call 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  either  The 
Scripture  {>,  younp,',,  Acts  viii.  32;  Gal.  iii, 
22;  2  Tim.  iii.  16),  or  The  Scriptures 
(ai  youifixl,  Matt.  xxi.  42;  Luke  xxiv.  27), 
or  The  Holy  Scriptures  (ra  tioU  vpuuuuru, 
2  Tim.  iii.  15).  The  use  of' the  phrase 
V  nuiaiu  dtu6>j*tj  in  2  Cor.  iii.  14,  for  the 
law  as  read  in  the  synagogues,  led  gradu- 
ally to  the  extension  of  the  word  to  include 
the  other  books  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures. 
Of  the  Latin  equivalents,  which  were 
adopted  by  different  writers  (Insirumen- 
tum,  Testamentum),  the  latter  met  with  the 
most  general  acceptance,  and  perpetuated 
itself  in  the  languages  of  modern  Europe, 
whence  the  terms  Old  Testament  and  New 
Testament,  though  the  Greek  word  prop- 
erly signifies  "Covenant"  rather  than 
"  Testament."  But  the  application  of  the 
word  Bible  to  the  collected  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  is  not  to  be  traced 
farther  back  than  the  5th  century  of  our 
era.  II.  The  existence  of  a  collection  of 
sacred  books  recognized  as  authoritative 
leads  naturally  to  a  more  or  less  systematic 
arrangement.  The  Prologue  to  Ecclesias- 
ticus  mentions  "  the  law  and  the  prophets 
and  the  other  Books."  In  the  N.  T.  there  is 
the  same  kind  of  recognition.  "  The  Law 
and  the  Prophets  "  is  the  shorter  (Matt.  xi. 
13,  xxii.  40;  Acts  xiii.  15,  &c.);  "the 
Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Psalms  "  (Luke 
xxiv.  44),  the  fuller  statement  of  the  di-v 
vision  popularly  recognized.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  books  of  the  Hebrew  text  un- 
der these  three  heads,  requires  however  a 
further  notice.  1.  The  Law,  containing 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy,  naturally  continued  to  oc- 
cupy the  position  which  it  must  have  held 
from  the  first  as  the  most  ancient  and 
authoritative  portion.  In  the  Hebrew  clas- 
sification the  titles  w^ere  taken  from  the 
initial  words,  or  prominent  words  in  the 
initial  verse;  in  that  of  the  LXX.  they 
were  intended  to  be  significant  of  the  sub- 
ject of  each  book.  2.  The  next  group  pre- 
sents a  more  singular  combination.  The 
arrangement  stands  as  follows  :  — 


Propheto 


Jofhua. 
Jud^aL 
I  &  i  SamoeL 
i&-i  King*. 

loaiah. 

iniah. 
Ezekiel. 


The  twelT* 

minor 

Propheti. 


—  the  Hebrew  titles  of  those  books  corre- 
sponding to  tliose  of  the  English  Bibles.  3. 
Last  in  orler  came   the  group  known  to 


BIBLE 


BILEAM 


the  Jews  as  Cethuhim,  including  the  remain- 
ing books  of  the  Hebrew  Canon,  arranged 
in  the  following  order,  and  with  subordi- 
nate divisions  :  («)  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job. 
(6)  Tlie  Song  of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamenta- 
tions, Ecclesiastes,  Esther  —  the  five  rolls. 
Cc)  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nchemiah,  1  and  2 
Chronicles.  The  history  of  tlie  arrange- 
ment of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament 
presents  some  variations,  not  without  in- 
terest, as  indicating  differences  of  feeling 
or  modes  of  thought.  The  four  Gospels 
and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  uniformly 
stand  first.  They  are  so  far  to  the  New 
what  the  Pentateucli  was  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. The  position  of  the  Acts  as  an 
intermediate  book,  the  sequel  to  the  Gos- 
pels, the  prelude  to  the  Epistles,  was  ob- 
viously a  natural  one.  After  this  we  meet 
with  some  striking  differences.  The  order 
in  the  Alexandrian,  Vatican,  and  Ephraem 
MSS.  (A  B  C)  gives  precedence  to  the 
Catholic  Epistles,  and  this  would  appear  to 
have  been  characteristic  of  the  Eastern 
Churches.  The  Western  Church  on  the 
other  hand,  as  represented  by  Jerome,  Au- 
gustine, and  their  successors,  gave  priority 
of  position  to  the  Pauline  Epistles.  The 
Apocalypse,  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
peculiar  character  of  its  contents,  occupied 
a  position  by  itself.  III.  Division  into 
Chapters  and  Verses.  —  The  Hebrew  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
conceive  of  the  liturgical  use  of  tlie  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  witliout  some  kind 
of  recognized  division.  The  references, 
however,  in  Mark  xii.  26  and  Luke  xx.  37, 
JJom.  xi.  2,  and  Acts  viii.  32,  indicate  a 
division  which  had  become  familiar,  and 
show  that  some  at  least  of  the  sections 
were  known  popularly  by  the  titles  taken 
from  their  subjects.  In  like  manner  the 
existence  of  a  cycle  of  lessons  is  indicated 
by  Luke  iv.  17 ;  Acts  xiii.  15,  xv.  21 ;  2 
Cor.  iii.  14.  The  Talmudic  division  is  on 
the  following  plan.  The  Law  was  in  the 
first  instance  divided  into  fifty-four  Par- 
shioth,  or  sections,  so  as  to  provide  a  les- 
son for  each  Sabbath-  in  the  Jewish  inter- 
calary year.  Coexisting  with  this  there 
was  a  subdivision  into  lesser  Parshioth.  A 
different  terminology  was  employed  for  the 
Elder  and  Later  Prophets,  and  the  division 
was  less  uniform.  The  name  of  the  sec- 
tions in  this  case  was  Haphtaroth.  Of  the 
traditional  divisions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
however,  that  which  has  exercised  most  in- 
fluence in  the  received  arrangement  of  the 
text,  was  the  subdivision  of  the  larger  sec- 
tions into  verses  (Pesukim).  These  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  used  till  the  post- 
Talmudic  recension  of  the  text  by  the 
Masoretes  of  the  9th  century.  The  chief 
facts  that  remain  to  be  stated  as  to  the 
verse  division  of  the  Old  Testament  are, 
that  it  was  adopted  by  Stephens  in  his  edi- 


tion of  the  Vulgate,  1555,  and  by  Frcllon 
in  that  of  1556 ;  that  it  appeared  for  the 
first  time  in  an  English  translation,  in  the 
Geneva  Bible  of  1560,  and  was  thence 
transferred  to  the  Bishops'  Bible  of  1668, 
and  the  Authorized  Version  of  IGll.  With 
the  New  Testament,  the  division  into  chap- 
ters adopted  by  Hugh  de  St.  Cher  super- 
seded those  that  had  been  in  use  previous- 
ly, appeared  in  the  early  editions  of  the 
Vulgate,  was  transferred  to  the  English 
Bible  by  Coverdale,  and  so  became  uni- 
versal. As  to  the  division  into  verses,  the 
absence  of  an  authoritative  standard  left 
more  scope  to  the  individual  discretion  of 
editors  or  printers,  and  the  activity  of  the 
two  Stephenses  caused  that  which  they 
adopted  in  their  numerous  editions  of  the 
Greek  Testament  and  Vulgate  to  be  gen- 
erally received.  In  the  Preface  to  the 
Concordance,  published  by  Henry  Ste- 
phens, 1594,  he  gives  an  account  of  the 
origin  of  this  division.  The  whole  work 
was  accomplished  "  inter  equitandum  "  on 
his  journey  from  Paris  to  Lyons.  While 
it  was  in  progress  men  doubted  of  its  suc- 
cess. No  sooner  was  it  known  than  it  met 
with  universal  acceptance.  The  edition  in 
which  this  division  was  first  adopted  was 
published  in  1551.  It  was  used  for  the 
English  version  published  in  Geneva  in 
1560,  and  from  that  time,  with  slight  vari- 
ations in  detail,  has  been  universally  rec- 
ognized. 

Bid'kar,  Jehu's  "  captain,"  originally 
his  fellow-officer  (2  K.  ix.  25)  ;  who  com- 
pleted the  sentence  on  Jehoram  son  of 
Ahab. 

Bier.     [Bukial.] 

Big'tlia,  one  of  the  seven  chamberlains 
or  eunuchs  of  the  harem  of  Ahasuerus 
(Esth.  i.  10). 

Big'than  and  Big'thana,  an  eunuch 
(chamberlain,  A.  V.)  in  the  court  of  Ahas- 
uerus, one  of  those  "  who  kept  the  door," 
and  conspired  with  Teresh  against  the 
king's  life  (Esth.  ii.  21).  The  conspiracy 
was  detected  by  Mordecai. 

Big'vai.  1.  "Children  of  Bigvai," 
2056  (Neh.  2067)  in  number,  returned 
from  the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
ii.  14 ;  Neh.  vii.  19),  and  72  of  them  at  a 
later  date  with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  14).  2. 
Apparently  one  of  the  chiefs  of  Zerubba- 
bel's  expedition  (Ezr.  ii.  2;  Neh.  vii.  7), 
whose  family  afterwards  signed  the  cove- 
nant (Neh.  X.  16). 

Bik'ath-Aven,  Amos  i.  5  marg.  [A yen, 


Bn'c 


dad,  the  second  o^  ^ob's  three 
friends.*  He  i-  called  "t'le  Shuhitc," 
which  implies  both  his  family  and  nation 
(Job  ii.  11). 

Bil'eam,  a  town  in  the  western  half  of 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  named  only  in  1 
Chr.  vi.  70,  as  being  given  to  the  Kobath- 


BILGAH 


89 


BISHOP 


ites.  In  the  lists  in  Josh.  xvii.  and  xxi. 
this  name  does  not  appear,  and  Ibleam  and 
Gath-rimmon  arc  substituted  for  it. 

Bil'gah.  1.  A  priest  in  the  time  of 
David ;  the  head  of  the  fifteenth  course  for 
the  temple  service  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  1-t).  2. 
A  priest  or  priestly  family  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua 
(Neh.  xii.  5,  18). 

Bil'gai,  Neh.  X.  8.     [Bilgah,  2.] 

Bil'hah,  handmaid  of  Rachel  (Gen. 
xxix.  29),  and  concubine  of  Jacob,  to 
whom  she  bore  Dan  and  Naphtali  (Gen. 
XXX.  3-8,  XXXV.  25,  xlvi.  25;  1  Chr.  vii. 
13).     [Reuben.] 

Bil'nan.  1.  A  Horite  chief,  son  of 
Ezer,  son  of  Seir,  dwelling  in  Mount  Seir, 
in  the  land  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  27 ;  1 
Chr.  i.  42).  2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jedi- 
ael  (1  Chr.  vii.  10),  and  probably  descend- 
ed from  Bela. 

•  Bil'shan,  one  of  Zembbabel's  compan- 
ions on  his  expedition  from  Babylon  (Ezr. 
ii.  2 ;  Neh.  vii.  7). 

Bim'hal,  one  of  the  sons  of  Japhlet  in 
the  line  of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  33). 

Bin'ea,  the  son  of  Moza;  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Saul   (1  Chr.  viii.  37;  ix. 

Bin'nui.  1.  A  Levite,  father  of  Noa- 
diah,  in  Ezra's  time  (Ezr.  viii.  33).  2.  One 
of  the  sons  of  Paliath-moab,  who  had  taken 
a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  30).  3.  Another 
Israelite,  of  the  sons  of  Bani,  who  had  also 
taken  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  38).  4.  Al- 
tered from  Bani  in  the  corresponding  list 
in  Ezra  (Neh.  vii.  15).  5.  A  Levite,  son 
of  Henadad,  who  assisted  at  the  reparation 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  under  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  iii.  24;  x.  9).  He  is  possibly  also 
the  Binnui  in  xii.  8. 

Birds.     [Sparrow.] 

Bir'sha,  king  of  Gomorrha  at  the  time 
of  the  invasion  of  Chedorlaomer  (Gen. 
xiv.  2). 

Birth.d.ays.  The  custom  of  observ- 
ing birthdays  is  very  ancient  (Gen.  xl.  20 ; 
Jer.  XX.  15)  ;  and  in  Job  i.  4,  &c.,  we  read 
that  Job's  sons  "feasted  every  one  his 
day."  In  Persia  they  were  celebrated 
with  peculiar  honors  and  banquets,  and  in 
Egypt  the  king's  birthdays  were  kept  with 
great  pomp.  It  is  very  probable  tliat  in 
Matt.  xiv.  6,  the  feast  to  commemorate 
Herod's  accession  is  intended,  for  we  know 
that  such  feasts  were  common,  and  were 
called  "the  day  of  the  king"  (Hos.  vii.  5). 

Birthrigllt.  The  advantages  accruing 
to  the  eldest  son  were  not  definitely  fixed 
in  patriarchal  times.  Great  respect  was 
pai  I  to  him  in  the  household,  and,  as  the 
family  widened  into  a  tribe,  tliis  grew  into 
a  sustained  authority,  undefined,  save  by 
custom,  in  all  matters  of  common  interest. 
Thus  the  "  princes "  of  the  congregation 
had  probably  rights  of  primogeniture  (Num. 


vii.  2,  xxi.  18,  XXV.  14).  A  "double  por. 
tion  "  of  the  paternal  property  was  allotted 
by  the  Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xxi.  15-17).  The 
first-born  of  the  king  was  his  successor  by 
law  (2  Chr.  xxi.  3)  :  David,  however,  by 
divine  appointment,  excluded  Adonijah  in 
favor  of  Solomon. 

Bir'zavith,  a  name  occurring  in  the 
genealogies  of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  31),  and 
apparently,  from  the  mode  of  its  mention, 
the  name  of  a  place. 

Bisliop.  This  word,  applied  in  the  N. 
T.  to  the  officers  of  the  Church  who  were 
charged  with  certain  functions  of  superin- 
tendence, had  been  in  use  before  as  a  title 
of  ofiice.  When  the  organization  of  the 
Christian  churches  in  Gentile  cities  involved 
tlie  assignment  of  the  work  of  pastoral  su- 
perintendence to  a  distinct  order,  the  title 
bishop  (mi'oxo/rui:)  presented  itself  as  at  once 
convenient  and  familiar,  and  was  therefore 
adopted  as  readily  as  the  word  elder  (7r(>»(T- 
(ivrtQof)  had  been  in  the  mother  church  of 
Jerusalem.  That  the  two  titles  were  ori- 
ginally equivalent  is  clear  from  the  follow- 
ing facts.  1.  Bishops  and  elders  are  no- 
where named  together  as  being  orders 
distinct  from  each  other.  2.  Bishops  and 
deacons  are  named  as  apparently  an  ex- 
haustive division  of  the  officers  of  the 
Church  addressed  by  St.  Paul  as  an  apostle 
(Phil.  i.  1;  1  Tim.  i.  1,  8).  3.  The  same 
persons  are  described  bv  both  names  (Acts 
XX.  17,  18;  Tit.  i.  5,  8).  4.  Elders  dis- 
charge functions  which  are  essentially  epis- 
copal, I.  e.  involving  pastoral  superintend- 
ence (1  Tim.  v.  17 ;  1  Pet.  v.  1,  2).  Assum- 
ing as  proved  the  identity  of  the  bishops  and 
elders  of  the  N.  T.  we  have  to  inquire  into, 

I.  The  relation  which  existed  between  the 
two  titles.  2.  The  functions  and  mode  of 
appointment  of  the  men  to  whom  both  titles 
were  applied.  3.  Their  relations  to  the 
general  government  and  discipline  of  the 
Church.  I.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
elders  had  the  priority  in  order  of  time. 
The  order  itself  is  recognized  in  Acts  xf. 
30,  and  in  Acts  xv.  2.  The  earliest  use  of 
"  bishops,"  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  the  ad- 
dress of  St.  Paul  to  the  elders  of  Miletus 
(Acts  XX.  28),  and  there  it  is  rather  de- 
scriptive of  functions  than  given  as  a  title. 

II.  Of  the  order  in  which  the  first  elders 
were  appointed,  as  of  the  occasion  which  led 
to  the  institution  of  the  office,  we  have  no  re- 
cord. Arguing  from  the  analogy  of  the  Seven 
in  Acts  vi.  5,  6,  it  would  seem  probable  that 
they  were  chosen  by  the  members  of  the 
Church  collectively,  and  then  set  apart  to 
their  office  by  the  laying  on  of  the  apostles' 
hands.  In  the  case  of  Tunothy  (1  Tim. 
iv.  14 ;  2  Tim.  i.  6)  the  "  presbyters,"  prob- 
ably the  body  of  the  elders  at  Lystra,  had 
taken  part  with  the  apostle  in  this  act  of 
ordination.  The  conditions  which  were  to 
be  observed  in  choosing  tliese  officers,  aa 


BITHIAH 


90 


BLOOD 


stated  in  the  pastoral  epistles,  are,  blame- 
less life  and  reputation  among  those  "  that 
are  without "  as  well  as  within  the  Church, 
fitness  for  the  work  of  teaching,  the  wide 
kindliness  or  temper  which  shows  itself  in 
hospitality,  the  being  "the  husband  of  one 
wife  "  (t.  e.  according  to  the  most  probable 
interpretation,  not  divorced  and  then  mar- 
ried to  another),  showing  powers  of  gov- 
ernment in  his  own  household  as  well  as  in 
self-control,  not  being  a  recent,  and,  there- 
fore, an  untried  convert.  When  appointed, 
the  duties  of  the  bishop-elders  appear  to 
have  been  as  follows  :  1.  General  superin- 
,_  tendence  over  the  spiritual  well-being  of 
the  flock  (1  Pet.  v.  2).  2.  The  work  of 
teaching,  both  publicly  and  privately  (1 
Thess.  V.  12;  Tit.  i.  9;  1  Tim.  v.  17).  3. 
The  work  of  visiting  the  sick  appears  in 
Jam.  V.  14,  as  assigned  to  the  elders  of  the 
Church.  4  Among  other  acts  of  charity, 
that  of  receiving  strangers  occupied  a  con- 
spicuous place  (1  Tim.  iii.  2;  Tit.  i.  8). 
The  mode  in  which  these  officers  of  the 
Church  were  supported  or  remunerated 
varied  probably  in  different  cities.  Col- 
lectively at  Jerusalem,  and  probably  in 
other  churches,  the  body  of  bishop-elders 
took  part  in  deliberations  (Acts  xv.  6-22, 
xxi.  18),  addressed  other  churches  {ibid. 
XV.  23),  were  joined  with  the  apostles  in 
the  work  of  ordaining  by  the  laying  on  of 
hands  (2  Tim.  i.  6).  HI.  It  is  clear  from 
what  has  been  said  that  episcopal  func- 
tions in  the  modem  sense  of  the  words,  as 
implying  a  special  superintendence  over 
the  ministers  of  the  Church,  belonged  only 
to  the  apostles  and  those  whom  they  in- 
vested with  their  authority. 

Bithi'ah,  daughter  of  a  Pharaoh,  and 
wife  of  Mered,  a  descendant  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  iv.  18). 

Bith'ron  (more  accurately  "the  Bith- 
ron"),  a  place,  doubtless  a  district  in  the 
Jordan  valley,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river 
(2  Sam.  ii.  29). 

Bithyn'ia.  This  province  of  Asia 
Minor  is  mentioned  only  in  Acts  xvi.  7,  and 
in  1  Pet.  i.  1.  Bithynia,  considered  as  a 
Roman  province,  was  on  the  west  contigu- 
ous to  Asia.  On  the  east  its  limits  under- 
went great  modifications.  The  province 
was  originally  inherited  by  the  Eoman  re- 
public (n.  c.  74)  as  a  legacy  from  Nico- 
medes  III.  Tlie  chief  town  of  Bithynia 
was  Nicaea,  celebrated  for  the  general 
Council  of  the  Church  held  there  in  a.  d. 
325  against  the  Arian  heresy. 

Bitter  Herbs.  The  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  eat  the  Paschal  lamb  "  with 
unleavened  bread  and  with  bitter  herbs  " 
(Ex.  xii.  8).  These  may  well  be  under- 
stood to  denote  various  sorts  of  bitter 
plants,  such  particularly  as  belong  to  the 
cruciferae,  as  some  of  the  bitter  cresses,  or 
to  the  chicory  group  of  the  corapositae,  the 


hawkweeds,  and  sow-thistles,  and  wild  let- 
tuces wliich  grow  abundantly  in  tlie  Penin- 
sula of  Sinai,  in  Palestine,  and  in  Egypt. 

Bittern.  The  Hebrew  word  has  been 
the  subject  of  various  interpretations.  Phil- 
ological arguments  appear  to  be  rather  in 
favor  of  the  "  hedgehog  "or  "  porcupine," 
for  the  Hebrew  word  kippdd  appears  to  be 
identical  with  kunfud,  the  Arabic  word  for 
the  hedgehog ;  but  zoologically,  the  hedge- 
hog or  porcui)ine  is  quite  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. The  word  occurs  in  Is.  xiv.  23,  xxxiv. 
11;  Zeph.  ii.  14,  and  we  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  the  A.  V.  is  correct.  The 
bittern  {Botaurus  siellaris)  belongs  to  the 
Ardeidae,  the  heron  family  of  birds. 

Bizjoth'jah,  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Judali  (Josh.  XV.  28). 

Biz'tha,  the  second  of  the  seven  eunuchs 
of  king  Ahasuerus'  harem  (Esth.  i.  10). 

Blains,  violent  ulcerous  inflammations, 
the  sixth  plague  of  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  9,  10),. 
and  hence  called  in  Deut.  xxviii.  27,  36, 
"  the  botch  of  Egypt."  It  seems  to  have 
been  the  black  leprosy,  a  fearful  kind  of 
elejihantiasis. 

Blasphemy,  in  its  technical  English 
sense,  signifies  the  speaking  evil  of  God, 
and  in  this  sense  it  is  found  Ps.  Ixxiv.  18 ; 
Is.  Iii.  5 ;  Rom.  ii.  24,  &c.  But  according 
to  its  derivation  it  may  mean  any  species 
of  calumny  and  abuse  :  see  1  K.  xxi.  10 ; 
Acts  xviii.  6 ;  Jude  9,  &c.  Blasphemy  was 
punished  with  stoning,  which  was  inflicted 
on  the  son  of  Shelomith  (Lev.  xxiv.  11). 
On  this  charge  both  our  Lord  and  St.  Ste- 
phen were  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Jews.  It  only  remains  to  speak  of  "  the 
blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost,"  which 
has  been  so  fruitful  a  theme  for  speculatioa 
and  controversy  (Matt.  xii.  32 ;  Mark  iii. 
28).  It  consisted  in  attributing  to  the  pow- 
er of  Satan  those  unquestionable  miracles, 
which  Jesus  performed  by  "  the  finger  of 
God,"  and  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Blas'tUS,  the  chamberlain  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  (Acts  xii.  20). 

Blindness  is  extremely  common  in  the 
East  from  many  causes.  Blind  beggars 
figure  repeatedly  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt.  xii. 
22),  and  "  opening  the  eyes  of  the  blind" 
is  mentioned  in  prophecy  as  a  peculiar 
attribute  of  the  Messiah  (Is.  xxix.  18,  &c.). 
The  Jews  were  speciallychargcd  to  treat 
the  blind  with  compassion  and  care  (Lev. 
xix.  14;  Deut.  xxvii.  18).  Blindness  wil- 
fully inflicted  for  political  or  other  purposes 
is  alluded  to  in  Scripture  (1  Sam.  xi.  2 ; 
Jer.  xxxix.  7). 

Blood.  To  blood  is  ascribed  in  Scrip- 
ture the  mysterious  sacredness  wliich  be- 
longs to  life,  and  God  reserves  it  to  Him- 
self when  allowing  man  the  dominion  over 
and  the  use  of  the  lower  animals  for  food. 
Thus  reserved,  it  acquires  a  double  power : 
1.  that  of  sacrificial  atonement ;  and  2.  tliat 


BLOOD 


91 


BOZKATH 


of  becoming  a  curse  when  wantonly  shed, 
unless  duly  expiated  (Gen.  ix.  4 ;  Lev.  vii. 
26,  xvii.  11-13). 

Blood,  Issue  of.  The  menstruous 
discharge,  or  the  fluxus  uteri  (Lev.  xv.  19- 
30 ;  Matt.  ix.  20 ;  Mark  v.  25,  and  Luke 
viii  43).  The  latter  caused  a  permanent 
legal  un cleanness,  the  former  a  temporary 
one,  mostly  for  seven  days ;  after  which  the 
woman  was  to  be  purified  by  the  customary 
offering. 

Blood,  Revenger  of.  It  was,  and 
even  still  is,  a  common  practice  among  na- 
tions of  patriarchal  habits,  that  the  near- 
est of  kin  should,  as  a  matter  of  duty, 
avenge  the  death  of  a  murdered  relative. 
Compensation  for  murder  is  allowed  by  the 
Koran.  Among  the  Bedouins,  and  other 
Arab  tribes,  should  the  offer  of  blood- 
money  be  refused,  the  '  Thar,'  or  law  of 
blood,  comes  into  operation,  and  any  per- 
son within  the  fifth  degree  of  blood  from 
the  homicide  may  be  legally  killed  by  any 
one  within  the  same  degree  of  consanguinity 
to  the  victim.  The  right  to  blood-revenge 
is  never  lost,  except  as  annulled  by  com- 
pensation ;  it  descends  to  the  latest  gener- 
ation. The  law  of  Moses  was  very  precise 
in  its  directions  on  the  subject  of  Retalia- 
tion. 1.  The  wilful  murderer  was  to  be 
put  to  death  without  permission  of  com- 
pensation. The  nearest  relative  of  the 
deceased  became  the  authorized  avenger 
of  blood  (Num.  xxxv.  19).  2.  The  law  of 
retaliation  was  not  to  extend  beyond  the 
immediate  offender  (Deut.  xxiv.  16 ;  2  K. 
xiv.  6 ;  2  Chr.  xxv.  4 ;  Jer.  xxxi.  29,  30 ; 
Ezek.  xviii.  20).  3.  The  involuntary  shed- 
der  of  blood  was  permitted  to  take  flight  to 
one  of  six  Levitical  cities,  specially  ap- 
pointed as  cities  of  refuge  (Num.  xxxv.  22, 
23;  Deut.  xix.  4-6). 

Boaner'ges,  a  name  signifying  "  sons 
of  thunder,"  given  by  our  Lord  to  the  two 
sons  of  Zebedee,  James  and  John  (Mark 
iii.  17).  See  Luke  ix.  54;  Mark  ix.  38; 
comp.  Matt.  xx.  20,  &c. 

Boar.     [Swine.] 

Bo'az.  1.  A  wealthy  Bethlehemite, 
kinsman  to  Elimelech,  the  husband  of 
Naomi.  He  married  Ruth,  and  redeemed 
the  estates  of  her  deceased  husband  Mah- 
lon  (iv.  1,  ff.).  Boaz  is  mentioned  in  the 
genealogy  of  Christ  (Matt.  i.  5),  but  there 
is  great  difficulty  in  assigning  his  date.  2. 
Boaz,  the  name  of  one  of  Solomon's 
brazen  pillars  erected  in  the  temple  porch. 
[Jachin.]  It  stood  on  the  left,  and  was  18 
cubits  high  (1  K.  vii.  15,  21 ;  2  Chr.  iii.  15 ; 
Jer.  Iii.  21). 

lioeh.'eru,  son  of  Azel,  according  to  the 
present  Heb.  text  of  1  Chr.  viii.  38. 

Bo'chim,  "  the  weepers,"  a  place  on 
the  n  est  of  Jordan  above  Gilgal  (Judg.  ii. 
1,5). 

Bo'Iian,   a  Eeubenite,    after  whom  a 


stone  was  named.  Its  position  was  on  the 
border  of  the  territories  of  Benjamin  and 
Judah  (Josh.  XV.  6,  xviii.  17). 

Boil.     [Medicine.] 

Bondage.     [Slavery.] 

Book.     [Writing.] 

Booths.        [SuCCOTH  ;       TABERSACtES, 

Feast  of.] 

Booty  consisted  of  captives  of  both 
sexes,  cattle,  and  whatever  a  captured  city 
might  contain,  especially  metallic  treas- 
ures.  Within  the  limits  of  Canaan  no 
captives  were  to  be  made  (Deut.  xx.  14 
and  16) ;  beyond  these  limits,  in  case  of 
warlike  resistance,  all  the  women  and  chil- 
dren were  to  be  made  captives,  and  the  men 
put  to  death.  The  law  of  booty  is  given 
in  Num.  xxxi.  26-47.  As  regarded  tho 
army  David  added  a  regulation  that  the 
baggage  guard  should  share  equally  with 
the  troops  engaged  (1  Sam.  xxx.  24,  25). 

Bo'oz,  Matt.  i.  5 ;  Luke  iii.  32.  [Boaz.] 

Bos'eath,  2  K.  xxii.  1.     [Bozkath.] 

Bo'sor.  The  Aramaic  mode  of  pro- 
nouncing the  name  of  Beor,  the  father  of 
Balaam  (2  Pet.  ii.  15). 

Bottle.  1.  The  skin  bottle;  2.  The 
bottle  of  earthen  or  glass  ware,  both  of 
them  capable  of  being  closed  from  the  air. 
1.  The  Arabs  keep  their  water,  milk,  and 
other  liquors,  in  leathern  bottles.  These 
are  made  of  goatskins.  W^hen  the  animal 
is  killed  they  cut  off  its  feet  and  its  head, 
and  they  draw  it  in  this  manner  out  of  the 
skin,  without  opening  its  belly.  The  great 
leathern  bottles  are  made  of  the  skin  of 
a  he-goat,  and  the  small  ones,  that  serve 
instead  of  a  bottle  of  water  on  the  road, 
are  made  of  a  kid's  skin.  The  effect  of  ex- 
ternal heat  upon  a  skin  bottle  is  indicated 
in  Ps.  cxix.  83,  "a  bottle  in  the  smoke," 
and  of  expansion  produced  by  fermenta- 
tion in  Matt.  ix.  17,  "  new  wine  in  old  bot- 
tles." 2.  Vessels  of  metal,  earthen  or 
glass  ware  for  liquids  were  in  use  among 
the  Greeks,  Egyptians,  Etruscans,  and 
Assyrians,  and  also  no  doubt  among  the 
Jews,  especially  in  later  times.  Thus  Jer. 
xix.  1,  "  a  potter's  earthen  bottle."  The 
Jews  probably  borrowed  their  manufac- 
tures in  this  particular  from  Egypt. 

Box-tree.  The  Heb.  teasshrir  occurs 
in  Is.  xli.  19,  Ix.  13.  The  Talmudical  and 
Jewish  writers  generally  are  of  opinion 
that  the  box-tree  is  intended.  Box-wood 
writing  tablets  are  alluded  to  in  2  Esdr.  xiv. 
24. 

Bo'zez,  one  of  the  two  sharp  rocks  be- 
tween the  passages  by  which  Jonathan 
entered  the  Philistine  garrison.  It  seems 
to  have  been  that  on  the  north  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
4  5). 

'  Boz'kath,  a  city  of  Judah  in  the  low- 
lands (Josh.  XV.  39).  It  is  mentioned  once 
again  (2  K.  xxii.  1,  A.  V.  "  Boscath  )  as 
the  native  place  of  the  mother  of  king  Josiah. 


BOZRAH 


92 


BRICK 


Boz'rah.  1.  In  Edom— the  city  of 
Jobab.  the  son  of  Zerah,  one  of  che  early 
kings  of  that  nation  (Gen.  xxxvi.  83.;  1 
Chr.  i.  44).  This  is  doubtless  the  place 
mentioned  in  later  times  by  Isaiah  (xxxiv. 
6,  Ixiii.  1)  in  connection  with  Edom,  and 
by  Jeremiah  (xlix.  13,  22),  Amos  (i.  12), 
and  Micah  (ii.  12).  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  its  modern  representative  is  el- 
Busaireh,  wliich  lies  on  the  mountain  dis- 
trict to  the  S.  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea.  2.  In 
his  catalogue  of  the  cities  of  the  land  of 
Moab,  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  24)  mentions  a 
Bozrah  as  in  "  the  plain  (jountry"  (ver.  21, 
t.  e.  the  high  level  downs  on  the  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea). 

Bracelet.  [See  Armlet.]  Bracelets 
of  fine  twisted  Venetian  gold  are  still  com- 
mon in  Egypt.  In  Gen.  xxxviii.  18,  25, 
the-  word  rendered  "  bracelet "  means 
probably  "a  string  by  which  a  seal-ring 
was  suspended."  Men  as  well  as  women 
wore  bracelets,  as  we  see  from  Cant.  v.  14. 
Layard  says  of  the  Assyrian  kings  :  "  The 
arms  were  encircled  by  armlets,  and  the 
wrists  by  bracelets 

Bramble      [Thorns.] 

Brass  The  word  nechdeheth  is  im- 
properly transLited  by  "  brass."  In  most 
places  of  the  O.  T.  the  correct  translation 
would  be  copper,  although  it  may  some- 
times possibly  mean  bronze,  a  compound 
of  copper  and  tin.  Indeed  a  simple  metal 
wa&  obviously  intended,  as  we  see  from 
Deut.  viii.  i),  xxxii.  25,  and  Job  xxviii.  2. 
Copper  was  known  at  a  very  early  period 
(Gen.  iv.  22).  The  word  jfaAxoAij^uvov  in 
Rev.  i.  15,  ii.  18  (A.  V.  "fine  brass"),  has 
excited  nmch  difference  of  opinion.  Some 
suppose  it  to  have  been  orichalcum,  which 
was  so  rare  as  to  be  more  valuable  than 
gold. 

Brazen-serpent.    [Serpent.] 

Bread.  The  preparation  of  bread  as 
an  article  of  food  dates  from  a  very  early 
period  :  the  earliest  undoubted  instance  of 
its  use  is  found  in  Gen.  xviii.  6.  The  corn 
or  grain  employed  was  of  various  sorts : 
the  best  bread  was  made  of  wheat,  which 
after  being  ground  produced  the  "  flour  " 
or  "  meal"  (Judg.  vi.  19;  1  Sam.  i.  24;  1 
K.  iv.  22,  xvii.  12,  14),  and  when  sifted  the 
"fine  flour"  (Ex.  xxix.  2;  Gen.  xviii.  6) 
usually  employed  in  the  sacred  ofierings 
(Ex.  xxix.  40 ;  Lev.  ii.  1 ;  Ez.  xlvi.  14), 
and  in  the  meals  of  the  wealthy  (1  K.  iv. 
22;  2  K.  vii.  1;  Ez.  xvi.  13,  19;  Rev. 
xviii.  13).  "  Barley  "  was  used  only  by  the 
Tery  poor  (John  vi.  9,  13),  or  in  times  of 
scarcity  (Ruth  iii.  15,  compared  with  i.  1 ; 
2  K.  iv.  38,  42 ;  Rev.  vi.  6).  "  Spelt "  was 
also  used  botli  in  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  32)  and  Pal- 
estine (Is.  xxviii.  25 ;  Ez.  iv.  9 ;  1  K.  xix. 
6).  The  bread  taken  by  persons  on  a 
journey  (Gen.  xlv,  23 ;  Josh.  ix.  12)  was 
probably  a  kind  of  biscuit.     The  process 


of  making  bread  was  as  follows :  —  the 
flour  was  first  mixed  with  water,  or  per- 
haps milk;  it  was  then  kneaded  with  the 
hands  (in  Egypt  with  the  feet  also)  in  a 
small  wooden  bowl  or  "  kneading-trough  " 
until  it  became  dough  (Ex.  xii.  34,  39 ;  2 
Sam.  xiii.  3;   Jer.   vii.  18;   Hos.  vii.  4> 


Egyptian!  kneading  dough  with  their  handi. 
(Wilkinaon,  from  a  painting  in  the  tomb  of  Rameset  m. 
at  Xket>et.) 

When  the  kneading  was  completed,  leaven 
was  generally  added  [Leaven]  ;  but  when 
the  time  for  preparation  was  short,  it  was 
omitted,  and  unleavened  cakes,  hastily 
baked,  were  eaten,  as  is  still  the  prevalent 
custom  among  the  Bedouins  (Gen.  xviii.  6, 
xix.  3 ;  Ex.  xii.  39 ;  Judg.  vi.  19 ;  1  Sam. 
xxviii.  24).  The  leavened  mass  was  allowed 
to  stand  for  some  time  (Matt.  xiii.  33; 
Luke  xiii.  21).  The  dough  was  then  di- 
vided into  round  cakes  (Ex.  xxix.  23; 
Judg.  vii.  13,  viii.  5 ;  1  Sam.  x.  3 ;  Prov. 
vi.  26),  not  unlike  flat  stones  in  shape  and 
appearance  (Matt.  vii.  9;  comp.  iv.  3), 
about  a  span  in  diameter  and  a  finger's 
breadth  in  thickness.  In  the  towns  where 
professional  bakers  resided,  there  were  no 
doubt  fixed  ovens,  in  shape  and  size  resem- 
bling those  in  use  among  ourselves :  but 
more  usually  each  household  possessed  a 
portable  oven,  consisting  of  a  stone  or 
metal  jar,  about  three  feet  high,  which  was 
heated  inwardly  with  wood  (1  K.  xvii.  12; 
Is.  xliv.  15;  Jer.  vii.  18)  or  dried  grass 
and  flower-stalks  (Matt.  vi.  30). 
Breastplate.  [Arms.] 
Brethren  of  Jesus.  [James. J 
Brick.  Herodotus  (i.  179),  describing 
the  mode  of  building  the  walls  of  Babylon, 
says  that  the  clay  dug  out  of  the  ditch  was 
made  into  bricks  as  soon  as  it  was  carried 
up,  and  burnt  in  kilns.  The  bricks  were 
cemented  with  hot  bitumen,  and  at  every 
thirtieth  row  crates  of  reeds  were  stufled 
in  (comp.  Gen.  xi.  3).  The  Babylonian 
bricks  were  more  commonly  burnt  in  kilns 
than  those  used  at  Nineveh,  which  are 
chiefly  sun-dried  like  the  Egyptian.  They 
are  usually  from  12  to  13  in.  square,  and 
3i  in.  thick.  They  thus  possess  more  of 
the  character  of  tiles  (Ez.  iv.  1).  The  Is- 
raelites, in  common  with  othr.T  captives, 


BRIDE,  BRIDEGROOM 


93 


BURIATi 


were  employed  by  the  Egyptian  monarcha 
in  making  bricks  and  in  building  (Ex.  i.  14, 
T.  7).  Egyptian  bricks  were  not  gener- 
ally dried  in  kilns,  but  in  the  sun.  When 
made  of  the  Nile  mud,  they  required 
straw  to  prevent  cracking;  and  crude 
brick  walls  had  frequently  the  additional 
security  of  a  layer  of  reeds  and  sticks, 
placed  at  intervals  to  act  as  binders.  A 
brick  pyramid  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
(ii.  13G)  as  the  work  of  King  Asychis. 
The  Jews  learned  the  art  of  brick-making 
in  Egypt,  and  we  find  the  use  of  the  brick- 
kiln in  David's  time  (2  Sam.  xii.  31),  and 
a  complaint  made  by  Isaiah  that  the  people 
built  altars  of  brick  instead  of  unhewn 
stone  as  the  law  directed  (Is.  Ixv.  3 ;  Ex. 
XX.  25).  [See  Straw.] 

Bride,  Bridegroom.    [Marriage.] 

Bridge.  The  only  mention  of  a  bridge 
in  the  Canonical  Scriptures  is  indirectly  in 
the  proper  name  Geshur,  a  district  in 
Bashan,  N.  E.  of  the  sea  of  Galilee.  At 
this  place  a  bridge  still  exists,  called  the 
bridge  of  the  sons  of  Jacob.  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus  is  said  to  have  intended  to  make  a 
bridge  in  order  to  besiege  the  town  of  Cas- 
phor  or  Caspis,  situate  near  a  lake  (2  Mace, 
xii.  13).  The  Romans  were  the  first  con- 
structors of  arched  bridges.  The  bridge 
connecting  the  Temple  with  the  upper  city, 
of  which  Josephus  speaks,  seems  to  have 
been  an  arched  viaduct. 

Brigandiae,  Jer.  xlvi.  4;  elsewhere 
"  habergeon,"  or  "  coat  of  mail." 

Brimstone.  The  Hebrew  word  is  con- 
nected with  gdpher,  "  gopher-wood,"  A.  V. 
Gen.  vi.  14,  and  probably  signified  in  the 
first  instance  the  gum  or  resin  that  exuded 
from  that  tree ;  hence  it  was  transferred  to 
all  inflammable  sublfances,  and  especially 
to  sulphur,  which  is  found  in  considerable 
quantities  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(Gen.  xix.  24). 

Brother.  The  Hebrew  word  is  used 
in  various  senses  in  the  O.  T.,  as,  1.  Any 
kinsman,  and  not  a  mere  brother;  e.  g. 
nephew  (Gen.  xiv.  IG,  xiii.  8),  husband 
(Cant.  iv.  9).  2.  One  of  the  same  tribe  (2 
Sam.  xix.  13).  3.  Of  the  same  people  (Ex. 
ii.  14),  or  even  of  a  cognate  people  (Num. 
XX.  14).  4.  An  ally  (Am.  i.  9).  5.  Any 
friend  (Job  v.  15).  6.  One  of  the  same 
otftce  (1  K.  ix.  13).  7.  A  fellow-man  (Lev. 
xix.  17).  8.  Metaphoricallyof  any  similari- 
ty, as  in  Job  xxx.  19.  The  word  a5().<i>uc  has 
a  similar  range  of  meanings  in  the  N.  T. 

Buk'ki.  1.  Son  of  Abishua  and  father 
of  Uzzi,  fifth  from  Aaron  in  the  line  of  the 
itigh-priests  in  1  Chr.  v.  31,  vi.  36  (vi.  5, 
51,  A.  v.),  and  in  the  genealogy  of  Ezra, 
Ezr.  vii.  4.  2.  Son  of  Jogli,  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  one  of  the  ten  men  chosen  to 
ajjportion  the  land  of  Canaan  between  the 
tribes  (Num.  xxxiv.  22). 

Bukjki'ah.,  a  Kohathite  Levite,  of  the 


sons  of  Heman,  one  of  the  musicians  in 
the  Temple  (1  Chr.  xxt.  4,  13). 

Bui.     [Months.] 

Bull,  Bullock,  terms  used  synony- 
mously with  ox,  oxen,  in  the  A.  "V.,  as  the 
representatives  of  several  Hebrew  words. 
Biikar,  the  most  common,  is  properly  a 
generic  name  for  horned  cattle  when  of 
full  age  and  fit  for  the  plough.  Accord- 
ingly it  is  variously  rendered  bullock 
(Is.  Ixv.  25),  cow  (Ez.  iv.  15),  oxen  (Gen. 
xii.  16).  In  Is.  Ii.  20,  the  "wild  bull" 
("wild  ox"  in  Deut.  xiv.  5)  was  possibly 
one  of  the  larger  species  of  antelope,  and 
took  its  name  from  its  swiftness.  D». 
Robinson  mentions  large  herds  of  black 
and  almost  hairless  buffaloes  as  still  exist- 
ing in  Palestine,  and  these  may  be  the  ani 
mal  indicated. 

Bu'riah,  a  son  of  Jerahmeel,  of  the 
family  of  Pharez  in  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  25). 

Bun'ni.  1.  One  of  the  Levites  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  ix.  4) ;  possibly 
the  same  person  is  mentioned  in  x.  15. 
2.  Another  Levite,  but  of  earlier  date  than 
the  preceding  (Neh.  xi.  15). 

Burial,  Sepulchres,   [Tombs.]     On 
this  subject  we  have  to  notice  :  1.  the  place 
of  burial,  its  site  and  shape ;  2.  the  mode 
of  burial ;  3.  the  prevalent  notions  regard- 
ing this  duty.     1.  A  natural  cave  enlarged 
and  adapted  by  excavation,  or  an  artificial 
imitation  of  one,  was  the  standard  type  of 
sepulchre.     This  was   wliat  the  structure 
of  the  Jewish  soil  supplied  or  suggested. 
Sepulchres,  when  the  owner's  means  per- 
mitted it,  were  commonly  prepared  before- 
hand, and  stood  often  in  gardens,  by  road- 
sides, or  even  adjoining  houses.    Kings  and 
prophets  alone  were  probably  buried  within 
towns  (1  K.  ii.  10,  xvi.  6,  28;  2  K.  x.  35, 
xiii.  9 ;  2  Chr.  xvi.  14,  xxviii.  27 ;  1  Sam. 
XXV.    1,   xxviii.    3).      Sarah's    tomb    and 
Rachel's  seem  to  have  been  chosen  merely 
from  the  accident  of  the  place  of  death; 
but  the  successive  interments  at  the  former 
(Gen.   xlix.   31)   are    a  chronicle   of   tlie 
strong    family  feeling    among    the  Jews. 
Cities  soon  became  populous  and  demanded 
cemeteries   (Ez.   xxxix.    15),   which  were 
placed  without  the  walls.     Sepulchres  were 
marked  sometimes   by  pillars,  as  that  of 
Rachel,  or  by  pyramids,  as  those  of  tlie 
Asmoneans  at  Modin.     Such  as  were  not 
otherwise    noticeable    were    scrupulously 
"wliited"    (Matt,   xxiii.   27)  once  a  year, 
after  the  rains  before  the  passover,  to  warn 
passers-by  of  defilement.     2.  "  The  man- 
ner of  the  Jews  "  included  the  use  of  spices, 
where  tliey  could  command  the  means.  Thua 
Asa  lay  in  a  "  bed  of  spices  "  (2  Chr.  xvi. 
11).     A   portion   of  those   were   burnt  in 
honor  of  the  deceased,  and  to  this  use  was 
probably  destined  part  of  the  100  pouncls 
weight  of  "  myrrh  and  aloes  "  in  our  Lord's 
case.     In  no  instance,  save  that  of  Saul 


BURNT-OFFERING 


94 


CAESAREA  PHILIPPI 


and  his  sons,  were  the  bodies  burned ;  and 
even  then  the  bones  were  interred,  and  re- 
exhumed  for  solemn  entombment.  It  was 
the  office  of  the  next  of  kin  to  perform 
and  preside  over  the  whole  funereal  office ; 
but  a  company  of  public  buriers,  originat- 
ing in  an  exceptional  necessity  (Ez.  xxxix. 
12-14),  had  become,  it  seems,  customary 
in  the  times  of  the  N.  T.  (Acts  v.  6,  10). 
The  bier,  the  word  for  which  in  the  O.  T. 
is  the  same  as  that  rendered  "  bed,"  was 
borne  by  the  nearest  relatives.  The  grave- 
clothes  were  probably  of  the  fashion  worn 
in  life,  but  swathed  and  fastened  with  ban- 
dages, and  the  head  covered  separately.  3. 
The  precedent  of  Jacob's  and  Joseph's  re- 
mains being  returned  to  the  land  of  Canaan 
was  followed,  in  wish  at  least,  by  every 
pious  Jew.  Following  a  similar  notion, 
8ome  of  the  Rabbins  taught  that  only  in 
that  land  could  those  who  were  buried 
obtain  a  share  in  the  resurrection  which 
was  to  usher  in  Messiah's  reign  on  earth. 
Tombs  were,  in  popular  belief,  led  by  the 
same  teaching,  invested  with  traditions. 

Burnt-offering.  The  word  is  applied 
to  the  offering  which  was  wholly  consumed 
by  fire  on  the  altar,  and  the  whole  of  which, 
except  the  refuse  ashes,  "  ascended "  in 
the  smoke  to  God.  The  burnt-offering  is 
first  named  in  Gen.  viii.  20,  as  offered  after 
tbf  Flood.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the 
B  /Ok  of  Genesis  (see  xv.  9,  17,  xxii.  2,  7, 
£  13)  it  appears  to  be  the  only  sacrifice 
referred  to;  afterwards  it  became  distin- 
guished as  one  of  the  regular  classes  of 
sacrifice  under  the  Mosaic  law.  The  mean- 
ing of  the  whole  burnt-offering  was  that 
wh'rih  is  the  original  idea  of  all  sacrifice, 
the  offering  by  the  sacrificer  of  himself, 
soul  and  body,  to  God,  the  submission  of 
his  will  to  the  will  of  the  Lord.  The  cer- 
emonies of  the  burnt-offering  are  given  in 
detail  in  the  Book  of  Leviticus.  There 
were,  as  public  burnt-offerings  —  1st.  The 
daily  burnt-offering  (Ex.  xxix.  38-42; 
Num.  xviii.  3-8).  2dly.  The  Sabbath 
burnt-offering  (Num.  xxviii.  9,  10).  3dly. 
The  offering  at  the  new  moon,  at  the  three 
great  festivals,  the  great  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, and  feast  of  trumpets.  (See  Num. 
xxviii.  11-xxix.  39).  Private  burnt-offer- 
ings were  appointed  at  the  consecration  of 
priests  (Ex.  xxxix.  15 ;  Lev.  viii.  18,  ix.  12), 
at  the  purification  of  women  (Lev.  xii.  6, 
8),  at  the  cleansing  of  the  lepers  (Lev.  xiv. 
19),  and  removal  of  other  ceremonial  un- 
cleanness  (xv.  15,  30),  on  any  accidental 
breach  of  the  Nazaritic  vow,  or  at  its  con- 
clusion ^Num.  vi. ;  comp.  Acts  xxi.  26), 
&c.  Bat  freewill  burnt-offerings  were 
offered  and  accepted  by  God  on  any  sol- 
emn occasions  (Num.  vii. ;  1  K.  viii.  64). 

Bush..  The  Hebrew  word  seneh  occurs 
only  in  those  passages  which  refer  to  Jeho- 
vah's appearance  to  Moses  "  in  the  flame  of 


fire  in  the  bush  "  (Ex.  iii.  2,  3,  4 ;  Dent, 
xxxiii.  16).  Celsius  has  argued  in  favor  of 
the  Rubus  vulgaris,  i.  e.  R.  fruticosus,  the 
bramble  or  blackberry  bush.  Sprengel  iden- 
tifies the  sineh  with  what  he  terms  the  Riv- 
bus  sanctus,  and  says  it  grows  abundantly 
near  Sinai.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  say 
what  kind  of  thorn  bush  is  intended. 

BusheL     [Measures.] 

Butter,  curdled  milk  (Gen.  xviii.  8; 
Deut.  xxxii.  14 ;  Judg.  v.  25 ;  Job  xx.  17). 
Milk  is  generally  oflered  to  travellers  in 
Palestine  in  a  curdled  or  sour  state,  "Zcft- 
ben,"  thick,  almost  like  butter.  Hassel- 
quist  describes  the  method  of  making  but- 
ter employed  by  the  Arab  women  :  "they 
made  butter  in  a  leather  bag,  hung  on 
three  poles  erected  for  the  purpose,  in  the 
form  of  a  cone,  and  drawn  to  and  fro 
by  two  women." 

Buz.  1.  The  second  son  of  Milcah  and 
Nahor  (Gen.  xxii.  21).  Elihu  ♦'  the  Buz- 
ite  "  was  probably  a  descendant  of  Buz.  2. 
A  name  occurring  in  the  genealogies  of  the 
tribe  of  Gad  (1  Chr.  y.  14). 

Bu'zi,  father  of  Ezekiel  the  prophet 
(Ez.  i.  3). 

C. 

Cab.     [Measures.] 

Cab'bon,  a  town  in  the  low  country  ol 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  40). 

Ca'bul,  a  place  named  as  one  of  the 
landmarks  on  the  boundary  of  Ashcr  (Josh, 
xix.  27).  It  may  fairly  be  considered  as 
still  existing  in  the  modern  Kabul,  8  or  9 
miles  east  of  Akka,  and  about  the  same 
distance  from  Jefat. 

Cae'sar,  always  in  the  N.  T.  the  Roman 
emperor,  the  sovereign  of  Judaea  (John 
xix.  12,  15;  Acts  xvii.  7). 

Caesare'a  (Acts  viii.  40,  ix.  30,  X.  1,  24, 
xi.  11,  xii.  19,  xviii.  22,  xxi.  8,  16,  xxiii.  23, 
33,  XXV.  1,  4,  6,  13)  was  situated  on  the 
coast  of  Palestine,  on  the  line  of  the  great 
road  from  Tyre  to  Egypt,  and  about  half 
way  between  Joppa  and  Dora.  The  dis-  • 
tance  from  Jerusalem  was  about  70  miles ; 
Josephus  states  it  in  round  numbers  as  600 
stadia.  In  Strabo's  time  there  was  on  this 
point  of  the  coast  merely  a  town  called 
"  Strato's  Tower"  with  a  landing-place, 
whereas,  in  the  time  of  Tacitus,  Caesarea 
is  spoken  of  as  being  the  head  of  Judaea. 
It  was  in  this  interval  that  the  city  was 
built  by  Herod  the  Great.  It  was  the  offi- 
cial residence  of  the  Herodian  kings,  and 
of  Festus,  Felix,  and  the  other  Roman 
procurators  of  Judaea.  Caesarea  continued 
to  be  a  city  of  some  importance  even  in  the 
time  of  the  Crusades,  and  the  name  still 
lingers  on  the  site  (Kaisariyeh'). 

Caesare'a  Philip'pi  is  mentioned 
only  in  the  two  first  Gospels  (Matt.  svi.  13 ; 


CAGE 


95 


CALF 


Mark  viii.  27)  and  in  accounts  of  the  same 
transactions.  It  was  at  the  easternmost 
and  most  important  of  the  two  recognized 
sources  of  the  Jordan,  the  other  being  at 
Tel-el-Kadi.  The  spring  rises,  and  the 
city  was  built,  on  a  limestone  terrace  in  a 
valley  at  the  base  of  Mount  Hermon. 
C!»°?area  Philippi  has  no  O.  T.  history, 
tnough  it  has  been  not  unreasonably  identi- 
fied with  Baal- Gad-  There  is  no  difiiculty 
in  identifying  it  with  the  Panium  of  Jose- 
phus.  Panium  became  part  of  the  territory 
of  Philip  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  who  en- 
larged and  embellished  the  town,  and  called 
it  Caesarea  Philippi,  partly  after  his  own 
name,  and  partly  after  that  of  the  emperor. 
It  is  still  called  Banias. 

Cage.  The  term  so  rendered  in  Jer.  t. 
27,  is  more  properly  a  ti-ap,  in  which  decoy 
birds  were  placed  (comp.  Ecclus.  xi.  30). 
In  Rev.  xviii.  2,  the  Greek  term  means  a 
prison, 

Cai'aphas,  in  full  Joseph  Caiaphas, 
high-priest  of  the  Jews  under  Tiberius 
(Matt.  xxvi.  3,  57 ;  John  xi.  49,  xviii.  13, 
14,  24,  28;  Acts  iv.  6).  The  Procurator 
Valerius  Gratus  appointed  hira  to  the  dig- 
nity. He  was  son-in-law  of  Annas.  [An- 
nas.] 

Cain.  The  historical  facts  in  the  life  of 
Cain,  as  recorded  in  Gen.  iv.,  are  briefly 
these  :  —  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Adam 
and  Eve ;  he  followed  the  business  of  agri- 
culture ;  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  roused  by  the 
rejection  of  his  own  sacrifice  and  the  accept- 
ance of  Abel's,  he  committed  the  crime  of 
murder,  for  which  he  was  expelled  from 
Eden,  and  led  the  life  of  an  exile ;  he  set- 
tled in  the  land  of  Nod,  and  built  a  city 
which  he  named  after  his  son  Enoch ;  his 
descendants  are  enumerated,  together  with 
the  inventions  for  which  they  were  remark- 
able. 

Cain,  one  of  the  cities  in  the  low  coun- 
try of  Judah,  named  with  Zanoah  and 
Gibeah  (Josh.  xv.  57). 

Cai'nan.  1.  Son  of  Enos,  aged  70 
years  when  he  begat  Mahalaleel  his  son. 
He  lived  840  years  afterwards,  and  died 
aged  910  (Gen.  v.  9-14).  2.  Son  of  Ar- 
phaxad,  and  father  of  Sala,  according  to 
Luke  iii.  35,  36,  and  usually  called  the 
second  Cainan.  He  is  also  found  in  the 
present  copies  of  the  LXX.,  but  is  no- 
where named  in  the  Hebrew  MSS.  It 
seems  certain  that  his  name  was  introduced 
into  tlie  genealogies  of  the  Greek  O.  T.  in 
order  to  bring  them  into  harmony  with  the 
genealogy  of  Christ  in  St.  Luke's  Gospel. 

Ca'lab,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Assyria  (Gen.  x.  11).  The  site  of  Calah 
is  probably  marked  by  the  Nimriid  ruins. 
If  this  be  regarded  as  ascertained,  Calah 
must  be  considered  to  have  been  at  one 
time  (about  b.  c.  930-720)  the  capital  of 
the  empire. 


Calamus.     [Reed.] 

Cal'eol,  a  man  of  Judah,  son  or  descend- 
ant  of  Zerah  (1  Chr.  iL  6).  Probably 
identical  with  Chalcol. 

Caldron,  a  vessel  for  boiling  flesh,  ei- 
ther for  ceremonial  or  domestic  use  (2  Chr. 
XXXV.  13 ;  1  Sam.  ii.  14 ;  Mic.  iii.  3 ;  Job 
xli.  20). 

Caleb.  1.  According  to  1  Chr.  ii.  9, 
18,  19,  42,  50,  the  son  of  Hezron,  the  son 
of  Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah,  and  the  fother 
of  Hur  by  Ephrath  or  Ephratah,  and  con- 
sequently grandfather  of  Caleb  the  spy. 
2.  Son  of  Jephunneh,  by  which  patronymic 
the  illustrious  spy  is  usually  designated 
(Num.  xiii.  6,  and  ten  other  places),  with 
the  addition  of  that  of  "  the  Kenezite,"  or 
"  son  of  Kenaz,"  in  Num.  xxxii.  12;  Josh, 
xiv.  6,  14.  Caleb  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
list  of  the  rulers  or  princes  who  were  sent 
to  search  the  land  of  Canaan  in  the  second 
year  of  the  Exodus.  He  and  Oshea  or 
Joshua  the  son  of  Nun  were  the  only  two 
of  the  whole  number  who  encouraged  the 
people  to  enter  in  boldly  to  the  land,  and 
take  possession  of  it.  Forty-five  years 
afterwards,  Caleb  came  to  Joshua  and 
claimed  possession  of  the  land  of  the  Ana- 
kims,  Kirjath-Arba,  or  Hebron,  and  the 
neighboring  hill  country  (Josh.  xiv.). 
This  was  immediately  granted  to  him,  and 
the  following  chapter  relates  how  he  took 
possession  of  Hebron,  driving  out  the  tliree 
sons  of  Anak ;  and  how  he  oifered  Achsah 
his  daughter  in  marriage  to  whoever  would 
take  Kirjath-Sepher,  i.  e.  Debir;  and  how 
when  Othniel,  his  younger  brother,  had 
performed  the  feat,  he  not  only  gave  him 
his  daughter  to  wife,  but  with  her  the  upp-^r 
and  nether  springs  of  water  which  she 
asked  for.  It  is  probable  that  Caleb  was  a 
foreigner  by  birth ;  a  proselyte,  incorporat- 
ed into  the"  tribe  of  Judah.     . 

Catf.  In  Ex.  xxxii.  4,  we  are  told  that 
Aaron,  constrained  by  the  people  in  the  ab- 
sence of  Moses,  made  a  molten  calf  of  tlie 


Bronze  Figure  of  ApU.    (Wilkiinon.) 

golden  earrings  of  the  people,  to  represent 
the  Elohim  which  brought  Israel  out  of 
Egypt.     Probably  it  was  a  wooden  figure 


CALNEH 


96 


CANA 


laminated  with  gold,  a  process  which  is 
known  to  have  existed  in  Egypt.  "A 
gilded  ox  covered  with  a  pall  "  was  an  em- 
blem of  Osiris  (Wilkinson,  iv.  335).  To 
punish  the  apostasy  Moses  burnt  the  calf, 
and  then  grinding  it  to  powder  scattered  it 
over  the  water,  which  he  made  the  people 
drink.  The  process  which  he  used  is  diffi- 
cult of  explanation.  Bochart  and  Rosen- 
mQller  think  that  he  merely  cut,  ground, 
and  filed  the  gold  to  powder.  It  has  al- 
ways been  a  great  dispute  respecting  this 
calf  and  those  of  Jeroboam,  whether,  I. 
the  Jews  intended  them  for  some  Egyptian 
god,  or  II.  for  a  mere  cherubic  symbol  of 
Jehovah.  Of  the  various  sacred  cows  of 
Egypt,  those  of  Isis,  of  Athor,  and  of  the 
three  kinds  of  sacred  bulls,  Apis,  Basis, 
and  Mnevis,  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  fixes  on  the 
latter  as  the  prototype  of  the  golden  calf. 
It  seems  to  us  more  likely  that  in  this  calf- 
worship  the  Jews  merely 

"Likened  their  Maker  to  the  graved  ox," 

or  m  other  words,  adopted  a  well -under- 
stood cherubic  emblem.  The  calf  at  Dan 
was  carried  away  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  and 
that  of  Bethel  ten  years  after  by  his  son 
Shalmaneser. 

Cal'neh  or  Cal'no  appears  in  Gen- 
esis (x.  10)  among  the  cities  of  Nimrod. 
Probably  the  site  is  the  modern  Niffer.  In 
the  8th  century  b.  c.  Calneh  was  taken  by 
one  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  and  never  re- 
covered its  prosperity  (Is.  X.  9;  Am.  vi.  2). 

Cal'vary,  a  word  occurring  in  the  A.  V. 
only  in  Luke  xxiii.  33,  and  there  arising 
I'rom  the  translators'  having  literally  adopt- 
ed the  word  calvaria,  i.  e.  a  bare  skull,  the 
Vulgate  rendering  of  xnavior,  which  again 
is  nothing  but  the  Greek  for  Golgotha. 
The  popular  expression  "Mount  Calvary" 
is  not  warranted  by  any  statement  in  the  ac- 
counts of  the  place  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion. 

Camel.  It  is  clear  from  Gen.  xii.  16  that 
camels  were  early  known  to  the  Egyptians, 
though  no  representation  of  this  animal 
has  yet  been  discovered  in  the  paintings 
or  hieroglyphics.  The  Ethiopians  had 
'•camels  in  abundance"  (2  Chr.  xiv.  15); 
the  queen  of  Sheba  came  to  Jerusalem 
"with  camels  that  bare  spices  and  gold  and 
precious  stones  "  (1  K.  x.  2) ;  the  men  of 
Kedar  and  of  Hazor  possessed  camels  (Jer. 
xlix.  29,  82)  ;  David  took  away  the  camels 
fiom  the  Geshurites  and  the  Amalekites 
(1  Sam.  xxvii.  2,  xxx.  17);  forty  camels' 
burden  of  good  things  were  sent  to  Elisha 
by  Benhadad  king  of  S^'ria  from  Damas- 
cus (2  K.  viii.  9)  ;  the  Ishmaelites  trafficked 
with  Egypt  in  the  precious  gums  of  Gilead, 
carried  on  the  backs  of  camels  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  25)  ;  the  Midianites  and  the  Amalek- 
ites possessed  camels  "as  the  sand  by  the 
sea-side  for  multitude "  (Judg.  vii.  12) ; 
Jol)  had  three  tliousand  camels  before  his 


affliction  (Job  i.  3),  and  six  thousand  after- 
wards (xlii.  12).  The  camel  was  used  for 
riding  (Gen.  xxiv.  64;  1  Sam.  xxx.  17);  aa 
a  beast  of  burden  generally  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
25 ;  2  K.  viii.  9 ;  1  K.  x.  2,  &c.) ;  and  for 
draught  pui-poses  (Is.  xxi.  7).  From  1 
Sam.  xxx.  17  we  learn  that  camels  were 
used  in  war.  John  the  Baptist  wore  a 
garment  made  of  camel's  hair  (Matt.  iii.  4 ; 
Mark  i.  6),  and  some  Uave  supposed  that 
Elijah  "was  clad  in  a  dress  of  the  same 
stufi"."  Dr.  Kitto  says  "the  Arabs  adorn 
the  necks  of  their  camels  with  a  band  of 
cloth  or  leather,  upon  which  are  strung 
small  shells  called  cowries  in  the  form  of 
half-moons."  This  very  aptly  illustrates 
Judg.  viii.  21,  26.*  The  species  of  camel 
which  was  in  common  use  amongst  the  Jews 
and  the  heathen  nations  of  Palestine  was 
the  Arabian  or  one-humped  camel  ( Came- 
lus  Arabicus).  The  dromedary  is  a  swifter 
animal  than  the  baggage-camel,  and  is  used 
chiefly  for  riding  purposes ;  it  is  merely  a 
finer  breed  than  the  other :  the  Arabs  call 
it  the  Ileirie.  The  speed  of  the  dromedary 
has  been  greatly  exaggerated,  the  Arabs 
asserting  that  it  is  swifter  than  the  horse ; 
eight  or  nine  miles  an  hour  is  the  utmost 
it  is  able  to  perform ;  this  pace,  however,  it 
is  able  to  keep  up  for  hours  together. 

Ca'mon,  the  place  in  which  Jaib  the 
Judge  was  buried  (Judg.  x.  5). 

Camp.     [Encampments.] 

Camphire  (Hcb.  copher).  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  "  camphire  "  is  an  incor- 
rect rendering  of  the  Hebrew  term,  which 
occurs  in  the  sense  of  some  aromatic  sub- 
stance only  in  Cant.  i.  14,  iv.  13.  The 
margin  in  both  passages  has  "  cypress." 
The  substance  really  denoted  by  copher  is 
the  Lawsonia  alba  of  botanists,  the  henna 
of  Arabian  naturalists.  The  inhabitants 
of  Nubia  called  the  henna-plant  Khofreh, 
The  henna-plant  grows  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
Arabia,  and  N.  India.  The  flowers  are 
white,  and  glow  in  clusters,  and  are  very 
fragrant.  The  whole  shrub  is  from  four  to 
six  feet  high.  The  Lawsonia  alba,  the 
only  known  species,  belongs  to  the  natural 
order  Lyihraceae. 

Ca'na  of  Galilee,  once  Cana  in 
Galilee,  a  village  or  town  not  far  from 
Capernaum,  memorable  as  the  scene  of 
Christ's  first  miracle  (John  ii.  1,  11,  iv.  46) 
as  well  as  of  a  subsequent  one  (iv.  46,  54), 
and  also  as  the  native  place  of  the  Apostle 
Nathanael  (xxi.  2).  The  traditional  site  is 
at  Kefr  Kenna,  a  small  'village  about  4i 
miles  north-west  ot  Nazareth.  The  rival 
site  is  a  village  situated  farther  north, 
about  5  miles  north  of  Seffurieh  (Scp- 
phoris)  and  9  of  Nazarctii,  near  the  present 
Jefat,  the  Jotapata  of  the  Jewisli  wars. 
This  village  still  bears  the  name  of  Kana- 


*  The  word  erroneously  tmrmlatcd  "camcl«"  in  E«t]i.viii. 
10  probably  (i|[nilie«  "  mule*  "  uf  a  line  breed. 


CANAAN 


97 


CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE 


el-jeltl.  The  Gospel  history  will  not  be 
affected  whichever  site  may  be  discovered 
to  be  the  real  one. 

Ca'naau.  1.  The  fourth  son  of  Ham 
(Gen.  X.  6;  1  Chr.  i.  8) ;  the  progenitor  of 
the  Phoenicians  ("  Zidon"),  and  of  the  va- 
rious nations  who  before  the  Israelite  con- 
quest peopled  the  sea-coast  of  Palestine, 
and  generallf  the  whole  of  the  country 
westward  of  the  Jordan  (Gen.  x.  13;  1 
Chr.  i.  13).  2.  Tlie  name  "Canaan"  is 
sometimes  employed  for  the  country  itself. 
In  several  passages  the  word  is  concealed 
in  the  A.  V.  by  being  translated.  Tliese 
are:  Is.  xxiii.  8,  "traffickers,"  and  xxiii. 
11,  "  the  merchant  city;  "  Hos.  xii.  7, 
"He  is  a  merchant;"  Zeph.  i.  11,  "mer- 
chant-people." 

Canaan,  The  Land  of,  lit.  "Low- 
land," a  name  denoting  the  country  west 
of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea,  and  between 
those  waters  and  the  Mediterranean; 
specially  opposed  to  the  "land  of  Gilead," 
that  is,  the  high  table-land  on  the  east  of 
the  Jordan.  It  is  only  in  later  notices, 
such  as  Zeph.  ii.  6,  and  Matt.  xv.  22,  that 
we  find  it  applied  to  the  low  maritime  plains 
of  Piiihstia  and  Phoenicia  (comp.  Mark 
vii.  26). 

Ca'naanite,  The,  the  designation  of 
the  Apostle  Simon,  otherwise  known  as 
"  Simon  Zelotes."  It  occurs  in  Matt.  x.  4 ; 
Mark  iii.  18,  and  is  derived  from  a  Chaldee 
or  Syriac  word,  by  which  the  Jewish  sect 
or  faction  of  "  the  Zealots  "  was  designated. 
The  Greek  equivalent  is  Zelotes  (Luke  vi. 
15;  Acts  i.  13). 

Ca'naanites,Tlie,a  word  used  in  two 
senses  :  1 .  a  tribe  which  inhabited  a  partic- 
ular locality  of  the  land  west  of  the  Jordan 
before  the  conquest;  and  2.  the  people  who 
inhabited  generally  the  whole  of  that  coun- 
try. 1.  For  the  tribe  of  "  the  Canaanites  " 
only  —  the  dwellers  in  the  lowland.  The 
whole  of  the  country  west  of  Jordan  was  a 
"  lowland  "  as  compared  with  the  loftier  and 
more  extended  tracts  on  the  east :  but  there 
was  a  part  of  this  western  country  which 
was  eml  more  emphatically  a  "  lowland." 
"  Tlie  Canaanite  dwells  by  the  sea,  and  by 
the  side  of  Jordan"  (Num.  xiii.  29).  In 
Gen.  X.  18-20  the  seats  of  the  Canaanite 
tribe  are  given  as  on  the  sea-shore  arid  in 
the  Jordan  Vallej*  (comp.  Josh.  xi.  3).  2. 
Applied  as  a  general  name  to  the  non-Isra- 
elite inhabitants  of  the  land,  as  we  have 
already  seen  was  the  case  with  "  Canaan." 
Instances  of  this  are,  Gen.  xii.  6 ;  Num. 
xxi.  3;  Judg.  i.  10;  and  Gen.  xiii.  12.  See 
also  Gen.  xxiv.  3,  37,  comp.  xxviii.  2,  6; 
Ex.  xiii.  11,  comp.  5.  Like  the  Phoenicians, 
the  Canaanites  were  probably  given  to 
commerce  ;  and  thus  the  name  became  prob- 
ably in  later  times  an  occasional  synonyme 
for  a  merchant  (Job  xii.  6 ;  Prov.  xxxi.  24 ; 
comp.  Is.  xxiii.  8, 11 ;  Hos.  xii.  7 ;  Zeph.  1. 11. 


Canda'ce,  a  queen  of  Ethiopia  (Merofi), 
mentioned  Acts  viii.  27.  The  name  was 
not  a  proper  name  of  an  individual,  but 
that  of  a  dynasty  of  Ethiopian  queens. 

Candlestick,  which  Moses  was  com- 
manded to  make  for  the  tabernacle,  is  de- 
scribed Ex.  XXV.  31-37 ;  xxxvii.  17-24.  It 
is  called  in  Lev.  xxiv.  4,  "  the  pure,"  and 
in  Ecclus.  xxvi.  17,  "  the  holy  candlestick." 
With  its  various  appurtenances  it  required 
a  talent  of  "  pure  gold,"  and  it  was  not 
moulded,  h\it  "  of  beaten  work."  Josephus, 
however,  says  that  it  was  of  cast  gold,  and 
hollow.  The  candlestick  was  placed  on  the 
south  side  of  the  first  apartment  of  the 
tabernacle,  opposite  the  table  of  shew-bread 
(Ex.  XXV.  37),  and  was  lighted  every  even- 
ing and  dressed  every  morning  (Ex.  xxvii. 
20,  21,  XXX.  8;  comp.  1  Sara.  iii.  2).  Each 
lamp  was  supplied  with'  cotton,  and  half  a 
log  of  the  purest  olive-oil  (about  two  wine- 
glasses), which  was  sufficient  to  keep  them 
burning  during  a  long  night.  When  car- 
ried about,  the  candlestick  was  covered 
with  a  cloth  of  blue,  and  put  with  its  ap- 
pendages in  badger-skin  bags,  which  were 
supported  on  a  bar  (Num.  iv.  9).  In  Solo- 
mon's Temple,  instead  of  this  candlestick, 
there  were  ten  golden  candlesticks  simi- 
larly embossed,  five  on  the  right  and  five 
on  the  left  (IK.  vii.  49;  2  Chr.  iv.  7). 
They  were  taken  to  Babylon  (Jer.  Iii.  19). 
In  the  Temple  of  Zerubbabel  there  was 
again  a  single  candlestick  (1  Mace.  i.  23, 
iv.  49). 


Candlettick.    (From  Arch  of  Tltiw.) 

Cane.     [Reed.] 

Cankerworm.    [Locust.] 

Can'neh  (Ez.  xxvii.  23),  probably  a 
contraction  of  Calneh,  which  is  the  reading 
of  one  MS. 

Canon  of  Scripture,  The,  may  be  gen- 
erally described  as  "  the  collecHon  of  book* 
which  form  the  original  and  authontatiTe 


CANOPY 


98 


CAPERNAUM 


written  rule  of  the  faith  and  practice  of  the 
Christian  Churcli.  The  word  Canon,  in 
classical  Greek,  is  properly  a  straight  rod, 
as  the  rod  of  a  shield,  or  that  used  in  weav- 
ing, or  a  carpenter's  rule.  In  patristic 
writings  the  word  is  commonly  used  both  as 
"  a  rule  "  in  the  widest  sense,  and  especially 
in  the  phrases  "'the  rule  of  the  Church," 
"the  rule  of  faith,"  "  the  rule  of  truth." 
As  applied  to  Scripture  the  derivatives  of 
Canon  were  used  long  before  the  simple 
word.  The  title  "  Canonical"  was  first 
given  to  writings  in  the  sense  of  "  admitted 
by  the  rule,"  and  not  as  "forming  part  of 
and  giving  the  rule."  The  first  direct  ap- 
plication of  the  term  Canon  to  the  Scrip- 
tures seems  to  be  in  the  verses  of  Amphilo- 
chius  (c.  380  a.  d),  where  the  word  indi- 
cates the  rule  by  which  the  contents  of  the 
Bible  must  be  determined,  and  thus  secon- 
darily an  index  of  the  constituent  books. 
Among  Latin  writers  it  is  commonly  found 
from  the  time  of  Jerome  and  Augustine, 
and  their  usage  of  the  word,  wljich  is  wider 
than  that  of  Greek  writers,  is  the  source  of 
its  modern  acceptation.  The  uncanonical 
books  were  described  simply  as  "  those 
without,"  or  "those  uncanonized."  The 
Apocryphal  books  which  were  supposed  to 
occupy  an  intermediate  position,  were  called 
"  books  read,"  or  "  ecclesiastical,"  though 
the  latter  title  was  also  applied  to  the  ca- 
nonical Scriptures.  The  canonical  books 
were  also  called  "books  of  the  Testament," 
and  Jerome  styled  the  whole  collection  by 
the  striking  name  of  "the  holy  librarj^," 
which  happily  expresses  the  unity  and  va- 
riety of  the  Bible.  Popular  belief  assigned 
to  Ezra  and  "  the  great  synagogue  "  the  task 
of  collecting  and  promulgating  the  Scrip- 
tures as  part  of  their  work  in  organizing 
the  Jewish  Church.  Doubts  have  been 
thrown  upon  this  belief,  but  it  is  in  every 
way  consistent  with  the  history  of  Judaism 
and  with  the  internal  evidence  of  the  books 
themselves.  After  the  Maccabaean  perse- 
cution the  history  of  the  formation  of  the 
Canon  is  merged  in  the  history  of  its  con- 
tents. The  Old  Testament  appears  from 
that  time  as  a  whole.  The  complete  Canon 
of  the  New  Testament,  as  commonly  re- 
ceived at  present,  was  ratified  at  the  third 
Council  of  Caethage  (a.  d.  397),  and 
from  that  time  was  accepted  throughout  the 
Latin  Church.  Respecting  the  books  of 
which  the  Canon  is  composed,  see  the  arti- 
cle Bible. 

Canopy  (Jud.  x.  21,  xiii.  9,  xvi.  19). 
The  canopy  of  Holofernes  is  the  only  one 
mentioned.  It  probably  retained  the  mos- 
quito nets  or  curtains  in  which  the  name 
originated,  although  its  description  (Jud.  x. 
21')  betrays  luxury  and  display  rather  than 
£uch  simple  usefulness. 

Canticles,  Song  of  Songs,  i.  e.  the 
most  beautiful  of  songs,  entitled  in  the  A. 


V.  The  Song  op  Solomon.  I.  Author 
and  date.  —  By  the  Hebrew  title  it  is  as- 
cribed to  Solomon ;  and  so  in  all  the  ver- 
sions, and  by  the  majority  of  Jewish  and 
Christian  writers,  ancient  and  modern.  A 
few  of  the  Talmudical  writers  assigned  it  to 
the  age  of  Hezekiah.  More  recent  criticism, 
however,  has  called  in  question  this  deep- 
rooted  and  well-accredited  tradition,  but  on 
the  whole  it  seems  unnecessary  to  depart 
from  the  plain  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  title. 
Supposing  the  date  fixed  to  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  there  is  great  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining at  what  period  of  that  monarch's 
life  the  poem  was  written.  II.  Form.  —  It 
may  be  called  a  drama,  as  it  contains  the 
dramatic  evolution  of  a  simple  love-story. 

III.  Meaning.  —  The  schools  of  interpreta- 
tion may  be  divided  into  three  :  —  the  mys- 
tical, or  typical  ;  the  allegorical ;  and  the 
literal.  1.  The  mystical  interpretation  is 
properly  an  offshoot  of  tlie  allegorical,  and 
probably  owes  its  origin  to  the  necessity 
which  was  felt  of  supplying  a  literal  basis 
for  the  speculation  of  the  allcgorists.  This 
basis  is  either  the  marriage  of  Solomon  with 
Pharaoh's  daughter,  or  his  marriage  with 
an  Israelitish  woman,  the  Shulamite.  The 
mystical  interpretation  makes  its  first  ap- 
pearance in  Origen,  who  wrote  a  volumi- 
nous commentary  upon  the  Canticles.  2. 
Allegorical.  —  Notwithstanding  the  attempts 
which  have  been  made  to  discover  the  prin- 
ciple of  interpretation  in  the  LXX.  (Cant. 
iv.  8),  Jesus  son  of  Sirach  (xlvii.  14-17; 
Wisd.  viii.  2),  and  Josephus  (c.  Apion.  i. 
§8),  it  is  impossible  to  trace  it  with  any 
certainty  farther  back  than  the  Talmud. 
According  to  tlie  Talmud  the  belated  ia 
taken  to  be  God ;  the  loved  one,  or  bride, 
is  the  congregation  of  Israel.  In  the 
Christian  Church,  the  Talmudical  interpre- 
tation, imported  by  Origen,  was  all  but 
universally  received.  3.  The  literal  in- 
terpretation. —  According  to  the  most  gen- 
erally received  interpretation  of  the  modem 
literalists,  the  Song  is  intended  to  display 
the  victory  of  humble  and  con^juit  love 
over  the  temptations  of  wealth  anaroyalty. 

IV.  Canonicity.  —  The  book  has  been  re- 
jected from  the  Canon  by  some  critics ;  but 
in  no  case  has  its  rejection  been  defended 
on  external  grounds.  It  is  found  in  the 
LXX.,  and  in  the  translations  of  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  and  Theodotion.  It  is  con- 
tained in  the  catalogue  given  in  the  Talmud, 
and  in  the  catalogue  of  Melito ;  and  in  short 
we  have  the  same  evidence  for  its  canoni- 
city as  that  which  is  commonly  adduced  for 
the  canonicity  of  any  book  of  the  O.  T. 

Caper'naum  was  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Matt.  iv.  13;  comp. 
John  vi.  24),  and,  if  recent  discoveries  are 
to  be  trusted,  was  of  sufficient  importance 
to  give  to  that  Sea,  in  whole  or  in  part,  the 
name  of  the  "  lake  of  Capernaum."    It  wa» 


CAPHAR 


99 


CAPTIVITIES 


m  the  "land  of  Gennesaret"  (Matt.  xiv. 
34,  comp.  John  vi.  17,  21,  24).  It  was  of 
sufficient  size  to  be  always  called  a  "  city  " 
(Matt.  ix.  1 ;  Mark  i.  33) ;  had  its  own 
synagogue,  in  whicii  our  Lord  frequently 
taught  (Jolin  vi.  59 ;  Mark  i.  21 ;  Luke  iv. 
33,  38)  —  a  synagogue  built  by  the  centurion 
of  the  detachment  of  Roman  soldiers  whicli 
appears  to  have  been  quartered  in  the  place 
(Luke  vii.  1,  comp.  8;  Matt.  viii.  8).  But 
besides  the  garrison  there  was  also  a  cus- 
toms' station,  where  the  dues  were  gathered 
both  by  stationary  (Matt.  ix.  9 ;  Mark  ii. 
14;  Luke  v.  27)  and  by  itinerant  (Matt. 
xvii.  24)  officers.  The  only  interest  at- 
taching to  Capernaum  is  as  the  residence  of 
our  Lord  and  his  Apostles,  the  scene  of  so 
many  miracles  and  "  gracious  words."  At 
Nazareth  He  was  "  brought  up,"  but  Ca- 
pernaum was  emphatically  His  "  own  city ;  " 
it  was  when  He  returned  thither  that  He  is 
said  to  have  been  "  at  home  "  (Mark  ii.  1). 
The  spots  which  lay  claim  to  its  site  are,  1. 
Khan  Minyeh,  a  mound  of  ruins,  whicli 
takes  its  name  from  an  old  khan  hard  by. 
This  mound  is  situated  close  upon  the  sea- 
shore at  the  north-western  extremity  of  the 
plain  (now  El  Ghuweir).  2.  Three  miles 
north  of  Khan  Minyeh  is  the  other  claim- 
ant. Tell  HAm,  —  ruins  of  walls  and  founda- 
tions covering  a  space  of  "  half  a  mile  long 
by  a  quarter  wide,"  on  a  point  of  the  shore 
projecting  into  the  lake  and  backed  by  a 
very  gently  rising  ground.  Khan  Minyeh 
Et-Tabighah,  and  Tell  ZfAm,  are  all,  with- 
out doubt,  ancient  sites,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  say  which  of  them  represents  Capernaum, 
which  Chorazin,  or  which  Bethsaida. 

Ca'pliar,  one  of  the  numerous  words 
employed  in  the  Bible  to  denote  a  village  or 
collection  of  dwellings  smaller  than  a  city 
(/r).  Mr.  Stanley  proposes  to  render  it  by 
"  hamlet."  In  names  of  places  it  occurs  in 
Chephak-ha-Ammokai,  Chephirah,  Ca- 
PHAR-SALAMA.  To  US  Its  chicf  interest 
arises  from  its  forming  a  part  of  the  name 
of  Capernaum,  i.  e.  Capharnahum. 

Caph'tor,  Caph'torim,  thrice  men- 
tioned as  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Philis- 
tines (Deut.  ii.  23 ;  Jer.  xlvii.  4 ;  Am.  ix. 
7),  who  are  once  called  Caphtorims 
(Deut.  ii.  23),  as  of  the  same  race  as  the 
Mizraite  people  of  that  name  (Gen.  x.  14 ; 
"  Caphthorim,"  1  Chr.  i.  12).  The  position 
of  the  country,  since  it  was  peopled  by 
Mizraites,  must  be  supposed  to  be  in  Egypt 
or  near  to  it  in  Africa,  for  the  idea  of  the 
south-west  of  Palestine  is  excluded  by  the 
migration  of  the  Philistines.  Mr.  R.  S. 
Poole  has  proposed  to  recognize  Caphtor  in 
the  ancient  Egyptian  name  of  Coptos,  or 
the  Coptite  nome.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Philistines  left  Caphtor  not  long  after  the 
first  arrival  of  the  Mizraite  tribes,  while 
they  had  not  yet  attained  that  attachment 
to  the   soil  that  afterwards  so  eminently 


characterized  the  descendants  of  those 
which  formed  the  Egyptian  nation. 

Cappado'cia,  Cappado'cians  (Acts 
ii.  9;  1  Pet.  i.  1).  The  range  of  Mount 
Taurus  and  the  upper  course  of  the  Eu- 
phrates may  safely  be  mentioned,  in  general 
terms,  as  natural  boundaries  of  Cappadocia 
on  the  south  and  east.  Its  geographical 
limits  on  the  west  and  north  were  variable. 
In  early  times  the  name  reached  as  far 
northwards  as  the  Euxine  Sea.  Cappadocia 
is  an  elevated  table-land  intersected  by 
mountain-chains.  It  seems  always  to  have 
been  deficient  in  wood ;  but  it  was  a  good 
grain  country,  and  particularly  famous  for 
grazing.  Its  Roman  metropolis  was  Caes- 
area.  The  native  Cappadocians  seem  origi- 
nally to  have  belonged  to  the  Syrian  stock. 

Captain.  (l.)  As  a  purely  military 
title  Captain  answers  to  sar  in  the  Hebrew 
army,  and  "  tribune  "  in  the  Roman.  The 
"captain  of  the  guard"  in  Acts  xxviii.  16 
was  probably  the  praefectus  praetorio.  (2.) 
Kdtsin,  occasionally  rendered  captain^  ap- 
plies sometimes  to  a  military  (Josh.  x.  24 ; 
Judg.  xi.  6,  11;  Is.  xxii.  3;  Dan.  xi.  18), 
sometimes  to  a  civil  command  (e.  g.  Is.  i. 
10,  iii.  6).  (3.)  The  "  captain  of  the  tem- 
ple "  mentioned  by  St.  Luke  (xxii.  4 ;  Acts 
iv.  1,  V.  24)  superintended  the  guard  of 
priests  and  Levites,  who  kept  watch  by 
night  in  the  Temple. 

Captivities  of  the  Jews.  The  pres- 
ent article  is  confined  to  the  forcible  de- 
portation of  the  Jews  from  their  native 
land,  and  their  forcible  detention,  under 
the  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  kings.  The 
kingdom  of  Israel  was  invaded  by  three  or 
four  successive  kings  of  Assyria.  Pul  or 
Sardanapalus,  according  to  Rawlinson,  im- 
posed a  tribute  (b.  c.  771  or  762  Rawl.) 
upon  Menahem  (1  Chr.  v.  26,  and  2  K.  xv. 
19).  Tiglath-Pileser  carried  away  (b.  c. 
740)  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  (1  Chr.  v. 
26)  and  the  inhabitants  of  Galilee  (2  K. 
XV.  29,  comp.  Is.  ix.  1)  to  Assyria.  Shal- 
maneser  twice  invaded  (2  K.  xvii.  3,  5) 
the  kingdom  which  remained  to  Iloshea, 
took  Samaria  (b.  c.  721)  after  a  siege  of 
three  years,  and  carried  Israel  away  into 
Assyria.  Sennacherib  (b.  c.  713)  is  stated 
to  have  carried  into  Assyria  200,000  cap- 
tives from  the  Jewish  cities  which  he  took 
(2  K.  xviii.  13).  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the 
first  half  of  his  reign  (b.  c.  606-562),  re- 
peatedly invaded  Judaea,  besieged  Jeru- 
salem, carried  away  the  inhabitants  to 
Babylon,  and  destroyed  the  Temple.  Two 
distinct  deportations  are  mentioned  in  2  K. 
xxiv.  14  (including  10,000  persons)  and 
XXV.  11.  One  in  2  Chr.  xxxvi.  20.  Three 
in  Jer.  Hi.  28-30,  including  4600  persons, 
and  one  in  Dan.  i.  3.  The  two  pnncipal 
deportations  were,  (1)  that  which  took 
place  b.  c.  598,  when  Jehoiachm  with  all 
the  nobles,  soldiers,  and  artificers  was  car- 


CARBUNCLE 


100 


CARRIAGE 


Tied  away ;  and  (2)  that  wliich  followed  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple  and  the  capture 
of  Zedekiah  b.  c.  588.  The  70  years  of 
captivity  predicted  by  Jeremiah  (xxv.  12) 
are  dated  by  Prideaux  from  b.  c.  606.  The 
captivity  of  Ezekiel  dates  from  B.C.  598,  when 
that  prophet,  like  Mordecai  the  uncle  of  Es- 
ther (Esth.  ii.  6),  accompanied  Jehoiachin. 
The  captives  were  treated  not  as  slaves  but 
as  colonists.  The  Babylonian  captivity  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  decree  (Ezr.  i.  2) 
of  Cyrus  (b.  c.  536),  and  the  return  of  a 
portion  of  the  nation  under  Sheshbazzar  or 
Zenibbabel  (b.  c.  535),  Ezra  (b.  c.  458), 
and  Nehemiah  (b.  c.  445).  The  number 
who  returned  upon  the  decree  of  b.  c.  536 
was  42,360,  besides  servants.  Those  who 
were  left  in  Assyria  (Esth.  viii.  9,  11),  and 
kept  up  their  national  distinctions,  were 
known  as  The  Dispersion  (John  vii.  35 ; 
1  Pet.  i.  1;  James  i.  1).  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  discover  the  ten  tribes 
existing  as  a  distinct  community.  But 
though  history  bears  no  witness  of  their 
present  distinct  existence,  it  enables  us  to 
track  the  footsteps  of  the  departing  race  in 
four  directions  after  the  time  of  the  Cap- 
tivity. (1.)  Some  returned  and  mixed 
with  the  Jews  (Luke  ii.  36 ;  Phil.  iii.  5, 
&c.).  (2.)  Some  were  left  in  Samaria, 
mingled  with  the  Samaritans  (Ezr.  vi.  21 ; 
John  iv.  12),  and  became  bitter  enemies  of 
the  Jews.  (3.)  Many  remained  in  Assyria, 
and  were  recognized  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  Dispersion  (see  Acts  ii.  9,  xxvi.  7). 
(4.)  Most,  probably,  apostatized  in  Assyria, 
adopted  the  usages  and  idolatry  of  the  na- 
tions among  whom  they  were  planted,  and 
became  wholly  swallowed  up  in  them. 

Carbuncle,  the  representative  in  the 
A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew  words  'ekdAch  and 
bdrkath  or  bdrekeih.  1.  'Ekd&ch  (Is.  liv. 
12)  may  be  a  general  term  to  denote  any 
bright  sparkling  gem,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  its  real  meaning.  2.  Bdi'ekath, 
bdreketh  (Ex.  xxviii.  17,  xxxix.  10;  Ez. 
xxviii.  13),  is  supposed  to  be  the  smaragdus 
or  emerald. 

Car'cas,  the  seventh  of  the  seven 
"chamberlains"  (z.  c.  eunuchs)  of  king 
Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10). 

Car'chemish  occupied  nearly  the  site 
of  the  later  Mabug,  or  Hierapolis.  It 
seems  to  have  commanded  the  ordinary 
passage  of  the  Euphrates  at  Bif,  or  Bireh- 
jik.  Carchemish  appears  to  have  been 
taken  by  Pharaoh-Necho  shortly  after  the 
battle  of  Megiddo  (c.  b.  c.  608),  and  re- 
taken by  Nebuchadnezzar  after  a  battle 
three  years  later,  b.  c.  605  (Jer.  xlvi.  2). 

Care'ah,  father  of  Johanan  (2  K. 
xxv.  23),  elsewhere  in  the  A.  V.  spelt  Ka- 
bbah. 

Ca'ria,  the  southern  part  of  the  region 
which  in  the  N.  T.  is  called  Asia,  and  the 
south-western  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Asia 


Minor.  At  an  earlier  period  we  find  it 
mentioned  as  a  separate  district  (1  Mace. 
XV.  23).  A  little  later  it  was  incorporated 
in  the  province  of  Asia. 

Car'mel.  1.  A  mountain  which  forms 
one  of  the  most  striking  and  characteristic 
features  of  the  country  of  Palestine.  As 
if  to  accentuate  more  distinctly  the  bay 
which  forms  the  one  indentation  in  the 
coast,  this  noble  ridge,  the  only  headland 
of  lower  and  central  Palestine,  forms  its 
southern  boundary,  running  out  with  a  bold 
bluff  promontory  all  but  into  the  very 
waves  of  the  Mediterranean.  From  this 
point  it  stretches  in  a  nearly  straight  line, 
bearing  about  S.  S.  E.,  for  a  little  more 
than  twelve  miles,  when  it  terminates  sud- 
denly in  a  bluff  somewhat  corresponding  to 
its  western  end,  breaking  down  abruptly 
into  the  hills  of  Jenin  and  Samaria,  which 
form  at  that  part  the  central  mass  of  the 
country.  Carmel  thus  stands  as  a  wall  be- 
tween the  maritime  plain  of  Sharon  on  the 
south,  and  the  more  inland  expanse  of  Es- 
draelon  on  the  north.  Its  structure  is  in 
the  main  the  Jura  formation  (upper  oolite), 
which  is  prevalent  in  the  centre  of  West- 
ern Palestine  —  a  soft  white  limestone,  with 
nodules  and  veins  of  flint.  In  form  Carmel 
is  a  tolerably  continuous  ridge,  at  the  W. 
end  about  600,  and  E.  about  1600  feet  above 
the  sea.  There  seem  to  be  grounds  for 
believing  that  from  very  early  times  it  was 
considered  as  a  sacred  spot.  In  later  times 
we  know  that  its  reputation  was  not  con- 
fined to  Palestine.  But  that  which  has 
made  the  name  of  Carmel  most  familiar  to 
the  modern  world  is  its  intimate  connection 
with  the  history  of  the  two  great  prophets 
of  Israel  —  Elijah  and  Elisha.  It  is  now 
commonly  called  Mar  Ely  as  ;  Kurmel  be- 
ing occasionally,  but  only  seldom,  heard. 
2.  A  town  in  the  mountainous  country  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  55),  familiar  to  us  as  the 
residence  of  Nabal  (1  Sam.  xxv.  2,  5,  7, 
40). 

Car'mi.  1.  The  4th  son  of  Reuben  the 
progenitor  of  the  family  of  the  Carmites 
(Gen.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ex.  vi.  14 ;  Num.  xxvi.  6 ; 
1  Chr.  V.  3).  2.  A  man  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  father  of  Achan,  the  "  troubler  of 
Israel "  (Josh.  vii.  1,  18 ;  1  Chr.  ii.  7,  iv. 
1),  according  to  the  first  two  passages  tlie 
son  of  Zabdi  or  Zimri. 

Caruaim,  a  large  and  fortified  city  ih 
"  the  land  of  Galaad."  It  was  besieged 
and  taken  by  Judas  Maccabaeus  (1  Mace. 
V.  26,  43,  44).  A  comparison  with  2  Mace, 
xii.  21,  26,  enables  us  to  identify  it  with 
Ashteroth-Kabnaim. 

Carpenter.     [Handicraft.] 

Car'pus,  a  Christian  at  Troas  (2  Tim. 
iv.  13).  According  to  Hippolytns,  Carpus 
was  bishop  of  Berytus  in  Thrace. 

Carriage.  This  word  occurs  only  six 
times  in  the  text  of  the  A.  Y.,  aud  signifies 


CARSHENA 


101 


CEDAR 


what  we  now  call  "  baggage."  In  the 
margin  of  1  Sam.  xvii.  20,  and  xxvi.  5-7  — 
and  there  only  —  "carriage"  is  employed 
in  the  sense  of  a  wagon  or  cart. 

Carshe'na,  one  of  the  seven  princes  of 
Persia  and  M<>dia  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Cart,  Gen.  xlv.  19,  27 ;  Num.  vii.  3,  7, 
8,  a  vehicle  dr^wn  by  cattle  (2  Sam.  vi.  6), 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  chariot  drawn 


Egyptian  cart  with  two  wheels.    (Wilkinaon.) 

by  horses.  Carts  and  wagons  were  either 
open  or  covered  (Num.  vii.  3),  and  were 
used  for  conveyance  of  persons  (Gen.  xlv. 
19),  burdens  (1  Sam.  vi.  7,  8),  or  produce 
(Am.  ii.  13).  The  only  cart  used  in  West- 
ern Asia  has  two  wheels  of  solid  wood. 
But  in  the  monuments  of  ancient  Egypt 
representations  are  found  of  carts  with  two 
wheels,  having  four  or  six  spokes,  used  for 
carrying  prodijf  e,  and  of  one  used  for  re- 
ligious purposes  having  four  wheels  with 
eight  spokes. 

Carving.  The  arts  of  carving  and  en- 
graving were  much  in  request  in  the  con- 
struction both  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the 
Temple  (Ex.  xxxi.  5,  xxxv.  33-,  1  K.  vi. 
18,  35;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  6),  as  well  as  in  the  or- 
namentation of  the  priestly  dresses  (Ex. 
xxviu.  9-30;  Zech.  iii.  9;  2  Chr.  ii.  6,  14). 

Casipll'ia,  a  place  of  uncertain  site  on 
the  road  between  Babylon  and  Jerusalem 
(Ezr.  viii.  17). 

Cas'luhim,  a  Mizraite  people  or  tribe 
(Gen.  X.  14 ;  1  Clir.  i.  12).  Tlie  Only  clew 
we  have  as  yet  to  the  position  of  the  Cas- 
luhim  is  their  place  in  the  list  of  the  sons 
of  Mizraira  between  the  Pathrusim  and  the 
Caphtorim,  whence  it  is  probable  that  they 
were  seated  in  Upper  Egypt. 

Cassia.  The  representative  in  the  A. 
V.  of  the  Hebrew  words  kidddh  and  ketzt- 
6th.  1.  Kidddh  occurs  in  Ex.  xxx.  24, 
and  in  Ez.  xxvii.  19.  The  accounts  of 
cassia  as  given  by  ancient  authors  are  con- 
fused ;  and  tlie  investigation  of  the  subject 
is  a  difficult  one.  It  is  clear  that  the  Latin 
writers  by  the  terra  casta  understood  both 
the  Oriental  product  now  under  considera- 
tion, as  well  as  some  low  sweet  herbaceous 
plant ;  but  the  Greek  word  is  limited  to  the 
Eastern  product.     The  cassia-bark  of  com- 


merce is  yielded  by  various  kinds  of  Ciu' 
namomum,  which  grow  in  difi'erent  parts 
of  India.  2.  Ketzidth,  only  in  Ps.  xlv.  8. 
This  word  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
another  term  for  cassia :  the  old  versions, 
as  well  as  the  etymology  of  the  Hebrew 
word,  are  in  favor  of  this  interpretation. 

Castle.     [Fortifications.] 

Cas'tor  and  PoIItix  (Acts  xxviii.  ii). 
The  twin  sons  of  Jupiter  and  Leda  were 
regarded  as  the  tutelary  divinities  of  sail- 
ors. They  appeared  in  heaven  as  the  con- 
stellation Gemini.  In  art  they  were  some- 
times represented  simply  as  stars  hovering 
over  a  ship,  but  more  frequently  as  young 
men  on  horseback,  with  conical  caps  and 
stars  above  them.  Such  figures  were 
probably  painted  or  sculptured  at  the  bow 
of  the  ship. 

Cats  occur  only  in  Baruch  vi.  22.  The 
Greek  word,  as  used  by  Aristotle,  has  more 
particular  reference  to  the  wild  cat.  He- 
rodotus (ii.  66)  applies  it  to  denote  the  do- 
mestic animal.  The  context  of  the  passage 
in  Baruch  appears  to  point  to  the  domesti- 
cated animal.  Perhaps  the  people  of  Baby- 
lon originally  procured  the  cat  from  Egypt. 
The  domestic  cat  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians is  supposed  by  some  to  be  identical 
with  the  Felis  maniculata. 

Caterpillar.  The  representative  in 
the  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew  words  chdstl  and 
yelek.  1.  Chdsil  occurs  in  1  K.  viii.  37; 
2  Chr.  vi.  28;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  46;  Is.  xxxiii. 
4 ;  Joel  i.  4 ;  and  seems  to  be  applied  to  a 
locust,  perhaps  in  its  larva  state.  2.  Yelek. 
[Locust.] 

Cattle.     [Bull.] 

Cave.  The  chalky  limestone  of  which 
the  rocks  of  Syria  and  Palestine  chiefly 
consist  presents,  as  is  the  case  in  all  lime- 
stone formations,  a  vast  number  of  caverns 
and  natural  fissures,  many  of  which  have 
also  been  artificially  enlarged  and  adapted 
to  various  purposes  both  of  shelter  and  de- 
fence. The  most  remarkable  caves  no- 
ticed in  Scripture  are :  1.  That  in  which 
Lot  dwelt  after  the  destruction  of  Sodom 
(Gen.  xix.  30).  2.  The  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah  (xxiii.  17).  3.  Cave  of  Makkedah 
(Josh.  X.  10).  4.  Cave  of  AduUam  (1 
Sam.  xxii.  1).  5.  Cave  of  Engedi  (xxiv. 
3).  6.  Obadiah's  cave  (1  K.  xviii.  4).  7. 
Elijah's  cave  in  Horeb  (xix.  9).  8,  9. 
The  rock  sepulchres  of  Lazarus,  and  of 
our  Lord  (John  xi.  38;  Matt,  xxvii.  60). 

Cedar.  The  Heb.  word  erez,  invariably 
rendered  "  cedar"  by  the  A.  V.,  stands  for 
that  tree  in  most  of  the  passages  where  the 
word  occurs.  The  erez,  or  "  firmly  rooted 
and  strong  tree,"  from  an  Arabic  root  whicli 
has  this  signification,  is  particularly  the 
name  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  {Cedrus 
Libani);  but  that  the  word  is  used  ma 
wider  sense  to  denote  other  trees  of  the 
Coniferat  is  clear  from  some  Scriptural 


% 


CEDEON 


102 


CHALCEDOjST 


passages  where  it  occurs.  For  instance, 
the  "  cedar  wood "  mentioned  in  Lev.  xiv. 
6  can  hardly  be  the  wood  of  the  Lebanon 
cedars,  seeing  that  thr;  C'edrus  Libani  could 
never  have  grown  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai. 
There  is  another  passage  (Ez.  xxvii.  5),  in 
which  perhaps  erez  denotes  some  fir;  in 
all  probability  the  Pinus  Halepensis,  which 
grows  in  Lebanon,  and  is  better  fitted  for 
furnishing  ship-masts  than  the  wood  of  the 
Cedrus  Libani.  The  Cedrus  Libani,  Pinus 
Halepensis,  and  Juniperus  excelsa,  were 
probably  all  included  under  the-  term  erez  ; 
though  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  by  this 
name  is  more  especially  denoted  the  cedar 
of  Lebanon,  as  being  the  firmest  and 
grandest  of  the  conifers.  As  far  as  is  at 
present  known,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  is 
confined  in  Syria  to  one  valley  of  the 
Lebanon  range,  viz.,  that  of  the  Kedisha 
river,  which  flows  from  near  the  highest 
point  of  the  range  westward  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  enters  the  sea  at  the  port 
of  Tripoli.  The  grove  is  at  the  very  upper 
part  of  the  valley,  about  15  miles  from  tlie 
sea,  6500  feet  above  that  level,  and  its 
position  is  moreover  above  that  of  all  other 
arboreous  vegetation. 

Ce'dron.  In  this  form  is  given  in  the 
N.  T.  the  name  of  the  brook  Kidron  in  the 
ravine  below  the  eastern  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(John  xviii.  1,  only).  Beyond  it  was  the 
garden  of  Gethsemane.     [Kidkon.] 

Ceiling.  The  descriptions  of  Scripture 
(1  K.  vi.  y,  15,  vii.  3 ;  2  Chr.  iii.  5,  9 ;  Jer. 
xxii.  14 ;  Hag.  i.  4),  and  of  Josephus,  show 
that  the  ceilings  of  the  Temple  and  the 
palaces  of  the  Jewish  kings  were  formed 
of  cedar  planks  applied  to  the  beams  or 
joints  crossing  from  wall  to  wall,  probably 
with  sunk  panels,  edged  and  ornamented 
with  gold,  and  carved  with  incised  or 
other  patterns,  sometunes  painted  (Jer. 
xxii.  14). 

Celosyria.    [Coelesybia.] 

Cen'chrea  (accurately  Cenchreae), 
the  eastern  harbor  of  Corinth  (i.  e.  its  har- 
bor on  the  Saronic  Gulf)  and  the  empori- 
um of  its  trade  with  the  Asiatic  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  as  Lechaeum  on  the 
Corinthian  Gulf  connected  it  with  Italy 
and  the  west.  St.  Paul  sailed  from  Cen- 
chreae (Acts  xviii.  18)  on  his  return  to 
Syria  from  his  second  missionary  journey ; 
and  when  he  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  course  of  the  third  journey, 
an  organized  church  seems  to  have  been 
formed  here  (Rom.  xvi.  1). 

Censer.  A  small  portable  vessel  of 
metal  fitted  to  receive  burning  coals  from 
the  altar,  and  on  which  the  incense  for 
burning  was  sprinkled  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  18; 
Luke  i.  9).  The  only  distinct  precepts  re- 
garding the  use  of  the  censer  are  found  in 
Num.  iv.  14,  and  in  Lev.  xvi.  12.  Solo- 
mon prepared  "censers  of  pure  gold  "as 


part  of  the  same  furniture  (1  K.  vii.  50 ;  2 
Chr.  iv.  22).  Possibly  their  general  use 
may  have  been  to  take  up  coals  from  the 
brazen  altar,  and  convey  the  incense  while 
burning  to  the  "  golden  altar,"  or  "  altar 
of  incense,"  on  which  it  was  to  be  oflered 
morning  and  evening  (Ex.  xxx.  7,  8).  So 
Uzziah,  when  he  was  intending  "to  burn 
incense  upon  the  altar  of  incense,"  took  "  a 
censer  in  his  hand"  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  16,  19). 
The  word  rendered  "censer"  in  Hebr.  ix. 
4  probably  means  the  "  altar  of  incense." 

Census.     [Taxing.] 

Centurion.    [Akmt.] 

Cephas.     [Peter.] 

Chair.  The  Heb.  words  rendered  chaff 
in  A.  V.  do  not  seem  to  have  precisely  the 
same  meaning :  chdshash  =  dry  grass,  hay ; 
and  occurs  twice  only  in  O.  T.,  viz.,  Is.  v. 
24,  xxxiii.  11.  M6is  is  chafl"  separated  by 
winnowing  from  the  grain  —  the  husk  of 
the  wheat.  The  carrying  away  of  chaff  by 
the  wind  is  an  ordinary  Scriptural  image 
of  the  destruction  of  the  wicked,  and  of 
their  powerlessness  to  resist  God's  judg- 
ments (Ps.  i.  4;  Is.  xviii.  13;  Hos.  xiii.  3; 
2eph.  ii.  2), 

Chain.  Chains  were. used,  1.  as  badges 
of  office;  2.  for  ornament;  3.  for  confin- 
ing prisoners.  1.  The  gold  chain  placed 
about  Joseph's  neck  (Gen.  xli.  42;,  and 
that  promised  to  Daniel  (Dan.  v.  7),  are 
instances  of  the  first  use.  In  Ez.  xvi.  11, 
the  chain  is  mentioned  as  the  symbol  of 
sovereignty.  2.  Chains  for  ornamental 
purposes  were  worn  by  nfen  as  well  as 
women  in  many  countries  both  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  probably  this  was  the  case 
among  the  Hebrews  (Prov.  i.  9).  The 
necklace  consisted  of  pearls,  corals,  &c., 
threaded  on  a  string.  Besides  the  neck- 
lace, other  chains  were  worn  (Jud.  x.  4), 
hanging  down  as  far  as  the  waist,  or  even 
lower.  Some  were  adorned  with  pieces  of 
metiil,  shaped  in  the  form  of  the  moon 
("  round  tires  like  the  moon,"  A.  V. ;  Is. 
iii.  18).  The  Midianites  adorned  the  necks 
of  their  camels  with  it  (Judg.  viii.  21,  26). 
To  other  chains  were  suspended  various 
trinkets  —  as  scent-bottles  (Is.  iii.  20)  and 
mirrors  (Is.  iii.  23).  Step-chains  were  at- 
tached to  the  ankle-rings,  which  shortened 
the  step  and  produced  a  mincing  gait  (Is. 
iii.  16,  18).  3.  The  means  adopted  for  con- 
fining prisoners  among  the  Jews  were  fetters 
similar  to  our  handcuffs  (Judg.  xvi.  21 ;  2 
Sara.  iii.  34;  2  K.  xxv.  7;  Jer.  xxxix.  7). 
Among  the  Romans,  the  prisoner  was  hand- 
cuffed to  one,  and  occasionally  to  two  guards 
(Acts  xii.  6,  7,  xxi.  33). 

Chalcedony,  only  in  Rev.  xxi.  19. 
The  name  is  applied  in  modern  mineralogy 
to  one  of  the  varieties  of  agate.  There 
can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  the  stone 
to  which  Theophrastus  refers,  as  being 
found   in    the  island  opposite  Chalcedoa 


CHALCOL 


103 


CHALDEANb 


and  used  as  a  solder,  must  have  been  the 
green  transparent  carbonate  of  copper,  or 
our  copper  emerald. 
Chal'eol,  1  K.  iv.  31.    [Calcol.] 
Chalde'a,  more  correctly  Chaldaea, 

properly  only  the  most  southern  portion  of 
Babylonia,  is  used  in  Scripture  to  signify 
that  vast  alluvial  plain  which  has  been 
formed  by  the  deposits  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris  —  at  least  so  far  as  it  lies  to 
the  west  of  the  latter  stream.  This  extraor- 
dinary flat,  unbroken  except  by  the  works 
of  man,  extends  a  distance  of  400  miles 
along  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  is  on  an 
average  about  100  miles  in  width.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  country  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  a  modern  traveller,  who  well 
contrasts  its  condition  now  with  the  ap- 
pearance which  it  must  have  presented  in 
ancient  times  :  "  In  former  days,"  he  says, 
"  the  vast  plains  of  Babylon  were  nourished 
by  a  complicated  system  of  canals  and 
watercourses,  which  spread  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  country  like  a  network.  The 
wants  of  a  teeming  population  were  sup- 
plied by  a  rich  soil,  not  less  bountiful  than 
that  on  the  banks  of  the  Egyptian  Nil«. 
Like  islands  rising  from  a  golden  sea  of 
waving  corn,  stood  frequent  groves  of 
palm-trees  and  pleasant  gardens,  affording 
to  the  idler  or  traveller  their  grateful  and 
highly-valued  shade.  Crowds  of  passen- 
gers hurried  along  the  dusty  roads  to  and 
from  the  busy  city.  The  land  was  rich  in 
corn  and  wine.  How  changed  is  the  as- 
pect of  that  region  at  the  present  day! 
Long  lines  of  mounds,  it  is  true,  mark  the 
courses  of  those  main  arteries  which  for- 
merly diffused  life  and  vegetation  along  tlieir 
banks,  but  their  channels  are  now  bereft 
of  moisture  and  choked  witli  drifted  sand ; 
tlie  smaller  offshoots  are  wholly  effaced. 
'  A  drought  is  upon  her  waters,'  says  the 
prophet,  '  and  they  shall  be  dried  up ! '  All 
that  remains  of  that  ancient  civilization  — 
that  '  glory  of  kingdoms,'  —  '  the  praise  of 
the  whole  earth  '  —  is  recognizable  in  the 
numerous  mouldering  heaps  of  brick  and 
rubbish  which  overspread  the  surface  of 
the  plain.  Instead  of  the  luxurious  fields, 
the  groves  and  gardens,  nothing  now  meets 
the  eye  but  an  arid  waste  —  the  dense  popu' 
lation  of  former  times  is  vanished,  and  no 
man  dwells  there."  (Loftus's  Chaldaea, 
pp.  14,  15.)  The  true  Chaldaea  is  always 
in  the  geographers  a  distinct  region,  being 
the  most  southern  portion  of  Babylonia, 
lying  chiefly  (if  not  solely)  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Euphrates.  Babylonia  above 
this  is  separated  into  two  districts,  called 
respectively  Amordacia  and  Auranitis. 
The  former  is  the  name  of  the  central  ter- 
ritory round  Babylon  itself;,  the  latter  is 
applied  to  the  regions  towards  the  north, 
where  Babylonia  borders  on  Assyria. 
Ciiies.  —  Babylonia  was  celebrated  at  all 


times  for  the  number  and  antiqiiity  of  its 
cities.  The  most  important  of  those  which 
have  been  identified  are  Borsippa  {Dirs- 
Nimrud),  Sippara  or  Sepharvaim  {Mo- 
saib),  Cutha  (Ibrahim),  Calneh  (Mffer), 
Erech  (Warka),  Ur  (Mugheir),  Chilmad 
(Kalwadha),  Larancha  (Senkereh),  Is 
(Ifit),  Duraba  {Akkerkuf) ;  but  besides 
these  there  were  a  multitude  of  others,  the 
sites  of  which  have  not  been  determined. 
The  extraordinary  fertility  of  the  Chaldaeaii 
soil  has  been  noticed  by  various  writers. 
It  is  said  to  be  the  only  country  in  the 
world  where  wheat  grows  wild.  Herod- 
otus declared  (i.  193)  that  grain  com- 
monly returned  200-fold  to  the  sower,  and 
occasionally  300-fold.  The  palm  was  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  principal  objects  of 
cultivation.  The  soil  is  rich,  but  there  is 
now  little  cultivation,  the  inhabitants  sub- 
sisting chiefly  upon  dates.  More  than  half 
the  country  is  left  dry  and  waste  from  the 
want  of  a  proper  system  of  irrigation; 
while  the  remaining  half  is  to  a  great  ex- 
tent covered  with  marshes,  owing  to  the 
same  neglect. 

Ctialde'ans,  or  Chal'dees,  appear  in 
Scripture,  until  the  time  of  the  Captivity, 
as  the  people  of  the  country  which  has 
Babylon  for  its  capital,  and  which  is  itself 
termed  Shinar ;  but  in  the  Book  of  Daniel, 
while  this  meaning  is  still  found  (v.  30,  and 
ix.  1),  a  new  sense  shows  itself.  The 
Chaldeans  are  classed  with  the  magicians 
and  astronomers ;  and  evidently  form  a 
sort  of  priest  class,  who  have  a  peculiar 
"tongue"  and  "learning"  (i.  4),  and  are 
consulted  by  the  king  on  religious  sub- 
jects. The  same  variety  appears  in  profane 
writers.  It  appears  that  the  Chaldeans 
{Kaldai  or  Kaldi)  were  in  the  earliest 
times  merely  one  out  of  the  many  Cushite 
tribes  inhabiting  the  great  alluvial  plain 
known  afterwards  as  Chaldaea  or  Babylo- 
nia. Their  special  seat  was  probably  that 
southern  portion  of  the  country  which  is 
found  to  have  so  late  retained  the  name  of 
Chaldaea.  Here  was  Ur  "of  the  Chal- 
dees,"  the  modern  Mugheir,  which  lies 
south  of  the  Euphrates,  near  its  junction 
with  the  Shat-el-llie.  In  process  of  time, 
as  the  Kaldi  grew  in  power,  their  name 
gradually  prevailed  over  those  of  the  other 
tribes  inliabiting  the  country ;  and  by  the 
era  of  the  Jewish  captivity  it  had  begun  to 
be  used  generally  for  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Babylonia.  It  had  come  by  this  time  to 
have  two  senses,  both  ethnic  :  in  the  one  it 
was  the  special  appellative  of  a  particular 
race  to  whom  it  had  belonged  from  the  re- 
motest times,  in  the  other  it  designated  the 
nation  at  large  in  which  this  race  was  pre- 
dominant. It  has  been  observed  above 
that  the  Kaldi  proper  were  a  Cushite  race. 
This  is  proved  by  the  remains  of  their  lan- 
guage, which  closely  resembles  the  QaU» 


CHALDEES 


104 


CHARIOT 


or  ancient  language  of  Ethiopia.  Now  it 
appears  by  the  inscriptions  that  wliile,  both 
in  Assyria  and  in  later  Babylonia,  the 
Shemitic  type  of  speech  prevailed  for  civil 
purposes,  the  ancient  Cushite  dialect  was 
retained,  as  a  learned  language  for  scien- 
tific and  religious  literature.  This  is  no 
doubt  the  "  learning  "  and  the  "  tongue  "  to 
which  reference  is  made  in  the  Book  of 
Daniel  (i.  4).  The  Chaldeans  were  really 
the  learned  class ;  they  were  priests,  magi- 
cians, or  astronomers,  and  in  the  last  of  the 
three  capacities  they  probably  effected  dis- 
coveries of  great  importance.  In  later 
times  they  seem  to  have  degenerated  into 
mere  fortune-tellers. 


Cottumea  of  the  Chaldenni,    (Rawliaion.    From  Ancient 
MoiiumenU.) 

Chaldees.     [Chaldeans.] 

Chalk  Stones.     [Limb.] 

Chamberlain.  Erastus,"  the  cAawiSer- 
lain "  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  was  one  of 
those  whose  salutations  to  the  Roman  Chris- 
tians are  given  at  the  end  of  the  Ep.  ad- 
dressed to  them  (Rom.  xvi.  23).  The 
office  which  he  held  was  apparently  that  of 
public  treasurer,  or  arcarius,  as  the  Vul- 
gate renders  his  title.  These  arcarii  were 
inferior  magistrates,  who  had  the  charge 
of  the  public  chest  (area  pithlica) ,  and  were 
under  the  authority  of  the  senate.  They 
kept  the  accounts  of  the  public  revenues. 
The  office  held  by  Blastus,  "the  king's 
chamberlain,"  was  entirely  different  from 
tills  (Acts  xii.  20).  It  was  a  post  of  hon- 
or which  involved  great  intimacy  and  in- 
fluence with  the  king.  The  margin  of  our 
version  gives  "that  was  over'the  king's 
bedchamber."  For  Chamberlain  as  used 
in  the  O.  T.,  see  Eunuch. 

Chameleon,  the  translation  of  the  He- 
brew c6ach,  which  occurs  in  the  sense  of 
some  kind  of  unclean  animal  in  Lev.  xi.  30. 
Others  suppose  it  to  be  the  lizard,  known 
by  the  name  of  the  "  Monitor  of  the  Nile  " 
(^Monitor  Niloticus,  Grey),  a  large  strong 
reptile  common  in  Egypt  and  other  parts 
of  Africa. 


Chamois,  the  translation  of  the  Hebiew 
zemer  in  Deut.  xiv.  6.  But  the  translation 
is  incorrect ;  for  there  is  no  evidence  that 
the  chamois  has  ever  been  seen  in  Pales- 
tine or  the  Lebanon.  It  is  probable  that 
some  mountain  sheep  is  intended. 

Cha'naan,  the  manner  in  which  the 
word  Canaan  is  spelt  in  the  A.  V.  of  the 
Apocrypha  and  N.  T.  (Jud.  v.  3,  9,  10 ;  Bar. 
iii.  22 ;  Sus.  5G ;  1  Mace.  ix.  37 ;  Acts  vii. 
11,  xiii.  19). 

Chapiter,  the  capital  of  a  pillar ;  also 
possibly  a  roll  moulding  at  the  top  of  a 
building  or  work  of  art,  as  in  the  case  (1) 
of  the  pillars  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Tem- 
ple, and  of  the  two  pillars  called  especially 
Jachin  and  Boaz ;  and  (2)  of  the  lavers  be- 
longing to  the  Temple  (Ex.  xxxviii.  17 ;  1 
K.  vii.  27,  31,  38). 

Char'ashim,  The  Valley  of  ("  ra- 
vine of  craftsmen"),  a  place  mentioned 
twice :  —  1  Chr.  iv.  14,  as  having  been 
founded  or  settled  by  Joab,  a  man  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  and  family  of  Othniel ;  and 
Neh.  xi.  35,»as  being  reinhabited  by  Benja- 
mites  after  the  Captivity.  In  this  passage  it 
is  rendered  "  valley  of  craftsmen." 

Char'chemish,  2  Clir.  xxxv.  20.  [Cab- 

CHEMISH.] 

Charger,  a  shallow  vessel  for  receiving 
water  or  blood,  also  for  presenting  offer- 
ings of  fine  flour  with  oil  (Num.  vii.  79). 
The  daughter  of  IIe?^dia3  brought  the  head 
of  St.  John  the  Bajitist  in  a  charger  (Matt- 
xiv.  8)  :  probably  a  trencher  or  platter. 
[Basin.] 

Chariot,  a  vehicle  used  either  for  war- 
like or  peaceful  purposes,  but  most  com- 
monly the  former.  Of  the  latter  use  the 
following  only  are  probfible  instances  as 
regards  the  Jews,  1  K.  x\iii.  44,  and  as  re- 
gards other  nations,  Gen.  xli.  43,  xlvi.  29 ; 
2  K.  V.  9 ;  Acta  viii.  28.  The  earliest  men- 
tion of  chariots  in  Scripture  is  in  Egypt, 
where  Joseph,  as  a  mark  of  distinction,  was 
placed  in  Pliaraoh's  second  chariot  (Gen. 
xli.  43),  and  later  when  he  went  in  his  own 
chariot  to  meet  his  father  on  his  entrance 
into  Egypt  from  Canaan  (xlvi.  20).  In  the 
funeral  procession  of  Jacob  chariots  also 
formed  a  part,  possibly  by  way  of  escort  or 
as  a  guard  of  honor  (1.  9).  The  next 
mention  of  Egyptian  chariots  is  for  a  war- 
like purpose  (Ex.  xiv.  7).  In  this  point 
of  view  chariots  among  some  nations  of 
antiquity,  as  elephants  among  others,  may 
be  regarded  as  filling  the  place  of  heavy 
artillery  in  modern  times,  so  that  the  mili- 
tary power  of  a  nation  might  be  estimated 
by  the  number  of  its  chariots.  Thus  Pha- 
raoh in  pursuing  Israel  took  with  him  600 
chariots.  The  Canaanites  of  the  valleys 
of  Palestine  were  enabled  to  resist  the  Is- 
raelites successfully  in  o-jscquence  of  the 
number  of  their  chariots  of  iron,  t.  e.  per- 
haps armed  with  iron  scythes  (Josh,  xvii* 


CHAREAN 


105 


CHEMARIMS 


18;  Judg.  i.  19).  Jabin,  king  of  Canaan, 
had  900  chariots  (Judg.  iv.  3).  The  Phi- 
listines in  Saul's  time  had  30,000  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  5).  David  took  from  Hadadezer,  king 
of  Zobah,  1000  chariots  (2  Sam.  viii.  4), 
and  from  the  Syrians  a  little  later  700  (x. 
18),  who,  in  order  to  recover  their  ground, 
collected  32,000  chariots  (1  Chr.  xix.  7). 
Up  to  this  time  the  Israelites  possessed  few- 
er nc  chariots,  partly  no  doubt  in  conse- 
quence of  the  theocratic  prohibition  against 
multiplying  horses,  for  fear  of  intercourse 
with  Egypt,  and  the  regal  despotism  implied 
in  the  possession  of  them  (Deut.  xvii.  16; 
1  Sam.  viii.  11,  12).  But  to  some  extent 
David  (2  Sam.  viii.  4),  and  in  a  much 
greater  degree  Solomon,  broke  through  the 
prohibition.  He  raised,  therefore,  and 
maintained  a  force  of  1400  chariots  (1  K. 
X.  25)  by  taxation  on  certain  cities  agree- 
ably to  Eastern  custom  in  such  matters  (1 
K.  ix.  19,  X.  25).  From  this  time  chariots 
were  regarded  as  among  the  most  important 
arms  of  war,  though  the  supplies  of  them  and 
of  horses  appear  to  have  been  mainly  drawn 
from  Egypt  (1  K.  xxii.  34;  2  K.  ix.  16,  21, 
xiii.  7,  14,  xviii.  24,  xxiii.  30;  Is.  xxxi.  1). 
Most  commonly  two  persons,  and  some- 
times three,  rode  in  the  chariot,  of  whom 
the  third  was  employed  to  carry  the  state 
umbrella  (2  K.  ix.  20,  24;  IK.  xxii.  34; 
Acts  viii.  38).  A  second  chariot  usually 
accompanied  the  king  to  battle,  to  be  used 
in  case  of  necessity  (2  Chr.  xxv.  34).  The 
prophets  allude  frequently  to  chariots  as 
typical  of  power  (Ps.  xx.  7,  civ.  3;  Jer.  li. 
21;  Zech.  vi.  1).  In  the  N.  T.,  the  only 
mention  made  of  a  chariot,  except  in  Rev. 
ix.  9,  is  in  the  case  of  the  Ethiopian  or 
Abyssinian  eunuch  of  Queen  Candace  (Acts 
viii.  28,  29,  38).  Jewish  chariots  were  no 
doubt  imitated  from  Egyptian  models,  if 
not  actually  imported  from  Egypt. 


Arayrian  Chariot. 

Char'ran,  Acts  vii.  2,  4.    [Hakan.] 

Chase.     [Hunting.} 

Che'bar,  a  river  in  the  "  land  of  the 
Chaldeans"  (Ez.  i.  3),  on  the  banks  of 
which  some  of  the  Jews  were  located  at  the 
time  of  the  captivity,  and  where  Ezekiel 
eaw  his  earlier  visions  (Ez.  i.  1,  iii.  15,  23, 
&c.).    It  is  commonly  regarded  as  identi- 


cal with  the  Habor,  or  river  of  Gozan,  to 
which  some  portion  of  the  Israelites  were 
removed  by  the  Assyrians  (2  K.  xvii.  6). 
But  this  is  a  mere  conjecture.  Perhaps 
the  Chebar  of  Ezekiel  is  the  Ndhr  Malcha 
or  Royal  Canal  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  — the 
greatest  of  all  the  cuttings  in  Mesopotamia. 

Che'bel,  one  of  the  singular  topograph- 
ical terms  in  which  the  ancient  Hebrew 
language  abounded,  and  which  give  so 
much  force  and  precision  to  its  records. 
The  ordinary  meaning  of  the  word  Chebel  is 
a  "  rope  "  or  "  cord ; "  but  in  its  topograhpi  • 
cal  sense,  as  meaning  a  "tract"  or  "dis 
trict,"  we  find  it  always  attached  to  the  region 
of  Argob,  which  is  invariably  designated 
by  this,  and  by  no  other  term  (Deut.  iii.  4, 
13,  14;  IK.  iv.  13). 

Chedorlao'mer,  a  king  of  Elam,  in 
the  time  of  Abraham,  who  with  three  other 
chiefs  made  war  upon  the  kings  of  Sodom, 
Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim,  and  Zoar,  and 
reduced  them  to  servitude  (Gen.  xiv.  17). 
The  name  of  a  king  is  found  upon  the 
bricks  recently  discovered  in  Chaldaea, 
which  is  read  Kudar-mapula.  This  man 
has  been  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
Chedorlaomer,  and  the  opinion  is  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  he  is  further  distinguished 
by  a  title  which  may  be  translated  "  Rar- 
ager  of  the  west." 

Cheese  is  mentioned  only  three  times 
in  the  Bible,  and  on  each  occasion  under  a 
different  name  in  the  Hebrew  (Job  x.  10; 
1  Sara.  xvii.  18;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  It  is 
difficult  to  decide  how  far  these  terms  cor- 
respond with  our  notion  of  cheese;  for  they 
simply  express  various  degrees  of  coagula- 
tion. It  may  be  observed  that  cheese  is 
not  at  the  present  day  common  among  the 
Bedouin  Arabs,  butter  being  decidedly  pre- 
ferred; but  there  is  a  substance,  closely 
corresponding  to  those  mentioned  in  1 
Sam.  xvii. ;  2  Sam.  xvii.,  consisting  of 
coagulated  buttermilk,  which  is  dried  until 
it  becomes  quite  hard,  and  is  then  ground : 
the  Arabs  eat  it  mixed  with  butter. 

Che'lal,  Ezr.  X.  30. 

Chel'ltlh,  Ezr.  X.  35. 

Che'lub.  1.  A  man  among  the  descend- 
ants of  Judah,  described  as  the  brother  of 
Shuah  and  the  fother  of  Mechir.  2.  Ezri 
the  son  of  Chelub  was  the  overseer  of 
those  who  "  did  the  work  of  the  field  for 
tillage  of  the  ground,"  one  of  David's 
officers  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  26). 

Chelu'bai,  the  son  of  Hezron,  of  one 
of  the  chief  families  of  Judah.  The  name 
occurs  in  1  Chr.  ii.  9  only,  and  from  a  com- 
parison of  this  passage  with  ii.  18  and  42, 
it  would  appear  to  be  but  another  form  of 
the  name  Caleb. 

Chem'arims,  The.  This  word  only 
occurs  in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.  in  Zeph.  i. 
4.  In  2  K.  xxiii.  5  it  is  rendered  "idola- 
trous priests,"  and  in  Hos.  x.  6  "  priests,* 


CHEMOSH- 


106 


CHERUB 


and  in  both  cases  "  chemarim  "  is  given  in 
the  margin.  So  far  as  regards  the  Hebrew 
usage  of  the  word  it  is  exclusively  applied 
to  the  priests  of  the  false  worship,  and  was 
in  all  probability  a  term  of  foreign  origin. 

Che'mosh,  the  national  deity  of  the 
Mosabites  (Num.  xxi.  29 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  7,  13, 
46).  In  Judg.  xi.  24,  he  also  appears  as 
the  god  of  the  Ammonites.  Solomon  in- 
troduced, and  Josiah  abolished,  the  wor- 
ship of  Chemosh  at  Jerusalem  (1  K.  xi.  7 ; 
2  K.  xxiii.  13).  Jerome  identifies  him  with 
Baal-Peor  ;  others  with  Baal-Zebub,  on 
etymological  grounds ;  others  with  Mars, 
and  others  with  Saturn. 

Chena'anah.  1.  Son  of  Bilhan,  son 
of  Jediael,  son  of  Benjamin,  head  of  a 
Benjamite  house  (1  Chr.  vii.  10),  probably 
of  the  family  of  the  Bclaites.  [J3ela.]  2. 
Father,  or  ancestor,  of  Zedekiah  the  false 
prophet  (1  K.  xxii.  11,  24;  2  Chr.  xviii.  10, 
23). 

Chen'ani,  one  of  the  Levites  who  as- 
sisted at  the  solemn  purification  of  the  peo- 
ple under  Ezra  (Neh.  ix.  4). 

Chenani'an,  chief  of  the  Levites, 
when  David  carried  the  ark  to  Jerusalem 
(1  Chr.  XV.  22,  xxvi.  29). 

Che'phar-Haam'moiiai,  "  Hamlet 
of  the  Ammonites ;  "  a  place  mentioned 
among  the  towns  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii. 
24).  No  trace  of  it  has  yet  been  discov- 
ered. 

Chephi'rah,  "  the  hamlet ; "  one  of  the 
four  cities  of  the  Gibeonites  (Josh.  ix.  17), 
named  afterwards  among  the  towns  of  Ben- 
jamin, with  liamah,  Beeroth,  and  Mizpeh 
(xviii.  2G).  The  men  of  Clicphirah  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezr. 
ii.  25;  Neh.  vii.  29). 

Clie'ran,  one  of  the  sons  of  Dishon  the 
Ho  rite  "duke"  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26;  1  Chr.  i. 
41). 

Clier'etllims,  Ez.  xxv.  16.  The  plural 
form  of  the  word  elsewhere  rendered  Cheb- 
ETHiTES ;  which  see. 

Cher'ethites  and  Pel'ethites,  the 
life-guards  of  King  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  18, 
XV.  18,  XX.  7,  23 ;  1  K.  i.  38,  44 ;  1  Chr 
xviii.  17).  These  titles  are  commonly  said 
to  signify  "  executioners  and  couriers."  It 
is  plain  that  these  royal  guards  were  em- 
ployed as  executioners  (2  K.  xi.  4),  and  as 
couriers  (1  K.  xiv.  27).  But  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  they  may  have  been  foreign 
mercenaries.  They  are  connected  with  the 
Gittites,  a  foreign  tribe  (2  Sara.  xv.  21) ; 
and  the  Cherethites  are  mentioned  as  a  na- 
tion (1  Sam.  XXX.  14),  dwelling  apparently 
on  the  coast,  and  therefore  probably  Philis- 
tines, of  wliicli  name  Pelethites  may  be 
only  another  form. 

Che'iith,  The  Brook,  the  torrent-bed 
or  wady  in  which  Elijah  hid  himself  during 
the  early  part  of  the  three  years'  drought 
(1  K.  xvii.  3,  5).    The  position  of  the 


Cherith  has  been  much  disputed.  The 
argument  from  probability  is  in  favor  of 
the  Cherith  being  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  and 
the  name  may  possibly  be  discovered  there. 

Cher'ub,  apparently  a  place  in  Babylo- 
nia from  which  some  persons  of  doubtful 
extraction  returned  to  Judaea  with  Zerub- 
babel (Ezr.  ii.  59;  Neh.  vii.  61). 

Cher'ub,  Cher'ubim.  The  symboli- 
cal figure  so  called  was  a  composite  crea- 
ture-form which  finds  a  parallel  in  the 
rehgious  insignia  of  Assyria,  Egypt,  and 
Persia,  e.  g.  the  sphinx,  the  winged  bulls 
and  lions  of  Nineveh,  &c.     The  Hebrew 


The  WiDged  Female  Sphinx.    (WilklDMm.) 

idea  seems  to  limit  the  number  of  the  cher- 
ubim. A  pair  (Ex.  xxv.  18,  &c.)  were 
placed  on  the  mercy-seat  of  the  ark :  a 
pair  of  colossal  size  overshadowed  it  in 
Solomon's  Temple  with  the  canopy  of  their 
contiguously  extended  wings.  Ezekiel,  i. 
4  -14,  speaks  of  four,  and  similarly  the  apoc- 
alyptic "  beasts  "  (Rev.  iv.  G)  are  four.  — 
So  at  the  front  or  east  of  Eden  were  post- 
ed "  the  cherubim,"  as  though  the  whole  of 
some  recognized  number.  The  cherubim 
are  placed  beneath  the  actual  presence  of 
Jehovah,  whose  moving  throne  they  appear 
to  draw  (Gen.  iii.  24 ;  Ez.  i.  5,  25,  2Q,  x.  1, 
2,  6,  7;  Is.  vi.  2,  3,  6).  The  glory  sym- 
bolizing that  presence  which  eye  cannot  see 
rests  or  rides  on  them,  or  one  of  them, 
thence  dismounts  to  the  temple  threshold, 
and  then  departs  and  mounts  again  (Ez.  x. 
4,  18;  conip.  ix.  3;  Ps.  xviii.  10).  There 
is  in  them  an  entire  absence  of  human 
sympathy,  and  even  on  the  mercy-seat  they 
probably  appeared  not  merely  as  admiring 
and  wondering  (1  Pet.  i.  12),  but  as  guardi- 
ans of  the  covei.ant  and  avengers  of  its 
breach.  Those  on  the  ark  were  to  be 
placed  with  wings  .stretched  forth,  one  at 
each  end  of  the  mercy-seat,  and  to  be  made 
"  of  the  mercy-seat."  They  are  called  the 
cherubim  of  glory  (Heb.  ix.  5),  as  on  them 
the  glory,  when  visible,  rested.  They 
were  anointed  with  the  holy  oil,  like  the 
ark  itself,  and  the  other  sacred  furniture. 
Their  wings  were  to  be  stretched  upwards, 
and  their  faces  "  towards  each  other  and 
towards  the  mercy-seat."  It  is  remarkable 
that  with  such  precise  directions  as  to  their 
position,  attitude,  and  material,  nothing, 


CHE SALON 


107 


CHILDllEN 


save  that  they  were  winged,  is  said  con- 
cerning their  shape.  On  the  whole  it  seems 
likely  that  the  word  "  cherub  "  meant  not 
only  the  composite  creature-form,  of  which 
the  man,  lion,  ox,  and  eagle  were  the  ele- 
msnts,  but,  further,  some  peculiar  and 
mystical  form,  which  Ezekiel,  being  a 
priest,  would  know  and  recognize  as  "  the 
face  of  a  chercb  "  (Ez.  x.  14),  but  which 
was  kept  secret  from  all  others ;  and  such 
probably  were  those  on  the  ark,  though 
those  on  the  hangings  and  panels  might  be 
of  the  popular  device.  What  this  peculiar 
cherubic  form  was  is  perhaps  an  impenetra- 
ble mystery.  It  might  well  be  the  symbol 
of  Ilim  whom  none  could  behold  and  live. 
For  as  symbols  of  Divine  attributes,  e.  g. 
omnipotence  and  omniscience,  not  as  rep- 
resentations of  actual  beings,  the  cheru- 
bim should  be  regarded. 

Ch.es 'alon,  a  place  named  as  one  of  the 
landmarks  on  the  west  part  of  the  north 
boundary  of  Judali  (Josh.  xv.  10),  probably 
Ktsla,  about  six  mUes  to  the  N.  E.  of  Ain- 
shems,  on  the  western  mountains  bf  Judah. 

Clie'sed,  fourth  son  of  Nahor  (Gen. 
xxii.  22). 

Che'sil,  a  town  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Palestine,  named  with  Hormah  and  Ziklag 
(Josh.  XV.  30).  In  Josh.  xix.  4  the  name 
Bethul  occurs  in  place  of  it,  whence  we 
may  conclude  that  Chesil  was  au  early 
variation  of  Bethul. 

Chest.  By  this  word  are  translated  in 
the  A.  V.  two  distinct  Hebrew  terms :  1. 
Ar6n  /  this  is  invariably  used  for  the  Ark 


Egyptian  Cheit  or  Box  from  Thebea.    ( Wilkinaon.) 

of  the  Covenant,  and  with  two  exceptions, 
for  that  only.  The  two  exceptions  alluded 
to  are  (a)  the  "  coflSn"  in  which  the  bones 
of  Joseph  were  carried  from  Egypt  (Gen.  1. 
26) ;  and  (jb)  the  "  chest "  in  which  Jehoiada 
the  priest  collected  the  alms  for  the  repairs 
of  the  Temple  (2  K.  xii.  9, 10 ;  2  Chr.  xxiv. 
8-11).  Of  the  former  the  accompanying 
engraving  is  probably  a  near  representa- 
tion. 2.  gendzim,  "  chests  "  (Ez.  xxvii. 
2i  only). 

Chestnut-tree   (Heb.  'armdn  :   Gen. 
XXX.  37 ;  Ezek.  xxxi.  8)  :  it  is  spoken  of  as 


one  of  the  glories  of  Assyria,  for  whicli  the 
"plane-tree"  ought  probably  to  have  been 
substituted.  The  context  of  the  passages 
where  the  word  occurs  indicates  some  tree 
which  thrives  best  in  low  and  rather  moist 
situations,  whereas  the  chestnut-tree  is  a 
tree  which  prefers  dry  and  hilly  ground. 

Chesill'loth  (lit.  "  the  loins  "),  one  of 
the  towns  of  Issachar,  deriving  its  name, 
perhaps,  from  its  situation  on  the  slope  of 
some  mountain  (Josh.  xix.  18).  From  its 
position  in  the  lists  it  appears  to  be  between 
Jezreel  and  Shunem  {Salam). 

Chet'tiim,  l  Mace.  i.  1.     [Chittim.] 
Che'zib,  a  name  which  occurs  but  once 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  5),  probably  the   same  as 

ACHZIB. 

Chidon,  the  name  which  in  1  Chr.  xiii. 
9  is  given  to  the  threshing-floor  at  which 
the  accident  to  the  ark  took  place.  In  the 
parallel  account  in  2  Sam.  vi.  the  name  is 
given  as  Nachon. 

Children.  The  blessing  of  offspring, 
but  especially  of  the  male  sex,  is  highly 
valued  among  all  Eastern  nations,  while  the 
absence  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  severest 
punishments  (Gen.  xvi.  2;  Deut.  vii.  14; 
1  Sam.  i.  6 ;  2  Sam.  vi.  23 ;  2  K.  iv.  14 ;  Is. 
xlvii.  9 ;  Jer.  xx.  15 ;  Ps.  cxxvii.  3,  5). 
As  soon  as  the  child  was  born,  it  was  washed 
in  a  bath,  rubbed  with  salt,  and  wrai)ped  in 
swaddling  clothes.  Arab  mothers  some- 
times rub  their  children  with  earth  or  sand 
(Ez.  xvi.  4 ;  Job  xxxviii.  9 ;  Luke  ii.  T). 
On  the  8th  day  the  rite  of  circumcision,  m 
the  case  of  a  boy,  was  performed,  and  a 
name  given,  sometimes,  but  not  usually, 
the  same  as  that  of  the  father,  and  gener- 
ally conveying  some  special  meaning.  At 
the  end  of  a  certain  time  the  mother  was  to 
make  an  offering  of  purification  of  a  lamb 
as  a  burnt-offering,  and  a  pigeon  or  turtle- 
dove as  a  sin-offering,  or,  in  case  of  pover- 
ty, two  doves  or  pigeons,  one  as  a  burnt- 
offering,  the  other  as  a  sin-offering  (Lev. 
xii.  1-8;  Luke  ii.  22).  The  period  of 
nursing  appears  to  have  been  sometimes 
prolonged  to  three  years  (Is.  xlix.  15;  2 
Mace.  vii.  27).  Nurses  were  employed  in 
cases  of  necessity  (Ex.  ii.  9 ;  Gen.  xxiv. 
59,  XXXV.  8 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  4 ;  2  K.  xi.  2 ;  2 
Chr.  xxii.  11).  The  time  of  weaning  was 
an  occasion  of  rejoicing  (Gen.  xxi.  8). 
Arab  children  wear  little  or  no  clothing  for 
four  or  five  years  :  the  young  of  both  sexes 
are  usually  carried  by  the  mothers  on  the 
hip  or  the  shoulder,  a  custom  to  which 
allusion  is  made  by  Isaiah  (Is.  xlix.  22,  Ixvi. 
12).  Both  boys  and  girls  in  their  early- 
years  were  under  the  care  of  the  women 
(Prov.  xxxi.  1).  Afterwards  the  boys  were 
taken  by  the  father  under  his  charge. 
Those  in  wealthy  families  had  tutors  of 
governors,  who  were  sometimes  eunuch* 
(Num.  xi.  12;  2  K.  x.  1,  5;  Is.  xlix.  23; 
Gal.  iii.  24;  Esth.  ii.  7).    Daughters  uau- 


CmLEAB 


108 


CHRISTIAN 


ally  remained  in  the  women's  apartments 
till  marnage,  or,  among  the  poorer  classes, 
were  employed  in  liousehold  work  (Lev. 
xxi.  9i  Num.  xii.  14;  1  Sam.ix.  11;  Prov. 
xxxi.  19,  23;  Ecclus.  vii.  25,  xlii.  9;  2 
Mace.  iii.  19).  The  firstborn  male  chil- 
dren were  regarded  as  devoted  to  God,  and 
were  to  be  redeemed  by  an  offering  (Ex. 
xiii.  13;  Num.  xviii.  15;  Luke  ii.  22). 
The  authority  of  parents,  especially  of  the 
father,  over  children  was  very  great,  as 
was  also  the  reverence  enjoined  by  the  law 
to  be  paid  to  parents.  The  disobedient 
child,  the  striker  or  reviler  of  a  parent, 
was  liable  to  capital  punishment,  though 
not  at  the  independent  will  of  the  parent. 
The  inheritance  was  divided  equally  be- 
tween all  the  sons  except  the  eldest,  who 
received  a  double  portion  (Deut.  xxi.  17; 
Gen.  XXV.  31,  xlix.  3;  1  Chr.  v.  1,2;  Judg. 
xi.  2,  7).  Daughters  had  by  right  no  por- 
tion in  the  inheritance ;  but  if  a  man  had 
no  son,  his  inheritance  passed  to  his  daugh- 
tei-s,  who  were  forbidden  to  marry  out  of 
their  father's  tribe  (Num.  xxvii.  1,  8, 
xxxvi.  2,  8). 

Chil'eab.    [Abioah,.] 

Chil'ion,  the  son  of  Elimelech  and 
Naomi,  and  husband  of  Orpah  (Ruth  i.  2-5, 
iv.  9).  He  is  described  as  "  an  Ephrathite 
of  Bethlehem-judah." 

Ghil'mad,  a  place  or  country  mentioned 
in  conjunction  with  Sheba  and  Asshur  (Ez. 
xxvii.  23). 

Chixa'liaill,  a  follower,  and  probably  a 
son,  of  Barzillai  the  Gileadite,  who  returned 
from  beyond  Jordan  with  David  (2  Sam. 
xix.  37,  38,  40).  David  appears  to  have 
bestowed  on  him  a  possession  at  Bethle- 
hem, on  which,  in  later  times,  an  inn  or 
Khan  WHS  standing  (Jer.  xli.  17). 

Chim'han.    [Chimham.] 

Chin'rieretll,  accurately  Cinnareth,  a 
fortified  city  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (Josh, 
xix.  35  only),  of  which  no  trace  is  found  in 
later  writers,  and  no  remains  by  travellers. 

Chin'nereth,  Sea  of  (Num.  xxxiv.  il ; 
Josh.  xiii.  27),  the  inland  sea,  which  is  most 
familiarly  known  to  us  as  the  "  lake  of 
Gennesareth."  It  seems  likely  that  Chin- 
nereth  was  an  ancient  Canaanite  name 
existing  long  prior  to  the  Israelite  conquest. 

Chin'neroth.    [Chinnereth.] 

Chi'os.  The  position  of  this  island  in 
reference  to  the  neighboring  islands  and 
coasts  could  hardly  be  better  described  than 
in  the  detailed  account  of  St.  Paul's  return 
Toyage  from  Troas  to  Caesarea  (Acts  xx. 
xxi.).  Having  come  from  Assos  to  Mity- 
lene  in  Lesbos  (xx.  14),  he  arrived  the  next 
day  over  against  Chios  (v.  15),  the  next  day 
at  Saraos  and  tarried  at  Trogyllium  (ib.)  ; 
and  the  following  day  at  Miletus  (ib.)  : 
thence  he  went  by  Cos  and  Rhodes  to  Patara 
(xxi.  1).  Chios  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  a  strait  of  only  5  miles.    Its  length 


is  about  32  miles,  and  in  breadth  it  varies 
from  8  to  18. 

Chis'leu.     [Months.] 

Chis'lon,  father  of  Elidad,  the  prince  of 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  chosen  to  assist  in 
the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan  among 
the  tribes  (Num.  xxxiv.  21). 

Chis'loth-Ta'bor,  a  place  to  the  bor- 
der of  which  reached  the  border  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  12).  It  may  be  the  village /A;s<W, 
which  is  now  standing  about  two  miles  and 
a  half  to  the  west  of  Mount  Tabor. 

Chit'tim,  Kit'tim,  a  fomily  or  race 
descended  from  Javan  (Gen.  x.  4 ;  1  Chr.  i. 
7;  A.  V.  Kittim),  closely  related  to  the 
Dodanim,  and  remotely  to  the  other  de- 
scendants of  Javan.  Cliittim  is  frequently 
noticed  in  Scripture  :  Balaam  predicts  that 
a  fleet  should  thence  proceed  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  Assyria  (Num.  xxiv.  24)  :  in  Is.  xxiii. 
1,  12,  itappears  as  the  resort  of  the  fleets  of 
Tyre  :  in  Jer.  ii.  10,  the  "  isles  of  Chittim** 
are  to  the  far  west,  as  Kcdar  to  the  east  of 
Palestine  :  the  Tyrians  procured  thence  the 
cedar  or  box-wood,  which  they  inlaid  with 
ivory  for  the  decks  of  their  vessels  (Ez. 
xxvii.  6)  :  in  Dan.  xi.  30,  "  ships  of  Chittim" 
advance  to  the  south  to  meet  the  king  of  the 
north.  At  a  later  period  we  find  Alexander 
the  Great  described  as  coming  from  the  land 
of  Chettiim  (1  Mace.  i.  1),  and  Perseus  as 
king  of  the  Citims  (1  Mace.  viii.  5).  Joee- 
phus  considered  Cyprus  as  the  original  seat 
of  the  Chittim,  adducing  as  evidence  the 
name  of  its  principal  town,  Citium,  Ciiium 
was  without  doubt  a  Phoenician  town. 
From  the  town  the  name  extended  to  the 
whole  island  of  Cyprus,  which  was  occupied 
by  Phoenician  colonies.  The  name  Chittim, 
which  in  the  first  instance  had  applied  to 
Phoenicians  only,  passed  over  to  the  islands 
which  they  had  occupied,  and  thence  to  the 
people  who  succeeded  the  Phoenicians  hi 
the  occupation  of  them.  Thus  in  Mace., 
Chittim  evidently  =  Macedonia. 

Chi'un.    [Remphan.] 

Chlo'e,  a  woman  mentioned  in  1  Cor. 
L  11. 

Chora'shan,  one  of  the  places  in  which 
"  David  and  his  men  were  wont  to  haunt," 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  30).  It  may,  perhaps,  be 
identified  with  Ashan  of  Simeon. 

Ch.ora'zin,  one  of  the  cities  in  which  our 
Lord's  mighty  works  were  done,  but  named 
only  in  His  denunciation  (Matt.  xi.  21 ; 
Luke  X.  13).  St.  Jerome  describes  it  as  on 
the  shore  of  the  lake,  two  miles  from  Ca- 
pernaum, but  its  modern  site  is  uncertain. 

Choze'ba.  The  "men  of  Chozeba" 
are  named  (1  Chr.  iv.  22)  amongst  tl  e  de- 
scendants of  Shelah  the  son  of  Judah. 
Chezib  and  Chozeba  are  perhaps,  the  same 
as  AcHziB. 

Christ.    [Jksus.] 

Christian.  The  disciples,  we  are  told 
(Acts  xi.  20),  were  first  called  Christians  at 


CHEONICLES 


109 


CHEONICLES 


Antioch  on  the  Orontes,  somewhere  about 
A.  u.  43.  The  name,  and  the  place  where 
it  was  conferred,  are  both  significant.  It  is 
clear  that  the  appellation  "Christian"  was 
one  which  could  not  have  been  assumed 
by  the  Christians  themselves.  They  were 
known  to  each  other  as  brethren  of  one 
family,  as  disciples  of  the  same  Master,  as 
believers  in  the  same  faith,  and  as  distin- 
guished by  the  same  endeavors  after  holi- 
ness and  consecration  of  life  ;  and  so  were 
called  breih7-en  (Acts  xv.  1,  23;  1  Cor.  vii. 
12) ,  disciples  (Acts  ix.  26,  xi.  29),  believers 
(Act»v.  14),  saints  (B,om.  viii.  27,  xv.  25). 
But  the  outer  world  could  know  nothing  of 
the  true  force  and  significance  of  these 
terms.  To  the  contemptuous  Jew  they 
were  Nazarenes  and  Galilaeans,  names 
which  carried  with  them  the  infamy  and 
turbulence  of  the  places  whence  they 
sprung,  and  from  whence  nothing  good  and 
no  prophet  might  come.  The  Jews  could 
add  nothing  to  the  scorn  which  these  names 
expressed,  and  had  they  endeavored  to  do 
80  they  would  not  have  defiled  the  glory  of 
their  Messiah  by  applying  his  title  to  those 
whom  they  could  not  but  regard  as  the  fol- 
lowers of  a  pretender.  The  name  "  Chris; 
tian,"  then,  which,  in  the  only  other  cases 
where  it  appears  in  the  N.  T.  (Acts  xxvi. 
28;  1  Pet.  iv.  16),  is  used  contemptuously, 
could  not  have  been  applied  by  the  early 
disciples  to  themselves,  nor  could  it  have 
come  to  them  from  their  own  nation  the 
Jews ;  it  must,  therefore,  have  been  im- 
posed upoh  them  by  the  Gentile  world,  and 
no  place  could  have  so  appropriately  given 
rise  to  it  as  Antioch,  where  the  first  Church 
was  planted  among  the  heathen.  Its  inhab- 
itants were  celebrated  for  their  wit  and  a 
propensity  for  conferring  nicknames.  The 
Emperor  Julian  himself  was  not  secure 
from  their  jests.  ApoUonius  of  Tyana  was 
driven  from  the  city  by  the  insults  of  the 
inhabitants.  Their  wit,  however,  was  often 
harmless  enough ;  and  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  name  "  Christian"  of 
itself  was  intended  as  a  term  of  scurrility 
or  abuse,  though  it  would  naturally  be  used 
with  contempt.  Suidas  says  the  name  was 
given  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  when  Peter 
appointed  Evodius  bishop  of  Antioch,  and 
they  who  were  formerly  called  Nazarenes 
and  Galilaeans  had  their  name  changed  to 
Christians. 

Chronicles,  First  and  Second 
Books  of,  the  name  originally  given  to 
the  record  made  by  the  appointed  histori- 
ographers in  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judah.  In  the  LXX.  these  books  are 
called  Paralipomena  (i.  e.  things  omitted), 
which  is  understood  as  meaning  that  they 
are  supplementary  to  the  books  of  Kings. 
The  Vulgate  retains  both  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  name  in  Latin  characters,  Dibre 
ja/mrnim,  or  hajamim,  and  Paralipomenon. 


The  constant  tradition  of  the  J.*W8  is  that 
these  books  were  for  the  most  pait  compiled 
by  Ezra.  In  fact,  the  internal  evidence  as 
to  the  time  when  the  book  of  Chronicles  was 
compiled,  seems  to  tally  remarkably  with 
the  tradition  concerning  its  authorship.  As 
regards  the  plan  of  the  book,  of  which  the 
book  of  Ezra  is  a  continuation,  forming  one 
work,  it  becomes  apparent  immediately  we 
consider  it  as  the  compilation  of  Ezra  or 
some  one  nearly  contemporary  with  him. 
One  of  the  greatest  difiiculties  connected 
with  the  captivity  and  the  return  must  have 
been  the  maintenance  of  that  genealogical 
distribution  of  the  lands  which  yet  was  a 
vital  point  of  the  Jewish  economy.  Another 
difficulty  intimately  connected  with  the 
former  was  the  maintenance  of  the  temple 
services  at  Jerusalem.  This  could  only  be 
effected  by  the  residence  of  the  priests  and 
Levites  in  Jerusalem  in  the  order  of  their 
courses  :  and  this  residence  was  only  prac- 
ticable in  case  of  the  payment  of  the 
appointed  tithes,  first-fruits,  and  other 
offerings.  But  then  again  the  registers  of 
the  Levitical  genealogies  were  necessary, 
in  order  that  it  might  be  known  who  were 
entitled  to  such  and  such  allowances,  as 
porters,  as  singers,  as  priests,  and  so  on ; 
because  all  these  offices  went  by  families ; 
and  again  the  payment  of  the  tithes,  first- 
fruits,  &c.,  was  dependent  upon  the  different 
families  of  Israel  being  established  each  in 
his  inheritance.  Obviously  therefore  one 
of  the  most  pressing  wants  of  the  Jewish 
community  after  their  return  from  Babylon 
would  be  trusty  genealogical  records.  But 
further,  not  only  had  Zerubbabel,  and  after 
him  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  labored  most 
earnestly  to  restore  the  temple  and  the  pub- 
lic worship  of  God  there  to  the  condition  it 
had  been  in  under  the  kings  of  Judah,  but 
it  appears  clearly  from  their  policy,  and 
from  the  language  of  the  contemporary 
prophets,  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  that  they 
had  it  much  at  heart  to  re-infuse  something 
of  national  life  and  spirit  into  the  heart  of 
the  people,  and  to  make  them  feel  that  they 
were  still  the  inheritors  of  God's  covenant- 
ed mercies,  and  that  the  captivity  had  only 
temporarily  interrupted,  not  dried  up,  the 
stream  of  God's  favor  to  their  nation. 
Now  nothing  could  more  effectually  aid 
these  pious  and  patriotic  designs  than  set- 
ting before  the  people  a  compendious 
history  of  the  kingdom  of  David,  which 
should  embrace  a  full  account  of  its  pros- 
perity, should  trace  the  sins  which  led  to 
its  overthrow,  should  carry  the  thread 
through  the  period  of  the  captivity,  and 
continue  it  as  it  were  unbroken  on  the 
other  side;  and  those  passages  in  their 
former  history  would  be  especially  impor- 
tant which  exhibited  their  greatest  and  best 
kings  as  engaged  in  building  or  restoring 
the  temple,  in  reforming  aU  corruptions  m 


CHRONOLOGY 


110 


CHURCH 


reli^on,  and  zealously  regulating  the  ser- 
vices of  the  house  of  God.  As  regards  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  or  Samaria,  seeing  it  had 
utterly  and  hopelessly  passed  away,  and 
that  the  existing  inhabitants  were  among  the 
bitterest  "  adversaries  of  Judahand  Benja- 
min," it  would  naturally  engage  very  little 
of  the  compiler's  attention.  These  consid- 
erations explain  exactly  the  plan  and  scope 
of  that  historical  work  which  consists  of  the 
two  books  of  Chronicles  and  the  book  of 
Ezra.  For  after  having  in  the  first  eight 
chapters  given  the  genealogical  divisions 
and  settlements  of  the  various  tribes,  the 
compiler  marks  distinctly  his  own  age  and 
his  own  purpose,  by  informing  us  in  ch.  ix. 
1  of  the  disturbance  of  those  settlements  by 
the  Babylonish  captivity,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing verses,  of  the  partial  restoration  of 
them  at  the  return  from  Babylon  (2-24) ; 
andthajt  this  list  refers  to  the  families  who 
had  returned  from  Babylon  is  clear,  not 
only  from  the  context,  but  from  its  reinser- 
tion, Neh.  xi.  3-22,  with  additional  matter 
evidently  extracted  from  the  public  archives, 
and  relating  to  times  subsequent  to  the 
return  from  Babylon,  extending  to  Neh.  xii. 
27,  where  Nehemiah's  narrative  is  again 
resumed  in  continuance  with  Neh.  xi.  2. 
Having  thus  shown  the  re-establishment  of 
the  returned  families,  each  in  their  own 
inheritance  according  to  the  houses  of  their 
fathers,  the  compiler  proceeds  to  the  other 
part  of  his  plan,  which  is  to  give  a  continu- 
ous history  af  the  kingdom  of  Judah  from 
David  to  his  own  times,  introduced  by  the 
closing  scene  of  Saul's  life  (ch.  x.),  which 
introduction  is  itself  prefaced  by  a  geneal- 
ogy of  the  house  of  Saul  (ix.  35-44).  As 
regards  the  materials  used  by  Ezra,  they 
are  not  difficult  to  discover.  The  geneal- 
ogies are  obviously  transcribed  from  some 
register,  in  which  were  preserved  the 
genealogies  of  the  tribes  and  families  drawn 
up  at  different  times  ;  while  the  history  is 
mainly  drawn  from  the  same  documents  as 
those  used  in  the  Books  of  Kings.  [Bongs, 
Books  of.J 

Chronology.  By  this  term  we  under- 
stand the  technical  and  historical  chronol- 
ogy of  the  Jews  and  their  ancestors  from 
the  earliest  time  to  the  close  of  the  New 
Testament  Canon,  i.  Technical  Chro- 
NOLOQY.  —  The  technical  part  of  Hebrew 
chronology  presents  great  difficulties,  ii. 
Historical  Chronology.  —  The  histori- 
cal part  of  Hebrew  chronology  is  not  less 
difficult  than  the  technical.  The  informa- 
tion in  the  Bible  is  indeed  direct  rather 
than  inferential,  although  there  is  very  im- 
portant evidence  of  the  latter  kind,  but  the 
present  state  of  the  numbers  makes  abso- 
lute certainty  in  many  cases  impossible. 
Three  principal  systems  of  Biblical  Chro- 
nology have  been  founded,  which  may  be 
termed  the  Long  System,  the  Short,  and 


the  Rabbinical.  There  is  a  fourth,  which, 
although  an  offshoot  in  part  of  the  last,  can 
scarcely  be  termed  biblical,  inasmuch  as  it 
depends  for  the  most  part  upon  theories, 
not  only  independent  of,  but  repugnant  to 
the  Bible  :  this  last  is  at  present  peculiar  to 
Baron  Bunsen.  The  principal  advocates 
of  the  Long  Chronology  are  Jackson,  Hales, 
and  Des-Vignoles.  Of  the  Short  Chronol- 
ogy Ussher  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
able  advocate.  The  Rabbinical  Chronology 
accepts  the  biblical  numbers,  but  makes  the 
most  arbitrary  corrections.  For  the  date  of 
the  Exodus  it  has  been  virtually  accepted 
by  Bunsen,  Lepsius,  and  Lord  A.  Hervey. 


Creation 

Flood 

Abram  leaves  Haran.. 

Exodus 

Foundation  of  Solo-  J 

nion's  Temple.  .  .  \ 
Destruction  of  Solo-  ( 

mon'a  Temple.  .  .  < 


B.C.  B.C. 

31.W;3170 
2078|20!a 
1648  1593 
1027  1014 


400t  3983  (Adam)  cir.  aO/WO 
2»48  2327  (Noah)  cir.  10,000 
1921  1961 

1491|1531  1320 

1012,1012  100* 


The  numbers  given  by  the  LXX.  for  the 
antediluvian  patriarchs  would  place  the 
creation  of  Adam  2262  yrs.  before  the  end 
of  the  Flood,  or  b.  c.  cir.  5361  or  5421. 

Chrysolite,  one  of  the  precious  stones 
in  the  foundation  of  the  heavenly  Jerusa- 
lem (Rev.  xxi.  20).  It  has  been  already 
stated  [Beryl]  that  the  chrysolite  of  the 
ancients  is  identical  with  the  modern  Ori- 
ental topaz,  the  tarshish  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible. 

Chrysoprase  occurs  only  in  Rev.  xxi. 
20.  The  true  chrysoprase  is  sometimes 
found  in  antique  Egyptian  jewelry  set  alter- 
nately with  bits  of  lapis-lazuli ;  it  is  not  im- 
probable therefore  that  this  is  the  stone 
which  was  the  tenth  in  the  walls  of  the 
heavenly  Jerusalem. 

Chub,  the  name  of  a  people  in  alliance 
with  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
(Ez.  XXX.  5),  and  probably  of  Northern  Af- 
rica, or  of  the  lands  near  Egypt  to  the  S. 

Chain,  a  city  of  Hadadezer  (1  Chr.  xviii. 
8),  called  Berothai  in  2  Sam.  viii.  8. 

Church.  I.  The  derivation  of  the  word 
Church  is  uncertain.  It  is  generally  said 
to  be  derived  from  the  Greek  kuriakon 
(^xvQiaxuv),  "  belonging  to  the  Lord."  But 
the  derivation  has  been  too  hastily  assumed. 
It  is  probably  connected  with  kirk,  the 
Latin  circus,  circulus,  the  Greek  kuklos 
(xi'xAoe).  II.  Ecclesia(ixxXyiala),  the  Greois. 
word  for  Church,  originally  meant  an  as- 
sembly called  out  by  the  magistrate,  or  by 
legitimate  authority.  This  is  tlie  ordinary 
classical  sense  of  the  word.  But  it  throws 
no  light  on  the  nature  of  the  institution  so 
designated  in  the  New  Testament.  For  to 
tlie  writers  of  the  N.  T.  the  word  had  now 


CHURCH 


111 


CHURCH 


lost  its  primary  signification,  and  was  either 
used  generally  for  any  meeting  (Acts  xix. 
82),  or  more  particularly,  it  denoted  (1) 
the  religious  assemblies  of  the  Jews  (Deut. 
iv.  10,  xviii.  IG)  ;  (2)  the  whole  assembly 
or  congregation  of  the  Israelitish  people 
(Acts  vii.  38;  Heb.  ii.  12;  Ps.  xxii.  22; 
Deut.  xxxi.  30).  It  was  in  this  last  sense 
that  the  word  was  adopted  and  applied  by 
tlie  writers  of  the  N.  T.  to  the  Christian 
congregation.  The  chief  difference  be- 
tween the  words  "  ecclesia"  and  "  church," 
would  probably  consist  in  this,  that  "  eccle- 
sia "  primarily  signified  the  Christian  body, 
and  secondarily  the  place  of  assembly, 
wliile  the  first  signification  of  "church" 
was  the  place  of  assembly,  which  imparted 
its  name  to  the  body  of  worshippers.  III. 
The  Church  as  described  in  the  Gospels.  — 
The  word  occurs  only  twice.  Each  time 
in  St.  Matthew  (Matt.  xvi.  18,  "On  this 
rock  will  I  build  ray  Church;"  xviii.  17, 
"Tell  it  unto  the  Church  ").  In  every  other 
case  it  is  spoken  of  as  "  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  "  by  St.  Matthew,  and  as  "  the  king- 
dom of  God "  by  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke. 
St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St.  John,  never 
use  the  expression  "  kingdom  of  heaven." 
St.  John  once  uses  the  phrase  "kingdom 
of  God"  (iii.  3).  St.  Matthew  occasion- 
ally speaks  of  "the  kingdom  of  God"  (vi. 
33,  xxi.  31,  43),  and  sometimes  simply  of 
"the  kingdom"  (iv.  23,  xiii.  19,  xxiv.  14). 
In  xiii.  41  and  xvi.  28,  it  is  "  the  Son  of 
Man's  kingdom."  In  xx.  21,  "  thy  king- 
dom," i.  e.  Christ's.  In  the  one  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew  the  Church  is  spoken  of  no 
less  than  thirty-six  times  as  "the  kingdom." 
Other  descriptions  or  titles  are  hardly 
found  in  the  Evangelists.  It  is  Christ's 
household  (Matt.  x.  25),  the  salt  and  light 
of  the  world  (v.  13,  15),  Christ's  flock 
(Matt.  xxvi.  31 ;  John  x.  1),  its  members 
are  the  branches  growing  on  Christ  the 
Vine  (John  xv.)  ;  but  the  general  descrip- 
tion of  it,  not  metaphorically  but  directly, 
is,  that  it  is  a  kingdom  (Matt.  xvi.  19). 
From  the  Gospel  then,  we  learn  that  Christ 
was  about  to  establish  His  heavenly  king- 
dom on  earth,  which  was  To  be  the  substi- 
tute for  the  Jewish  Church  and  kingdom, 
now  doomed  to  destruction  (Matt.  xxi.  43). 
IV.  The  Church  as  described  in  the  Acts 
and  in  the  Epistles  — ■  its  Origin.,  Nature, 
and  Constitution.  —  From  the  Gospels  we 
learn  little  in  the  way  of  detail  as  to  the 
kingdom  which  was  to  be  established.  It 
was  in  the  great  forty  days  which  intervened 
between  the  Resurrection  sind  the  Ascen- 
sion that  our  Lord  explained  specifically  to 
His  Apostles  "the  things  pertaining  to  the 
kingdom  of  God"  (Acts  i.  3),  that  is,  his 
future  Church.  —  Its  Origin.  —  The  remo- 
Tal  of  Christ  from  the  earth  had  left  his 
followers  a  shattered  company  with  no  bond 
of  external  or  internal  cohesion,  except  the 


memory  of  the  Master  whom  they  had  lost, 
and  the  recollection  of  his  injunctions  to 
unity  and  love.  They  continued  together, 
meeting  for  prayer  and  supplication,  and 
waiting  for  Christ's  promise  of  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  They  numbered  in  all 
some  140  persons,  namely,  the  eleven,  the 
faithful  women,  the  Lord's  mother,  his 
brethren,  and  120  disciples.  They  had  faith 
to  believe  that  there  was  a  work  before  them 
which  they  were  about  to  be  called  to  per- 
form ;  and  that  they  might  be  ready  to  do 
it,  they  filled  up  the  number  of  the  Twelve 
by  the  appointment  of  Matthias  "to  be  a 
true  witness  "  with  the  eleven  "  of  the  Res- 
urrection." The  Day  of  Pentecost  is  the 
birth-day  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
Spirit,  who  was  then  sent  by  the  Son  from 
the  Father,  and  rested  on  each  of  the  Dis- 
ciples, combined  them  once  more  into  a 
whole,  —  combined  them  as  they  never  had 
before  been  combined,  by  an  internal  and 
spiritual  bond  of  cohesion.  Before  they 
had  been  individual  followers  of  Jesus,  now 
they  became  his  mystical  body,  animated 
by  His  Spirit.  —  Its  Nature.  —  "  Then  they 
that  gladly  received  his  word  were  baptized 
.  .  .  and  they  continued  steadfastly  in  the 
Apostles'  doctrine  and  fellowship,  and  in 
breaking  of  bread  and  in  prayers  "  (Acts  ii. 
41).  Here  we. have  indirectly  exhibited  the 
essential  conditions  of  Church  Communion. 
They  are  (1)  Baptism,  Baptism  implying 
on  the  part  of  the  recipient  repentance  and 
faith ;  (2)  Apostolic  Doctrine ;  (3)  Fellow- 
ship with  the  Apostles ;  (4)  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per ;  (5)  Public  Worship.  Every  requisite 
for  church-membership  is  here  enumerated 
not  only  for  the  Apostolic  days,  but  for 
future  ages.  St.  Luke's  treatise  being  his- 
torical, not  dogmatical,  he  does  not. directly 
enter  further  into  the  essential  nature  of 
the  Church.  The  community  of  goods, 
which  he  describes  as  being  universal 
amongst  the  members  of  the  infant  society 
(ii.  44,  iv.  32),  is  specially  declared  to  be 
a  voluntary  practice  (v.  4),  not  a  necessary 
duty  of  Christians  as  such  (comp.  Acts  ix. 
36,  39,  xi.  29).  From  the  illustrations 
adopted  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistles,  we 
have  additional  light  thrown  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  Church.  The  passage  which  is 
most  illustrative  of  our  subject  in  the  Epis- 
tles is  Eph.  iv.  3,  6.  Here  we  see  what  it 
is  that  constitutes  the  unity  of  the  Church 
in  the  mind  of  the  Apostle :  (1)  unity  of 
Headship,  "  one  Lord ;  "  (2)  unity  of  belief, 
"one  fiiith;"  (3)  unity  of  Sacraments, 
"  one  baptism :  "  (4)  unity  of  hope  of  eter- 
nal life,  "one  hope  of  your  calling;"  (5) 
unity  of  love,  "unity  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
bond  of  peace ;  "  (6)  unity  of  organization, 
"one  body."  The  Church,  then,  at  this 
period  was  a  body  of  baptized  men  and 
women  who  believed  in  Jesus  as  the  Clu-ist, 
and  in  the  revelation  made  by  Him,  who 


CHURCH 


112 


CHUSUAN-EISHATHAIM 


were  united  by  having  the  same  faith,  hope, 
and  animating  Spirit  of  love,  the  same  Sac- 
raments, and  the  same  spiritual  invisible 
Head.  —  What  was  the  Constitution  of  this 
body  f  —  On  the  evening  of  the  Day  of  Pen- 
tecost, the  3140  members  of  which  it  con- 
sisted were  —  (1)  Apostles;  (2)  previous 
Disciples ;  (3)  converts.  At  this  time  the 
Church  was  not  only  morally  but  actually 
one  congregation.  Soon,  however,  its 
numbers  grew  so  considerably  that  it  was 
a  phj'sical  impossibility  that  all  its  mem- 
bers should  come  together  in  one  spot.  It 
became,  therefore,  an  aggregate  of  congre- 
gations, though  without  losing  its  essential 
unity.  The  apostles,  who  had  been  closest 
to  the  Lord  Jesus  in  his  life  on  earth  would 
doubtless  have  formed  the  centres  of  the 
several  congregations.  Thus  the  Church 
continued  for  apparently  some  seven  years, 
but  at  the  end  of  that  time  "the  number 
of  disciples  was"  so  greatly  "multiplied" 
(Acts  vi.  1)  that  the  twelve  Apostles  found 
themselves  to  be  too  few  to  carry  out  these 
works  unaided.  They  thereupon  for  the 
first  time  exercised  the  powers  of  mission 
intrusted  to  them  (John  xx.  21),  and  by 
laying  their  hands  on  the  Seven  who  were 
recommended  to  them  by  the  general  body 
of  Christians,  they  appointed  them  to  fulfil 
the  secular  task  of  distributing  the  common 
stock.  It  is  a  question  which  cannot  be 
certainly  answered  whether  the  office  of 
these  Seven  is  to  be  identified  with  that  of 
the  deacons  elsewhere  found.  We  incline 
to  the  hypothesis  which  makes  the  Seven 
the  originals  of  the  Deacons.  From  this 
time  therefore,  or  from  about  this  time, 
there  existed  in  the  Church  —  (1)  the  Apos- 
tles ;  (2)  the  Deacons  and  Evangelists ;  (3) 
the  multitude  of  the  faithful.  We  hear  of 
no  other  Church-officer  till  the  year  44, 
seven  years  after  the  appointment  of  the 
deacons.  We  find  that  there  were  then  in 
the  Church  of  Jerusalem  officers  named 
Presbyters  (xi.  30)  who  were  the  assistants 
of  James,  the  chief  administrator  of  that 
Church  (xii.  17).  The  circumstances  of 
their  first  appointment  are  not  recounted. 
No  doubt  they  were  similar  to  those  under 
which  the  Deacons  were  appointed.  The 
name  of  Presbyter  or  Elder  implies  that  the 
men  selected  were  of  mature  age.  By  the 
year  44,  therefore,  there  were  in  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem — (1)  the  Apostles  holding 
the  government  of  the  whole  body  in  their 
own  hands  j  (2)  Presbyters  invested  by  the 
Apostles  with  authority  for  conducting  pub- 
lic worship  in  each  congregation ;  (3)  Dea- 
cons or  Evangelists  similarly  invested  with 
the  lesser  power  of  preaching  and  of  baptiz- 
ing unbelievers,  and  of  distributing  the 
common  goods  among  the  brethren.  The 
same  order  was  established  in  the  Gentile 
Churches  founded  by  St.  Paul,  the  only 
difierence  being  that  those  who  were  called 


Presbyters  in  Jerusalem  bore  indifferently 
the  name  of  Bishops  (Phil.  i.  1  ;  1  Tim.  iii. 
1,  2 ;  Tit.  i.  7)  or  of  Presbyters  (1  Tim.  v. 
17;  Tit.  i.  5)  elsewhere.  It  was  in  the 
Church  of  Jerusalem  that  another  order  of 
the  ministry  found  its  exemplar.  James 
the  brother  of  the  Lord  remained  unmo- 
lested during  the  persecution  of  Herod 
Agrippa  in  the  year  44,  and  from  this  time 
he  is  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem.     A  consideration  of  Acts  xii. 

17,  XV.  13,  19 ;  Gal.  ii.  2,  9,  12 ;  Acts  xxi. 

18,  will  remove  all  doubt  on  this  point. 
Whatever  his  pre-eminence  was,  he  ap- 
pears to  have  borne  no  special  title  indicat- 
ing it.  The  example  of  the  Mother  Church 
of  Jerusalem  was  again  followed  by  the 
Pauline  Churches.  Timothy  and  Titus  had 
probably  no  distinctive  title,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  read  the  Epistles  addressed  to 
them  without  seeing  that  they  had  an  au- 
thority superior  to  that  of  the  ordinary 
bishops  or  priests  (1  Tim.  iii.,  v.  17,  19; 
Tit.  i.  5).  Thus,  then,  we  see  that  where 
the  Apostles  were  themselves  able  to  super- 
intend the  Churches  that  they  had  founded, 
the  Church-officers  consisted  of —  (1)  Apos- 
tles ;  (2)  Bishops  or  Priests ;  (3)  Deacons 
and  Evangelists.  When  the  Apostles  were 
unable  to  give  personal  superintendence, 
they  delegated  that  power  which  they  had 
in  common  to  one  of  themselves,  as  in  Je- 
rusalem, or  to  one  in  whom  they  had  con- 
fidence, as  at  Ephesus  and  in  Crete.  As 
the  apostles  died  off,  these  Apostolic  Dele- 
gates necessarily  multiplied.  By  the  end 
of  the  first  century,  when  St.  John  was  the 
only  Apostle  tliat  now  survived,  they  would 
have  been  established  in  every  country,  aa 
Crete,  and  in  every  large  town  where  there 
were  several  bishops  or  priests,  such  as  the 
seven  towns  of  Asia  mentioned  in  the  Book 
of  Revelation.  These  superintendents  ap- 
pear to  be  addressed  by  St.  John  under  the 
name  of  Angels.  With  St.  John's  death 
the  Apostolic  College  was  extinguished, 
and  the  Apostolic  Delegates  or  Angels  were 
left  to  fill  their  places  in  the  government 
of  the  Church,  not  with  the  full  unrestricted 
power  of  the  A^stles,  but  with  authority 
only  to  be  exercised  in  limited  districts. 
In  the  next  century  we  find  that  these  offi- 
cers bore  the  name  of  Bishops,  while  those 
who  in  the  first  century  were  called  indif- 
ferently Presbyters  or  Bishops  had  now 
only  the  title  of  Presbyters.  We  conclude, 
therefore,  that  the  title  bishop  was  grad- 
ually dropped  by  the  second  order  of  the 
ministry,  and  applied  specifically  to  those 
who  represented  what  James,  Timothy,  and 
Titus  had  been  in  the  Apostolic  age. 

Chush'an-Rishatha'im,  the  king  of 
Mesopotamia  who  oppressed  Israel  during 
eight  years  in  the  generation  immediately 
following  Joshua  (Judg.  iii.  8).  The  seat 
of  his  dominion  was  probably  the  rcgioo 


CHUZA 


113 


CISTERN 


between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Khabour. 
Chushan-Rish.athauTi's  yoke  was  broken 
from  the  neck  of  tlie  people  of  Israel  at 
the  end  of  eight  years  by  Othniel,  Caleb's 
nephew  (Judg.  iii.  10),  and  nothing  more 
is  heard  of  Mesopotamia  as  an  aggressive 
power.  The  rise  of  the  Assyrian  empire, 
about  B.  c.  1270,  would  naturally  reduce  the 
bordering  nations  to  insignificance. 

Chu'za  (properly  Chuzas),  the  house- 
steward  of  Uerod  Antipas  (Luke  viii.  3). 

Cic'car.     [Jordan.] 

Cilic'ia,  a  maritime  province  in  the  S. 
E.  of  Asia  Minor,  bordering  on  Pamphylia 
in  the  W.,  Lycaonia  and  Cappadocia  in  the 
N.,  and  Syria  in  the  E.  The  connection 
between  the  Jews  and  Cilicia  dates  from  the 
time  when  it  became  part  of  the  Syrian 
kingdom.  In  the  Apostolic  age  they  were 
still  there  in  considerable  numbers  (Acts 
vi.  9).  Cilicia  was  from  its  geographical 
position  the  high  road  between  Syria  and 
the  West ;  it  was  also  the  native  country  of 
St.  Paul ;  hence  it  was  visited  by  him,  first- 
ly, soon  after  his  conversion  (Gal.  i.  21 ; 
Acts  ix.  30)  i  and  again  in  his  second  apos- 
tolical journey,  when  he  entered  it  on  the 
side  of  Syria,  and  crossed  Antitaurus  by 
the  Pylae  Ciliciae  into  Lycaonia  (Acts  xv. 
41). 

Cinnamoil,  a  well-known  aromatic  sub- 
stance, the  rind  of  the  Laurus  cinnamo- 
mum,  called  Korunda-gauhah,  in  Ceylon. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Ex.  xxx.  23  as  one  of  the 
component  parts  of  the  holy  anointing  oil, 
which  Moses  was  commanded  to  prepare  — 
in  Prov.  vii.  17  as  a  perfume  for  the  bed  — 
and  in  Cant.  iv.  14  as  one  of  the  plants  of 
the  garden  which  is  the  image  of  the  spouse. 
In  Rev.  xviii.  13  it  is  enumerated  among 
the  merchandise  of  the  great  Babylon.  It 
was  imported  into  Judaea  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians or  by  the  Arabians,  and  is  now  found 
in  Sumatra,  Borneo,  China,  &e.,  but  chiefly, 
and  of  the  best  quality,  in  the  S.  W.  part 
of  Ceylon. 

Cin'nerotll,  All,  a  district  named  with 
the  "  land  of  Naphtali  "  and  other  northern 
places  as  having  been  laid  waste  by  Benha- 
dad  (IK.  XV.  20).  It  was  possibly  the 
small  enclosed  district  north  of  Tiberias, 
and  by  the  side  of  the  lake,  afterwards 
known  as  "  the  plain  of  Gennesareth." 

Circumcision  was  peculiarly,  though 
not  exclusively,  a  Jewish  rite.  It  was  en- 
joined upon  Abraham,  the  father  of  the 
nation,  by  God,  at  the  institution,  and  as 
the  token,  of  the  Covenant,  which  assured 
to  him  and  his  descendants  the  promise  of 
the  Messiah  (Gen.  xvii.).  It  was  thus  made 
a  necessary  condition  of  Jewish  national- 
ity. Every  male  child  was  to  be  circum- 
cised wlicn  eight  days  old  (Lev.  xii.  3)  on 
pain  of  deatli.  If  the  eighth  day  were  a 
Sabbath  the  rite  was  not  postponed  (John 
vii.  22,  23).     Slaves,  whetiier  homeborn  or  1 


purchased,  were  circumcised  (Gen.  xvii.  12, 
13)  ;  and  foreigners  must  have  their  males 
circumcised  before  they  could  be  allowed 
to  partake  of  the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  48),  or 
become  Jewish  citizens.  It  seems  to  have 
been  customary  to  name  a  child  when  it 
was  circumcised  (Luke  i.  59).  The  use  of 
circumcision  by  other  nations  besides  the 
Jews  is  to  be  gathered  almost  entirely  from 
sources  extraneous  to  the  Bible.  The  rite 
has  been  found  to  prevail  extensively  both 
in  ancient  and  modern  times.  The  biblical 
notice  of  the  rite  describes  it  as  distinc- 
tively Jewish ;  so  that  in  the  N.  T.  "  the 
circumcision  "  and  "  the  uncircunicision  " 
are  frequently  used  as  synonymes  for  the 
Jews  and  the  Gentiles.  Circumcision  cer- 
tainly belonged  to  the  Jews  as  it  did  to  no 
other  people,  by  virtue  of  its  divine  institu- 
tion, of  the  religious  privileges  which  were 
attached  to  it,  and  of  the  strict  regulations 
wliich  enforced  its  observance.  Moreover, 
the  O.  T.  history  incidentally  discloses  the 
fact  that  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  nations 
with  whom  they  came  in  contact  were  un- 
circumcised.  The  origin  of  the  custom 
amongst  one  large  section  of  those  Gen- 
tiles who  follow  it,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
biblical  record  of  the  circumcision  of  Ish- 
mael  (Gen.  xvii.  25).  Thougli Mohammed 
did  not  enjoin  circumcision  in  the  Koran, 
he  was  circumcised  himself,  according  to 
the  custom  of  his  country ;  and  circum- 
cision is  now  as  common  amongst  the  Mo- 
hammedans as  amongst  the  Jews.  The 
process  of  restoring  a  circumcised  person 
to  his  natural  condition  by  a  surgical  oper- 
ation was  sometimes  undergone.  Some  of 
the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes,  wishing  to  assimilate  themselves  to 
the  heathen  around  them,  "  made  them- 
selves uncircumcised "  (1  Mace.  i.  15). 
Against  having  recourse  to  this  practice,, 
from  an  excessive  anti-Judaistic  tendency,. 
St.  Paul  cautions  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.. 
vii.  18).  The  attitude  which  Christianity,, 
at  its  introduction,  assumed  towards  cir- 
cumcision was  one  of  absolute  hostility,  so- 
far  as  the  necessity  of  the  rite  to  salvation, 
or  its  possession  of  any  religious  or  moral 
worth  was  concerned  (Acts  xv. ;  Gal.  v^ 
2).  The  Abyssinian  Christians  still  prac- 
tise circumcision  as  a  national  custom. 

Cis,  the  father  of  Saul  (Acts  xiii.  21),. 
usually  called  Kish. 

Cistern,  a  receptacle  for  water,  either 
conducted  from  an  external  spring,  or  pro- 
ceeding from  rain-fall.  Tlie  dryness  of  the 
summer  months  between  May  and  Septem- 
ber, in  Syria,  and  the  scarcity  of  springs  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  make  it  neces- 
sary'to  collect  in  reservoirs  and  cisterns  the 
rain-water,  of  which  abundance  falls  in  the 
intermediate  period.  The  largest  s^rt  of 
public  tanks  or  reservoirs  is  usually  called 
in  A.  V.  "pool,"  while  for  the  smaller  and 


CITHERN 


114 


CLAUDIUS 


more  private  it  is  convenient  to  reserve  the 
name  cistern.  Both  pools  and  cisterns  are 
frequent  throughout  the  whole  of  Syria 
and  Palestine.  On  the  long  forgotten  way 
from  Jericho  to  Bethel,  "  broken  cisterns  " 
of  high  antiquity  are  found  at  regular  in- 
tervals. Jerusalem  depends  mainly  for 
water  upon  its  cisterns,  of  which  almost 
every  private  house  possesses  one  or  more, 
excavated  in  the  rock  on  which  the  city  is 
built.  The  cisterns  have  usually  a  round 
opening  at  the  top,  sometimes  built  up  with 
stonework  above  and  furnished  with  a  curb 
and  a  wheel  for  the  bucket  (Eccl.  xii.  6), 
so  that  they  have  externally  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  ordinary  well.  The  water 
is  conducted  into  them  from  the  roofs  of 
the  houses  during  the  rainy  season,  and 
with  care  remains  sweet  during  the  whole 
summer  and  autumn.  In  this  manner 
most  of  the  larger  houses  and  public  build- 
ings are  supplied.  Empty  cisterns  were 
sometimes  used  as  prisons  and  places  of 
confinement.  Joseph  was  cast  into  a  "  pit " 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  22),  and  his  "  dungeon  "  in 
Egypt  is  called  by  the  same  name  (xli.  14) . 
Jeremiah  was  thrown  into  a  miry  though 
empty  cistern,  whose  depth  is  indicated  by 
the  cords  used  to  let  him  down  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  6). 

Cithern  (1  Mace.  iv.  54),  a  musical  in- 
strument, resembling  a  guitar,  most  prob- 
ably of  Greek  origin,  employed  by  the 
Chaldeans,  and  introduced  by  the  Hebrews 
into  Palestine  on  their  return  thither  after 
tlie  Babylonian  captivity. 

Cities.  1.  'Ar,  and  also  '/r:  2.  Kir- 
jath ;  probably  the  most  ancient  name 
for  city,  but  seldom  used  in  prose  as  a  gen- 
eral name  for  town.  The  classification  of 
the  human  race  into  dwellers  in  towns  and 
nomade  wanderers  (Gen.  iv.  20,  22)  seems 
to  be  intimated  by  the  etymological  sense 
of  both  words,  as  places  of  security  against 
an  enemy,  distinguished  from  the  unwalled 
village  or  hamlet,  whose  resistance  is  more 
easily  overcome  by  the  marauding  tribes 
of  the  desert.  The  earliest  notice  in  Scrip- 
ture of  city-building  is  of  Enoch  by  Cain, 
in  the  land  of  his  exile  (Gen.  iv.  17).  After 
the  confusion  of  tongues,  tlie  descendants 
of  Nimrod  founded  Babel,  Erech,  Accad, 
and  Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar,  and 
Asshur,  a  branch  from  the  same  stock, 
built  Nineveh,  Rehoboth-by-the-river,  Ca- 
lah,  and  Rescn,  the  last  being  "  a  great 
city."  The  earliest  description  of  a  city, 
properly  so  called,  is  that  of  Sodom  (Gen. 
xix.  1-22).  Hebron  is  said  to  have  been 
built  sever,  years  before  Zoan  (Tanis)  in 
Egypt,  and  is  thus  the  only  Syrian  town 
which  presents  the  elements  of  a  date  for 
its  foundation  (Num.  xiii.  22).  Even  be- 
fore the  time  of  Abraham  there  were  cities 
in  Egypt  (Gen.  xii.  14,  15;  Num.  xiii.  22), 
and  the  Israelites,   during  their   sojourn 


there,  were  employed  in  building  or  forti- 
fying the  "  treasure  cities  "  of  Pithom  and 
Raamses  (Ex.  i.  11).  Meanwhile  the  set^- 
tied  inhabitants  of  Syria  on  both  sides  of 
the  Jordan  had  grown  in  power  and  in 
number  of  "  fenced  cities,"  which  were 
occupied  and  perhaps  partly  rebuilt  or  for- 
tified after  the  conquest. 

Cities  of  Refuge,  six  Levitical  cities 
specially  chosen  for  refuge  to  the  involun- 
tary homicide  until  released  from  banish 
ment  by  the  death  of  the  high-priest  (Num. 
XXXV.  6,  13,  15;  Josh.  xx.  2,  7,  9).  There 
were  three  on  each  side  of  Jordan.  1.  Ke- 
UESH,  in  Naphtali  (1  Chr.  vi.  76).  2. 
Shechem,  in  Mount  Ephraim  (Josh.  xxi. 
21;  1  Chr.  vi.  67;  2  Chr.  x.  1).  3.  He- 
bron, in  Jiidah  (Josh.  xxi.  13 ;  2  Sam.  r. 
5;  1  Chr.  vi.  55,  xxix.  27;  2  Chr.  xi.  10). 
4.  On  the  E.  side  of  Jordan  —  Bezer,  in 
the  tribe  of  Reuben,  in  the  plains  of  Moab 
(Deut.  iv.  43 ;  Josh.  xx.  8,  xxi.  36 ;  1 
Mace.  v.  26).  5.  Ramoth-Gilead,  in  the 
tribe  of  Gad  (Deut.  iv.  43 ;  Josh.  xxi.  38 ; 
1  K.  xxii.  3).  6.  Golan,  in  Bashan,  in 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  (Deut.  iv.  43 ; 
Josh.  xxi.  27 ;  1  Chr.  vi.  71). 

Cit'ims,  1  Mace.  viii.  5.     [Chittim.] 

Citizenship.  The  use  of  this  term  in 
Scripture  has  exclusive  reference  to  the 
usages  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  privi- 
lege of  Roman  citizenship  was  originally 
acquired  in  various  ways,  as  by  purchase 
(Acts  xxii.  28),  by  military  services,  by 
favor,  or  by  manumission.  The  right  once 
obtained  descended  to  a  man's  children 
(Acts  xxii.  28).  Among  the  privileges  at- 
tached to  citizenship,  we  may  note  that  a 
man  could  not  be  bound  or  imprisoned 
without  a  formal  trial  (Acts  xxii.  29),  still 
less  be  scourged  (Acts  xvi.  37 ;  Cic.  in 
Verr.  v.  63,66).  Another  privilege  attach- 
ing to  citizenship  was  the  appeal  from  a 
provincial  tribunal  to  the  emperor  at  Rome 
(Acts  XXV.  11). 

Citron.     [Apple-tree.] 

Clau'da  (Acts  xxvii.  16),  a  small  island 
nearly  due  W.  of  Cape  Matala  on  the  S. 
coast  of  Crete,  and  nearly  due  S.  of  Phoe- 
NiCE,  now  Gozzo. 

Clau'dia,  a  Christian  woman  mentioned 
in  2  Tim.  iv.  21,  as  saluting  Timotheus. 
There  is  reason  for  supposing  that  this 
Claudia  was  a  British  maiden,  daughter  of 
king  Cogidubnus,  an  ally  of  Rome,  who 
took  the  name  of  his  imperial  patron, 
Tiberius  Claudius.  She  appears  to  have 
become  the  wife  of  Pudens,  who  is  men- 
tioned in  the  same  verse. 

Clau'dius,  fourth  Roman  emperor, 
reigned  from  41  to  54  a.  d.  He  was  the 
son  of  Nero  Drusus,  was  born  in  Lyons, 
Aug.  1,  B.  c.  9  or  10,  and  lived  private  and 
unknown  till  the  day  of  his  being  called  to 
the  throne,  January  24,  a.  d.  41.  He  was 
nominated  to   the   supreme  power  mainly 


CLAUDIUS  LYSIAS 


115 


COAL 


through  the  influence  of  Herod  Agrippa 
the  First.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius  there 
were  several  famines,  arising  from  unfa- 
vorable harvests,  and  one  such  occurred  in 
Palestine  and  Syria  (Acts  xi.  28-30)  under 
the  procurators  Cuspius  Fadus  and  Tiberius 
Alexander,  which  perhaps  lastedsome  years. 
Claudius  was  induced  by  a  tumult  of  the 
Jews  in  Rome  to  expel  them  from  the  city 
(cf.  Acts  xviii.  2).  The  date  of  this  event 
is  uncertain.  After  a  weak  and  foolish  reign 
he  was  poisoned  by  his  fourth  wife  Agrippina, 
the  mother  of  Nero,  Oct.  13,  a.  d.  5i. 

Clau'dius  Lys'ias.    [Ltsias.] 

Clay.  As  the  sediment  of  water  re- 
maining in  pits  or  in  streets,  the  word  is 
used  frequently  in  O.  T.  (Is.  Ivii.  20 ;  Jer. 
xxxviii.  6;  Ps.  xviii.  42),  and  in  N.  T. 
(John  ix.  6),  a  mixture  of  sand  or  dust 
with  spittle.  It  is  also  found  in  the  sense 
of  potter's  clay  (Is.  xli.  25).  The  great 
seat  of  the  pottery  of  the  present  day  in 
Palestine  is  Gaza,  where  are  made  the  ves- 
sels in  dark  blue  clay  so  frequently  met 
with.  Another  use  of  clay  was  for  sealing 
(Job  xxxviii.  14).  Wine  jars  in  Egypt 
were  sometimes  sealed  with  clay ;  mummy 
pits  were  sealed  with  the  same  substance, 
and  remains  of  clay  are  still  found  adher- 
ing to  the  stone  door-jambs.  Our  Lord's 
tomb  may  have  been  thus  sealed  (Matt, 
xxvii.  66),  as  also  the  earthen  vessel  con- 
taining the  evidences  of  Jeremiah's  pur- 
chase (Jer.  xxxii.  14).  The  seal  used  for 
public  documents  was  rolled  on  the  moist 
clay,  and  the  tablet  was  then  placed  in  the 
fire  and  baked.  The  practice  of  sealing 
doors  with  clay  to  facilitate  detection  in  case 
of  malpractice  is  still  common  in  the  East. 

Clem'ent  (Phil.  iv.  2),  a  fellow-laborer 
of  St.  Paul,  when  he  was  at  Philippi.  It 
was  generally  believed  in  the  ancient 
church,  that  this  Clement  was  identical 
with  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who  afterwards 
became  so  celebrated. 

Cle'opas,  one  of  the  two  disciples  who 
were  going  to  Emmaus  on  the  day  of  the 
resurrection  (Luke  xxiv.  18).  It  is  a  ques- 
tion whether  this  Cleopas  is  to  be  consid- 
ered as  identical  with  Cleophas  (accur. 
Clopas)  or  Alphaeus  in  John  xix.  25.  On  the 
whole,  it  seems  safer  to  doubt  their  identity. 

Cleopa'tra.  1.  The  "wife  of  Ptole- 
my "  (Esth.  xi.  1)  was  probably  the  grand- 
daughter of  Antiochus,  and  wife  of  Ptol. 
VI.  Philometor.  2.  A  daughter  of  Ptol. 
VI.  Philometor  and  Cleopatra  (1),  who 
was  married  first  to  Alexander  Balas  b.  c. 
150  (1  Mace.  X.  58),  and  afterwards  given 
by  her  father  to  Demetrius  Nicator  when 
he  invaded  Syria  (1  Mace.  xi.  12).  During 
the  captivity  of  Demetrius  in  Parthia,  Cleo- 
patra married  his  brother  Antiochus  VII. 
Sidetes.  She  afterwards  murdered  Seleucus, 
her  eldest  son  by  Demetrius ;  and  at  length 
was  herself  poisoned  b.  c.  120  by  a  draught 


which  she  had  prepared  for  her  second  sou 
Antiochus  VIII. 

Cle'ophas.     [Cleopas;  AxPHAEtra.] 

Clothing.     [Dress.] 

Cloud.  The  shelter  given,  and  refresh- 
ment of  rain  promised,  by  clouds,  give 
them  their  peculiar  prominence  in  Oriental 
imagery,  and  the  individual  cloud  iu  an 
ordinary  cloudless  region  becomes  well 
defined  and  is  dwelt  upon  like  the  indi- 
vidual tree  in  the  bare  landscape.  When 
a  cloud  appears,  rain  is  ordinarily  appre- 
hended, and  thus  the  "  cloud  without  rain  " 
becomes  a  proverb  for  the  man  of  promise 
without  performance  (Pro v.  xvi.  15 ;  Is. 
xviii.  4,  XXV.  6 ;  Jude  12 ;  comp.  Prov.  xxr. 
14).  The  cloud  is  a  figure  of  transitori- 
ness  (Job  xxx.  15 ;  Hos.  vi.  4),  and  of 
whatever  intercepts  divine  fevor  or  human 
supplication  (Lam.  ii.  1,  iii.  44).  Being 
the  least  substantial  of  visible  forms,  it  is 
the  one  amongst  material  things  which 
suggests  most  easily  spiritual  being.  Hence 
it  is  the  recognized  machinery  by  which 
supernatural  appearances  are  introduced 
(Is.  xix.  1;  Ez.  i.  4;  Rev.  i.  7).  A  bright 
cloud,  at  any  rate  at  times,  visited  and 
rested  on  the  Mercy  Seat  (Ex.  xxix.  42,  43 ; 

1  K.  viii.  10,  11 ;  2  Chr.  v.  14 ;  Ez.  xliii.  4), 
and  was  by  later  writers  named  Shecliinah. 

Cloud,  Pillar  of.  This  was  the  ac- 
tive form  of  the  symbolical  glory-cloud, 
betokening  God's  presence  to  lead  His 
chosen  host,  or  to  inquire  and  visit  offences, 
as  the  luminous  cloud  of  the  sanctuary  ex- 
hibited the  same  under  an  aspect  of  repose. 
The  cloud,  which  became  a  pillar  when  the 
host  moved,  seems  to  have  rested  at  other 
times  on  the  tabernacle,  whence  God  is  said 
to  have  "  come  down  in  the  pillar  "  (Num. 
xii.  5 ;  so  Ex.  xxxiii.  9,  10).  It  preceded 
the  host,  apparently  resting  on  the  ark 
which  led  the  way  (Ex.  xiii.  21,  xl.  36,  &c. ; 
Num.  ix.  15-23,  x.  34). 

Cni'dus  is  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  xv.  23, 
as  one  of  the  Greek  cities  which  contained 
Jewish  residents  in  the  2d  century  b.  c, 
and  in  Acts  xxvii.  7,  as  a  harbor  which  was 
passed  by  St.  Paul  after  leaving  Myra,  and 
before  running  under  the  lee  of  Crete.  It 
was  a  city  of  great  consequence,  situated 
at  the  extreme  S.  W.  of  the  peninsula  of 
Asia  Minor,  on  a  promontory  now  called 
Cape  Crio,  which  projects  between  the 
islands  of  Cos  and  Rhodes  (see  Acts  xxi.  1). 

Coal.  In  A.  V.  this  word  represents  no 
less  than  five  different  Heb.  words.  1. 
The  first  and  most  frequently  used  is  gache' 
leth,  a  live  ember,  burning  fuel,  as  distin- 
guished from  pechAm  (Prov.  xxvi.  21).     In 

2  Sam.  xxii.  9,  13,  "  coals  of  fire  "  are  put 
metaphorically  for  the  lightnings  proceeding 
from  God  (Ps.  xvui.  8,  12,  13,  cxl.  10).  In 
Prov.  XXV.  22  we  have  the  proverbial  ex- 
pression, "Thou  Shalt  heap  coals  of  fire 
upon  his  head,"  which  has  been  adopted  b/ 


COAT 


116 


COLOSSIANS 


St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xii.  20,  and  by  which  are  j 
metaphorically  expressed  the  burning  shame 
and  confusion  which  men  must  feel  when 
their  evil  is  requited  by  good.  2.  Pechdm. 
In  ProT.  xxvi.  21,  this  word  clearly  signi- 
fies fuel  not  yet  lighted.  The  fuel  meant 
in  the  above  passages  is  probably  charcoal, 
and  not  coal  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 

Coat.     [Dkess.] 

Cock.  In  the  N.  T.  the  "cock"  is 
mentioned  in  reference  to  St.  Peter's  de- 
nial of  our  Lord,  and  indirectly  in  the 
word  "  cock-crowing "  (Matt.  xxvi.  34 ; 
Mark  xiv.  30,  xiii.  35,  &c.).  We  know 
that  the  domestic  cock  and  hen  were  early 
known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Eomans, 
and  as  no  mention  is  made  in  the  O.  T.  of 
these  birds,  and  no  figures  of  them  occur 
on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  they  probably 
came  into  Judaea  with  the  Romans,  who, 
as  is  well  known,  prized  these  birds  both  as 
articles  of  food  and  for  cock-fighting. 

Cockatrice.     [Adder.] 

Cockle  (Heb.  boshdh)  occurs  only  in 
Job  xxxi.  40.  We  are  inclined  to  believe 
that  the  boshdh  denotes  any  bad  weeds  or 
fruit,  and  may  in  Job  signify  bad  or  smut- 
ted barley. 

Coele-Syr'ia,  "  the  hoUow  Syria,"  was 
(strictly  speaking)  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks,  after  the  time  of  Alexander,  to  tlie  re- 
markable valley  or  hollow  which  intervenes 
between  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus,  stretch- 
ing a  distance  of  nearly  a  hundred  miles. 
But  the  term  was  also  used  in  a  much 
wider  sense.  In  the  first  place  it  was  ex- 
tended so  as  to  include  the  inhabited  tract 
to  the  east  of  the  Anti-Libanus  range,  be- 
tween it  and  the  desert,  in  which  stood  the 
great  city  of  Damascus ;  and  then  it  was 
fiirther  carried  on  upon  that  side  of  Jordan, 
through  Traconitis  and  Paraea,  to  Idumaea 
and  the  borders  of  Egypt.  The  only  dis- 
tinct reference  to  the  region,  as  a  separate 
tract  of  country,  which  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures contain,  is  probably  that  in  Amos 
(i.  5),  where  "the  inhabitants  of  the  plain 
of  Aven"  are  threatened  in  conjunction 
with  those  of  Damascus.  In  the  Apocry- 
phal Books  there  is  frequent  mention  of 
Coele-Syria  in  a  somewhat  vague  sense, 
nearly  as  an  equivalent  for  Syria  (1  Esd. 
ii.  17,  24,  27,  iv.  48,  vi.  29,  vii.  1,  viii.  67; 
1  Mace.  X.  69 ;  2  Mace.  iii.  5,  8,  iv.  4,  viii. 
8,  X.  11).  In  all  these  cases  the  word  is 
given  in  A.  V.  as  Celostkia. 

Coffer  {ArgAz),  a  movable  box  hang- 
ing from  the  side  of  a  cart  (1  Sam.  vi.  8, 
11,  15).     This  word  is  found  nowhere  else. 
\      CofBLa.     [Burial.] 

Col-ho'zeh,  a  man  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  15,  xi.  5). 

Collar.  For  the  proper  sense  of  this  term, 
as  it  occurs  in  Judg.  viii.  2Q,  see  Earrings. 

College,  The.  in  2  K.  xxii.  14  it  is 
said  in  the  A.  Y.  that  Huldah  the  prophet- 


ess "dwelt  in  Jerusalem  in  the  college^ 
(Heb.  Tiiishneh),  or,  as  the  margin  has  it, 
"  in  the  second  part."  The  same  part  of 
the  city  is  undoubtedly  alluded  to  in  Zeph. 
i.  10  (A.  V.  "the  second").  It  is  proba- 
ble that  the  mishneh  was  the  "lower  city," 
built  on  the  hill  Akra. 

Colony,  a  designation  of  Philippi,  in 
Acts  xvi.  12.  At\er  the  battle  of  Actium, 
Augustus  assigned  to  his  veterans  those 
parts  of  Italy  which  had  espoused  the 
cause  of  Antony,  and  transported  many  of 
the  expelled  inhabitants  to  Philippi,  Dyr- 
rachium,  and  other  cities.  In  tliis  w.ny 
Philippi  was  made  a  Roman  colony  with 
the  "  Jus  Italicum." 

Colors.  The  terms  relative  to  color, 
occurring  in  the  Bible,  may  be  arranged  in 
two  classes,  the  first  including  those  applied 
to  the  description  of  natural  objects,  the 
second  those  artificial  mixtures  which  were 
employed  in  dyeing  or  painting.  The  nat- 
ural colors  noticed  in  the  Bible  are  white, 
black,  red,  yellow,  and  green.  The  only 
fundamental  color  of  which  the  Hebrews 
appear  to  have  had  a  clear  conception  was 
red ;  and  even  this  is  not  very  often  noticed. 
They  had  therefore  no  scientific  knowledge 
of  colors,  and  we  cannot  but  think  that  the 
attempt  to  explain  such  passages  as  Rev.iv.  3 
by  the  rules  of  pliilosopliical  truth,  must  fail. 

Colos'se  (more  properly  Colos'sae), 
a  city  in  the  upper  part  of  the  basin  of  the 
Maeander,  on  one  of  its  affluents  named  the 
Lycus.  Hierapolis  and  Laodicaea  were  in 
its  immediate  neighborhood  (Col.  ii.  1,  iv. 
13,15,16;  seeRev.  i.  11,  iii.  14).  Colossae 
fell  as  these  other  two  cities  rose  in  im- 
portance. It  was  situated  close  to  the 
great  road  which  led  from  Ephesus  to  the 
Euphrates.  Hence  our  impulse  would  be 
to  conclude  that  St.  Paul  passed  this  way, 
and  founded  or  confirmed  the  Colossian 
Church  on  his  third  missionary  journey 
(Acts  xviii.  23,  xix.  1).  The  most  compe- 
tent commentators,  however,  agree  in  think- 
ing that  Col.  ii.  1,  proves  that  St.  Paul 
had  never  been  there  when  the  Epistle  was 
written.  That  the  Apostle  hoped  to  visit 
the  place  on  being  delivered  from  his  Ro- 
man imprisonment  is  clear  from  Philemon 
22  (compare  Phil.  ii.  24). 

Colossians,  The  Epistle  to  the,  was 
written  by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  during  his 
first  captivity  at  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  IG),  and 
apxMirently  in  that  portion  of  it  (Col.  iv.  3,  4) 
when  the  Apostle's  imprisonment  had  not 
assumed  the  more  severe  character  which 
seems  to  be  reflected  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  (ch.  i.  20,  21,  30,  li.  27),  and 
which  not  improbably  succeeded  rhe  death 
of  Burrus  in  a.  d.  62,  and  the  decline  of  the 
influence  of  Seneca.  This  epistle  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  Christians  of  the  city  of  Co- 
lossae, and  was  delivered  to  them  by  Tych- 
icus,  whom  the  Apostle  had  sent  both  to 


COMJklERCE 


117 


CONEY 


them  (ch.  iv.  7,  8),  and  to  the  church  of 
Ephesus  (ch.  vi.  21),  to  inquire  into  their 
state  and  to  administer  exhortation  and 
comfort.  The  epistle  seems  to  have  been 
called  forth  by  the  information  St.  Paul  had 
received  from  Epaphras  (ch.  iv.  12;  Phi- 
lem.  23)  and  from  Onesimus,  both  of  whom 
appear  to  have  been  natives  of  Colossae. 
The  main  object  of  the  epistle  is  to  warn 
the  Colossians  against  a  spirit  of  semi-Ju- 
daistic  and  semi-Oriental  philosophy  which 
was  corrupting  the  simplicity  of  their  be- 
lief, and  was  noticeably  tending  to  obscure 
the  eternal  glory  and  dignity  of  Christ. 
The  striking  similarity  between  many  por- 
tions of  this  epistle  and  of  that  of  the  Ephe- 
sians  may  be  accounted  for,  (1)  by  the 
proximity  in  time  at  which  the  two  epistles 
were  written ;  (2)  by  the  high  probability 
that  in  two  cities  of  Asia  within  a  moderate 
distance  from  one  another,  there  would  be 
many  doctrinal  prejudices,  and  many  social 
relations,  that  would  call  forth  and  need 
precisely  the  same  language  of  warning  and 
exhortation.  The  shorter  and  perhaps  more 
vividly  expressed  Epistle  to  the  Colossians 
seems  to  have  been  first  written,  and  to  have 
suggested  the  more  comprehensive,  more 
systematic,  but  less  individualizing,  epistle 
to  the  church  of  Ephesus. 

CJommerce.  From  the  time  that  men 
began  to  live  in  cities,  trade,  in  some  shape, 
must  have  been  carried  on  to  supply  the 
town-dwellers  with  necessaries;  but  it  is 
also  clear  that  international  trade  must 
have  existed,  and  affected  to  some  extent 
even  the  pastoral  nomade  races,  for  we  find 
that  Abraham  was  rich,  not  only  in  cattle, 
but  in  silver,  gold,  and  gold  and  silver  plate 
and  ornaments  (Gen.  xiii.  2,  xxiv.  22,  53). 
Among  trading  nations  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, Egypt  holds  in  very  early  times  a 
prominent  position,  though  her  external 
trade  was  carried  on,  not  by  her  own  citi- 
zens, but  by  foreigners,  —  chiefly  of  the 
nomade  races.  The  internal  trade  of  the 
Jews,  as  well  as  the  external,  was  much 
promoted,  as  was  the  case  also  in  Egypt,  by 
the  festivals,  which  brought  large  numbers 
of  persons  to  Jerusalem,  and  caused  great 
outlay  in  victims  for  sacrifices  and  in  in- 
cense (IK.  viii.  63).  The  places  of  pub- 
lic market  were,  then  as  now,  chiefly  the 
open  spaces  near  the  gates,  to  which  goods 
were  brought  for  sale  by  those  who  came 
from  the  outside  (Neh.  xiii.  15,  16 ;  Zeph.  i. 
10).  The  traders  in  later  times  were  al- 
lowed to  intrude  into  the  temple,  in  the 
outer  courts  of  which  victims  were  public- 
ly sold  for  the  sacrifices  (Zech.  xiv.  21 ;  Matt. 
xxi.  12;  John  ii.  14). 

Conani'ah,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Le- 
vites  in  the  timeof  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  9). 

Concubine.  The  difference  between 
wife  and  concubine  was  less  marked  among 
the  Hebrews  than  among  us,  owing  to  the 


absence  of  moral  stigma.  The  concubine's 
condition  was  a  definite  one,  and  quite 
independent  of  the  fact  of  there  being 
aaother  woman  having  the  rights  of  wife 
towards  the  same  man.  The  difference 
probably  lay  in  the  absence  of  the  right  of 
the  bill  of  divorce,  without  which  the  wife 
could  not  be  repudiated.  With  regard  to 
the  children  of  wife  and  concubine,  there 
was  no  such  difference  as  our  illegitimacy 
implies ;  the  latter  were  a  supplementary 
family  to  the  former ;  their  names  occur  in 
the  patriarchal  genealogies  (Gen.  xxii.  24; 
1  Chr.  i.  22),  and  their  position  and  provis- 
ion would  depend  on  the  father's  will  (Gen. 
XXV.  6).  The  state  of  concubinage  is  as- 
sumed and  provided  for  by  the  law  of  Moses. 
A  concubine  would  generally  be  either,  (1) 
a  Hebrew  girl  bought  of  her  father ;  (2)  a 
Gentile  captive  taken  in  war ;  (3)  a  foreign 
slave  bought ;  or  (4)  a  Canaanitish  woman, 
bond  or  free.  The  rights  of  (1)  and  (2) 
were  protected  by  law  (Ex.  xxi.  7 ;  Deut. 
xxi.  10-14),  but  (3)  was  unrecognized,  and 
(4)  prohibited.  Free  Hebrew  women  also 
might  become  concubines.  So  Gideon's 
concubine  seems  to  have  been  of  a  family 
of  rank  and  influence  in  Shechem,  and  such 
was  probably  the  state  of  the  Levite's  concu- 
bine ( Judg.  XX.) .  The  ravages  of  war  among 
the  male  sex,  or  the  impoverishment  of 
families,  might  often  induce  this  condition. 
The  case  (1)  was  not  a  hard  lot  (Ex.  xxi.). 
The  provisions  relating  to  (2)  are  merciful 
and  considerate  to  a  rare  degree.  In  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  the  concubines 
mentioned  belong  to  the  king,  and  their 
condition  and  number  cease  to  be  a  guide 
to  the  general  practice.  A  new  king  stepped 
into  the  rights  of  his  predecessor,  and  by 
Solomon's  time  the  custom  had  approx- 
imated to  that  of  a  Persian  harem  (2  Sam. 
xii.  8,  xvi.  21;  IK.  ii.  22).  To  seize  on 
royal  concubines  for  his  use  was  thus  a 
usurper's  first  act.  Such  was  probably  tho 
intent  of  Abner's  act  (2  Sam.  iii.  7),  and 
similarly  the  request  on  behalf  of  Adoni- 
jah  was  construed  (1  K.  ii.  21-24). 

Conduit.  Although  no  notice  is  given 
either  by  Scripture  or  by  Josephus  of  any 
connection  between  the  pools  of  Solomon 
beyond  Bethlehem  and  a  supply  of  water 
for  Jerusalem,  it  seems  unlikely  that  so 
large  a  work  as  the  pools  should  be  con- 
structed merely  for  irrigating  his  gardens 
(Eccl.  ii.  6),  and  tradition,  both  oral  and  as 
represented  by  Talmudical  writers,  ascribes 
to  Solomon  the  formation  of  the  original 
aqueduct  by  which  water  was  brought  to 
Jerusalem.  . 

Coney  (Shdphdn),  a  gregarious  animal 
of  the  class  Pachydermata,  which  is  found 
in  Palestine,  living  in  the  caves  and  clefts 
of  the  rocks,  and  has  been  erroneously 
identified  whh  the  Kabbit  or  Coney.  Its 
scientific  name  is   Ifyrax  Syrtacus.     la 


(;ONGREGATIOIf 


118 


COPPEK 


Lev.  xi.  5  and  in  Deut.  xiv.  7  it  is  declared 
to  be  unclean,  because  it  chews  the  cud, 
but  does  not  divide  the  hoof.  In  Ps.  civ. 
18  Ave  are  told  "  the  rocks  are  a  refuge  for 


Hyruc  Syiiacoi.    (From  a  ipccimen  in  the  BritUh  Mu- 
■eum.) 

the  coneys,"  and  in  Prov.  xxx.  26,  that "  the 
coneys  are  but  a  feeble  folk,  yet  make  they 
their  houses  in  the  rocks."  The  Hyrax 
satisfies  exactly  the  expressions  in  the  two 
last  passages.  Its  color  is  gray  or  brown 
on  the  back,  white  on  the  belly;  it  is  like 
the  alpine  marmot,  scarcely  of  the  size  of 
the  domestic  cat,  having  long  hair,  a  very 
short  tail,  and  round  ears.  It  is  found  on 
the  Lebanon  and  in  the  Jordan  and  Dead 
Sea  valleys. 

Congregation.  This  describes  the 
Hebrew  people  in  its  collective  capacity 
under  its  peculiar  aspect  as  a  holy  commu- 
nity, held  together  by  religious  rather  than 
political  bonds.  Sometimes  it  is  used  in  a 
broad  sense  as  inclusive  of  foreign  settlers 
(Ex.  xii.  19)  ;  but  more  properly,  as  exclu- 
sively appropriate  to  the  Hebrew  element 
of  the  population  (Num.  xv.  15).  Every 
circumcised  Hebrew  was  a  member  of  the 
congregation,  and  took  part  in  its  proceed- 
ings, probably  from  the  time  that  he  bore 
arms.  The  congregation  occupied  an  im- 
portant position  under  the  Theocracy,  as 
the  comitia  or  national  parliament,  invest- 
ed with  legislative  and  judicial  powers; 
each  house,  family,  and  tribe  being  repre- 
sented by  its  head  or  father.  The  number 
of  these  representatives  being  inconvenient- 
ly large  for  ordinary  business,  a  further 
selection  was  made  by  Moses  of  70,  who 
formed  a  species  of  standing  committee 
(Num.  xi.  16).  Occasionally  indeed  the 
whole  body  of  the  people  was  assembled  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  hence  usually 
called  the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation 
(Num.  X.  3).  The  people  were  strictly 
bound  by  the  acts  of  their  representatives, 
even  in  cases  where  they  disapproved  of 
them  (Josh.  ix.  18).  After  the  occupation 
of  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  congregation 
was  assembled  only  on  matters  of  the  high- 
est importance.  In  the  later  periods  of 
Jewish  history  the  congregation  was  repre- 
sented by  the  Sanhedrim. 

Coni'ah.    [Jeconiah.] 

Coiioni'ah,  a  Levite,  ruler  of  the  offer- 
ings and  tithes  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2 
Chr.  xxxi.  12,  13). 


Consecration.     [Priest.] 

Convocation.  This  term  is  applied 
invariably  to  meetings  of  a  religious  char- 
acter, in  contradistinction  to  congregation. 
With  one  exception  (Is.  i.  13),  tlie  word  is 
peculiar  to  the  Pentateuch. 

Cooking.  As  meat  did  not  form  an  ar- 
ticle of  ordinary  diet  among  the  Jews,  the 
art  of  cooking  was  not  carried  to  any  per- 
fection. Few  animals  were  slaughtered 
except  for  purposes  of  hospitality  or  fes- 
tivity. The  proceedings  on  such  occasions 
appear  to  have  been  as  follows  :  —  On  the 
arrival  of  a  guest,  the  animal,  either  a  kid, 
lamb,  or  calf,  was  killed  (Gen.  xviii.  7; 
Luke  XV.  23),  its  throat  being  cut  so  that 
the  blood  might  be  poured  out  (Lev.  vii. 
26)  ;  it  was  then  flayed  and  was  ready  either 
for  roasting  or  boiling ;  in  the  former  case 
the  animal  was  preserved  entire  (Ex.  xii. 
46),  and  roasted  either  over  a  fire  (Ex.  xii. 
8)  of  wood  (Is.  xliv.  16),  or  perhaps  in  an 
oven,  consisting  simply  of  a  hole  dug  in  the 
earth,  well  heated,  and  covered  up.  Boil- 
ing, however,  was  the  more  usual  method  of 
cooking. 

Co'os,  Acts  xxi.  1.     [Cos.] 

Copper,  Heb.  Kichdsheth,  in  the  A.  V. 
always  rendered  *'  brass,"  except  in  Ezr. 
viii.  27,  and  Jer.  xv.  12.  This  metal  is 
usually  found  as  pyrites  (sulphuret  of  cop- 
per and  iron),  malachite  (carb.  of  copper), 
or  in  the  state  of  oxide,  and  occasionally 
in  a  native  state,  principally  in  the  New 
World.  It  was  almost  exclusively  used 
by  the  ancients  for  common  purposes  ;  for 
which  its  elastic  and  ductile  nature  rendered 
it  practically  available.  We  read  in  the 
Bible  of  copper,  possessed  in  countless 
abundance  (2  Chr.  iv.  18),  and  used  for 
every  kind  of  instrument ;  as  chains  (Judg. 
xvi.  21),  pillars  (IK.  vii.  15-21),  lavers, 
the  great  one  being  called  "  the  coppei 
sea"  (2  K.  xxv.  13;  1  Chr.  xviii.  8),  and 
the  other  temple  vessels.  These  were 
made  in  the  foundery,  with  the  assistance 
of  Hiram,  a  Phoenician  (1  K.  vii.  13),  al- 
though the  Jews  were  not  ignorant  of  met- 
allurgy (Ez.  xxii.  18 ;  Deut.  iv.  20,  &c.),  and 
appear  to  have  worked  their  own  mines 
(Deut.  viii.  9;  Is.  li.  1).  We  read  also  of 
copper  mirrors  (Ex.  xxxviii.  8 ;  Job  xxxvii. 
18),  and  even  of  copper  arms,  as  helmets, 
spears,  &c.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  6,  6,  38 ;  2  Sam. 
xxi.  16).  The  expression  "bow  of  steel," 
in  Job  XX.  24 ;  Ps.  xviii.  34,  should  be  ren- 
dered "  bow  of  copper."  They  could 
hardly  have  applied  copper  to  these  pur- 
poses without  possessing  some  judicious 
system  of  alloys,  or  perhaps  some  forgot- 
ten secret  for  rendering  the  metal  harder 
and  more  elastic  than  we  can  make  it.  The 
only  place  in  the  A.  V.  where  "  copper"  is 
mentioned  is  Ez.  viii.  27  (cf.  1  Esd.  viii. 
57).  These  vessels  may  have  been  of  ori- 
cludcum  like  the  Persian  or  Indian  rases 


CORAL 


119 


CORINTHIANS 


found  among:  l.ic  treasures  of  Darius.  In 
Ez.  xxvii.  I'd  the  importation  of  copper  ves- 
sels to  the  markets  of  Tyre  by  merchants  of 
Javan,  Tubal,  and  Meshech  is  alluded  to. 
Probably  these  were  the  Moschi,  &c.,  who 
worked  the  copper-mines  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Mount  Caucasus.  In  2  Tim.  iv. 
14  /u/.zEj'c  is  rendered  "  coppersmith,"  but 
the  term  is  perfectly  general. 

Coral  occurs  only  as  the  somewhat 
doubtful  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  rdmdth, 
in  Job  xxviii.  18,  and  in  Ez.  xxvii.  16.  But 
"  coral "  has  decidedly  the  best  claim  of 
any  other  substances  to  represent  r&m6th. 
With  regard  to  the  estimation  in  which 
coral  was  held  by  the  Jews  and  other  Ori- 
entals, it  must  be  remembered  that  coral 
varies  in  price  with  us.  Pliny  says  that 
the  Indians  valued  coral  as  the  Romans 
valued  pearls. 

Corban,  an  offering  to  God  of  any  sort, 
bloody  or  bloodless,  but  particularly  in  ful- 
filment of  a  vow.  The  law  laid  down  rules 
for  vows,  1.  affirmative;  2.  negative  (Lev. 
xxvii. ;  Num.  xxx.).  Upon  these  rules  the 
traditionists  enlarged,  and  laid  down  that  a 
man  might  interdict  himself  by  vow,  not 
only  from  using  for  himself,  but  from  giv- 
ing to  another,  or  receiving  from  him,  some 
particular  object,  whether  of  food  or  any 
other  kind  whatsoever.  The  thing  thus 
interdicted  was  considered  as  Corban,  A 
person  might  thus  exempt  himself  from 
»ny  inconvenient  obligation  under  plea  of 
corban.  It  was  practices  of  this  sort  that 
our  Lord  reprehended  (Matt.  xv.  5 ;  Mark 
vii.  11),  as  annulling  the  spirit  of  the  law. 

Cord.  The  materials  of  which  cord 
was  made  varied  according  to  the  strength 
required ;  the  strongest  rope  was  probably 
made  of  strips  of  camel  hide,,  as  still  used 
by  the  Bedouins.  The  finer  sorts  were 
made  of  flax  (Is.  xix.  9),  and  probably  of 
reeds  and  rushes.  In  the  N.  T.  the  term 
is  applied  to  the  whip  which  our  Saviour 
made  (John  ii.  15),  and  to  the  ropes  of  a 
ship  (Acts  xxvii.  32). 

Co're,  Jude  11.     [KoRAH,  1.] 

Coriander.  Tlie  plant  called  Corian- 
drum  sativum  is  found  in  Egypt,  Persia, 
and  India,  and  has  a  round  tall  stalk;  it 
bears  umbelliferous  white  or  reddish  flow- 
ers, from  which  arise  globular,  grayish, 
spicy  seed-corns,  marked  with  fine  striae. 
It  is  mentioned  twice  in  the  Bible  (Ex.  xvi. 
31;  Num.  xi.  7). 

Corinth.  This  city  is  alike  remarkable 
for  its  distinctive  geographical  position,  its 
eminence  in  Greek  and  Roman  history,  and 
its  close  connection  with  the  early  spread 
of  Christianity.  Geographically  its  situa- 
tion was  so  marked,  that  the  name  of  its 
Isthmus  has  been  given  to  every  narrow 
neck  of  land  between  two  seas.  But,  be- 
sides this,  the  site  of  Corinth  is  distin- 
guished by  another  conspicuous  physical 


feature  —  viz.  the  Acrocorinthus,  a  vast 
citadel  of  rock,  which  rises  abruptly  to  the 
height  of  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  tte 
sea,  and  the  summit  of  which  is  so  exten- 
sive that  it  once  contained  a  whole  town. 
The  situation  of  Corinth,  and  the  posses- 
sion of  its  eastern  and  western  harbors 
(Cenchreae  and  Lechaedm),  are  the  se- 
crets of  its  history.  In  the  latest  passages 
of  Greek  history  Corinth  held  a  conspicu- 
ous place.  It  is  not  tlie  true  Greek  Corinth 
with  which  we  have  to  do  in  the  life  of  St. 
Paul,  but  the  Corinth  which  was  rebuilt 
and  established  as  a  Roman  colony.  The 
distinction  between  the  two  must  be  care- 
fully remembered.  The  new  city  was  hardly 
less  distinguished  than  the  old,  and  it  ac- 
quired a  fresh  importance  as  the  metropolis 
of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia.  Cor- 
inth was  a  place  of  great  mental  activity, 
as  well  as  of  commercial  and  manufactur- 
ing enterprise.  Its  wealth  was  so  cele- 
brated as  to  be  proverbial;  so  were  the 
vice  and  profligacy  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
worship  of  Venus  here  was  attended  with 
shameful  licentiousness.  All  these  points 
are  indirectly  illustrated  by  passages  in  the 
two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians.  Corinth 
is  still  an  episcopal  see.  The  city  has  now 
shrunk  to  a  wretched  village,  on  the  old 
site,  and  bearing  the  old  name,  which,  how- 
ever, is  corrupted  into  Gorilio.  The  Posi- 
donium,  or  sanctuary  of  Neptune,  the 
scene  of  the  Isthmian  games,  from  which 
St.  Paul  borrows  some  of  his  most  striking 
imagery  in  1  Cor.  and  other  epistles,  was 
a  short  distance  to  the  N.  E.  of  Corinth, 
at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Isthmus,  near 
the  harbor  of  Schoenus  (now  Kalamdki) 
on  the  Saronic  gulf.  The  exact  site  of  the 
temple  is  doubtful;  but  to  the  south  are 
the  remains  of  the  stadium,  where  the  foot- 
races were  run  (1  Cor.  ix.  24)  ;  to  the  east 
are  those  of  the  theatre,  which  was  prob- 
ably the  scene  of  the  pugilistic  contests 
(ib.  26)  :  and  abundant  on  the  shore  are 
the  small  green  pine-trees  which  gave  the 
fading  wreath  (ib.  25)  to  the  victors  in  the 
games. 

Corinthians,  First  Epistle  to  the, 
was  written  by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  toward 
the  close  of  his  nearly  three  years'  stay  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  10,  xx.  31),  which,  we 
learn  from  1  Cor.  xvi.  8,  probably  terminated 
with  the  Pentecost  of  a.  d.  57  or  58.  The 
bearers  were  probably  (according  to  the 
common  subscription)  SU'phanus,  Fortu- 
natus,  and  Achaicus,  who  had  been  recent- 
ly sent  to  the  Apostle,  and  who,  in  the  con- 
clusion of  this  epistle  (ch.  xvi.  17),  are 
especially  commended  to  the  lionorable 
regard  of  tlie  church  of  Corinth.  Tlii* 
varied  and  highly  characteristic  letter  wa« 
addressed  not  to  any  party,  but  to  thi  whole 
body  of  the  large  (Acts  .^viu.  8,  10),  Ju- 
daeo-GentUe   (Acts  xviii    4)    church    of 


CORINTUIANS 


120 


CORMORANT 


Corinth,  and  appears  to  have  been  called 
forth,  1st,  by  the  information  the  Apostle 
had  received  from  members  of  the  house- 
hold of  Chloe  (ch.  i.  11),  of  the  divisions 
that  were  existing  among  them,  which  were 
of  so  grave  a  nature  as  to  have  already  in- 
duced the  Apostle  to  desire  Timothy  to  visit 
Corinth  (ch.  iv.  17)  after  his  journey  to 
Macedonia  (Acts  xLx.  22) ;  2dly,  by  the  in- 
formation he  had  received  of  a  grievous  case 
of  incest  (ch.  v.  1),  and  of  the  defective 
etate  of  the  Corinthian  converts,  not  only 
in  regard  of  general  habits  (ch.  vi.  1,  sq.) 
and  church  discipline  (ch.  xi.  20,  sq.),  but 
as  it  would  also  seem,  of  doctrine  (ch. 
XV.) ;  3dly,  by  the  inquiries  that  had  been 
specially  addressed  to  St.  Paul  by  the 
church  of  Corinth  on  several  matters  re- 
lating to  Christian  practice.  Two  special 
points  deserve  separate  consideration:  1. 
The  state  of  parties  at  Corinth  at  the  time 
of  the  Apostle's  writing.  The  few  facts 
supplied  to  us  by  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
and  tlie  notices  in  the  epistle,  appear  to  be 
as  follows :  The  Corinthian  cl)urch  was 
planted  by  the  Apostle  himself  (1  Cor.  iii. 
6),  in  his  second  missionary  journey  (Acts 
xviii.  1,  sq.).  .  He  abode  in  the  city  a  year 
and  a  half  (ch.  xviii.  11).  A  short  time 
after  the  Apostle  had  left  the  city  the  elo- 
quent Jew  of  Alexandria,  ApoUos,  went  to 
Corinth  (Acts  xix.  1).  This  circumstance 
of  the  visit  of  Apollos  appears  to  have 
formed  the  commencement  of  a  gradual 
division  into  two  parties,  the  followers  of 
St.  Paul,  and  the  followers  of  Apollos 
(comp.  ch.  iv.  6).  These  divisions,  how- 
ever, were  to  be  multiplied;  for,  as  it 
would  seem,  shortly  after  the  departure  of 
Apollos,  Judaizing  teachers,  supplied  prob- 
ably with  letters  of  commendation  (2  Cor. 
iii.  1)  from  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  ap- 
pear to  have  come  to  Corinth  and  to  liave 
preached  the  Gospel  in  a  spirit  of  direct 
antagonism  to  St.  Paul  personally.  To 
this  third  party  we  may  perhaps  add  a 
fourth,  that,  under  the  name  of  *'  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ"  (ch.  i.  12),  sought  at 
first  to  separate  themselves  from  the  fac- 
tious adherence  to  particular  teachers,  but 
eventually  were  driven  by  antagonism  into 
positions  equally  sectarian  and  inimical  to 
tlie  unity  of  the  church.  At  this  moment- 
ous period,  before  parties  had  become  con- 
solidated, and  had  distinctly  withdrawn 
from  communion  with  one  another,  the 
Apostle  writes  :  and  in  the  outset  of  the 
epistle  (ch.  i.-iv.  21)  we  have  his  noble  and 
impassioned  protest  against  this  fourfold 
rending  of  the  robe  of  Christ.  2.  The 
number  of  epistles  written  by  St.  Paul  to 
the  Corinthian  church  will  probably  remain 
a  subject  of  controversy  to  the  end  of  time. 
The  well-known  words  (ch.  v.  9)  do  cer- 
tainly seem  to  point  to  some  former  epis- 
tolary communication    to    the  church  of 


Corinth.  The  whole  context  seems  in  fo- 
vor  of  this  view,  though  the  Greek  com- 
mentators are  of  the  contrary  opinion,  and 
no  notice  has  been  taken  of  the  lost  epistle 
by  any  writers  of  antiquity. 

Corinthians,  Second  Epistle  to 
the,  was  written  a  few  months  subse- 
quently to  the  first,  in  the  same  year,  — 
and  tlms,  if  the  dates  assigned  to  the  former 
epistle  be  correct,  about  the  autumn  of  a.  d. 
57  or  58,  a  short  time  pievious  to  the 
Apostle's  three  months'  stay  in  Achaia 
(Acts  XX.  3).  The  place  whence  it  was 
written  was  clearly  not  Ephesus  (see  ch.  i. 
8),  but  Macedonia  (ch.  vii.  5,  viii.  1,  ix.  2), 
whither  the  Apostle  went  by  way  of  Troas 
(ch.  ii.  12),  after  waiting  a  short  time  in 
the  latter  place  for  the  return  of  Titus  (ch. 
u.  13).  The  Vatican  MS.,  the  bulk  of 
later  MSS.,  and  the  old  Syr.  •version,  as- 
sign Philippi  as  the  exact  place  whence  it 
was  written;  but  for  this  assertion  we  have 
no  certain  grounds  to  rely  on :  that  the 
bearers,  however,  were  Titus  and  his  asso- 
ciates (Luke?)  is  apparently  substantiated 
by  ch.  viii.  23,  ix.  3,  5.  The  epistle  was 
occasioned  by  the  information  which  the 
Apostle  had  received  from  Titus,  and  also, 
as  it  would  certainly  seem  probable,  from 
Tunothy,  of  the  reception  of  the  first  epis- 
tle. This  information,  as  it  would  seem 
from  our  present  epistle,  was  mainly  fa^ 
vorable ;  the  better  part  of  the  church 
were  returning  back  to  their  spiritual  al- 
legiance to  their  founder  (ch.  i.  13,  14,  vii. 
9,  15,  16),  but  there  was  still  a  faction,  posr 
sibly  of  the  Judaizing  members  (comp.  cb. 
xi.  22),  that  were  sharpened  into  even  a 
more  keen  animosity  against  the  Apostle 
personally  (ch.  x.  1,  10),  and  more  strenu- 
ously denied  his  claim  to  Apostleship.  Tho 
contents  of  this  epistle  are  thus  very  va- 
ried, but  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : 
1st,  the  Apostle's  account  of  the  character 
of  his  spiritual  labors,  accompanied  with 
notices  of  his  afiectionate  feelings  towards 
his  converts  (ch.  i.-vii.)  ;  2dly,  directions 
about  the  collections  (ch.  viii.,  ix.) ;  3dly, 
defence  of  his  own  Apostolical  character 
(ch.  x.-xiii.  10).  The  principal  historical 
difficulty  connected  with  the  epistle  relates 
to  the  number  of  visits  made  by  the 
Apostle  to  the  church  of  Corinth.  The 
words  of  this  epistle  (ch.  xii.  14,  xiii.  1,  2) 
seem  distinctly  to  imply  that  St.  Paul  had 
visited  Corinth  twice  before  the  time  at 
which  he  now  writes.  St.  Luke,  however, 
only  mentions  one  visit  prior  to  that  time 
(Acts  xviii.  1,  sq.) ;  for  the  visit  recorded 
in  Acts  XX.  2,  3,  is  confessedly  subsequent. 
We  must  assume  that  the  Apostle  made  a 
visit  to  Corinth  which  St.  Liike  did  not  re- 
cord, probably  during  the  period  of  his 
three  years'  residence  at  Ephesus. 

Cormorant.  The  representative  in  the 
A.  y.   of  the  Hebrew  word.')  kdaih  and 


CORN 


121 


COS 


gfidldc.  As  to  the  former,  see  Pelican. 
ShAldc  occurs  only  as  the  name  of  an  un- 
clean bird  in  Lev.  xi.  17 ;  Deut.  xiv.  17. 
The  word  has  been  variously  rendered. 
The  etymology  points  to  some  plunging 
bird :  the  common  cormorant  {Plialacro- 
corax  carbo),  which  some  writers  have 
identified  with  the  Shdldc,  is  unknown  in 
the  eastern  Mediterranean ;  another  species 
is  found  S.  of  the  Red  Sea,  but  none  on 
tlie  W.  coast  of  Palestine. 

Corn.  The  most  common  kinds  were 
wheat,  barley,  spelt  (A.  V.  Ex.  ix.  32,  and 
Is.  xxviii.  25,  "rie;  "  Ez.  iv.  9,  "  fitches  "), 
and  millet;  oats  are  mentioned  only  by 
rabbinical  writers.  Corn-crops  are  still 
reckoned  at  twentyfold  what  was  sown,  and 
were  anciently  much  more.  "  Seven  ears 
on  one  stalk  "  (Gen.  xli.  22)  is  no  unusual 
phenomenon  in  Egypt  at  this  day.  The 
many-eared  stalk  is  also  common  in  the 
wheat  of  Palestine,  and  it  is  of  course  of 
the  bearded  kind.  Wheat  (see  2  Sam.  iv. 
6)  was  stored  in  the  house  for  domestic 
purposes.  It  is  at  present  often  kept  in  a 
dry  well,  and  perhaps  the  "ground  corn" 
of  2  Sam.  xvii.  19  was  meant  to  imply  that 
the  well  was  so  used.  From  Solomon's 
time  (2  Chr.  ii.  10, 15),  as  agriculture  became 
developed  under  a  settled  government,  Pal- 
estine was  a  corn-exporting  country,  and 
her  grain  was  largely  taken  by  her  com- 
mercial neighbor  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii.  17 ; 
comp.  Am.  viii.  5).  "  Plenty  of  corn  "  was 
pai't  of  Jacob's  blessing  (Gen.  xxviii.  28; 
comp.  Ps.  Ixv.  13). 

Come'lius,  a  Roman  centurion  of  the 
Italian  cohort  stationed  in  Caesarea  (Acts 
X.  1,  &c.),  a  man  full  of  good  works  and 
alms-deeds.  With  his  household  he  was 
baptized  by  St.  Peter,  and  'thus  Cornelius 
became  the  first-fruits  of  the  Gentile  world 
to  Christ. 

Corner.  The  "  corner  "  of  the  field 
was  not  allowed  (Lev.  xLx.  9)  to  be  wholly 
reaped.  It  formed  a  right  of  the  poor  to 
carry  off  what  was  so  left,  and  this  was  a 
part  of  the  maintenance  from  the  soil  to 
which  that  class  were  entitled.  On  the 
principles  of  the  Mosaic  polity  every  He- 
brew family  had  a  hold  on  a  certain  fixed 
estate,  and  could  by  no  ordinary  and  casual 
calamity  be  wholly  beggared.  Hence  its 
indigent  members  had  the  claims  of  kindred 
on  the  "corners,"  &c.,  of  the  field  which 
their  landed  brethren  reaped.  In  the  la- 
ter period  of  the  prophets  their  constant 
complaints  concerning  the  defrauding  the 
poor  (Is.  X.  2;  Am.  v.  11,  viii.  6)  seem  to 
show  that  such  laws  had  lost  their  practical 
force.  Still  later,  under  the  Scribes,  mi- 
nute legislation  fixed  one  sixtieth  as  the 
portion  of  a  field  which  was  to  be  left  for  the 
legal  "corner."  The  proportion  being  thus 
fixed,  all  the  grain  might  be  reaped,  and 
enough  to    satisfy  the    regulation    subse- 


'quently  separated  from  the  whole  crop, 
i  This  "corner"  was,  like  the  gleaning, 
;  tithe-free. 

j  Corner>-8tone,  a  quoin  or  corner-stone, 
'  of  great  importance  in  binding  together  the 
I  sides  of  a  building.  Some  of  the  corner- 
stones in  the  ancient  work  of  the  Temple 
foundations  are  17  or  19  feet  long,  and  7i 
feet  thick.  At  Nineveh  tho  corners  are 
sometimes  formed  of  one  angular  stone. 
The  phrase  "corner-stone"  is  sometimes 
used  to  denote  any  principal  person,  as  the 
princes  of  Egypt  (Is.  xix.  13),  and  is  thus 
applied  to  our  Lord  (Is.  xxviii.  16 ;  Matt, 
xxi.  42;   1  Pet.  ii.  6,  7). 

Cornet  (Heb.  Shdphdr),  a  loud-sound- 
ing instrument,  made  of  the  horn  of  a  ram 
or  of  a  chamois  (sometimes  of  an  ox) ,  and 
used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  for  signals, 
for  an'^ouncing  the  "Jubilee  "  (Lev.  xxv. 
9),  for  proclaiming  the  new  year,  for  the 
purposes  of  war  (Jer.  iv.  5,  19 ;  comp.  Job 
xxxix.  25),  as  well-  as  for  the  sentinels 
placed  at  the  watch-towers  to  give  notice 
of  the  approach  of  an  enemy  (Ez.  xxxiii.  4, 
5).  Shophdr  is  generally  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  "trumpet,"  but  "cornet"  (the  more 
correct  translation)  is  used  in  2  Chr.  xv. 
14 ;  Ps.  xcviii.  6 ;  Hos.  v.  8 ;  and  1  Chr. 
XV.  28.  "Cornet"  is  also  employed  in 
Dan.  iii.  5,  7,  10,  15,  for  the  Chaldee  Keren 
(literally  a  horn).  The  silver  trumpets 
wliich  Moses  was  charged  to  furnish  for  the 
Israelites,  were  to  be  used  for  the  follow- 
ing purposes :  for  the  calling  together  of 
the  assembly,  for  the  journeying  of  camps, 
for  sounding  the  alarm  of  war,  and  for  cele- 
brating the  sacrifices  on  festivals  and  new 
moons  (Num.  x.  1-10).  In  the  age  of  Sol- 
omon the  "  silver  trumpets  "  were  increased 
in  number  to  120  (2  Chr.  v.  12) ;  and,  in- 
dependently of  the  objects  for  which  they 
had  been  first  introduced,  they  were  now 
employed  in  the  orchestra  of  the  Temple 
as  an  accompaniment  to  songs  of  thanks- 
giving and  praise.  The  sounding  of  the 
cornet  was  the  distinguishing  ritual  feature 
of  the  festival  appointed  by  Moses  to  be 
held  on  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month 
under  the  denomination  of  "  a  day  of  blow- 
ing trumpets"  (Num.  xxix.  1),  or  "me- 
morial of  blowing  of  trumpets  "  (Lev.  xxiii. 
24).     [Trumpets,  Feasts  of.] 

Cos  or  Co'os  (now  Stanchio  or  Stanko). 
Tliis  small  island  of  tlie  Grecian  Archipel- 
ago has  several  interesting  points  of  con- 
nection with  the  Jews.     It  is  specified  as 
I  one  of  the  places  which  contained  Jewish 
i  residents  (1  Mace.  xv.  23).    Julius  Caesar 
I  issued  an  edict  in  favor  of  the  Jews  of  Cos. 
I  Herod  the  Great  conferred  many  favors  on 
I  the  island.     St.  Paul,  on  the  return  from 
!  his   third  missionary  journey,  passed  the 
I  night   here,   after  sailing  from  Miletus. 
The  chief  town  (of  the  same  name)  was  on 
i  the  N.  E.  near  a  promontory  called  Scan* 


COSAM 


122 


CRETE 


dariutn :  and  perhaps  it  is  to  the  town  that 

reference  is  made  in  the  Acts  (xxi.  1). 

Co'sam,  son  of  Elmodam,  in  the  line 
of  Joseph  the  liusband  of  Mary  (Luke  iii. 
28). 

Cotton,  Heb.  carpas  (comp.  Lat.  car- 
basus)  Esth.  i.  6,  where  the  Vulg.  has  car- 
basini  coloris,  as  if  a  color,  not  a  material 
(so  in  A.  V.  "green"),  were  intended. 
Tliere  is  a  doubt  whether  under  SMsh,  in 
the  earlier,  and  BAts,  in  the  later  books  of 
the  O.  T.,  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  "  white 
linen,"  "  fine  linen,"  &c.,  cotton  may  have 
been  included  as  well.  The  dress  of  the 
Egyptian  priests,  at  any  rate  in  their  min- 
istrations, was  without  doubt  of  linen  (He- 
rod, ii.  37).  Cotton  is  now  both  grown  and 
manufactured  in  various  parts  of  Syria  and 
Palestine ;  but  there  is  no  proof  that,  till 
they  came  in  contact  with  Persia,  the  He- 
brews generally  knew  of  it  as  a  distinct 
fabric  from  linen.     [Linen.] 

Couch.     [Bed.]     • 

Council.  1.  The  great  council  of  the 
Sanhedrim,  which  sat  at  Jerusalem.  [San- 
hedrim.] 2.  The  lesser  courts  (Matt.  x. 
17 ;  Mark  xiii.  9),  of  which  there  were  two 
at  Jerusalem,  and  one  in  each  town  of  Pal- 
estine. The  constitution  of  these  courts  is 
a  doubtful  point.  The  existence  of  local 
courts,  however  constituted,  is  clearly  im- 
plied in  the  passages  quoted  from  the  N. 
T. ;  and  perhaps  the  "  judgment "  (Matt. 
T.  21)  applies  to  them.  3.  A  kind  of  jury 
or  privy  council  (Acts  xxv.  12),  consisting, 
of  a  certain  number  of  assessors,  who  as- 
eisted  Roman  governors  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  and  other  public  matters. 

Court  (Heb.  chdts6r),  an  open  enclo- 
sure, applied  in  the  A.  V.  most  commonly 
to  the  enclosures  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the 
Temple  (Ex.  xxvii.  9,  xl.  33 ;  Lev.  vi.  16 ; 
1  K.  vi.  36,  vU.  8 ;  2  K.  xxiii.  12 ;  2  Chr. 
xxxiii.  5,  &c.). 

Covenant.  The  Heb.  hirith  means 
primarily  "  a  cutting,"  with  reference  to 
the  custom  of  cutting  or  dividing  animals 
in  two,  and  passing  between  the  parts  in 
ratifying  a  covenant  (Gen.  xv. ;  Jer.  xxxiv. 
18,  19).  In  the  N.  T.  the  corresponding 
word  is  diathece  (^i«5ijx>j),  which  is  fre- 
quently, though  by  no  means  uniformly, 
translated  testament  in  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion. In  its  Biblical  meaning  of  a  com- 
pact or  agreement  between  two  parties,  the 
woid  is  used  —  1.  Improperly,  of  a  cove- 
nant between  God  and  man.  Man  not  be- 
ing in  any  way  in  the  position  of  an  inde- 
pendent covenanting  party,  the  phrase  is 
e\id3ntly  used  by  way  of  accommodation. 
Strictly  speaking,  such  a  covenant  is  quite 
unconditioncl,  and  amounts  to  a  promise 
(Gal.  iii.  15,  ff.)  or  act  of  mere  favor  (Ps. 
Ixxxix.  28).  Thus  the  assurance  given  by 
God  after  the  Flood,  that  a  like  judgment 
ghould  not  be  repeated,  and  that  die  recur- 


rence of  the  seasons,  and  of  day  and  night, 
should  not  cease,  is  called  a  covenant  (Gen. 
ix. ;  Jer.  xxxiii.  20).  Consistently  with 
tliis  representation  of  God's  dealings  with 
man  under  the  form  of  a  covenant,  such 
covenant  is  said  to  be  confirmed,  in  con- 
formity to  human  custom,  by  ah  oath 
(Deut.  iv.  31;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  3),  to  be  sanc- 
tioned by  curses  to  fall  upon  the  unfaithful 
(Deut.  xxix.  21),  and  to  be  accompanied 
by  a  sign,  such  as  the  rainbow  (Gen  ix.), 
circumcision  (Gen.  xvii.),  or  the  Sabbath 
(Ex.  xxxi.  16, 17).  2.  Properly,  of  a  cove- 
nant between  man  and  man,  i.  e.  a  solemn 
compact  or  agreement,  either  between  tribes 
or  nations  (1  Sam.  xi.  1 ;  Josh.  ix.  6,  15), 
or  between  individuals  (Gen.  xxxi.  44),  by 
wliich  each  party  bound  himself  to  fulfil 
certain  conditions,  and  was  assured  of  re- 
ceiving certain  advantages.  In  making 
such  a  covenant  God  was  solemnly  invoked 
as  witness  (Gen.  xxxi.  50),  and  an  oath 
was  sworn  (Gen.  xxi.  31).  A  sign  or  wit- 
ness of  the  covenant  was  sometimes  framed, 
such  as  a  gift  (Gen.  xxi.  30),  or  a  pillar,  or 
heap  of  stones  erected  (Gen.  xxxi.  52). 
The  marriage  compact  is  called  "  the  cove- 
nant of  God"  (Prov.  ii.  17;  see  Mai.  ii. 
14).  The  word  covenant  came  to  be  ap- 
plied to  a  sure  ordinance,  such  as  that  of 
the  shew-bread  (Lev.  xxiv.  8)  ;  and  is  used 
figuratively  in  such  expressions  as  a  cove- 
nant with  death  (Is.  xxviii.  18),  or  with  the 
wild  beasts  (Hos.  ii.  18). 

Cow.     [Bdll.] 

Coz,  a  man  among  the  descendants  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  8). 

Coz'bi,  daughter  of  Zur,  a  chief  of  the 
Midianites  (Num.  xxv.  15,  18). 

Crane.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  A.  V.  is  incorrect  in  rendering  sUs  by 
"  crane,"  which  bird  is  probably  intended 
by  the  Hebrew  word  '&gur,  translated 
"swallow,"  by  the  A.  V.  [Swallow.] 
Mention  is  made  of  the  sUs  in  Hezekiah's 
prayer  (Is.  xxxviii.  14),  "  Like  a  sus  or  an 
'dgur  so  did  I  twitter ;  "  and  again  in  Jer. 
viii.  7  these  two  words  occur  in  the  same 
order,  from  which  passage  we  learn  that 
both  birds  were  migratory.  According  to 
the  testimony  of  most  of  the  ancient  ver- 
sions, sus  denotes  a  "  swallow." 

Creditor.     [Loan.] 

Cres'eens  (2  Tim.  iv.  10),  an  assistant 
of  St.  Paul,  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples.  According  to  early  tra- 
dition, he  preached  the  Gospel  in  Galatia. 
Later  tradition  makes  him  preach  in  Gaul, 
and  found  the  Church  at  Vienne. 

Crete,  the  modem  Candia.  This  large 
island,  which  closes  in  the  Greek  Archipel- 
ago on  the  S.,  extends  through  a  distance 
of  140  miles  between  its  extreme  points  of 
Cape  Salmons  (Acts  xxvii.  7)  on  the  E. 
and  Cape  Criumetopon  beyond  Phoenick 
or  Phoenix  (i6. 12)  on  the  W.    Though 


CRETES 


123 


CROWN 


extremely  bold  and  mountainous,  this  island 
has  very  fruitful  valleys,  and  in  early  times 
it  was  celebrated  for  its  hundred  cities.  It 
Beems  likely  that  a  very  early  acquaintance 
existed  between  the  Cretans  and  the  Jews. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  Jews  were  settled 
in  the  island  in  considerable  numbers  dur- 
ing the  period  between  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  the  final  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  Gortyna  seems  to  have  been 
their  chief  residence  (1  Mace.  xv.  23). 
Thus  tlie  special  mention  of  Cretans  (Acts 
ii.  11)  among  those  who  were  at  Jerusalem 
at  the  great  Pentecost  is  just  what  we 
•hould  expect.  No  notice  is  given  in  the 
Acts  of  any  more  direct  evangelization  of 
Crete;  and  no  absolute  proof  can  be  ad- 
duced that  St.  Paul  was  ever  there  before 
his  voyage  from  Caesarea  to  Puteoli.  The 
circumstances  of  St.  Paul's  recorded  visit 
were  briefly  as  follows  :  —  The  wind  being 
contrary  when  he  was  off  Cnidus  (Acts 
xxvii.  7),  the  ship  was  forced  to  run  down 
to  Cape  Salnione,  and  thence  under  the  lee 
of  Crete  to  Fair  Havens,  which  was  near 
a  city  called  Lasaea  (ver.  8).  Thence,  after 
some  delay,  an  attempt  was  made,  on  the 
wind  becoming  favorable,  to  reach  Phoenice 
for  the  purpose  of  wintering  there  (ver.  12), 
The  next  point  of  connection  between  St. 
Paul  and  this  island  is  found  in  the  Epistle 
to  Titus.  It  is  evident  from  Tit.  i.  5,  that 
the  Apostle  himself  was  here  at  no  long 
interval  of  time  before  he  wrote  the  letter. 
In  the  course  of  the  letter  (Tit.  i.  12)  St. 
Paul  adduces  from  Epimenides,  a  Cretan 
sage  and  poet,  a  quotation  in  which  the 
vices  of  his  countrymen  are  described  in 
dark  colors.  The  truth  of  their  statement 
w  abundantly  confirmed  by  other  ancient 
writers. 

Ore  tea  (Acts  ii.  11).  Cretans,  inhabit- 
ants of  Crete. 

Cris'pus,  ruler  of  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue at  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  8) ;  baptized 
with  his  family  by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  i.  14). 
According  to  tradition,  he  became  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Aegina. 

Cross.  As  the  emblem  of  a  slave's 
death  and  a  murderer's  punishment,  the 
cross  was  naturally  looked  upon  with  the 
profoundest  horror.  But  after  the  celebrat- 
ed vision  of  Constantine,  he  ordered  his 
friends  to  make  a  cross  of  gold  and  gems, 
^uch  as  he  had  seen,  and  "  the  towering 
eagles  resigned  the  flags  unto  the  cross," 
and  "  the  tree  of  cursing  and  shame  "  "  sat 
upon  the  sceptres  and  was  engraved  and 
signed  on  the  foreheads  of  kings "  (Jer. 
Taylor,  Life  of  Christ,  iii.,  xv.  1).  The 
new  standards  were  called  by  the  name 
Labarum,  and  may  be  seen  on  the  coins  of 
Constantine  the  Great  and  ins  nearer  suc- 
cessors. The  Latin  cross,  on  which  our 
Lord  suffered,  was  in  the  form  of  the  letter 
T,  and  had  an  upright  above  the  crossbar, 


on  which  the  "  title  "  was  placed.  There 
was  a  projection  from  the  central  stem,  on 
which  the  body  of  the  sufferer  rested.  This 
was  to  prevent  the  weight  of  the  body  from 


The  LBbamm.    (From  •  coin  in  the  Britiab  Hiuenm.) 

tearing  away  the  hands.  Whether  there 
was  also  a  support  to  the  feet  (as  we  see  in 
pictures),  is  doubtful.  An  inscription  waa 
generally  placed  above  the  criminal's  head, 
briefly  expressing  his  guilt,  and  generally 
was  carried  before  him.  It  was  covered 
with  white  gypsum,  and  the  letters  were 
black.  It  is  a  question  whether  tying  or 
binding  to  the  cross  was  the  more  common 
method.  That  our  Lord  was  nailed,  ac- 
cording to  prophecy,  is  certain  (John  xx. 
25,  27,  &c.;  Zech.  xii.  10;  Ps.  xxii,  16). 
It  is,  however,  extremely  probable  that 
both  methods  were  used  at  once.  The 
cross  on  which  our  Saviour  suffered  is  said 
to  have  been  discovered  in  a.  d.  326,  and  to 
this  day  the  supposed  title,  or  rather  fra|^ 
ments  of  it,  are  shown  to  the  people  once  a 
year  in  the  Churcli  of  Sta.  Croce  in  Geru- 
salemme  at  Rome.  It  was  not  till  the  6th 
century  that  the  emblem  of  the  cross  became 
the  image  of  the  crucifix.  As  a  symbol  the 
use  of  it  was  frequent  in  the  early  Church. 
It  was  not  till  the  2d.century  that  any  par« 
ticular  efficacy  was  attached  to  it.    [Cbuci* 

FIXION.] 

Crown.  This  ornament,  which  is  both 
ancient  and  universal,  probably  originated 
from  the  fillets  used  to  prevent  the  hair 
from  being  dishevelled  by  the  wind.  Such 
fillets  are  still  common,  and  they  may  be 
seen  on  the  sculptures  of  Persepolis,  Nine- 
veli,  and  Egypt ;  they  gradually  developed 
into  turbans,  which  by  the  addition  of  orna- 
mental or  precious  materials  assumed  the 
dignity  of  mitres  or  crowns.  Both  the  or- 
dinary  priests  and  the  high-priest   WOM 


CROWN  OF  THORNS 


124 


CRUCIFIXION 


them.  The  common  "  bonnet "  (Ex.  xxviii. 
87,  xxix.  6,  &c),  formed  a  sort  of  linen  fil- 
let or  crown.  The  mitre  of  the  high-priest 
(used  also  of  a  regal  crown,  Ez.  xxi.  2G) 
was  much  more  splendid  (Ex.  xxviii.  36 ; 
Lev.  viii.  9).  It  had  a  second  fillet  of  blue 
lace,  and  over  it  a  golden  diadem  (Ex. 
xxix.  6).  The  gold  band  was  tied  behind 
with  blue  lace  (embroidered  with  flowers), 
and  being  two  fingers  broad,  bore  the  in- 
Bcription  "Holiness  to  the  Lord"  (comp. 
Rev.  xvii.  .5).  There  are  many  words  in 
Scripture  denoting  a  crown  besides  those 
mentioned :  the  head-dress  of  bridegrooms 
(Is.  Ixi.  10;  Bar.  v.  2;  Ez.  xxiv.  17),  and 
of  women  (Is.  iii.  20) ;  a  head-dress  of 
great  splendor  (Is.  xxviii.  5)  ;  a  wreath  of 
flowers  (Prov.  i.  9,  iv.  9) ;  and  a  cogjmon 
tiara  or  turban  (Job  xxix.  14;  Is.  iii.  23). 
The  general  word  is  'atdrdh,  and  we  must 
attacli  to  it  the  notion  of  a  costly  turban  ir- 
radiated with  pearls  and  gems  of  priceless 
value,  which  often  form  aigrettes  for  feath- 
ers, as  in  the  crowns  of  modern  Asiatic 
sovereigns.  Such  was  probably  the  crown, 
which  with  its  precious  stones  weighed  (or 
rather  "  was  worth ")  a  talent,  taken  by 
David  from  the  king  of  Ammon  at  Rabbah, 
and  used  as  the  sUite  crown  of  Judah  (2 
Sam.  xii.  30).  In  Rev,  xii.  3,  xix.  12,  allu- 
sion is  made  to  "  many  crowns  "  worn  in 
token  of  extended  dominion.  The  laurel, 
pine,  or  parsley  crowns  given  to  victors  in 
the  great  games  of  Greece  are  finely  al- 
luded to  by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  ix.  25 ;  2  Tim. 
ii.  6.  &c.). 


Crowns  worn  by  Assyrian  King*.    (From  Nimroad  and 
Kuuyuiviilc.) 

Crown  of  Thorns,  Matt,  xxvii.  29. 
Our  Lord  was  crowned  with  thorns  in 
mockery  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  The  ob- 
ject seems  to  have  been  insult,  and  not  the 
infliction  of  pain,  as  has  generally  been  sup- 
posed. The  Rliamnus  or  Spina  Christi,  al- 
though abundant  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Jerusalem,  cannot  be  the  plant  intended, 
because  its  thorns  are  so  strong  and  large 
that  it  could  not  have  been  woven  into  a 
wreath.  Had  the  acacia  been  intended,'as 
some  suppose,  the  phrase  would  have  been 
diff'erent.  Obviously  some  small  flexile 
thorny  shrub  is  meant;  perhaps  Capparis 
spinosa. 


Crucifixion  was  in  use  among  the 
Egyptians  (Gen.  xl.  19),  the  Carthaginians, 
the  Persians  (Esth.  vii.  10),  the  Assyrians, 
Scythians,  Indians,  Germans,  and  from  the 
earliest  times  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. Whether  this  mode  of  execution 
was  known  to  the  ancient  Jews  is  a  matter 
of  dispute.  Probably  the  Jews  borrowed  it 
from  the  Romans.  It  was  unanimously- 
considered  the  most  horrible  form  of  death. 
Among  the  Romans  also  the  degradation 
was  a  part  of  the  infliction,  and  the  punish- 
ment if  applied  to  freemen  was  only  used 
in  the  case  of  the  vilest  criminals.  Our 
Lord  was  condemned  to  it  by  the  popular 
cry  of  the  Jews  (Matt,  xxvii.  23)  on  the 
charge  of  sedition  against  Caesar  (Luke 
xxiii.  2),  although  the  Sanhedrim  had 
previously  condemned  him  on  the  totally 
distinct  charge  of  blasphemy.  The  scar- 
let robe,  crown  of  thorns,  and  other  in- 
sults to  which  our  Lord  was  subjected  were 
illegal,  and  arose  from  the  spontaneous 
petulance  of  the  brutal  soldiery.  Rut  the 
punishment  properly  commenced  with 
scourging,  after  the  criminal  had  been 
stripped.  It  was  inflicted  not  with  the 
comparatively  mild  rods,  but  the  more  ter- 
rible scourge  (2  Cor.  xi.  24,  25),  which  was 
not  used  by  the  Jews  (Deut.  xxv.  3).  Into 
these  scourges  the  soldiers  often  stuck  nails, 
pieces  of  bone,  &c.,  to  heighten  the  pain, 
which  was  often  so  intense  tliat  the  sufferer 
died  under  it.  In  our  Lord's  case,  howev- 
er, this  infliction  seems  neither  to  have 
been  the  legal  scourging  after  sentence,  nor 
yet  the  examination  by  torture  (Acts  xxii. 
24),  but  rather  a  scourging  before  the  sen- 
tence, to  excite  pity  and  procure  immunity 
from  further  punishment  (Luke  xxiii.  22; 
John  xix.  1).  The  criminal  carried  his 
own  cross,  or  at  any  rate  a  part  of  it.  The 
place  of  execution  was  outside  the  city  (1 
K.  xxi.  13;  Acts  vii.  58;  Heb.  xiii.  12),  of- 
ten in  some  public  road  or  other  conspicu- 
ous place.  Arrived  at  the  place  of  execu- 
tion, the  sufferer  was  stripped  naked,  the 
dress  being  the  perquisite  of  the  soldiers 
(Matt,  xxvii.  35).  The  cross  was  then 
driven  into  the  ground,  so  that  the  feet  of 
the  condemned  were  a  foot  or  two  above 
the  earth,  and  he  was  lifted  upon  it,  or  else 
stretched  upon  it  on  the  ground,  and  then 
lifted  with  it.  Before  the  nailing  or  Lxud- 
ing  took  place,  a  medicated  cup  was  givea 
out  of  kindness  to  confuse  the  senses  ana 
deaden  the  pangs  of  the  sufferer  (Prov. 
xxxi.  6),  usually  "  of  wine  mingled  with 
myrrh,"  because  myrrh  was  soporific.  Our 
Lord  refused  it  that  his  senses  might  be 
clear  (Matt,  xxvii.  34 ;  Mark  xv.  23).  He 
was  crucified  betvreen  two  "  thieves "  or 
"  malefactors,"  according  to  propliecy  (Is. 
liii.  12) ;  and  was  watched  according  to 
custom  by  a  party  of  four  soldiers  (John 
xix.  23)  with  their  centurion  (Matt,  xxvii. 


CRUSE 


125 


CUPBEARER 


66),  whose  express  office  was  to  prevent 
the  stealing  of  the  body.  This  was  neces- 
sary from  the  lingering  character  of  the 
death,  which  sometimes  did  not  supervene 
even  for  three  days,  and  was  at  last  the  re- 
sult of  gradual  benumbing  and  starvation. 
But  for  this  guard,  the  persons  might  have 
been  taken  down  and  recovered,  as  was  ac- 
tually done  in  the  case  of  a  friend  of  Jo- 
sephus.  Fracture  of  the  legs  was  especial- 
ly adopted  by  the  Jews  to  hasten  death 
(John  xix.  31).  But  the  unusual  rapidity 
of  our  Lord's  death  was  due  to  the  depth 
of  Ilis  previous  agonies,  or  may  be  suffi- 
ciently accounted  for  simply  from  peculiari- 
ties of  constitution.  Pilate  expressly  sat- 
isfied himself  of  the  actual  death  by  ques- 
tioning the  centurion  (Mark  xv.  44).  In 
most  cases  the  body  was  suffered  to  rot  on 
the  cross  by  the  action  of  sun  and  rain,  or 
to  be  devoured  by  birds  and  beasts.  Sep- 
ulture was  generally  therefore  forbidden; 
but  in  consequence  of  Deut.  xxi.  22,  23,  an 
express  national  exception  was  made  in  fa- 
vor of  the  Jews  (Matt,  xxvii.  58).  This 
accursed  and  awful  mode  of  punishment 
was  happily  abolished  by  Constantino. 

Cruse,  a  vessel  for  holding  water,  such 
as  was  carried  by  Saul  when  on  his  night 
expedition  after  David  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  11, 
12,  lG),and  by  Elijah  (1  K.  xix.  6).  In  a 
similar  case  in  the  present  day  this  would 
be  a  globular  vessel  of  blue  porous  clay, 
about  9  inches  diameter,  with  a  neck  of 
about  3  inches  long,  a  small  handle  below 
the  neck,  and  opposite  the  handle  a  straight 
spout,  with  an  orifice  about  the  size  of  a 
straw,  through  which  the  water  is  drunk  or 
sucked. 

Crystal,  the  representative  in  the  A.  V. 
of  two  Hebrew  words.  1.  ZecAcith  occurs 
only  in  Job  xxviii.  17,  where  "  glass " 
probably  is  intended.  2.  Kerach  occurs 
in  numerous  passages  in  the  O.  T.  to  denote 
"ice,"  "  frost,"  &c. ;  but  once  only  (Ez.  i. 
22),  as  is  generally  understood,  to  signify 
"  crystal."  The  ancients  supposed  rock- 
crj'stal  to  be  merely  ice  congealed  by 
intense  cold.  The  similarity  of  appearance 
between  ice  and  crystal  caused  no  doubt 
the  identity  of  the  terms  to  express  these 
substances.  The  Greek  word  occurs  in 
Kev.  iv.  6,  xxii.  1.  It  may  mean  either 
"ice"  or  "  crystal." 

Cubit.     [Mkasures.] 

Cuckoo  (Heb.  shachapk).  There  does 
not  appear  to  be  any  .authority  for  this 
translation  of  the  A.  V. ;  the  Heb.  word 
occurs  twice  only  (Lev.  xi.  16 ;  Deut.  xiv. 
15),  as  the  name  of  some  unclean  bird,  and 
may  probably  indicate  some  of  the  larger 
petrels,  which  abound  in  the  east  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

Cucumbers  (Heb.  kishshuim).  This 
word  occurs,  in  Num.  xi.  5,  as  one  of  the 
good  things  of  Egypt  for  which  the  Israel- 


ites longed.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the 
meaning  of  the  Hebrew.  Egypt  produces 
excellent  cucumbers,  melons,  &c.,  the  Cii- 
cumis  chate  being  the  best  of  its  tribe  yet 
known.  This  plant  grows  in  the  fertile 
earth  around  Cairo  after  the  inundation  of 
the  Nile,  and  not  elsewhere  in  Egypt.  The 
C.  chate  is  a  variety  only  of  the  common 
melon  ( C.  melo)  ;  it  was  once  cultivated  in 
England,  and  called  "the  round-leaved 
Egyptian  melon ;  "  but  it  is  rather  an  insipid 
sort.  Besides  the  Cucumis  chate,  the  com- 
mon cucumber  (C.  sativus),  of  which  tho 
Arabs  distinguish  a  number  of  varieties,  ia 
common  in  Egypt.  "  Both  Cucumis  chate 
and  C.  sativus,"  says  Mr.  Tristram,  "  are 
now  grown  in  great  quantities  in  Palestine  : 
on  visiting  the  Arab  school  in  Jerusalem 
(1858)  I  observed  that  the  dinner  which 
the  children  brought  with  them  to  school 
consisted,  without  exception,  of  a  piece  of 
barley-cake  and  a  raw  cucumber,  which 
they  eat  rind  and  all."  The  "  lodge  in  a 
garden  of  cucumbers "  (Is.  i.  8)  is  a  rude' 
temporary  shelter,  erected  in  the  open 
grounds  where  vines,  cucumbers,  gourds, 
&c.,  are  grown,  in  which  some  lonely  man 
or  boy  is  set  to  watch,  either  to  guard  the 
plants  from  robbers,  or  to  scare  away  the 
foxes  and  jackals  from  the  vines. 

Cummin,  one  of  the  cultivated  plants 
of  Palestine  (Is.  xxviii.  25, 27 ;  Matt,  xxiii. 
23).  It  is  an  umbelliferous  plant  some- 
thing like  fennel.  The  seeds  have  a 
bitterish  warm  taste  with  an  aromatic 
flavor.  The  Maltese  are  said  to  grow  it  at 
the  present  day,  and  to  thresh  it  in  the 
manner  described  by  Isaiah. 

Cup.  The  cups  of  the  Jews,  whether 
of  metal  or  earthenware,  were  possibly  bor- 
rowed, in  point  of  shape  and  design,  from 
Egypt  and  from  the  Phoenicians,  who  were 
celebrated  in  that  branch  of  workmanship. 
Egyptian  cups  were  of  various  shapes, 
either  with  handles  or  without  them.  In 
Solomon's  time  all  his  drinking  vessels 
were  of  gold,  none  of  silver  (1  K.  x.  21). 
Babylon  is  compared  to  a  golden  cup  (Jer. 
li.  7).  The  great  laver,  or  "  sea,"  was  made 
with  a  rim  like  the  rim  of  a  cup,  {C6s), 
"  with  flowers  of  lilies  "  (1  K.  vii.  26),  a 
form  which  the  Persepolitan  cups  resemble. 
The  cups  of  the  N.  T.  were  often  no  doubt 
formed  on  Greek  and  Roman  models.  They 
were  sometimes  of  gold  (Rev.  xvii.  4). 

Cupbearer.  An  officer  of  high  rank 
with  Egyptian,  Persian,  Assyrian,  as  veil 
as  Jewish  monarchs  (1  K.  x.  5).  The  chief 
cupbearer,  or  butler,  to  the  king  of  Egypt 
was  the  means  of  raising  Joseph  to  his  high 
poshion  (Gen.  xl.  1,  21,  xH.  9).  Rabshakeh 
appears  from  his  name  to  have  filled  a  like 
office  in  the  Assyrian  court  (2  K.  xviii.  17). 
Nehemiah  was  cupbearer  to  Artaxerxea 
Longimanus  king  of  Pe-iia  (Neh.  i.  11| 
u.  1). 


CURTAINS 


126 


CYPRUS 


Curtains.  The  Hebrew  terms  translat- 
ed in  the  A.  V.  by  this  word  are  three  :  1. 
Yeridth,  the  ten  "  curtains  "  of  fine  linen, 
and  also  the  eleven  of  goats'  hair,  which 
covered  the  Tabernacle  of  Moses  (Ex.  xxvi. 
1-13 ;  xxxvi.  8-17.  2.  Mdsdc,  the  "  hang- 
ing "  for  the  doorway  of  the  tabernacle,  Ex. 
xxvi.  36,  &c.,  and  also  for  the  gate  of  the 
court  round  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  xxvii.  16, 
&c.  The  rendering  "  curtain "  occurs  but 
once,  Num.  iii.  26.  3.  Ddk.  This  word 
is  found  but  once  (Is.  xl.  22),  and  its  mean- 
ing is  doubtful. 

Gush,  a  Benjamite  mentioned  only  in 
the  title  to  Ps.  vii.  He  was  probably  a 
follower  of  Saul,  the  head  of  his  tribe. 

Gush.,  the  name  of  a  son  of  Ham,  ap- 
parently the  eldest,  and  of  a  territory  or 
territories  occupied  by  his  descendants.  1. 
In  the  genealogy  of  Noah's  children  Cush 
seems  to  be  an  individual,  for  it  is  said 
"Cush  begat  Nirarod"  (Gen.  x.  8;  1  Chr. 
i.  10).  2.  Cush  as  a  country  appears  to  be 
African  in  all  passages  except  Gen.  ii.  13. 
We  may  thus  distinguish  a  primeval  and  a 
post-diluvian  Cush.  The  former  was  en- 
compassed by  Gihon,  the  second  river  of 
Paradise  :  it  would  seem  therefore  to  have 
been  somewhere  to  the  northward  of  As- 
syria. It  is  possible  that  the  African  Cush 
was  named  from  this  elder  country.  In 
the  ancient  Egyptian  inscriptions  Ethiopia 
above  Egypt  if  termed  Keesh  or  Kesh,  and 
this  territory  probably  perfectly  corre- 
fpond*  to  the  African  Cush  of  the  Bible. 
The  Cushites  however  had  clearly  a  wider 
extension,  like  the  Ethiopians  of  the 
Greeks,  but  apparently  with  a  more  definite 
ethnic  relation.  The  Cushites  appear  to 
have  spread  along  tracts  extending  from 
the  higher  Nile  to  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 
History  affords  many  traces  of  this  relation 
of  Babylonia,  Arabia,  and  Ethiopia.  Zerah 
the  Cushite  (A.  V.  "Etliiopian"),  who  was 
defeated  by  Asa,  was  most  probably  a  king 
of  Egypt,  certainly  the  leader  of  an  Egyptian 
army. 

Gu'shan  (Hab.  iii.  7),  possibly  the  same 
as  Cushan-rishathaim  (A.  V.  Cushan-)  king 
of  Mesopotamia  (Judg.  iii.  8,  10). 

Gu'shi.  Properly' '« the  Cushite,"  "  the 
Ethiopian,"  a  man  apparently  attached  to 
Joab's  person  (2  Sam.  xviii.  21,  22,  23,  31, 
32). 

Guth  or  Gu'thah,  one  of  the  countries 
whence  Shalmaneser  introduced  colonists 
into  Samaria  (2  K.  xvii.  24,  30).  Its  posi- 
tion is  undecided ;  but  it  may  perhaps  be 
identified  with  the  Cossaei,  a  warlike  tribe, 
wlio  occupied  the  mountain  ranges  dividing 
Persia  and  Media. 

Gutting  off  from  the  People.  [Ex- 
communication.] 

Guttings  [in  the  Plesli].  The  pro- 
hibition (Lev.  xix.  28)  against  marks  or 
cuttings  in  the  flosh  for  the  dead  must  be 


taken  in  connection  with  the  parallel  pas- 
sages (Lev.  xxi.  5;  Deut.  xiv.  1),  in  which 
shaving  the  head  with  the  same  view  is 
equally  forbidden.  The  ground  of  the  pro- 
hibition will  be  found  in  the  superstitious 
or  inhuman  practices  prevailing  among 
heathen  nations.  The  priests  of  Baal  cut 
themselves  with  knives  to  propitiate  the 
god  "  after  their  manner"  (IK.  xviii.  28). 
Lucian,  speaking  of  the  Syrian  priestly  at- 
tendants of  tliis  mock  deity,  says,  that 
using  violent  gestures  they  cut  their  arms 
and  tongues  with  swords.  The  proliibition, 
therefore,  is  directed  against  practices  pre- 
vailing not  among  the  Egyptians  whom  the 
IsraeHtes  were  leaving,  but  among  the 
Syrians,  to  whom  they  were  about  to  be- 
come neighbors.  But  there  is  another 
usage  contemplated  more  remotely  by  the 
prohibition,  viz.,  that  of  printing  marks, 
tattooing,  to  indicate  allegiance  to  a  deity, 
in  the  same  manner  as  soldiers  and  slaves 
bore  tattooed  marks  to  indicate  allegiance 
or  udscription.  This  is  evidently  alluded 
to  in  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  (xiii.  16, 
xvii.  5,  xix.  20),  and,  though  in  a  contrary 
direction,  by  Ezekiel  (ix.  4),  by  St.  Paul 
(Gal.  vi.  17),  in  the  Revelation  (vii.  3), 
and  perhaps  by  Isaiah  (xliv.  5)  and  Zech- 
ariah  (xiii.  6). 

Gymbal,  Gymbals,  a  percussive  mu- 
sical instrument.  Two  kinds  of  cymbals 
are  mentioned  in  Ps.  cl.  5,  "loud  cymbals" 
or  castagnettes,  and  "  high-sounding  cym- 
bals." The  former  consisted  of  four  small 
plates  of  brass  or  of  some  other  hard  metal ; 
two  plates  were  attached  to  each  hand  of 
the  performer,  and  were  struck  together  to 
produce  a  great  noise.  The  latter  consist- 
ed of  two  larger  plates,  one  held  in  each 
hand,  and  struck  together  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  other  instruments.  The  use  of 
cymbals  was  not  necessarily  restricted  to 
the  worship  of  the  Temple  or  to  sacred 
occasions  :  they  were  employed  for  military 
purposes,  and  also  by  Hebrew  women  as  a 
musical  accompaniment  to  their  national 
dances.  Both  kinds  of  cymbals  are  still 
common  in  the  East  in  military  music,  and 
Niebuhr  often  refers  to  them  in  his  trav- 
els. The  "  bells  "  of  Zech.  xiv.  20,  were 
probably  concave  pieces  or  plates  of  brass 
which  the  people  of  Palestine  and  Syria 
attached  to  horses  by  way  of  ornament. 

Gypress  (Heb.  tirzdh).  The  Ileb. 
word  is  found  only  in  Is.  xliv.  14.  We  are 
quite  unable  to  assign  any  definite  render- 
ing to  it.  The  true  cypress  is  a  native  of 
the  Taurus.  The  Hebrew  word  points  to 
some  tree  with  a  hard  grain,  and  this  is  all 
that  can  be  positively  said  of  it. 

Gy'prus.  This  island  was  in  early 
times  in  close  commercial  connection  witli 
Phoenicia ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  it 
is  referred  to  in  such  passages  of  the  O.  T. 
as   £z.  xxvii.  6.      [Chittui.]      Possibly 


CYRENE 


127 


CYRUS 


Jews  may  have  settled  in  Cyprus  before 
the  time  of  Alexander.  Soon  after  his 
time  they  were  numerous  in  the  island,  as 
is  distinctly  implied  in  1  Mace.  xv.  23. 
The  first  notice  of  it  in  the  N.  T.  is  in 
Acts  iv.  3G,  where  it  is  mentioned  as  the 
native  place  of  Barnabas.  In  Acts  xi.  19, 
20,  it  appears  prominently  in  connection 
witli  the  earliest  spreading  of  Christianity, 
and  is  again  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  missionary  journeys  of  St.  Paul  (Acts 
xiii.  4-13,  XV.  39,  xxi.  3),  and  with  his 
voyage  to  Rome  (xxvii.  4).  The  island 
became  a  Roman  province  (b.  c.  58)  under 
circumstances  discreditable  to  Rome.  At 
first  its  administration  was  joined  with  that 
of  Cilicia,  but  after  the  battle  of  Actium  it 
was  separately  governed.  In  the  first  di- 
vision it  was  made  an  imperial  province ; 
but  the  emperor  afterwards  gave  it  up  to 
the  Senate.  The  proconsul  appears  to 
have  resided  at  Paphos  on  the  west  of  the 
island. 

Cyre'ne,  the  principal  city  of  that  part 
of  northern  Africa,  which  was  anciently 
called  Cyrenaica,  and  also  (from  its  five 
chief  cities)  Pentapolitana.  This  district 
was  that  wide  projecting  portion  of  the 
coast  (corresponding  to  the  modern 
Tripoli),  which  was  separated  from  the 
territory  of  Carthage  on  the  one  hand,  and 
that  of  Egypt  on  the  other.  The  points  to 
be  noticed  in  reference  to  Cyrene  as  con- 
nected with  the  N.  T.  are  these,  —  that, 
though  on  the  African  coast,  it  was  a  Greek 
city ;  that  the  Jews  were  settled  there  in 
large  numbers,  and  that  under  the  Romans 
it  was  politically  connected  with  Crete. 
The  Greek  colonization  of  this  part  of  Af- 
rica uuder  Battus  began  as  early  as  b.  c. 
631.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  it  became  a  dependency  of  Egypt. 
It  is  in  this  period  that  we  find  the  Jews  es- 
tablished there  with  great  privileges,  having 
been  introduced  by  Ptolemy  the  son  of  La- 
gus.  Soon  after  the  Jewish  war  they  rose 
against  the  Roman  power.  In  the  year 
B.  c.  75  the  territory  of  Cyrene  was  re- 
duced to  the  form  of  a  province.  On  the 
conquest  of  Crete  (b.  c.  G7)  the  two  were 
united  in  one  province,  and  together  fre- 
quently called  Creta-Cyrene.  The  num- 
bers and  position  of  the  Jews  in  Cyrene 
prepare  us  for  the  frequent  mention  of  the 
place  in  the  N.  T.  in  connection  with  Chris- 
tianity. Simon,  who  bore  our  Saviour's 
cross  (Matt,  xxvii.  32;  Mark  xv.  21;  Luke 
xxiii.  26)  was  a  native  of  Cyrene.  Jewish 
dwellers  in  Cyrenaica  were  in  Jerusalem  at 
Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10).  They  even  gave 
their  name  to  one  of  the  synagogues  in 
Jerusalem  (ib.  vi.  9).  Christian  converts 
from  Cyrene  were  among  those  who  con- 
tributed actively  to  the  formation  of  the 
first  Gentile  clmrch  at  Antioch  (xi.  20).  | 
Lucius  of  Cyrene  (xiii.  1)  is  traditionally , 


said  to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of  his  na- 
tive district. 


Tetradrachm  (Attic  tatent)  of  Cyrene. 

ObT.  Sacred  silphinm  plant.  Rev.  KTPA.    Headof  bearA> 
ed  Jupiter  Animon  to  the  right 

Cyre'nius,  the  literal  English  render- 
ing in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Greek  name,  which 
is  itself  the  Greek  form  -of  the  Roman 
name  of  Quirinus.  The  full  name  is  Pub- 
lius  Sulpicius  Quirinus.  He  was  consul 
B.  c.  12,  and  made  governor  of  Syria  after 
the  banishment  of  Archelaus  in  a.  d.  6. 
He  was  sent  to  make  an  enrolment  of 
property  in  Syria,  and  made  accordingly, 
both  there  and  in  Judaea,  a  census  or 
unoYQa(fii].  But  this  census  seems  in  Luke 
(ii.  2)  to  be  identified  with  one  which  took 
place  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ. 
Hence  has  arisen  a  considerable  difficulty, 
but  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that 
Quirinus  was  twice  governor  of  Syria,  and 
that  his  first  governorship  extended  from 
B.  c.  4  (the  year  of  Christ's  birth)  to  b.  c. 
1,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  M.  Lollius. 

Cy'rus,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  em- 
pire (see  Dan.  vi.  28,  x.  1,  13;  2  Chr. 
xxxvi.  22,  23),  was,  according  to  the  com- 
mon legend,  the  son  of  Mandane,  the 
daughter  of  Astyages  the  last  king  of  Me- 
dia, and  Cambyses  a  Persian  of  the  royal 
family  of  the  Achaemenidae.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  dream,  Astyages,  it  is  said, 
designed  the  death  of  his  infant  grandson, 
but  the  child  was  spared  by  those  whom  he 
charged  with  the  commission  of  the  crime, 
and  was  reared  in  obscurity  under  the  name 
of  Agradates.  When  he  grew  up  to  man- 
hood his  courage  and  genius  placed  him  at 
the  head  of  the  Persians.  The  tyranny  of 
Astyages  had  at  that  time  alienated  a  large 
faction  of  the  Medes,  and  Cyrus  headed  a 
revolt  which  ended  in  the  defeat  and  cap- 
ture of  the  Median  king  b.  c.  559,  near 
Pasargadae.  After  consolidating  the  em- 
pire which  he  thus  gained,  Cyrus  entered 
on  that  career  of  conquest  which  has  made 
him  the  hero  of  the  east.  In  u.  c.  54G  (?) 
he  defeated  Croesus,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Lydia  was  the  prize  of  his  success.  Baby- 
lon fell  before  his  army,  and  the  ancient 
dominions  of  Assyria  were  added  to  his 
empire  (b.  c.  638).  Aftenvards  he  at- 
tacked the  Ma-ssagetae,  and  according  to 
Herodotus  fell  in  a  battle  against  them  n.  c. 
629.     His  tomb  is  stiU  shown  at  Pasarga- 


DABAEEH 


128 


DAMASCUS 


dae,  the  scene  of  his  first  decisive  victory. 
Hitherto  the  great  kings,  with  wliom  the 
•Tews  had  been  brought  into  contact,  liad 
been  open  oppressors  or  seductive  allies ; 
but  Cyrus  was  a  generous  liberator  and  a 
just  guardian  of  their  rights.  An  inspired 
prophet  (Is.  xiiv.  28)  recognized  in  hira  "  a 
shepherd "  of  the  Lord,  an  "  anointed " 
king  (Is.  xlv.  1).  The  edict  of  Cyrus  for 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  (2  Chr.  xxxvi. 
22,  23;  Ezr.  i.  1-4,  iii.  7,  iv.  3,  v.  13,  17, 
vi.  3)  was  in  fact  the  beginning  of  Juda- 
ism ;  and  the  great  changes  by  wliich  the 
nation  was  transformed  into  a  church  are 
plearly  marked. 


D. 


Dab'areh  (Josh.  xxi.  28),  or  Dabe- 
BATH,  a  town  on  the  boundary  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  12)  named  as  next  to  Chisloth- 
Tabor.  But  in  1  Chr.  vi.  72,  and  in  Josh, 
xxi.  28,  it  is  said  to  belong  to  Issachar. 
Under  the  name  of  Deharieh  it  still  lies  at 
the  western  foot  of  Tabor. 

Dab'bashetti,  a  town  on  the  boundary 
of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  11). 

Da'gon,  apparently  the  masculine  (1 
Sam.  V.  3,  4)  correlative  of  Atargatis,  was 
the  national  god  of  the  Pliilistines.     The 


fifh-god.    From  Nimroud.    (Layard.) 


most  famous  temples  of  Dagon  were  at 
Gaza  (Judg.  xvi.  21-30)  and  Ashdod  (1 
Sam.  v.  5,  6;  1  Chr.  x.  10).  The  latter 
temple  was  destroyed  by  Jonathan  in  the 
Maccabaean  wars  (1  Mace.  x.  83,  84,  xi.  4). 
Traces  cd  the  worship  of  Dagon  likewise 
appear  m  the  names  Caphar-Dagon  (near 
Jainnia),  and  Beth-'Dagon  in  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  41)  and  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27).  Dagon 
was  represented  with  the  face  and  hands  of 
a  man  and  the  tail  of  a  fish  (1  Sam.  v.  6). 
The  fish-like  form  was  a  natural  emblem 
of  fruitfulness,  and  as  such  was  likely  to  be 
adopted  by  seafaring  tribes  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  their  gods. 

Dai'san,  l  Esd.  v.  31=Rezin  (Ezr. 
ii.  48),  by  the  commonly  repeated  change 
of  R  to  D. 

Dalai'all,  the  sixth  son  of  Elioenai,  a 
descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  iii.  24). 

Dalmanu'tha,  a  town  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  near  Magdala  (Matt. 
XV.  39  and  Mark  viii.  10).  [Magdala.] 
Dalmanutha  probably  stood  at  the  place 
called  'Ain-el-Jidrideh,  "  the  cold  Foun- 
tain." 

Dalma'tia,  a  mountainous  district  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  ex- 
tending from  the  river  Naro  in  the  S.  to  the 
Savus  in  the  N.  St.  Paul  sent  Titus  there 
(2  Tim.  iv.  10),  and  he  himself  had 
preached  the  Gospel  in  its  immediate  neigh- 
borhood (Horn.  XV.  19). 

Darphon,  the  second  of  the  ten  sons 
of  Ilaman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

Dam'aris,  an  Athenian  woman  con- 
verted to  Christianity  by  St.  Paul's  preach- 
ing (Acts  xvii.  34).  Chrysostom  and  oth- 
ers held  her  to  have  been  the  wife  of  Dio- 
nysius  tlie  Areopagite. 

Damas'cus,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
most  important  of  the  cities  of  Syria.  It  is 
situated  in  a  plain  of  vast  size  and  of  ex- 
treme fertility,  which  lies  east  of  the  great 
chain  of  Anti-Libanus,  on  the  edge  of  the 
desert.  This  fertile  plain,  which  is  nearly 
circular,  and  about  30  miles  in  diameter,  is 
due  to  the  river  Barada,  which  is  probably 
the  "Abana"  of  Scripture.  Two  other 
streams,  the  Wady  Helbon  upon  the  north, 
and  the  Awaj  upon  the  south,  which  flows 
direct  from  Hermon,  increase  the  fertility 
of  the  Damascene  plain,  and  contend  for 
the  honor  of  representing  the  "Pharpar" 
of  Scripture.  According  to  Josephus,  Da- 
mascus was  foimded  by  Uz,  the  son  of 
Aram,  and  grandson  of  Shem.  It  is  first 
mentioned  in  Scripture  in  connection  with 
Abraham  (Gen.  xiv.  15),  whose  steward  was 
a  native  of  the  place  (xv.  2).  Nothing 
more  is  known  of  Damascus  until  the  time 
of  David,  when  "  the  Syrians  of  Damascus 
came  to  succor  Iladadczer,  king  of  Zobah," 
with  whom  David  was  at  war  (2  Sam.  viii. 
5;  1  Chr.  xviii.  6).     On  this  occasion  Da- 


DANCE 


131 


DANIEL 


among  the  Hebrews  made  the  dance  their 
especial  means  of  expressing  their  feelings, 
and  so  welcomed  their  husbands  or  friends 
on  their  return  from  battle.  The  "  eating 
and  drinking  and  dancing"  of  the  Amalek- 
ites  is  recorded,  as  is  the  people's  "  rising 
up  to  play,"  with  a  tacit  censure.  The  He- 
brews, however,  save  in  such  moments  of 
temptation,  seem  to  have  left  dancing  to 
the  women.  But  more  especially,  on  such 
occasions  of  triumph,  any  woman  whose 
nearness  of  kin  to  the  champion  of  the  mo- 
ment gave  her  a  public  character  among 
her  own  sex,  seems  to  have  felt  that  it  was 
her  part  to  lead  such  a  demonstration  of 
triumph,  or  of  welcome  (Ex.  xv.  20 ;  Judg. 
xi.  34).  This  marks  the  peculiarity  of  Da- 
vid's conduct,  when,  on  the  return  of  the 
Ark  of  God  from  its  long  sojourn  among 
strangers  and  borderers,  he  (2  Sam.  vi.  5- 
22)  was  himself  the  leader  of  the  dance ; 
and  here  too  the  women,  with  their  timbrels 
(see  especially  vv.  5,  19,  20,  22),  took  an 
important  share.  This  fact  brings  out  more 
markedly  the  feelings  of  Saul's  daughter 
Michal,  keeping  aloof  from  the  occasion, 
and  "looking  through  a  window"  at  the 
scene.  She  should,  in  accordance  with  the 
examples  of  Miriam,  &c.,  have  herself  led 
the  female  choir,  and  so  come  out  to  meet 
the  Ark  and  her  lord.  She  stays  with  the 
"  household"  (ver.  20),  and  "  comes  out  to 
meet"  him  with  reproaches, perhaps  feeling 
that  Ms  zeal  was  a  rebuke  to  her  apathy. 
From  the  mention  of  "  damsels,"  "  tim- 
brels," and  "  dances  "  (Ps.  Ixviii.  25,  cxlix. 
3,  cl.  4),  as  elements  of  religious  wor- 
ship, it  may  perhaps  be  inferred  that  Da- 
vid's feeling  led  him  to  incorporate  in  its 
rites  that  popular  mode  of  festive  celebra- 
tion. In  the  earlier  period  of  the  Judges 
the  dances  of  the  virgins  in  Shiloh  (Judg. 
xxi.  19-23)  were  certainly  part  of  a  reli- 
gious festivity.  Dancing  also  had  its  place 
among  merely  festive  amusements,  apart 
from  any  religious  character  (Jer.  xxxi.  4, 
13 ;  Lam.  v.  15 ;  Mark  vi.  22 ;  Luke  xv.  25). 
Dance.  By  this  word  is  rendered  in 
the  A.  V.  the  Hebrew  term  mdcMl,  a  musi- 
cal instrument  of  percussion,  supposed  to 


Masical  Initmmenti.    Dance.    (Mendelssohn.) 

have  been  used  by  the  Hebrews  at  an  early 
period  of  their  history.  In  the  grand  Hal- 
lelujah Psalm  (cl.)  which  closes  that  mag- 
nificent collection,  the  sacred  poet  exhorts 
mankind  to  praise  Jehovah  in  His  sanctu- 


ary with  all  kinds  of  music ;  and  amongst 
the  instruments  mentioned  at  the  3d,  4th, 
and  5th  verses  is  found  mdckdl.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  to  have  been  made  of  metal, 
open  like  a  ring:  it  had  many  small 
bells  attached  to  its  border,  and  was 
played  at  weddings  and  merry-makings  by 
women,  who  accompanied  it  with  the  voice. 
Dan'iel.  1.  The  second  eon  of  David 
by  Abigail  the  Carmelitess  (1  Chr.  iii.  1). 
In  2  Sam.  iii.  3,  he  is  called  Chileab.  2. 
The  fourth  of  "  the  greater  prophets." 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  parentage  or  fam- 
ily. He  appears,  however,  to  have  been 
of  royal  or  noble  descent  (Dan.  i.  3),  and 
to  have  possessed  considerable  personal 
endowments  (Dan.  i.  4).  He  was  taken  to 
Babylon  in  "  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim  " 
(b.  c.  604),  and  trained  for  the  king's  ser- 
vice witli  his  three  companions.  Like 
Joseph  in  earlier  times,  he  gained  the  fa- 
vor of  his  guardian,  and  was  divinely  sup- 
ported in  his  resolve  to  abstain  from  the 
"  king's  meat"  for  fear  of  defilement  (Dan. 
i.  8-16).  At  the  close  of  his  three  years' 
discipline  (Dan.  i.  5,  18),  Daniel  had  an 
opportunity  of  exercising  his  peculiar  gift 
(Dan.  i.  17)  of  interpreting  dreams,  on 
the  occasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  decree 
against  the  Magi  (Dan.  ii.  14,  ff.).  In  con- 
sequence of  his  success  he  was  made 
"  ruler  of  the  whole  province  of  Babylon," 
and  "chief  of  the  governors  over  all  the 
wise  men  of  Babylon"  (ii.  48).  He  after- 
wards interpreted  the  second  dream  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  (iv.  8-27),  and  the  hand- 
writing on  the  wall  which  disturbed  the 
feast  of  Belshazzar  (v.  10-28),  though  he 
no  longer  held  his  official  position  among 
the  magi  (Dan.  v.  7,  8,  1^),  and  probably 
lived  at  Susa  (Dan.  viii.  2).  At  the  ac- 
cession of  Darius  he  was  made  first  of  the 
"three  presidents"  of  the  empire  (Dan. 
vi.  2),  and  was  delivered  from  the  lions' 
den,  into  which  he  had  been  cast  for  his 
faithfulness  to  the  rites  of  his  faith  (vi.  10- 
23 ;  cf.  Bel  and  Dr.  29-42).  At  the  acces- 
sion of  Cyrus  he  still  retained  his  prosperi- 
ty (vi.  28 ;  cf.  i.  21 ;  Bel  and  Dr.  2)  ;  though 
he  does  not  appear  to  have  remained  at 
Babylon  (cf.  Dan.  i.  21),  and  in  "the  third 
year  of  Cyrus  "  (b.  c.  534)  he  saw  his  last 
recorded  vision  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris 
(x.  1,  4).  In  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel 
mention  is  made  of  Daniel  as  a  pattern  of 
righteousness  (xiv.  14,  20)  and  wisdom 
(xxviii.  3);  and  since  Daniel  was  still 
young  at  that  time  (circ.  b.  c.  588-584), 
some  have  thought  that  another  prophet  of 
the  name  must  have  lived  at  some  earlier 
time,  perhaps  during  the  captivity  of  Nin- 
eveh, whose  fame  was  transferred  to  his 
later  namesake.  On  the  other  hand  the 
narrative  in  Dan.  i.  11,  implies  that  Damel 
was  conspicuously  distinguished  for  pan^" 
and  knowledge  at  a  very  early  age  (ct 


DANIEL,  BOOK  OF 


132 


DAEDA 


Hist.  Sus.  45),  and  he  may  have  been 
nearly  forty  years  old  at  the  time  of 
Ezekiel's  prophecy.  3.  A  descendant  of 
Itbamar,  who  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezr. 
viii.  2).  4.  A  priest  who  sealed  the  cove- 
nant drawn  up  by  Nehemiah  b.  c.  445  (Neb. 
X.  6).     He  is  perhaps  the  same  as  No.  3. 

Dan'iel,The  Book  of,  is  the  earliest 
example  of  apocalyptic  literature,  and  in  a 
great  degree  the  model  according  to  which 
all  later  apocalypses  were  constructed.  In 
this  aspect  it  stands  at  the  head  of  a  series 
of  writings  in  which  the  deepest  thoughts 
of  the  Jewish  people  found  expression  after 
the  close  of  the  prophetic  era.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  book,  no  less  than  its  general 
form,  belongs  to  an  era  of  transition.  Like 
the  book  of  Ezra,  Daniel  is  composed  part- 
ly in  the^ vernacular  Aramaic  (Chaldee), 
and  partly  in  the  sacred  Hebrew.  The  in- 
troduction (i.-ii.  4  a)  is  written  in  Hebrew. 
On  the  occasion  of  the  "  Syriac "  (i.  e. 
Aramaic)  answer  of  the  Chaldaeans,  the 
language  changes  to  Aramaic,  and  this  is 
retained  till  the  close  of  the  seventh  chap- 
ter (ii.  4  b — vii.).  The  personal  intro- 
duction of  Daniel  as  the  writer  of  the  text 
(viii.  I)  is  marked  by  the  resumption  of 
the  Hebrew,  which  continues  to  the  close 
of  the  book  (viii.-xii.).  The  use  of  Greek 
technical  terms  marks  a  period  when  com- 
merce had  already  united  Persia  and  Greece. 
The  book  may  be  divided  into  three  parts. 
The  first  chapter  forms  an  introduction. 
The  next  six  chapters  (ii.-vii.)  give  a  gen- 
eral view  of  the  progressive  history  of  the 
powers  of  the  world,  and  of  the  principles 
of  the  divine  government  as  seen  in  events 
of  the  life  of  Daniel.  The  remainder  of 
the  book  (viii.-xii.)  traces  in  minuter  de- 
tail the  fortunes  of  the  people  of  God,  as 
typical  of  the  fortunes  of  the  Church  in  all 
ages.  The  unity  of  the  book  in  its  present 
form,  notwithstanding  the  difference  of  lan- 
guage, is  generally  acknowledged.  Still 
there  is  a  remarkable  difference  in  its  in- 
ternal character.  In  the  first  seven  chap- 
ters Daniel  is  spoken  of  historically  (i.  6- 
21,  ii.  14-49,  iv.  8-27,  v.  13-29,  vi.  2-28, 
vii.  1,  2)  :  in  the  last  five  he  appears  per- 
sonally as  the  writer  (vii.  15-28,  viii.  1- 
ix.  22,  X.  1-9,  xii.  5).  The  cause  of  the 
difference  of  person  is  commonly  supposed 
to  lie  in  the  nature  of  the  case.  It  is,  how- 
ever, more  probable  that  the  peculiarity 
arose  from  the  manner  in  which  the  book 
assumed  its  final  shape.  The  book  exer- 
cised a  great  influence  upon  the  Christian 
Church.  Apart  from  the  general  type  of 
Apocalyptic  composition  which  the  Apos- 
tolic writers  derived  from  Daniel  (2  Thess. 
ii. ;  Rev.  passim  :  cf..  Matt.  xxvi.  64,  xxi. 
44?),  the  New  Testament  incidentally  ac- 
knowledges each  of  the  characteristic  ele- 
ments of  the  book,  its  miracles  (Hebr.  xi. 
33,  34),  its  predictions  (Matt.  xxir.  15), 


and  its  doctrine  of  angels  (Luke  i.  19,  26). 
At  a  still  earlier  time  the  same  influence 
may  be  traced  in  the  Apocryplm.  The 
authenticity  of  the  book  has  been  attacked 
in  modern  times,  and  its  composition  as- 
cribed to  the  times  of  the  Maccabees  :  but 
in  doctrine  the  book  is  closely  connected 
witli  the  writings  of  the  Exile,  and  forms  a 
last  step  in  the  development  of  the  ideas  of 
Messiah  (vii.  13,  &c.),  of  the  resurrection 
(xii.  2,  3),  of  the  ministry  of  angels  (viii. 
16,  xii.  1,  &c.),  of  personal  devotion  (vi. 
10,  11,  i.  8),  which  formed  the  basis  of 
later  speculations,  but  received  no  essen- 
tial addition  in  the  interval  before  the  com- 
ing of  our  Lord.  Generally  it  may  be  said 
that  while  the  book  presents  in  many  re- 
spects a  startling  and  exceptional  charac- 
ter, yet  it  is  far  more  diflicult  to  explain 
its  composition  in  the  Maccabaean  period 
than  to  connect  the  peculiarities  which  it 
exhibits  with  the  exigencies  of  the  Return. 

Daniel,  Apocryphal  Additions  to. 
The  Greek  translations  of  Daniel,  like  that 
of  Esther,  contain  several  pieces  which  are 
not  found  in  the  original  text.  The  most 
important  of  these  additions  are  contained 
in  the  Apocrypha  of  the  English  Bible  un- 
der the  titles  of  Tfie  Song  of  the  Three  Boly 
Children,  The  History  of  Susannah,  and 
The  History  of .  .  .  Bel  and  the  Dragon. 
The  first  of  these  pieces  is  incorporated 
into  the  narrative  of  Daniel.  After  the 
three  confessors  were  thrown  into  the 
furnace  (Dan.  iii.  23),  Azarias  is  repre- 
sented praying  to  God  for  deliverance 
(Song  of  Three  Children,  3-22);  and  in 
answer  the  angel  of  the  Lord  shields  them 
from  the  fire  which  consumes  their  enemies 
(23-27),  whereupon  "the  three,  as  out  of 
one  mouth,"  raise  a  triumphant  song  (29- 
68),  of  which  a  chief  part  (35-G6)  has  been 
used  as  a  hymn  in  the  Christian  Church 
since  the  4th  century.  The  two  other 
pieces  appear  more  distinctly  as  appendi- 
ces, and  offer  no  semblance  of  forming 
part  of  the  original  text.  The  History  of 
Susannah  (or  The  Judgment  of  Daniel)  is 
generally  found  at  the  beginning  of  the 
book,  though  it  also  occurs  after  the  12th 
chapter.  The  History  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  book. 
The  character  of  these  additions  indicates 
the  hand  of  an  Alexandrine  writer ;  and  it 
is  not  unhkely  that  the  translator  of  Daniel 
wrought  up  traditions  which  were  already 
current,  and  appended  them  to  his  work. 

Dan'nall,  a  city  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  49),  and  probably  south 
or  south-west  of  Hebron.  No  trace  of  its 
name  has  been  discovered. 

Da'ra,  1  Chr.  ii.  6.     [Darda.] 

Dar'da,  a  son  of  Mahol,  one  of  four 
men  of  great  fame  for  their  wisdom,  but 
surpassed  by  Solomon  (1  K.  iv.  31).  In  1 
Chr.  ii.  6,  however,  the  same  four  names 


DARIC 


133 


DAVID 


occur  again  as  "sons  of  Zerah,"  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  with  the  slight  difference 
that  Darda  appears  as  Dara.  The  identity 
of  these  persons  witli  those  in  1  K.  iv.  has 
been  greatly  debated ;  but  there  cannot  be 
much  reasonable  doubt  that  they  are  the 
same. 

Daric  (A.  V.  "  dram ;  "  Ezr.  ii.  69 ;  viii. 
27;  Neh.  vii.  70,  71,  72;  1  Chr.  xxix.  7),  a 
gold  coin  current  in  Palestine  in  the  period 
after  the  return  from  Babylon.  At  these 
times  there  was  no  large  issue  of  gold 
money  except  by  the  Persian  kings.  The 
Darics  which  have  been  discovered  are 
thick  pieces  of  pure  gold,  of  archaic  style, 
bearing  on  the  obverse  the  figure  of  a  king 
with  bow  and  javelin,  or  bow  and  dagger, 
and  on  the  jreverse  an  irregular  incuse 
■  square. 

Dari'us,  the  name  of  several  kings  of 
Media  and  Persia.  Three  kings  bearing 
this  name  are  mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  1. 
Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  xi.  1,  vi.  1),  "the 
son  of  Ahasuerus  of  the  seed  of  the  Medes  " 
(ix.  1),  who  succeeded  to  the  Babylonian 
kingdom  on  the  death  of  Belshazzar,  being 
then  sixty-two  years  old  (Dan.  v.  31 ;  ix. 
1).  Only  one  year  of  his  reign  is  men- 
tioned (Dan.  ix.  1,  xi.  1)  ;  but  that  was  of 
great  importance  for  the  Jews.  Daniel 
was  advanced  by  the  king  to  the  highest 
dignity  (Dan.  vi.  1,  ff.),  probably  in  conse- 
quence of  his  former  services  (cf.  Dan.  v. 
17)  ;  and  after  liis  miraculous  deliverance, 
Darius  issued  a  decree  enjoining  through- 
out his  dominions  "reverence  for  the  God 
of  Daniel"  (Dan.  vi.  25,  ff.).  The  ex- 
treme obscurity  of  the  Babylonian  annals 
has  given  occasion  to  different  hypotheses 
as  to  the  name  under  which  Darius  the 
Mede  is  known  in  history ;  but  he  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  "  Astyages,"  the  last  king 
of  the  Medes.  2.  Darius,  the  son  of 
Htstaspes  the  founder  of  the  Perso-Arian 
dynasty.  Upon  the  usurpation  of  the  Ma- 
gian  Smerdis,  he  conspired  with  six  other 
Persian  chiefs  to  overthrow  the  impostor, 
and  on  the  success  of  the  plot  was  placed 
upon  the  throne,  b.  c.  521.  His  designs  of 
foreign  conquest  were  interrupted  by  a  re- 
volt of  the  Babylonians.  After  the  subju- 
gation of  Babylon  Darius  turned  his  arms 
against  Scytliia,  Libya,  and  India.  The 
defeat  of  Marathon  (b.  c.  490)  only  roused 
him  to  prepare  vigorously  for  that  decisive 
struggle  with  the  West  which  was  now  in- 
evitable. His  plans  were  again  thwarted 
by  rebellion.  With  regard  to  the  Jews, 
Darius  Hystaspes  pursued  the  same  policy 
as  Cyrus,  and  restored  to  them  the  privi- 
leges which  they  had  lost  (Ezr.  v.  1,  &c. ; 
vi.  1,  &c.)  3.  Darius  the  Persian  (Neh. 
xii.  22)  may  be  identified  with  Darius  II. 
Kothus  (Ochus),  king  of  Persia  b.  c.  424-3 
to  405-4,  if  the  whole  passage  in  question 
was  written  by  Nehemiah.    If,  however, 


the  register  was  continued  to  a  later  time, 
as  is  not  improbable,  the  occurrence  of  the 
name  Jaddua  (vv.  11,  22)  points  to  Darius 
III.  Codomannus,  the  antagonist  of  Alex- 
ander, and  last  king  of  Persia  b.  c.  336- 
330  (1  Mace.  i.  1). 

Darkness  is  spoken  of  as  encompass- 
ing the  actual  presence  of  God,  as  that  out 
of  which  he  speaks,  the  envelope,  as  it 
were,  of  Divine  glory  (Ex.  xx.  21;  IK. 
viii.  12).  The  plague  of  Darkness  in  Egypt 
has  been  ascribed  by  various  commentators 
to  non-miraculous  agency,  but  no  sufficient 
account  of  its  intense  degree,  long  duration, 
and  limited  area,  as  proceeding  from  any 
physical  cause,  has  been  given.  The  dark- 
ness "over  all  the  land"  (Matt,  xxvii.  45) 
attending  the  crucifixion  has  been  similarly 
attributed  to  an  eclipse.  Phlegon  of  Tralles 
indeed  mentions  an  eclipse  of  intense  dark- 
ness, which  began  at  noon,  and  was  com- 
bined, he  says,  in  Bithynia,  with  an  earth- 
quake, which  in  the  uncertain  state  of  our 
chronology  more  or  less  nearly  synchronizes 
with  the  event.  Darkness  is  also,  as  in  the 
expression  "land  of  darkness,"  used  for  the 
state  of  the  dead  (Job  x.  21,  22)  ;  and  fre- 
quently figuratively,  for  ignorance  and  un- 
belief, as  the  privation  of  spiritual  light 
(John  i.  5,  iii.  19). 

Dar'kon.  Children  of  Darkon  were 
among  the  "  servants  of  Solomon  "  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
ii.  56 ;  Neh.  vii.  58). 

Dates,  2  Chr.  xxxi.  6,  marg.  [Palm 
Tree.] 

Da'than,  a  Reubenite  chieftain,  son  of 
Eliab,  who  joined  the  conspiracy  of  Korah 
the  Levite  (Num.  xvi.  1,  xxvi.  9 ;  Deut.  xi. 
6;  Ps.  cvi.  17). 

Daughter.  1.  The  word  is  used  in 
Scripture  not  only  for  daughtet,  but  for 
granddaughter  or  other  female  descendant, 
much  in  the  same  way  and  hke  extent  with 
"son"  (Gen.  xxiv.  48,  xxxi.  43).  2.  The 
female  inhabitants  of  a  place,  a  country,  or 
the  females  of  a  particular  race  are  called 
daughters  (Gen.  vi.  2,  xxvii.  46,  xxviii.  6, 
xxxvi.  2;  Num.  xxv.  1;  Deut.  xxiii.  17; 
Is.  iii.  16;  Jer.  xlvi.  11,  xlix.  2,  3,  4;  Luke 
xxiii.  28).  3.  The  same  notion  of  descent 
explains  the  phrase  "daughters  of  music," 
i.  e.  singing  birds  (Eccl.  xii.  4),  and  the  use 
of  the  word  for  branches  of  a  tree  (Gen. 
xlix.  22),  the  pupil  of  the  eye  (Lam.  ii.  18; 
Ps,  xvii.  8),  and  the  expression  "daughter 
of  90  years,"  to  denote  the  age  of  Sarah 
(Gej^xvii.  17).  4.  It  is  also  used  of  cities 
in  general  (Is.  x.  32,  xxiii.  12 ;  Jer.  vi.  2, 
26 ;  Zech.  ix.  9).  5.  But  more  specifically 
of  dependent  towns  or  hamlets,  while  to  the 
principal  city  the  correlative  "mother "is 
applied  (Num.  xxi.  25;  Josh.  xvii.  11,  16; 
Judg.  i.  27;  1  Chr.  vii.  28;  2  Sara.  xx.  19). 

David,  the  son  of  Jesse.  His  life  may 
be   divided  into  three  portions:  — I.  Hia 


DAVID 


134 


DAVID 


youth  before  his  introduction  to  the  court 
of  Saul.  II.  His  relations  with  Saul.  III. 
His  reign.  —  I.  The  early  life  of  David  con- 
tains in  many  important  respects  the  ante- 
cedents of  his  future  career.  1.  His  fam- 
ily may  best  be  seen  in  the  form  of  a 
genealogy.  It  thus  appears  that  David 
was  the  youngest  son,  probably  the  youngest 
child,  of  a  family  of  ten.  His  mother's 
name  is  unknown.  His  father,  Jesse,  was 
of  a  great  age  when  David  was  still  young 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  12).  His  parents  both  lived 
till  after  his  final  rupture  with  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  3).  Through  them  David  inherited 
several  points  which  he  never  lost,  (a) 
His  connection  with  Moab  through  his 
great-grandmother  lluth.  This  he  kept  up 
when  he  escaped  to  Moab  and  intrusted  liis 
aged  parents  to  the  care  of  the  king  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  3).  (6)  His  birthplace,  Bethlehesi. 
His  recollection  of  the  well  of  Bethlehem 
is  one  of  the  most  touching  incidents  of  his 
later  life  (1  Chr.  xi.  17),  and  it  is  his  con- 
nection with  it  that  brought  the  place  again 
in  after  times  into  universal  fame  (Luke  ii. 
4).  (c)  His  general  connection  with  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  (d)  His  relations  to  Zeru- 
iah  and  Abigail.  Though  called  in  1  Chr. 
ii.  16,  sisters  of  David,  they  are  not  ex- 
pressly called  the  daughters  of  Jesse ;  and 
Abigail,  in  2  Sam.  xvii.  25,  is  called  the 
daughter  of  Nahash.  Is  it  too  much  to 
suppose  that  David's  mother  had  been  the 
wife  or  concubine  of  Nahash,  and  then 
married  by  Jesse  ?  2.  As  the  youngest  of 
the  family  he  may  possibly  have  received 
from  his  parents  the  name,  which  first  ap- 
pears in  liim,  of  David  the  beloved,  the 
darling.  Perhaps  for  this  same  reason  he 
was  never  intimate  with  his  brethren.  The 
familiarity  which  he  lost  with  his  brothers 
he  gained  with  his  nephews.  The  three 
sons  of  his  sister  Zeruiah,  and  the  one  son 
of  his  sister  Abigail,  were  probably  of  the 
same  age  as  David  himself,  and  they  ac- 
cordingly were  to  him  throughout  life  in 
the  relation  usually  occupied  by  brothers 
and  cousins.     The  two  sons  of  his  brother 


Shimeah  are  both  connected  with  his  after 
history.  One  was  Jonadab,  the  friend  and 
adviser  of  his  eldest  son  Aninon  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  3).  The  other  was  Jonathan  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  21),  who  afterwards  became  the  coun- 
sellor of  David  himself  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  32). 
The  first  time  that  David  appears  in  history 
at  once  admits  us  to  the  whole  family  circle 
There  was  a  practice  once  a  year  at  Beth- 
lehem, probably  at  the  first  now  moon  of 
tlie  year,  of  holding  a  sacrificial  feast,  at 
which  Jesse,  as  the  cliicf  proprietor  of  the 
place,  would  preside  (1  Sam.  xx.  6),  with 
the  elders  of  the  town.  At  this  or  such  like 
feast  (xvi.  1)  suddenly  appeared  the  great 
prophet  Samuel,  driving  a  heifer  before 
him,  and  having  in  his  hand  a  horn  of  the 
consecrated  oil  of  the  Tabernacle.  The 
heifer  was  killed.  The  party  were  waiting 
to  begin  the  feast.  Samuel  stood  with  liis 
horn  to  pour  forth  the  oil,  as  if  for  an  invi- 
tation to  begin  (comp.  ix.  22).  He  was 
restrained  by  divine  intimation  as  son  after 
son  passed  by.  Eliab,  the  eldest,  by  "his 
height "  and  "  his  countenance,"  seemed  the 
natural  counterpart  of  Saul,  whose  rival, 
unknown  to  them,  the  prophet  came  to  se- 
lect. But  the  day  was  gone  yhen  kings 
were  chosen  because  they  were  head  and 
shoulders  taller  than  the  rest.  "  Samuel 
said  unto  Jesse,  Are  these  all  thy  children  ? 
And  he  said.  There  remaineth  yet  the 
youngest,  and  behold  he  keepeth  the  sheep." 
This  is  our  first  and  most  characteristic  in- 
troduction to  the  future  king.  The  boy 
was  brought  in.  We  are  enabled  to  fix 
his  appearance  at  once  in  our  minds.  He 
was  of  short  stature,  with  red  or  auburn 
hair,  such  as  is  not  unfrcquently  seen  iu 
his  countrymen  of  the  East  at  the  present 
day.  In  later  life  he  wore  a  beard.  His 
bright  eyes  are  especially  mentioned  (xvi. 
12),  and  generally  he  was  remarkable  for 
the  grace  of  his  figure  and  countenance 
("fair  of  eyes,"  "comely,"  "goodly," 
xvi.  12,  18,  xvii.  42),  well  made,  and  of 
immense  strength  and  agility.  His  swift- 
ness and  activity  made  him  (like  his  nephew 


Salmon  or  Salmah 
(Ruth  iv.  21, 1  Chr.  ii.  U). 


Elimelech  =  Naomi  (Ruth  i.  1). 


Boaz  •=  Ruth  =  Mahlon. 

J  (Rutli  iv.  10). 

Obcd 
(Ruth  iv.  17). 


CMIion  -=  Orpah. 


(8  Sam.  xvii.  2S)  Nahash  =  unknown  =  Jesse. 


Jonathan  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  32). 


Zeruiah 

(IChr. 

U.16). 


Abigail  =-  Jcther  -=  Ira  ?  ?  fetiab, 

(1  Chr.    (Jerome.  Elihu 

u.  17).     Qu.  //eft.  (1  Chr. 

on  1  Chr.  xxvii. 

xi.  40).  18). 


adfa 


Shanimah,    Nethan-   Raudai      Ozera 
Shimmah,        eel.         (Rael,       (Asam 
Jos.  Ant.  Jos.  Ant. 
vi.  8. 1.     vi.  8. 1). 
Rei,  Ewald) 


AbishaL      Joab.      Asanel.       Amasa 

Zebadiah 
(I  Chr.  xxviL  !> 


Shimeah 
(2  Sam. 
xxi.  21). 


Abihail=Rehoboam.       Jonathan 

I  Chr.  xi.  1).  (2  Sam.  xxi.  21 ; 

1  Chr.  xxvii.  32). 

(Nathan  ?  ? 

Jer.  Qu.  Heb. 

on  1  Sam.  xvi.  12). 


Jonadab       Joel  ? 
(2  Sam.     (Jerome, 


(oiie  DAVHX 

is  nut 

given, 

unless 

Elilm,     ■ 

Syr.  and  Arab. 

I  Chr.  u.  U). 


xiii.  3). 


Qu.  Heb. 
on  1  Chr. 
zt38). 


DAVID 


135 


DA"SriD 


Asaliel)  like  a  wild  gazelle,  his  feet  like 
hart's  feet,  and  his  arms  strong  enough 
to  break  a  bow  of  steel  (Ps.  xviii.  33,  34). 
He  was  pursuing  the  occupation  allotted  in 
Eastern  countries  usually  to  the  slaves,  the 
females,  or  the  despised  of  the  family.  He 
usually  carried  a  switch  or  wand  in  his  hand 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  40),  such  as  would  be  used 
for  his  dogs  (xvii.  43),  and  a  scrip  or  wal- 
let round  his  neck,  to  carry  anything  that 
was  needed  for  his  shepherd's  life  (xvii. 
43).  3.  But  there  was  another  preparation 
still  more  needed  for  his  office,  which  is  his 
next  introduction  to  the  history.  When 
the  body-guard  of  Saul  were  discussing 
with  their  master  where  the  best  minstrel 
could  be  found  to  chase  away  his  madness 
by  music,  one  of  the  young  men  in  the 
guard  suggested  David.  Saul,  with  the 
absolute  control  inherent  in  the  idea  of  an 
Oriental  king,  instantly  sent  for  him,  and 
in  the  successful  effort  of  David's  harp  we 
have  the  first  glimpse  into  that  genius  for 
music  and  poetry  which  was  afterwards 
consecrated  in  the  Psalms.  4.  One  inci- 
dent alone  of  his  solitary  shepherd  life  has 
come  down  to  us  —  his  conflict  with  the 
lion  and  the  bear  in  defence  of  his  father's 
flocks  (1  Sam.  xvii.  34,  35).  But  it  did 
not  stand  alone.  He  was  already  known  to 
Saul's  guards  for  his  martial  exploits,  prob- 
ably against  the  Philistines  (xvi.  18),  and, 
when  he  suddenly  appeared  in  the  camp, 
his  elder  brother  immediately  guessed  that 
he  had  left  the  sheep  in  his  ardor  to  see  the 
battle  (xvii.  28).  The  scene  of  the  battle 
is  at  Ephes-dammim,  in  the  frontier-hills  of 
Judah,  called  probably  from  this  or  similar 
encounters  "  the  bound  of  blood."  Saul's 
army  is  encamped  on  one  side  of  the  ravine, 
the  Philistines  on  the  other;  the  watercourse 
of  Elah  or  "  tlie  Terebinth"  runs  between 
them.  A  Philistine  of  gigantic  stature,  and 
clothed  in  complete  armor,  insults  the  com- 
paratively defenceless  Israelites,  amongst 
whom  the  king  alone  appears  to  be  well 
armed  (xvii.  38 ;  comp.  xiii.  20).  No  one 
can  be  found  to  take  up  the  challenge.  At 
this  juncture  David  appears  in  the  camp. 
Just  as  he  comes  to  the  circle  of  wagons 
which  formed,  as  in  Arab  settlements,  a 
rude  fortification  round  the  Israelite  camp 
(xvii.  20),  he  hears  the  well-known  shout 
of  the  Israelite  war-cry  (comp.  Num.  xxiii. 
21).  The  martial  spirit  of  the  boy  is  stirred 
at  the  sound ;  he  leaves  his  provisions  with 
the  baggage- master,  and  darts  to  join  his 
brothers,  like  one  of  the  royal  messengers, 
into  the  midst  of  the  lines.  Then  he  hears 
the  challenge,  now  made  for  the  fortieth 
time — sees  the  dismay  of  his  countrymen 

—  hears  the  reward  proposed  by  the  king 

—  goes  with  the  impetuosity  of  youth  from 
soldier  to  soldier  talking  of  the  event,  in 
spite  of  his  brother's  rebuke  —  is  intro- 
duced to   Saul  —  undertakes  tho  combat. 


His  victory  over  the  gigantic  Philistine  is 
rendered  more  conspicuous  by  his  own  di- 
minutive stature,  and  by  the  simple  weapons 
with  which  it  was  accomplished  —  not  the 
armor  of  Saul,  which  he  naturally  found  too 
large,  but  the  shepherd's  sling,  which  he 
always  carried  with  him,  and  the  five  pol- 
ished pebbles  which  he  picked  up  as  he  went 
from  the  watercourse  of  the  valley,  and  put 
in  his  shepherd's  wallet.  Two  trophies  long 
remained  of  the  battle  —  one,  the  huge 
sword  of  the  Philistine,  which  was  hung  up 
behind  the  ephod  in  the  Tabernacle  at  Nob 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  9)  ;  the  other,  the  head,  wluch 
he  bore  away  himself,  and  which  was  either 
laid  up  at  Nob,  or  subsequently  at  Jeru- 
salem. —  II.  Relations  with  Saul.  We 
now  enter  on  a  ncAv  aspect  of  David's  life. 
The  victory  over  Goliath  had  been  a  turn- 
ing point  of  his  career.  Saul  inquired  his 
parentage,  and  took  him  finally  to  his  court. 
Jonathan  was  inspired  by  the  romantic 
friendship  which  bound  the  two  youths  to- 
gether to  the  end  of  their  lives.  The  tri- 
umphant songs  of  the  Israclitish  women 
announced  that  they  felt  that  in  him  Israel 
had  now  found  a  deliverer  mightier  even 
than  Saul.  And  in  those  songs,  and  in  the 
fame  which  David  thus  acquired,  was  laid 
the  foundation  of  that  unhappy  jealousy  of 
Saul  towards  him,  wliich,  mingling  with  the 
king's  constitutional  malady,  poisoned  his 
whole  future  relations  to  David.  Three 
new  qualities  now  began  to  develop  them- 
selves in  David's  character,  The  first  was 
his  prudence.  Secondly,  we  now  see  his 
magnanimous  forbearance,  called  forth,  in 
the  first  instance,  towards  Suul,  but  dis- 
playing itself  (with  a  few  painful  excep- 
tions) in  the  rest  of  his  Ufe.  Thirdly,  his 
hairbreadth  escapes,  continued  through  so 
many  years,  impressed  upon  him  a  sense 
of  dependence  on  the  Divine  help,  clearly 
derived  from  this  epoch.  This  course  of 
life  subdivides  itself  into  four  portions  :  — 
1.  His  life  at  the  court  of  Saul  till  his  final 
escape  (1  Sam.  xviii.  2-xix.  18).  His  office 
is  not  exactly  defined.  But  it  would  seem 
that,  having  been  first  armor-bearer  (xvi. 
21,  xviii.  2),  then  made  captain  over  a 
thousand  —  the  subdivision  of  a  tribe  — 
(xviii.  13),  he  finally,  on  his  marriage  with 
Michal,  the  king's  second  daughter,  was 
raised  to  the  high  office  of  captain  of  the 
king's  body-guard,  second  only,  if  not 
equal,  to  Abner,  the  captain  of  the  host, 
and  Jonathan,  the  heir  apparent.  These 
three  formed  the  usual  companions  of  the 
king  at  his  meals  (xx.  25).  David  was  now 
chiefly  known  for  liis  successful  exploits 
against  the  Philistines,  by  one  of  which  he 
won  liis  wife,  and  drove  back  tlie  Philistine 
power  with  a  blow  from  which  it  only  ral- 
lied at  the  disastrous  close  of  Saul's  reign. 
He  also  still  p'^rformed  from  time  to  time 
the  office  of  minstrel.    But  the  sucoessire 


DAVID 


136 


DAVID 


snares  laid  by  Saul  to  entrap  him,  and  the 
open  violence  into  which  the  king's  mad- 
ness twice  broke  cut,  at  last  convinced  him 
that  his  life  was  no  longer  safe.  He  had 
two  faithful  allies,  however,  in  the  court  — 
the  son  of  Saul,  liis  friend  Jonathan  —  the 
daughter  of  Saul,  his  wife  Michal.  "Warned 
by  the  one,  and  assisted  by  the  other,  he 
escaped  by  night,  and  was  from  thence- 
forward a  fugitive.  Jonathan  he  never 
saw  again  except  by  stealth.  Michal  was 
given  in  marriage  to  another  (Phaltiel), 
and  he  saw  her  no  more  till  long  after 
her  father's  death.  2.  His  escape  (1  Sam. 
xix.  18-xxi.  15).  He  first  fled  to  Naioth 
(or  the  pastures)  of  Ramah,  to  Samuel. 
This  is  the  first  recorded  occasion  of  his 
meeting  with  Samuel  since  the  original  in- 
terview during  his  boyhood  at  Bethlehem. 
Up  to  this  time  both  the  king  and  himself 
had  thought  that  a  reunion  was  possible 
(see  XX.  5,  26).  But  the  madness  of  Saul 
now  became  more  settled  and  ferocious  in 
character,  and  David's  danger  proportion- 
ably  greater.  The  secret  interview  with 
Jonathan  confirmed  the  alarm  already  ex- 
cited by  Saul's  endeavor  to  seize  Mm  at 
Ramah,  and  he  now  determined  to  leave 
his  country,  and  take  refuge,  like  Coriola- 
nus  or  Themistocles  in  like  cii-cumstances, 
in  the  court  of  his  enemy.  Before  tliis  last 
resolve,  he  visited  Kob,  the  seat  of  the 
tabernacle,  partly  to  obtain  a  final  inter- 
view with  the  high-priest  (1  Sam.  xxii.  9, 
15),  partly  to  obtain  food  and  weapons. 
On  the  pretext  of  a  secret  mission  from 
Saul,  he  gained  an  answer  from  the  oracle, 
some  of  the  consecrated  loaves,  and  the 
consecrated  sword  of  Goliath.  His  stay  at 
the  court  of  Achish  was  short.  Discovered 
possibly  by  "  the  sword  of  Goliatli,"  Ids 
presence  revived  the  national  enmity  of  the 
Philistines  against  their  former  conqueror, 
and  ho  only  escaped  by  feigning  madness 
(1  Sam,  xxi.  13).  3.  His  life  as  an  inde- 
pendent outlaw  (xxii.  1-xxvi.  25).  (a) 
His  first  retreat  was  the  cave  of  Adullam, 
probably  the  large  cavern,  not  far  from 
Bethlehem,  now  called  Khureitim.  From 
its  vicinity  to  Bethlehem,  he  was  joined 
tlicre  by  his  whole  family,  now  feeling  them- 
selves insecure  from  Saul's  fury  (xxii.  1). 
This  was  probably  the  foundation  of  his 
intimate  connection  with  his  nephews,  the 
sons  of  Zeruiah.  (6)  His  next  move  was 
to  a  stronghold,  either  the  mountain,  after- 
wards called  Herodium,  close  to  Adullam, 
or  the  fastness  called  by  Josephus  Masada, 
the  Grecized  form  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Matzed  (i  Sam.  xxii.  4,  5 ;  1  Chr.  xii.  16), 
in  tlie  neighborhood  of  En-gedi.  Whilst 
there  he  had  deposited  his  aged  parents, 
for  the  sake  of  greater  security,  beyond  the 
Jordan,  with  their  ancestral  kinsman  of 
Moab  {ih.  3).  The  neighboring  king, 
Nahash  of  Ammou,  also  treated  him  kindly 


(2  Sam.  X.  2).  Here  occurred  the  chival- 
rous exploit  of  the  three  heroes  just  men- 
tioned to  procure  water  from  the  well  of 
Bethlehem,  and  David's  chivalrous  answer, 
like  that  of  Alexander  in  the  desert  of 
Gedrosia  (1  Chr.  xi.  16-19 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
14-17).  He  was  joined  here  by  two  sepa- 
rate bands.  One  a  little  body  of  eleven 
fierce  Gadite  mountaineers,  who  swam  the 
Jordan  in  flood-time  to  reach  him  (1  Chr. 
xii.  8).  Another  was  a  detachment  of  men 
from  Judah  and  Benjamin  under  his 
nephew  Amasai,  who  henceforth  attached 
himself  to  David's  fortunes  (I  Chr.  xii.  16- 
18).  (c)  At  the  warning  of  Gad,  he  fled 
to  the  forest  of  Hareth,  and  then  again  fell 
in  with  the  Philistines,  and  again,  appar- 
ently advised  by  Gad  (xxiii.  4),  made  a 
descent  on  their  foraging  parties,  and  re- 
lieved Kcilah,  in  which  he  took  up  his 
abode.  Whilst  there,  now  for  the  first  time 
in  a  fortified  town  of  his  own  (xxiii.  7),  he 
was  joined  by  a  new  and  most  important 
ally  —  Abiathar,  the  last  survivor  of  the 
house  of  Ithamar.  By  this  time  the  400 
who  had  joined  him  at  Adullam  (xxii.  2) 
had  swelled  to  600  (xxui,  13).  (d)  The 
situation  of  David  was  now  changed  by  the 
appearance  of  Saul  himself  on  the  scene. 
Apparently  the  danger  was  too  great  for 
the  little  army  to  keep  together.  They  es- 
caped from  Keilah,  and  dispersed,  "  whith- 
ersoever they  could  go,"  among  the  fast- 
nesses of  Jtidah.  Henceforth  it  becomes 
difficult  to  follow  his  movements  with  ex- 
actness. But  thus  much  we  discern.  He  is 
in  the  wilderness  of  Ziph.  Once  (or  twice) 
the  Ziphites  betray  his  movements  to  Saul. 
From  thence  Saul  literally  hunts  him  like  a 
partridge,  the  treacherous  Ziphites  beating 
the  bushes  before  him,  and  3000  men  sta- 
tioned to  catch  even  the  print  of  his  footsteps 
on  the  hills  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  14,  22,  xxiv.  11, 
xxvi.  2,  20).  David  finds  himself  driven  to 
the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Maon.  On  two,  if  dot  three  occa- 
sions, the  pursuer  and  pursued  catch  sight 
of  each  other  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  25-29,  xxiv.  1- 
22,  xxvi.).  Whilst  he  was  in  tlie  wilderness 
of  Maon  occurred  David's  adventure  with 
Nabal,  instructive  as  showing  his  mode 
of  carrying  on  the  freebooter's  life,  and  his 
marriage  with  Abigail.  His  marriage  with 
Ahinoam  from  Jezreel,  also  in  the  same 
neighborhood  (Josh.  xv.  56),  seems  to  have 
tiiken  place  a  short  time  belbre  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
43,  xxvii.  3;  2  Sam.  iii.  2).  4.  His  ser- 
vice under  Achish  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  1 ;  2  Sam. 
i.  27).  AVearied  with  his  wandering  life 
he  at  last  crosses  the  Philistine  frontier, 
not,  as  before,  in  the  capacity  of  a  fugitive, 
but  the  chief  of  a  powerful  band  —  his  600 
men  now  grown  into  an  organized  force, 
with  their  wives  and  fj.milies  around  them 
(xxvii.  3,  4).  After  tl  e  manner  of  Eastern 
potentates,  Achish  ga\  e  liim,  for  his  support, 


DAVID 


137 


DAVID 


a  city  —  Ziklag  on  the  frontier  of  Philistia 
(xxvii.  6).  There  we  meet  with  the  first 
note  of  time  in  David's  life.  He  was  set- 
tled there  for  a  year  and  four  months 
(xxvii.  7),  and  a  body  of  Benjamite  arch- 
ers and  slingers,  twenty-two  of  wliom  are 
specially  named,  joined  him  from  the  very 
tribe  of  his  rival  (1  Chr.  xii.  1-7).  He 
deceived  Achish  into  confidence  by  attack- 
ing the  old  Nomadic  inhabitants  of  the 
desBrt  frontier,  and  representing  the  plun- 
der to  be  of  portions  of  the  southern  tribes 
or  the  Nomadic  allied  tribes  of  Israel.  But 
this  confidence  was  not  shared  by  the  Phi- 
listine nobles,  and  accordingly  David  was 
sent  back  by  Achish  from  the  last  victo- 
rious campaign  against  Saul.  During  his 
absence  the  Bedouin  Amalekites,  whom  he 
had  plundered  during  the  previous  year,  had 
made  a  descent  upon  Ziklag,  burnt  it  to  the 
ground,  and  carried  off  the  wives  and  chil- 
dren of  the  new  settlement.  A  wild  scene 
of  frantic  grief  and  recrimination  ensued 
between  David  and  his  followers.  It  was 
calmed  by  an  oracle  of  assurance  from 
Abiathar.  Assisted  by  the  Manassites  who 
had  joined  him  on  the  march  to  Gilboa  (1 
Chr.  xii.  19-21),  he  overtook  the  invaders 
in  the  desert,  and  recovered  the  spoil  (1 
Sara.  XXX.).  Two  days  after  this  victory 
a  Bedouin  arrived  from  the  north  with  the 
fatal  news  of  the  death  at  Gilboa.  The 
reception  of  the  tidings  of  the  death  of  his 
rival  and  of  his  friend,  the  solemn  mourn- 
ing, the  vent  of  his  indignation  against  the 
bearer  of  the  message,  the  pathetic  lamen- 
tation that  followed,  will  close  the  second 
period  of  David's  life  (2  Sam.  i.  1-27).— 
III.  David's  reign.  (I.)  As  king  of  Judah 
at  Hebron,  "i^  years  (2  Sam.  ii.  1-v.  5). 
Hebron  was  selected,  doubtless,  as  the  an- 
cient sacred  city  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  the 
burial-place  of  the  patriarchs  and  the  in- 
heritance of  Caleb.  Here  David  was  first 
formally  anointed  king  (2  Sam.  ii.  4). 
To  Judah  his  dominion  was  nominally  con- 
fined. Gradually  his  power  increased, 
and  during  the  two  years  which  followed 
the  elevation  of  Ishbosheth  a  series  of 
skirmishes  took  place  between  the  two 
kingdoms.  Then  rapidly  followed,  though 
without  David's  consent,  the  successive 
murders  of  Abxer  and  of  Ishbosheth  (2 
Sam.  iii.  30,  iv.  5).  The  throne,  so  long 
waiting  for  him,  was  now  vacant,  and  the 
united  voice  of  the  whole  people  at  once 
called  him  to  occupy  it.  A  solemn  league 
was  made  between  him  and  his  people  (2 
Sam.  V.  3).  For  the  third  time  David  was 
anointed  king,  and  a  festival  of  three  days 
celebrated  the  joyful  event  (1  Chr.  xii.  39). 
Hia  little  band  had  now  swelled  into  "  a 
great  host,  like  the  host  of  God"  (1  Chr. 
xii.  22),  The  command  of  it,  which  had 
formerly  rested  on  David  alone,  he  now 
devolved  on  his  nephew  Joab  (2  Sam.  ii. 


28).  (II.)  Reign  over  all  Israel,  33  years 
(2  Sam.  V.  5  to  1  K.  ii.  11).  (1)  The  foun- 
dation of  Jerusalem.  One  fastness  alone  in 
the  centre  of  the  land  had  hitherto  defied 
the  arms  of  Israel.  On  this,  with  a  singu- 
lar prescience,  David  fixed  as  his  future 
capital.  By  one  sudden  assault  Jebus  was 
taken.  The  reward  bestowed  on  the  suc- 
cessful scaler  of  the  precipice  was  the 
highest  place  in  the  army.  Joab  hence- 
forward became  captain  of  the  host  (1  Chr. 
xi.  6).  The  royal  residence  was  instantly 
fixed  there  —  fortifications  were  added  by 
the  king  and  by  Joab  —  and  it  was  known 
by  the  special  name  of  the  "  city  of  David  " 
(1  Chr.  xi.  7;  2  Sam.  v.  9).  The  Philis- 
tines made  two  ineffectual  attacks  on  the 
new  king  (2  Sam.  v.  17-20),  and  a  retribu- 
tion on  their  former  victories  took  place 
by  the  capture  and  conflagration  of  their 
own  idols  (1  Chr.  xiv.  12).  Tyre,  now  for 
the  first  time  appearing  in  the  sacred  his- 
tory, allied  herself  with  Israel ;  and  Hiram 
sent  cedar-wood  for  the  buildings  of  the  new 
capital  (2  Sam.  v.  11),  especially  for  the 
palace  of  David  himself  (2  Sam.  vii.  2). 
Unhallowed  and  profane  as  the  city  had 
been  before,  it  was  at  once  elevated  to  a 
sanctity  which  it  has  never  lost,  above  any 
of  the  ancient  sanctuaries  of  the  land.  The 
ark  was  now  removed  from  its  obscurity 
at  Kirjath-jearim  with  marked  solemnity. 
A  temporary  halt  (owing  to  the  death  of 
Uzza)  detained  it  at  Obed-edom's  house, 
after  which  it  again  moved  forward  with 
great  state  to  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  great- 
est day  of  David's  life.  One  incident  only 
tarnished  its  splendor  —  the  reproach  of 
Michal,  his  wife,  as  he  was  finally  entering 
his  own  palace,  to  carry  to  his  own  household 
the  benediction  which  he  had  already  pro- 
nounced on  his  people.  His  act  of  severity 
towards  her  was  an  additional  mark  of  the 
stress  which  he  himself  laid  on  the  solem- 
nity (2  Sam.  vi.  20-23 ;  1  Chr.  xv.  29). 
(2)  Foundation  of  the  Court  and  Empire 
of  Israel,  2  Sam.  viii.  to  xii.  The  erec- 
tion of  the  new  capital  at  Jerusalem  in- 
troduces us  to  a  new  era  in  David's  life 
and  in  the  history  of  the  monarchy.  He 
became  a  king  on  the  scale  of  the  great 
Oriental  sovereigns  of  Egypt  and  Persia, 
with  a  regular  administration  and  organi- 
zation of  court  and  camp;  and  he  also 
founded  an  imperial  dominion  which  for 
the  first  time  realized  the  prophetic  de- 
scription of  the  bounds  of  the  chosen  peo- 
ple (Gen.  XV.  18-21).  The  internal  organ- 
ization now  established  lasted  till  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  monarchy.  The  empire 
was  of  much  shorter  duration,  continuing 
only  through  the  reigns  of  David  and  hia 
successor  Solomon.  But,  for  the  period 
of  its  existence,  it  lent  a  peculiar  character 
to  the  sacred  history,  (a)  In  the  mter- 
nal  organization  of  the  kingdom  the  flwt 


DAVID 


138 


DAVID 


new  element  that  has  to  be  considered  is 
the  royal  family,  the  dynasty,  of  whicli 
David  was  the  founder,  a  position  which 
entitled  him  to  the  name  of  "  Patriarch  " 
(Acts  ii.  29),  and  (ultimately)  of  the  ances- 
tor of  the  Messiah.  Of  these,  Absalom 
and  Adonijah  both  inherited  their  father's 
beauty  (2  Sam.  xiv.  25 ;  1  K.  i.  6)  ;  but 
Solomon  alone  possessed  any  of  his  higher 
qualities.  It  was  from  a  union  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Solomon  and  Absalom  that  the  royal 
line  was  carried  on  (1  K.  xv.  2).  David's 
strong  parental  affection  for  all  of  them 
is  very  remarkable  (2  Sam.  xiii.  31,  33,  36, 
xiv.  33,  xviii.  5,  33,  xix.  4 ;  IK.  i.  6).  (6) 
The  military  organization,  which  was  in 
fact  inherited  from  Saul,  but  greatly  devel- 
oped by  David,  was  as  follows  :  —  (1)  "  The 
Host,"  i.  e.  the  whole  available  military 
force  of  Israel,  consisting  of  all  males  capa- 
ble of  bearing  arms,  and  summoned  only 
for  war.  There  were  12  divisions  of  24,000 
each,  who  were  held  to  be  in  duty  month 
by  month ;  and  over  each  of  them  presided 
an  officer,  selected  for  this  purpose  from 
the  other  military  bodies  formed  by  David 
(1  Chr.  xxvii.  1-15).  The  army  was  still 
distinguished  from  those  of  surrounding 
nations  by  its  primitive  aspect  of  a  force 
of  infantry  without  cavalry.  The  only  in- 
novations as  yet  allowed  were  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  very  limited  number  of  cliariots 
(2  Sam.  viii.  4)  and  of  mules  for  the 
princes  and  officers  instead  of  asses  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  29,  xviii.  9).  (2)  The  Body- 
guard. Tliis  also  had  existed  In  the  court 
of  Saul,  and  David  liimself  had  probably 
been  its  commanding  officer  (1  Sam.  xxii. 
14).  But  it  now  assumed  a  peculiar  organ- 
ization. They  were  at  lea.st  in  name  for- 
eigners, as  having  been  drawn  from  the 
Philistines,  probably  during  David's  resi- 
dence at  the  court  of  Gath.  They  are  usually 
called  from  this  circumstance  "  Cherethites 
and  Pelethites."  The  captain  of  the  force 
was,  however,  not  only  not  a  foreigner,  but 
an  Israelite  of  the  highest  distinction  and 
purest  descent,  who  first  appears  in  this 
capacity,  but  who  outlived  David,  and 
became  the  chief  support  of  the  throne  of 
liis  son,  namely  Benaiah,  son  of  the  chief- 
priest  Jehoiada,  representative  of  the  eld- 
est branch  of  Aaron's  house  (2  Sam.  viii. 
18,  XV.  18,  XX.  23;  1  K.  i.  38,  44).  (3) 
The  most  peculiar  military  institution  in 
David's  army  was  that  which  arose  out 
of  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  his  early 
life.  The  nucleus  of  what  afterwards  be- 
came the  only  standing  army  in  David's 
forces  was  the  band  of  600  men  who  had 
gathered  round  him  in  his  wanderings.  The 
number  of  600  was  still  preserved.  It  be- 
came yet  further  subdivided  into  three  large 
bands  of  200  each,  and  small  bands  of  20 
each.  The  small  bands  were  commanded 
by  30  officers,  one  for  each  band,  who  to- 


gether formed  "  the  thirty,"  and  the  3  large 
bands  by  3  officers,  who  together  formed 
"the  three,"  and  the  whole  by  one  cliief, 
"the  captain  of  the  mighty  men  "  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  8-39;  1  Chr.  xi.  9-47).  The  CDm- 
mander  of  the  whole  force  was  Abishai, 
David's  nephew  (1  Chr.  xi.  20;  and  comp. 
2  Sam.  xvi.  9).  (c)  Side  by  side  with  this 
military  organization  were  established  social 
and  moral  institutions.  Some  were  entirely 
for  pastoral,  agricultural,  and  financial  pur- 
poses (IChr.  xxvii.  25-31), others  for  judicial 
(1  Chr.  xxvi.  29-32).  Some  few  are  named 
as  constituting  what  would  now  be  called  the 
court,  or  council  of  the  king ;  the  councillors, 
Aliithophel  of  Gilo,  and  Jonathan,  the  king's 
nephew  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  32,  33)  ;  the  com- 
panion or  "friend,"  Hushai  (1  Chr.  xxvii. 
33 ;  2  Sam.  xv.  37,  xvi.  19) ;  the  scribe, 
Sheva,  or  Seraiah,  and  at  one  time  Jonathan 
(2  Sam.  XX.  25  ;  1  Chr.  xxvii.  32)  ;  Jehosha- 
phat,  the  recorder  or  historian  (2  Sam.  xx. 
24),  and  Adoram  the  tax-collector,  both  of 
whom  survived  him  (2  Sam.  xx.  24 ;  IK. 
xii.  18,  iv.  3,  6  ).  But  the  more  peculiar  of 
David's  institutions  were  those  directly  bear- 
ing on  religion.  Two  prophets  appear  as 
the  king's  constant  advisers.  Of  these, 
Gad,  who  seems  to  have  been  the  elder,  had 
been  David's  companion  in  exile ;  and,  from 
his  being  called  "the  seer,"  belongs  prob- 
ably to  the  earliest  form  of  the  prophetic 
schools.  Nathan,  who  appears  for  the  first 
time  after  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vii.  2),  is  distin- 
guished both  by  his  title  of  "  prophet,"  and 
by  the  nature  of  the  prophecies  which  he 
utters  (2  Sam.  vii.  5-17,  xii.  1-14),  as  of 
the  purest  type  of  prophetic  dispensation, 
and  as  the  hope  of  the  new  generation, 
which  he  supports  in  the  person  of  Sol- 
omon (1  K.  i.).  Two  high-priests  also 
appear  —  representatives  of  the  two  rival 
houses  of  Aaron  (1  Chr.xxiv.  3)  ;  hereagiiin, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  two  prophets,  one,  Abia- 
thar,  who  attended  him  at  Jerusalem,  com- 
panion of  his  exile,  and  connected  with  the 
old  time  of  the  judges  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  34), 
joining  him  after  the  death  of  Saul,  and  be- 
coming afterwards  the  support  of  his  son ; 
the  other,  Zadoc,  who  ministered  at  Gib- 
eon  (1  Chr.  xvi.  39),  and  who  was  made 
the  head  of  the  Aaronic  family  (xxvii.  17). 
Besides  these  four  great  religious  func- 
tionaries there  were  two  classes  of  subor- 
dinates —  prophets,  specially  instructed  in 
singing  and  music,  under  Asaph,  Heman 
the  grandson  of  Samuel,  and  Jeduthun  (1 
Chr.  XXV.  1-31)  —  Levites,  or  attendants 
on  the  sanctuary,  who  again  were  subdi- 
vided into  the  guardians  of  the  gates  and 
guardians  of  the  treasures  (1  Chr.  xxvi. 
1-28)  which  had  been  accumulated,  since 
the  re-establishment  of  the  nation,  by  Sam- 
uel, Saul,  Abner,  Joab,  and  David  himself 
(1  Chr.  xxvi.  26-28).     (d)  From  the  in- 


DAVID 


139 


LYID 


temal  slate  of  David's  kingdom  we  pass  to 
its  external  relations.  These  will  be  found  at 
length  under  the  various  countries  to  which 
they  relate.  It  will  be  here  only  neces- 
sary to  briefly  indicate  the  enlargement  of 
his  dominions.  AVithin  ten  years  from  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  he  had  reduced  to  a 
state  of  permanent  subjection  the  Philis- 
tines on  the  west  (2  Sam.  viii.  1) ;  the 
MoABiTES  on  the  east  (2  Sam.  viii.  2),  by 
the  exploits  of  Benaiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20)  ; 
the  Syrians  on  the  north-east  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates  (2  Sam.  viii.  3) ;  the  Edojhtes 
(2  Sam.  viii.  14),  on  the  south;  and  finally 
tiie  Ammonites,  who  had  broken  their  an- 
cient alliance,  and  made  one  grand  resist- 
ance to  the  advance  of  his  empire  (2  Sam. 
■K.  1-19,  xii.  26-31).  Tliese  three  last  wars 
were  entangled  with  each  other.  The  last 
and  crowning  point  was  the  siege  of  Kab- 
bah. (3)  Three  great  calamities  may  be 
selected  as  marking  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  close  of  David's  otherwise  prosperous 
reign;  which  appears  to  be  intimated  in 
the  question  of  Gad  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  13),  "  a 
three  years'  famine,  a  three  months'  flight, 
or  a  three  days'  pestilence."  (a)  Of  tliese, 
the  first  (the  three  years'  famine)  intro- 
duces us  to  the  last  notices  of  David's  re- 
lations with  the  house  of  Saul.  There  has 
often  arisen  a  painful  suspicion  in  later 
times,  as  there  seems  to  have  been  at  the 
time  (xvi.  7),  that  the  oracle,  which  gave 
as  the  cause  of  the  famine  Saul's  massacre 
of  the  Gibeonites,  may  have  been  con- 
nected with  the  desire  to  extinguish  the 
last  remains  of  the  fallen  dynasty.  But 
such  an  explanation  is  not  needed.  The 
massacre  was  probably  the  most  recent 
national  crime  that  had  left  any  deep  im- 
pression ;  and  the  whole  tenor  of  David's 
conduct  towards  Saul's  family  is  of  an  op- 
posite kind.  (6)  The  second  group  of  in- 
cidents contains  the  tragedy  of  David's 
life,  which  grew  in  all  its  parts  out  of  the 
polygamy,  with  its  evil  consequences,  into 
which  he  had  plunged  on  becoming  king. 
Underneath  the  splendor  of  his  last  glori- 
ous campaign  against  the  Ammonites,  was 
a  dark  story,  known  probably  at  that  time 
only  to  a  very  few;  the  double  crime  of 
adultery  with  Bathsheba,  and  of  the  virtual 
murder  of  Uriah.  The  crimes  are  un- 
doubtedly those  of  a  common  Oriental 
despot.  But  the  rebuke  of  Nathan;  the 
sudden  revival  of  the  king's  conscience ; 
his  grief  for  the  sickness  of  the  child ;  the 
gathering  of  his  uncles  and  elder  brothers 
around  him ;  his  return  of  hope  and  peace ; 
are  characteristic  of  David,  and  of  David 
only.  But  the  clouds  from  this  time  gath- 
ered over  David's  fortunes,  and  hencefor- 
ward "  the  sword  never  departed  from  his 
house"  (2  Sam.  xii.  10).  The  outrage  on 
his  daughter  Tamar;  the  murder  of  his 
eldest  son  Amnon ;  and  then  the  revolt  of 


his  best-beloved  Absalom,  hrought  on  the 
crisis  which  once  more  sent  him  forth  a  wan- 
derer, as  in  the  days  when  he  fled  from 
Saul;  an^d  this,  the  heaviest  trial  of  his 
life,  was  aggravated  by  the  impetuosity  of 
Joab,  now  perhaps,  from  his  complicity  in 
David's  crime,  more  unmanageable  than 
ever.  The  rebellion  was  fostered  appar- 
ently by  the  growing  jealousy  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  at  seeing  their  king  absorbed  into 
the  whole  nation ;  and  if,  as  appears  from 
2  Sam.  xi.  3,  xxiii.  34,  Ahithophel  was  the 
grandfather  of  Bathsheba,  its  main  sup- 
porter was  one  whom  David  had  provoked 
by  his  own  crimes.  Por  its  general  course 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  names  just 
mentioned.  Mahanaim  was  the  capital 
of  David's  exile,  as  it  had  been  of  the  ex- 
iled house  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  xvii.  24 ;  comp. 
ii.  8,  12).  His  forces  were  arranged  under 
the  three  great  military  officers  who  re- 
mained faithful  to  his  fortunes  —  Joab,  cap- 
tain of  the  host;  Abishai,  captain  of  "the 
mighty  men ; "  and  Ittai,  who  seems  to 
have  taken  the  place  of  Benaiah  as  cap- 
tain of  the  guard  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2).  On 
Absalom's  side  was  David's  nephew  Amasa 
{ib.  xvii.  25).  The  final  battle  was  fought 
in  the  "  forest  of  Ephraim,"  which  termi- 
nated in  the  accident  leading  to  the  death 
of  Absalom.  At  this  point  the  narrative 
resumes  its  minute  detail.  The  return  was 
marked  at  every  stage  by  rejoicing  and 
amnesty  (2  Sam.  xix.  lG-40;  1  K.  ii.  7). 
Judah  was  first  reconciled.  The  embers 
of  the  insurrection,  still  smouldering  (2 
Sara.  xix.  41-43)  in  David's  hereditary  ene- 
mies of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  were 
trampled  out  by  the  mixture  of  boldness 
and  sagacity  in  Joab,  now,  after  the  mur- 
der of  Amasa,  once  more  in  his  old  posi- 
tion. And  David  again  reigned  in  undis- 
turbed peace  at  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  xx. 
1-22).  (c)  The  closing  period  of  David's 
life,  with  the  exception  of  one  great  calam- 
ity, may  be  considered  as  a  gradual  prepa- 
ration for  the  reign  of  his  successor. 
This  calamity  was  the  three  days'  pesti- 
lence which  visited  Jerusalem  at  the  warn- 
ing of  the  prophet  Gad.  The  occasion 
which  led  to  this  warning  was  the  census 
of  the  people  taken  by  Joab  at  the  king's 
orders  (2  Sam.  xxix.  1-9 ;  1  Chr.  xxi.  1-7, 
xxvii.  23,  24).  Joab's  repugnance  to  the 
measure  was  such  that  he  refused  alto- 
gether to  number  Levi  and  Benjamin  (1 
Chr.  xxi.  6).  The  plague  and  its  cessation 
were  commemorated  down  to  the  latest 
times  of  the  Jewish  nation.  Outside  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  Araunah  or  Oman,  a 
wealthy  Jebusite  —  perhaps  even  the  an- 
cient king  of  Jehus  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  23)  -- 
possessed  a  threshing-floor;  there  he  and 
his  sens  were  engaged  in  thresliing  the  coru 
gathered  in  from  the  harvest  (1  Clir.  xsi. 
20).    At  this  BDot  an  awful  vision  appearedn, 


DAVID,  CITY  OF 


140 


DAY 


such  as  is  described  in  the  later  days  of  Je- 
rusalem, of  the  Angel  of  the  Lord  stretch- 
ing out  a  drawn  sword  between  earth  and 
sky  over  the  devoted  city.  The  scene  of 
such  an  apparition  at  such  a  moment  was 
at  once  marked  out  for  a  sanctuary.  David 
demanded,  and  Araunah  willingly  granted, 
the  site  :  the  altar  was  erected  on  the  rock 
of  the  threshing-floor ;  the  place  was  called 
by  the  name  of  "Moriah  "  (2  Chr.  iii.  1) ; 
and  for  the  first  time  a  holj'  place,  sancti- 
fied by  a  vision  of  the  Divine  presence, 
was  recognized  in  Jerusalem.  It  was  this 
spot  which  afterwards  became  the  altar  of 
the  Temple,  and  therefore  the  centre  of  the 
national  worship,  with  but  slight  interrup- 
tion, for  more  than  1000  years,  and  it  is 
even  contended  that  the  same  spot  is  the 
rock,  still  regarded  with  almost  idolatrous 
veneration,  in  the  centre  of  the  Mussulman 
"  Dome  of  the  Rock."  A  formidable  con- 
spiracy to  interrupt  the  succession  broke 
out  in  the  last  days  of  David's  reign,  which 
detached  from  his  person  two  of  his  court, 
who  from  personal  offence  or  adherence  to 
the  ancient  family  had  been  alienated  from 
him  —  Joab  and  Abiathar.  But  Zadok, 
Nathan,  Benaiah,  Shimei,  and  Rei  remain- 
ing firm,  the  plot  was  stifled,  and  Solo- 
mon's inauguration  took  place  under  his 
father's  auspices  (1  K.  i.  1-53).  By  this 
time  David's  infirmities  had  grown  upon 
him.  The  warmth  of  liis  exhausted  frame 
was  attempted  to  be  restored  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  young  Shunamraite,  of  the 
name  of  Abishag,  mentioned  apparently 
for  the  sake  of  an  incident  which  grew  up 
in  connection  with  her  out  of  the  later 
events  (2  K.  i.  1,  ii.  17).  His  last  song  is 
preserved  —  a  striking  union  of  the  ideal 
of  a  just  ruler  which  he  had  placed  before 
liim,  and  of  the  difficulties  wliich  he  had 
felt  in  realizing  it  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  1-7).  His 
last  words,  as  recorded,  to  his  successor, 
are  general  exhortations  to  his  duty,  com- 
bined with  warnings  against  Joab  and 
Shimei,  and  charges  to  remember  the  chil- 
dren of  Barzillai  (1  K.  ii.  1-9).  He  died,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  at  the  age  of  70,  and 
**  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David."  After 
the  return  from  the  captivity,  "  the  sepul- 
chres of  David "  were  still  pointed  out 
"between  Siloah  and  the  house  of  the 
mighty  men,"  or  "  the  guardhouse  "  (Neh. 
iii.  16).  His  tomb,  which  became  the  gen- 
eral sepulchre  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  was 
pointed  out  in  the  latest  times  of  the  Jew- 
ish people.  The  edifice  shown  as  such 
from  the  Crusades  to  the  present  day  is  on 
tlie  southern  hill  of  modern  Jerusalem, 
commonly  called  Mount  Zion,  under  the 
BO-called  "  Coenaculum ;  "  but  it  cannot  be 
identified  with  the  tomb  of  David,  which 
was  emphatically  within  the  walls. 
David,  City  of.  [JERusxtEM.] 
Day.    The  variable  length  of  the  natu- 


ral day  at  different  seasons  led  in  the  very 
earliest  times  to  the  adoption  of  the  civil 
day  (or  one  revolution  of  the  sun)  as  a 
standard  of  time.  The  commencement  of 
the  civil  day  varies  in  diflerent  xations: 
the  Babylonians  reckoned  it  from  sunrise 
to  sunrise;  the  Umbrians  from  noon  to 
noon ;  the  Romans  from  midnight  to  mid 
night ;  the  Athenians  and  others  from  sun- 
set to  sunset.  The  Hebrews  naturally 
adopted  the  latter  reckoning  (Lev.  xxiii. 
32,  "  from  even  to  even  shall  ye  celebrate 
your  sabbath  ")  from  Gen.  i.  5,  "  the  even- 
ing and  the  morning  were  the  first  day." 
The  Jews  are  supposed,  like  the  modern 
Arabs,  to  have  adopted  from  an  early 
period  minute  specifications  of  the  parts 
of  the  natural  day.  Roughly  indeed  they 
were  content  to  divide  it  into  "  morning, 
evening,  and  noonday"  (Ps.  Iv.  17);  but 
when  they  wished  for  greater  accuracy  they 
pointed  to  six  unequal  parts,  each  of  which 
was  again  subdivided.  These  are  held  to 
have  been :  1.  "  The  dawn."  2.  "  Sun- 
rise." 3.  "Heat  of  the  day,"  about  9 
o'clock;  4.  "The  two  noons"  (Gen.  xliii. 
16;  Deut.  xxviii.  29);  5.  "The  cool  (lit. 
wind)  of  the  day,"  before  sunset  (Gen.  iii. 
8) ;  so  called  by  the  Persians  to  this  day ; 
6.  "Evening."  The  phrase  "  between  the 
two  evenings"  (Ex.  xvi.  12,  xxx.  8),  being 
the  time  marked  for  slaying  the  paschal 
lamb  and  offering  the  evening  sacrifice 
(Ex.  xii.  6,  xxix.  39),  led  to  a  dispute  be- 
tween the  Karaites  and  Samaritans  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  Pharisees  on  the  other. 
The  former  took  it  to  mean  between  sunset 
and  full  darkness  (Deut.  xvi.  6)  ;  the  Rab- 
binists  explained  it  as  the  time  between  the 
beginning  and  end  of  sunset.  Before  the 
captivity  the  Jews  divided  the  night  into 
three  watches  (Ps.  Ixiii.  6,  xc.  4) ,  viz.  the 
first  watch,  lasting  till  midnight  (Lam.  ii. 
19,  A.  V.  "  the  beginning  of  the  watches  ")  ; 
the  "  Middle  watch,"  lasting  till  cockcrow 
(Judg.  vii.  19) ;  and  the  morning  watch, 
lasting  till  sunrise  (Ex.  xiv.  24).  These 
divisions  were  probably  connected  with  the 
Levitical  duties  in  the  Temple  service. 
The  Jews,  however,  say  (in  spite  of  their 
own  definition,  "a  watch  is  the  third  part 
of  the  night,"  that  they  always  liad  four 
night-watches  (comp.  Neh.  ix.  3),  but  that 
the  fourth  was  counted  as  a  part  of  the 
morning.  In  the  N.  T.  we  have  allusions 
to  four  watches,  a  division  borrowed  from 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  These  were,  1. 
from  twilight  till  9  o'clock  (Mark.  xi.  11; 
John  XX.  19) ;  2.  mi  inight,  from  9  till  12 
o'clock  (Mark  xiii.  35) ;  3.  till  3  in  the 
morning  (Mark  xiii.  35 ;  3  Mace.  v.  23)  ; 
4.  till  daybreak  (John  xviii.  28).  The 
word  held  to  mean  "hour"  is  first  found 
in  Dan.  iii,  6,  15,  v.  5.  Perhaps  the  Jews, 
like  the  Greeks,  learnt  from  the  Babylonians 
the  division  ot  the  day  into  12  parts.    In 


DAYSMAN 


141 


DEBORAH 


our  Lord's  time  the  division  was  common 
(John  xi.  9). 

Daysman,  an  old  English  term,  mean- 
ing umpire  or  arbitrator  (Job  ix.  33).  It 
is  derived  from  day,  in  the  specific  sense  of 
a  Aa,j  fixed  for  a  trial. 

Deacon.  The  office  described  by  this 
title  appears  in  the  N.  T.  as  the  correlative 
of  Bishop.  [Bishop.]  The  two  are  men- 
tioned together  in  Phil.  i.  1 ;  1  Tim.  iii.  2, 
8.  Like  most  words  of  similar  import,  it 
appears  to  have  been  first  used  in  its  ge- 
neric sense,  implying  subordinate  activity  (1 
Cor.  iii.  5;  2  Cor.  vi.  4),  and  afterwards  to 
have  gained  a  more  defined  connotation,  as 
applied  to  a  distinct  body  of  men  in  the 
Christian  society.  The  narrative  of  Acts 
vi.  is  commonly  referred  to  as  giving  an  ac- 
count of  the  institution  of  this  office.  The 
Apostles,  in  order  to  meet  the  complaints 
of  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  that  their  widows 
were  neglected  in  the  daily  ministration, 
call  on  the  body  of  believers  to  choose  seven 
men  "full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  wis- 
dom," whom  they  "  may  appoint  over  this 
business."  It  may  be  questioned,  however, 
whether  the  seven  were  not  appointed  to 
liigher  functions  than  those  of  the  deacons 
of  the  N.  T.  There  are  indications,  how- 
ever, of  the  existence  of  another  body  in 
the  Church  of  Jerusalem  whom  we  may 
compare  with  the  deacons  of  Phil.  i.  1,  and 
1  Tim.  iii.  8.  As  the  "  elders "  of  Acts 
xiv.  23,  XV.  6;  1  Pet.  v.  1,  were  not  merely 
men  advanced  in  years,  so  the  "  young 
men  "  of  Acts  v.  6,  10,  were  probably  not 
merely  young  iifcn,  but  persons  occupying 
a  distinct  position  and  exercising  distinct 
functions.  Assuming  the  identity  of  the 
two  names  we  have  to  ask — (1)  To  what 
previous  organization,  if  any,  the  order  is 
traceable  ?  (2)  What  were  the  qualifications 
aud  functions  of  the  men  so  designated?  I. 
As  the  constitution  of  the  Jewish  synagogue 
had  its  elders  or  pastors,  so  also  it  had  its 
subordinate  officers  (Luke  iv.  20),  whose 
work  it  was  to  give  the  reader  the  rolls 
containing  the  lessons  for  the  day,  to  clean 
the  synagogue,  to  open  and  close  it  at  the 
right  times.  II.  The  moral  qualifications 
described  in  1  Tim.  iii.,  as  necessary  for  the 
office  of  a  deacon,  are  substantially  the 
same  as  those  of  the  bishop.  The  deacons, 
however,  were  not  required  to  be  "  given 
to  hospitality,"  nor  to  be  "  apt  to  teach." 
It  was  enough  for  them  to  "  hold  the  mys- 
tery of  the  faith  in  a  pure  conscience." 
They  were  not  to  gain  their  living  by  dis- 
reputable occupations.  On  offering  them- 
selves for  their  work  they  were  to  be  subject 
to  a  strict  scrutiny  (1  Tim.  iii.  10),  and  if 
this  ended  satisfactorily  were  to  enter  on  it. 
From  the  analogy  of  the  synagogue,  and 
from  the  scanty  notices  of  the  N.  T.,  we 
may  think  of  the  deacons  or  "young  men  " 
ia  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  aa  preparing 


the  rooms  in  which  the  disciples  met,  taking 
part  in  the  distribution  of  alms  out  of  the 
common  fund,  at  first  with  no  direct  super- 
vision, than  under  that  of  the  Seven,  and 
afterwards  under  the  elders,  maintaining 
order  at  the  daily  meetings  of  the  disciples 
to  break  bread,  baptizing  new  converts,  dis- 
tributing tlie  bread  and  the  wine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  which  the  Apostle  or  his 
representative  had  blessed.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  belonged  to  the  office  of  a 
deacon  to  teach  pubUcly  in  the  Church. 

Deaconess.  The  word  Siuxoiui  is  found 
in  Rom.  xvi.  1  (A.  V.  "servant"),  associ- 
ated with  a  female  name,  and  this  has  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  there  existed  in  the 
Apostolic  age,  as  there  undoubtedly  did  a 
little  later,  an  order  of  women  bearing  that 
title,  and  exercising  in  relation  to  their  own 
sex  functions  which  were  analogous  to  those 
of  the  deacons.  On  this  hypothesis  it  has 
been  inferred  that  the  women  mentioned  in 
Rom.  xvi.  6,  12,  belonged  to  such  an  order. 
The  rules  given  as  to  the  conduct  of  women 
in  1  Tim.  iii.  11,  Tit.  ii.  3,  have  in  like 
manner  been  referred  to  them,  and  they 
have  been  identified  even  with  the  "  wid- 
ows "  of  1  Tim.  V.  3-10. 

Dead  Sea.  This  name  nowhere  occurs 
in  the  Bible,  and  appears  not  to  liave  exist- 
ed until  the  2d  century  after  Christ.  In 
the  O.  T.  the  lake  is  called  "the  Salt  Sea," 
and  "  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,"  and  under 
the  former  of  these  names  it  is  described. 

Dearth.     [Famine.] 

De'tair,  the  name  of  three  places  of 
Palestine.  1.  A  town  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  49),  one  of  a  group  of 
eleven  cities  to  the  west  of  Hebron.  The 
earlier  name  of  Debir  was  Kirjathsepher, 
"  city  of  book  "  (Josh.  xv.  15 ;  Judg.  i.  11), 
and  Kirjathsannah,  "  city  of  palm  "  (Josh. 
XV.  49) .  It  was  one  of  the  cities  given  with 
their  "  suburbs  "  to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxL 
15;  1  Chr.  vi.  58).  Debir  has  not  been 
discovered  with  certainty  in  modern  times ; 
but  about  three  miles  to  the  west  of  Hebron 
is  a  deep  and  secluded  valley  called  the 
Wady  Nunkilr,  enclosed  on  the  north  by 
hills,  of  which  one  bears  a  name  certainly 
suggestive  of  Debir  —  Dewir-han.  2.  A 
place  on  the  north  boundary  of  Judah,  near 
the  "Valley  of  Achor"  (Josh.  xv.  7),  and 
therefore  somewhere  in  the  complications 
of  hill  and  ravine  behind  Jericho.  A  Wady 
Dahor  is  marked  in  Van  de  Velde's  map  aa 
close  to  the  S.  of  Neby  Miisa,  at  the  N.  W. 
corner  of  the  Dead  Sea.  3.  The  "  border 
of  Debir  "  is  named  as  forming  part  of  the 
boundary  of  Gad  (Josh.  xiii.  26),  and  a«  ap- 
parently not  far  from  Malianaim. 

De'bir,  king  of  Eglon ;  one  of  the  five 
kings  hanged  by  Joshua  (Josli.  x.  3,  23). 

Deb'orah.  1.  The  nurse  of  Kebekah 
(Gen.  XXXV.  1).  Deborah  accompanied  Re- 
bekah  from  the  house  of  Bethuel  (Geo. 


DEBTOR 


142 


DEKAR 


xxiv.  59),  and  is  only  mentioned  by  name 
on  the  occasion  of  her  burial,  under  the 
oak-tree  of  Bothel,  which  was  called  in  her 
honor  Allon-Bachuth.  2.  A  prophetess 
who  judged  Israel  (Judg.  iv.,  v.).  She 
lived  under  the  palm-tree  of  Deborah,  be- 
tween Kaniah  and  Bethel  in  Mount  Ephraim 
(Judg.  iv.  5),  which,  as  palm-trees  were 
rare  in  Palestine,  "  is  mentioned  as  a  well- 
known  and  solitary  landmark,  and  was 
probably  the  same  spot  as  that  called  (Judg. 
XX,  33)  Baal-Tamar,  or  the  sanctuary  of 
the  palm"  (Stanley,  ,S'.  and  P.  14C).  She 
was  probably  a  woman  of  Ephraim,  al- 
though, from  the  expression  in  Judg.  v.  13, 
Bome  suppose  her  to  have  belonged  to 
Issachar.  Lapidoth  was  probably  her  hus- 
band, and  not  Barak,  as  some  say.  She 
was  not  so  much  a  judge  as  one  gifted  with 
prophetic  command  (Judg.  iv.  6,  14,  v.  7), 
and  by  virtue  of  her  inspiration  "  a  mother 
in  Israel."  Jabin's  tyranny  was  peculiarly 
felt  in  the  northern  tribes,  who  were  near 
his  capital  and  under  her  jurisdiction,  viz. 
Zebulon,  Naphtali,  and  Issachar:  hence, 
when  she  summoned  Barak  to  the  deliver- 
ance, it  was  on  them  that  the  brunt  of  the 
battle  fell.  Under  her  direction  Barak  en- 
camped on  tlie  broad  summit  of  Tabor. 
Deborah's  prophecy  was  fulfilled  (Judg.  iv. 
9),  and  the  enemy's  general  perished  among 
the  "oaks  of  the  wanderers  (Zaanaim)," 
in  the  tent  of  the  Bedouin  Kenite's  wife 
(Judg.  iv.  21)  in  the  northern  mountains. 
Deborali's  title  of  "  prophetess  "  includes 
the  notion  of  inspired  poetry,  as  in  Ex.  xv. 
20 ;  and  in  tliis  sense  the  glorious  triiim- 
phal  ode  (Judg.  v.)  well  vindicates  her  claim 
to  the  office. 

Debtor.     [Loan.] 

Decap'olis.  This  name  occurs  only 
three  times  in  the  Scriptures,  Matt.  iv.  25, 
Mark  v.  20,  and  vii.  31.  Immediately  after 
the  conquest  of  Syria  by  the  Romans  (b.  c. 
65)  ten  cities  appear  to  have  been  rebuilt, 
partially  colonized,  and  endowed  with  pecu- 
liar privileges ;  the  country  around  them 
was  hence  called  Decapolis.  Pliny  enumer- 
ates them  as  follows  :  Scyihopolis,  Hippos, 
Gadara,  Pella,  Philadelphia,  Gerasa, 
Dion,  Canatha,  Damascus,  and  Raphana. 
All  the  cities  of  Decapolis,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Scythopolis,  lay  on  the  east  of 
the  Jordan.  It  would  appear,  however, 
from  Matt.  iv.  25,  and  Mark  vii.  31,  that 
Decapolis  was  a  general  appellation  for  a 
large  district  extending  along  both  sides  of 
the  Jordan.  Phny  says  it  reached  from 
Damascus  on  the  north  to  Philadelphia  on 
the  south,  and  from  Scythopolis  on  the  west 
to  Canatha  on  the  east.  This  region,  once 
60  populous  and  prosperous,  from  which 
multitudes  flocked  to  hear  the  Saviour  and 
through  which  multitudes  followed  His 
footsteps,  is  now  almost  without  an  inhab- 
itant. 


Ii)e'dan.  1.  The  name  of  a  son  of  Raa- 
mah,  son  of  Cush  (Gen.  x.  7;  1  Chr.  i.  9). 
2.  A  son  of  Jokshan,  son  of  Keturah 
(Gen.  XXV.  3;  1  Chr.  i.  32).  — The  pas- 
sages in  the  Bible  in  which  Dedan  is  men- 
tioned (besides  the  genealogies  above  re- 
ferred to)  are  contained  in  the  prophecies 
of  Isaiah  (xxi.  13),  Jeremiah  (xxv.  23, 
xlix.  8),  and  Ezekiel  (xxv.  13,  xxvii.  15, 
20,  xxxviii.  13),  and  are  in  every  case  ob- 
scure. The  probable  inferences  from  these 
mentions  of  Dedan  are  —  1.  That  Dedan, 
son  of  Raamah,  settled  on  the  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  hie  descendants  became 
caravan-merchants  between  that  coast  and 
Palestine.  2.  That  Jokshan,  or  a  son  of 
Jokshan,  by  intermarriage  with  the  Cushite 
Dedan  formed  a  tribe  of  the  same  name, 
which  appears  to  have  had  its  chief  settle- 
ment in  the  borders  of  Idumaea,  and  per- 
haps to  have  led  a  pastoral  life. 

Ded'anim,  Is.  xxi.  13.     [Dedan.] 

Dedication,  Feast  of  the,  the  fes- 
tival instituted  to  commemorate  the  purging 
of  the  Temple  and  the  rebuilding  of  the 
altar  after  Judas  Maccabaeus  had  driven 
out  the  Syrians,  b.  c.  164.  It  is  named 
only  once  in  the  Canonical  Scriptures, 
John  X.  22.  Its  institution  is  recorded  1 
Mace.  iv.  52-59.  It  commenced  on  the 
25th  of  Chisleu,  the^ anniversary  of  the  pol- 
lution of  the  Temple  by  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes,  B.  c.  167.  Like  the  great  Mosaic 
feasts,  it  lasted  eight  days,  but  it  did  not  re- 
quire attendance  at  Jerusalem.  It  was  an 
occasion  of  much  festivity.  The  writer  of 
2  Mace,  tells  us  that  it  tI^s  celebrated  in 
nearly  the  same  manner  as  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  with  the  carrying  of  branches 
of  trees,  and  with  much  singing  (x.  6,  7). 
Josephus  states  that  the  festival  was  called 
"Lights."  In  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem 
the  "  Hallel"  was  sung  every  day  of  the 
feast. 

Deer.    [Fallow-Deeh.] 

Degrees,  Songs  of,  a  title  given  to 
fifteen  Psalms,  from  cxx.  to  cxxxiv.  in- 
clusive. Four  of  them  are  attributed  to 
David,  one  is  ascribed  to  the  pen  of 
Solomon,  and  the  other  ten  give  no  indica- 
tion of  their  author.  With  respect  to  the 
term  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "  degrees,"  a 
great  diversity  of  opinion  prevails,  but  the 
most  probable  opinion  is  that  they  were 
pilgrim  songs,  sung  by  the  people  as  they 
went  up  to  Jerusalem. 

De'havites,  mentioned  only  once  in 
Scripture  (Ezr.  iv.  9)  among  the  colonists 
planted  in  Samaria  after  the  completion  of 
the  Captivity  of  Israel.  They  are  proba- 
bly the  Daf  or  Dahi,  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
tus (i.  125)  among  the  nomadic  tribes  of 
Persia. 

De'kar.  The  son  of  Deker,  i.  e.  Ben- 
Dekek,  was  Solomon's  commissariat  officer 
in  the  western  part  of  the  hill-country  of 


DELAIAH 


143 


DEMON 


tiudah  and  Benjamin,  Sliaalbim  and  Beth- 
shemesh  (1  K.  iv.  9). 

Delai'ah.  1.  A  priest  in  the  time  of 
David,  leader  of  the  twenty-third  course 
of  priests  (1  Clir.  xxiv.  18).  2.  "  Children 
of  Delaiah  "  were  among  the  people  of  un- 
certain pedigree  who  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  60;  Neh.  vii.  62). 
3.  Son  of  Mehetabeel  and  father  of 
Shemaiah  (Neh.  vi.  10).  4.  SonofShem- 
aiah,  one  of  the  "princes"  about  the  court 
of  Jehoiakira  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12,  25). 

Del'ilah,  a  woman  who  dwelt  in  the 
valley  of  Sorck,  beloved  by  Samson  (Judg. 
xvi.  4-18).  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt 
that  she  was  a  Philistine  courtesan. 
[Samson.] 

Deluge.     [Noah.] 

De'lus,  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  xv.  23,  is 
the  smallest  of  the  islands  called  Cyclades 
in  the  Aegaean  Sea.  It  was  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  worship  of  Apollo,  and  was 
celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  this  god  and 
of  his  sister  Artemis  (Diana). 

De'mas,  most  probably  a  contraction 
from  Demetrius,  or  perhaps  from  Demar- 
chus,  a  companion  of  St.  Paul  (Philem.  24; 
Col.  iv.  14)  during  his  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome.  At  a  later  period  (2  Tim.  iv. 
10)  we  find  him  mentioned  as  having  de- 
serted the  apostle  through  love  of  this 
present  world,  and   gone  to  Thessalonica. 

Deme'trius,  a  maker  of  silver  shrines 
of  Artemis  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  24). 
These  were  small  models  of  the  great  tem- 
ple of  the  Ephesian  Artemis,  with  her  statue, 
which  it  was  Qjistomary  to  carry  on  jour- 
neys, and  place  on  houses,  as  charms. 

Deme'trius  I.,  sumamed Soter,  "The 
Saviour,"  king  of  Syria,  was  the  son  of 
Seleucus  Philopator,  and  grandson  of  Anti- 
ochus  the  Great.  While  still  a  bo}'^  he  was 
sent  by  his  father  as  a  hostage  to  Rome 
(b.  c.  175)  in  exchange  for  his  uncle 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  From  his  position 
he  was  unable  to  offer  any  opposition  to  the 
usurpation  of  the  Syrian  throne  by  Antio- 
chus IV. ;  but  on  the  death  of  that  monarch 
(b.  c.  164)  he  claimed  his  liberty  and  the 
recognition  of  his  claim  by  the  Roman 
senate  in  preference  to  that  of  his  cousin 
Antiochus  V.  His  petition  was  refused ;  he 
left  Italy  secretly,  and  landed  with  a  small 
force  at  Tripolis  in  Phoenicia  (2  Mace.  xiv. 
1;  1  Mace.  vii.  1).  The  Syrians  soon 
declared  in  his  favor  (b.  c.  162),  and  Antio- 
chus and  his  protector  Lysias  were  put  to 
death  (1  Mace.  vii.  2,  3;  2  Mace.  xiv.  2). 
His  campaigns  against  the  Jews  were 
unsuccessful.  In  b.  c.  152,  Alexander 
Balas  was  brought  forward,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Roman  senate,  as  a  claimant  to 
the  throne.  The  rivals  met  in  a  decisive 
engagement  (b.  c.  150),  and  Demetrius, 
after   displaying    the    greatest     personal 


bravery,  was  defeated  and  slain  (1  Mar<h 
X.  48-50). 


Tetradrachm  (Attic  talent)  of  Demetriui  L 

Deme'trius  II.,  "  The  Victorius  " 
(Nicator),  was  the  elder  son  of  Demetrius 
Soter.  He  was  sent  by  his  father,  together 
with  his  brother  Antiochus,  with  a  large 
treasure,  to  Cnidus,  when  Alexander  Balas 
laid  claim  to  the  throne  of  Syria.  When  he 
was  grown  up  he  made  a  descent  on  Syria 
(b.  c.  148),  and  was  received  with  general 
favor  (1  Mace.  x.  67,  ff.).  His  campaigns 
against  Jonathan  and  the  Jews  are  described 
in  1  Mace,  x.,  xi.  In  b.  c.  138,  Demetrius 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Arsaces  VI.  (Mith- 
ridates),  whose  dominions  he  had  invaded 
(1  Mace.  xiv.  1-3).  Mithridates  treated 
his  captive  honorably,  and  gave  him  his 
daughter  in  marriage.  When  Antiochus 
Sidetes,  who  had  gained  possession  of  the 
Syrian  throne,  invaded  Parthia,  Phraates 
employed  Demetrius  to  effect  a  diversion. 
In  this  Demetrius   succeeded,   and  when 


Tetradrachm  (Attic  talent)  of  Demetritu  IL 

Antiochus  fell  in  battle,  he  again  took  pos- 
session of  the  Syrian  crown  (b.  c.  128). 
Not  long  afterwards  a  pretender,  supported 
by  Ptol.  Physcon,  appeared  in  the  field 
against  him,  and  after  suffering  a  defeat  he 
was  assassinated,  according  to  some  by  his 
wife,  while  attempting  to  escape  by  sea. 

Deraon.  It«  usage  in  classical  Greek 
is  various.  In  Homer,  where  the  gods  are 
but  supernatural  men,  it  is  used  inter- 
changeably with  "god;"  after\vards  in 
Hesiod,  when  the  idea  of  the  gods  had 
become  more  exalted  and  less  foniiliar,  the 
"  demons  "  are  spoken  of  as  intermediate 
beings,  the  messengers  of  the  gods  to  men. 
In  the  Gospels  generally,  in  James  ii.  19, 
and  in  Rev.  xvi.  14,  the  demons  arc  spoken 
of  as  spiritual  beings,  at  enmity  with  God, 
and  having  power  to  afflict  man,  not  only 
with  disease,  but,  as  is  marked  by  the 
frequent  epithet  "unclean,"  with  spintiwl 


DEMONIACS 


144 


DEPOSIT 


pollution  also.  They  "  believe  "  the  power 
of  God  "  and  tremble  "  (James  ii.  19)  ;  they 
recognize  the  Lord  as  the  Son  of  God 
(Matt.  viii.  29;  Lukeiv.  41),  and  acknowl- 
edge the  power  of  His  name,  used  in 
exorcism,  in  the  place  of  the  name  of 
Jehovah,  by  His  appointed  messengers 
(Acts  xix.  15)  ;  and  look  forward  in  terror 
to  the  judgment  to  come  (Matt.  viii.  29). 
The  description  is  precisely  that  of  a  na- 
ture akin  lo  the  angelic  in  knowledge  and 
powers,  but  with  tlie  emphatic  addition  of 
the  idea  of  positive  and  active  wickedness. 
Demoniacs.  This  word  is  frequently 
used  in  the  N.  T.,  and  applied  to  persons 
«ufrering  under  the  possession  of  a  demon 
or  evil  spirit,  such  possession  generally 
showing  itself  visibly  in  bodily  disease  or 
mental  derangement.  It  has  been  main- 
tained by  many  persons  that  our  Lord  and 
the  Evangehsts,  in  referring  to  demoniacal 
possession,  spoke  only  in  accommodation 
to  the  general  belief  of  the  Jews,  without 
any  assertion  as  to  its  truth  or  its  falsity. 
It  is  concluded  that,  since  the  symptoms  of 
the  affliction  were  frequently  those  of  bodily 
disease  (as  dumbness,  Matt.  ix.  32;  blind- 
ness, Matt.  xii.  22;  epilepsy,  Mark  ix. 
17-27),  or  those  seen  in  cases  of  ordinary 
insanity  (as  in  Matt.  viii.  28 ;  Mark  v.  1-5), 
and  since  also  the  phrase  "  to  have  a  devil " 
is  constantly  used  in  connection  with,  and 
as  apparently  equivalent  to,  "to  be  mad" 
(see  John  vii.  20,  viii.  48,  x.  20,  and  perhaps 
Matt.  xi.  18;  Luke  vii.  33),  the  demoniacs 
were  merely  persons  suffering  under  un- 
usual diseases  of  body  and  mind.  But 
demoniacs  are  frequently  distinguished  from 
those  afflicted  with  bodily  sickness  (see 
Mark  i.  32,  xvi.  17,  18 ;  Luke  vi.  17,  18), 
even,  it  would  seem,  from  the  epileptic 
(Matt.  iv.  24)  ;  the  same  outward  signs  are 
sometimes  referred  to  possession,  some- 
times merely  to  disease  (comp.  Matt.  iv. 
24,  with  xvii.  15 ;  Matt.  xii.  22,  with  Mark 
vii.  32,  &c.)  ;  the  demons  are  represented 
as  speaking  in  their  own  persons  with 
superhuman  knowledge,  and  acknowledg- 
ing our  Lord  to  be,  not  as  the  Jews  gener- 
ally called  him,  son  of  David,  but  Son  of 
God  (Matt.  viii.  29 ;  Mark  i.  24,  v.  7 ;  Luke 
iv.  41,  &c.).  All  these  things  speak  of  a 
personal  power  of  evil.  Nor  does  our  Lord 
speak  of  demons  as  personal  spirits  of  evil 
to  the  multitude  alone,  but  in  His  secret 
conversations  with  His  disciples,  declaring 
the  means  and  conditions  by  which  power 
over  them  could  be  exercised  (Matt.  xvii. 
21).  Twice  also  He  distinctly  connects 
demoniacal  possession  with  the  power  of 
the  evil  one ;  once  in  Luke  x.  18,  to  the 
seventy  disciples,  where  He  speaks  of  His 
power  and  theirs  over  demoniacs  as  a  "fall 
of  Satan,"  and  again  in  Matt.  xii.  25-30, 
when  He  was  accused  of  casting  out  demons 
through  Beelzebub,  and,  instead  of  giving 


any  hint  that  the  possessed  were  not  really 
under  any  direct  and  personal  power  of 
evil.  He  uses  an  argument,  as  to  the  division 
of  Satan  against  himself,  whicli,  if  posses- 
sion be  unreal,  becomes  inconclusive  and 
almost  insincere.  Lastly,  the  single  fact 
recorded  of  the  entrance  of  the  demons  at 
Gadara  (Mark  v.  10-14)  into  the  herd  of 
swine,  and  the  effect  which  that  entrance 
caused,  is  sufficient  to  overthrow  the  notion 
that  our  Lord  and  the  Evangelists  do  not 
assert  or  imply  any  objective  reality  of 
possession.  We  are  led,  therefore,  to  the 
ordinary  and  literal  interpretation  of  these 
passages,  that  there  are  evil  spirits,  subjects 
of  the  Evil  One,  who,  in  the  days  of  the 
Lord  Himself  and  His  Apostles  especially, 
were  permitted  by  God  to  exercise  a  direct 
influence  over  the  souls  and  bodies  of 
certain  men.  This  influence  is  clearly 
distinguished  from  the  ordinary  power  of 
corruption  and  temptation,  wielded  by  Sa- 
tan through  the  permission  of  God.  The 
distinguishing  feature  of  possession  is  the 
complete  or  incomplete  loss  of  the  suffer- 
er's reason  or  power  of  will;  his  actions, 
his  words,  and  almost  his  thoughts  are 
mastered  by  the  evil  spirit  (Mark  i.  24,  v. 
7 ;  Acts  xix.  15),  till  his  personality  seems 
to  be  destroyed,  or,  if  not  destroyed,  so 
overborne  as  to  produce  the  consciousness 
of  a  twofold  will  within  him,  like  that  some- 
times felt  in  a  dream. 

Dena'rius,  A.  V.  "penny"  (Matt, 
xviii.  28,  XX.  2,  9,  13,  xxii.  19 ;  Mark  vi. 
37,  xii.  15,  xiv.  5 ;  Luke  vii.  41,  x.  35,  xx. 
24 ;  John  vi.  7,  xii.  5 ;  Rev.  vi.  6),  a  Roman 
silver  coin,  in  the  time  of  Our  Saviour  and 
the  Apostles.  It  took  its  name  from  its 
being  first  equal  to  ten  "  asses,"  a  number 
afterwards  increased  to  sixteen.  It  was 
the  principal  silver  coin  of  the  Roman 
commonwealth.  From  the  parable  of  the 
laborers  in  the  vineyard  it  would  seem  that 
a  denarius  was  then  the  ordinarv  pay  for  a 
day's  labor  (Matt.  xx.  2,  4,  7,  9^  10,  13). 

Deposit,  the  arrangement  by  which  one 
man  kept  at  another's  request  the  property 
of  the  latter,  until  demanded  back,  was  one 
common  to  all  the  nations  of  antiquity.  Tlie 
exigencies  of  war  and  other  causes  of  ab- 
sence must  often  have  rendered  such  a  de- 
posit, especially  as  regards  animals,  an  own- 
er's only  course.  The  articles  specified  by 
the  Mosaic  law  are,  (1.)  "  money  or  stuff ; " 
and  (2.)  "  an  ass,  or  an  ox,  or  a  sheep,  or 
any  beast."  The  first  case  was  viewed  a« 
only  liable  to  loss  by  theft,  and  the  thief,  if 
found,  was  to  pay  double.  In  the  second, 
if  the  beast  were  to  "die,  or  be  hurt,  or 
driven  away,  no  man  seeing  it,"  the  depos- 
itary was  to  purge  himself  by  an  oath  before 
the  judges.  In  case,  however,  the  animal 
were  stolen,  the  depositary  was  liable  to 
restitution,  which  probably  was  necessary 
to  prevent  collusive  theft. 


DEPUTY 


145 


DEUTERONOMY 


Deputy,  the  uniform  rendering  in  the 
A.  V.  of  the  Greek  word  which  signifies 
"proconsul"  (Acts  xiii.  7,  8,  12,  xix.  38). 
Tlie  English  word  is  curious  in  itself,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  appropriate,  having  been 
applied  formerly  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of 
Ireland. 

Der'be  (Acts  xiv.  20,  21,  xvi.  1,  xx,  4). 
The  exact  position  of  this  town  has  not  yet 
been  ascertained,  but  its  general  situation 
is  undoubted.  It  was  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  great  upland  plain  of  Ltcaonia,  which 
stretches  from  Iconium  eastwards  along  the 
north  side  of  tlie  chain  of  Taurus.  It  must 
have  been  somewhere  near  the  place  where 
the  pass  called  the  Cilician  Gates  opened 
a  way  from  the  low  plain  of  Cilicia  to  the 
table-land  of  the  interior;  and  probably  it 
was  a  stage  upon  the  great  road  which 
passed  this  way. 

Desert,  a  word  which  is  sparingly  em- 
ployed in  the  A.  V.  to  translate  four  He- 
brew terms,  of  which  three  are  essentially 
different  in  signification.  A  "  desert,"  in 
the  sense  which  is  ordinarily  attached  to 
the  word,  is  a  vast,  burning,  sandy  plain, 
alike  destitute  of  trees  and  of  water.  Here, 
it  is  simply  necessary  to  show  that  the 
words  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  "  desert," 
when  used  in  the  historical  books,  denoted 
definite  localities ;  and  that  those  localities 
do  not  answer  to  the  common  conception 
of  a  "desert."  1.  Akarah.  This  word 
means  that  very  depressed  and  enclosed 
region  —  the  deepest  and  the  hottest  chasm 
in  the  world  —  the  sunken  valley  north  and 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  but  more  particu- 
larly the  former.  [Akabaii.]  Arabah  in 
the  sense  of  the  Jordan  Valley  is  translated 
by  the  word  "  desert  "  only  in  Ez.  xlvii.  8. 
In  a  more  general  sense  of  waste,  deserted 
country  —  a  meaning  easily  suggested  by 
the  idea  of  excessive  heat  contained  in  the 
root —  "  Desert,"  as  the  rendering  of  Ara- 
bah, occurs  in  the  prophets  and  poetical 
books;  as  Is.  xxxv.  1,  6,  xl.  3,  xli.  19,  li. 
3 ;  Jer.  ii.  6,  v.  G,  xvii.  6,  1.  12 ;  but  this 
general  sense  is  never  found  in  the  histori- 
cal books.  2.  MiDBAK.  This  word,  which 
our  translators  have  most  frequently  ren- 
dered by  "  desert,"  is  accurately  the  "  pas- 
ture ground."  It  is  most  frequently  used 
for  those  tracts  of  waste  land  which  lie  be- 
yond the  cultivated  ground  in  the  immedi- 
ate neighborhood  of  the  towns  and  villages 
of  Palestine,  and  which  are  a  very  familiar 
feature  to  the  traveller  in  that  country.  In 
the  poetical  books  "  desert "  is  found  as  the 
translation  of  Midbar  in  Deut.  xxxii.  10; 
Job  xxiv.  5 ;  Is.  xxi.  1 ;  Jer.  xxv.  24.  3. 
Charbah  appears  to  have  the  force  of  dry- 
ness, and  thence  of  desolation.  It  does 
not  occur  in  any  historical  passages.  It  is 
rendered  "  desert "  in  Ps.  cii.  6 ;  Is.  xlviii. 
21 ;  Ezek.  xiii.  4.  The  term  commonly 
employed  for  it  in  the  A.  V.  is  "  waste  i 
10 


places"  or  "desolation."  4.  JeshImow, 
with  the  definite  article,  apparently  denotes 
the  waste  tracts  on  both  sides  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  In  all  these  cases  it  is  treated  as  a 
proper  name  in  the  A.  V.  Without  the  ar- 
ticle it  occurs  in  a  few  passages  of  poetry ; 
in  the  following  of  which  it  is  rendered 
"desert."  Ps.  Lxxxviii.  40,  cvi.  14;  Is. 
xliii.  19,  20. 

Deu'el,  father  of  Eliasaph,  the  "  cap- 
tain "  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  at  the  time  of  the 
numbering  of  the  people  at  Sinai  (Num. 
i.  14,  vii.  42,  47,  x.  20).  The  same  man  is 
mentioned  again  in  ii.  14,  but  here  the 
name  appears  as  Ileuel. 

Deuteronomy  —  which  means  "the 
repetition  of  the  law  "  —  consists  chiefly  of 
three  discourses  delivered  by  Moses  short- 
ly before  his  death.  Subjoined  to  these 
discourses  are  the  Song  of  Moses,  the 
Blessing  of  Moses,  and  the  story  of  his 
death.  I.  The  first  discourse  (i.  1-iv.  40). 
After  a  brief  historical  introduction,  the 
speaker  recapitulates  the  chief  events  of 
the  last  40  years  in  the  wilderness,  and  es- 
pecially those  events  which  had  the  mos,t 
immediate  bearing  on  the  entry  of  the  peo- 
ple into  the  promised  land.  To  this  dis- 
course is  appended  a  brief  notice  of  the 
severing  of  the  three  cities  of  refuge  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Jordan  (iv.  41-43).  II. 
The  second  discourse  is  introduced  like  the 
first  by  an  explanation  of  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  was  delivered  (iv. 
44-49).  It  extends  from  chap.  v.  1-xxvi. 
19,  and  contains  a  recapitulation,  with  some 
modifications  and  additions  of  the  Law  al- 
ready given  on  Mount  Sinai.  III.  In  the 
third  discourse  (xxvii.  1-xxx.  20),  the  El- 
ders of  Israel  are  associated  with  Moses. 
The  people  are  commanded  to  set  up  stones 
upon  Mount  Ebal,  and  on  them  to  write 
"  all  the  words  of  this  law."  Then  follow^ 
the  several  curses  to  be  pronounced  by  the- 
Levites  on  Ebal  (xxvii.  14-2G),  and  the- 
blessings  on  Gerizim  (xxviii.  1-14).  IV. 
The  delivery  of  the  Law  as  written  by- 
Moses  (for  its  still  further  preservation)  to 
the  custody  of  the  Levites,  and  a  charge  to- 
the  people  to  hear  it  read  once  every  seven 
years  (xxxi.)  :  the  Song  of  Moses  spokea 
in  the  ears  of  the  people  (xxxi.  3G-xxxii. 
44)  :  and  the  blessing  of  the  twelve  tribes 
(xxxiii.).  V.  The  Book  closes  (xxxiv.) 
with  an  account  of  the  death  of  Moses» 
which  is  first  announced  to  him  in  xxxii. 
48-52.  It  has  been  maintained  by  many 
modern  critics  that  Deuteronomy  is  of 
later  origin  than  the  other  four  books  of 
the  Pentateuch;  but  the  book  bears  wit- 
ness to  its  own  authorship  (xxxi.  19),  and 
is  expressly  cited  in  the  N.  T.  as  the  work 
of  Moses  (Matt.  xix.  7,  8;  Mark  x.  S; 
Acts  iii.  22,  vii.  37).  The  last  chapter, 
containing  an  account  of  the  death  of 
Moses,   was  of  course  added  by  a   later 


DEVIL 


146 


DIANA 


hand,  and  perhaps  formed  originally  the 
beginning  of  the  book  of  Joshua.  [Pen- 
tateuch.] 

Devil.  The  name  describes  Satan  as 
slandering  God  to  man,  and  man  to  God. 
The  former  work  is,  of  course,  a  part  of 
his  great  work  of  temptation  to  evil ;  and 
is  not  only  exemplified  but  illustrated  as  to 
its  general  nature  and  tendency  by  the  nar- 
rative of  Gen.  iii.  The  effect  is  to  stir  up 
the  spirit  of  freedom  in  man  to  seek  a  fan- 
cied independence ;  and  it  is  but  a  slight 
step  further  to  impute  falsehood  or  cruelty 
to  God.  The  other  work,  the  slandering 
or  accusing  man  before  God,  is,  as  it  must 
necessarily  be,  unintelligible  to  us.  The 
essence  of  this  accusation  is  the  imputa- 
tion of  selfish  motives  (Job  i.  9,  10),  and 
its  refutation  is  placed  in  the  self-sacrifice 
of  those  "who  loved  not  their  own  lives 
unto  death."     [Satan  ;  Demon.] 

Dew.  This  in  the  summjer  is  so  copious 
in  Palestine  that  it  supplies  to  some  extent 
the  absence  of  rain  (Ecclus.  xviii.  16,  xliii. 
22),  and  becomes  important  to  the  agricul- 
turist. As  a  proof  of  this  copiousness  the 
well-known  sign  of  Gideon  (Judg.  vi.  37, 
89,  40)  may  be  adduced.  Thus  it  is  coupled 
in  the  divine  blessing  with  rain,  or  men- 
tioned as  a  prime  source  of  fertility  (Gen. 
xxvii.  28 ;  Deut.  xxxiii.  13 ;  Zech.  viii.  12), 
and  its  withdrawal  is  attributed  to  a  curse 
(2  Sam.  i.  21;  1  K.  xvii.  1;  Hag.  i.  10). 
It  becomes  a  leading  object  in  prophetic 
imagery  by  reason  of  its  penetrating  mois- 
ture without  the  apparent  effort  of  rain 
(Deut.  xxxii.  2 ;  Job  xxix.  19  ;  Ps.  exxxiii. 
8;  Prov.  xix.  12;  Is.  xxvi.  19;  Hos.  xiv. 
6 ;  Mic.  V.  7)  ;  while  its  speedy  evanescence 
typifies  the  transient  goodness  of  the  hypo- 
crite (Hos.  vi.  4,  xiii.  3). 

Diadem.  What  the  "  diadem"  of  the 
Jews  was  we  know  not.  That  of  other  na- 
tions of  antiquity  was  a  fillet  of  silk,  two 
inches  broad,  bound  round  the  head  and 
tied  behind,  the  invention  of  which  is  at- 
tributed to  Liber.     Its  color    was  gener- 


ObTtree  of  Tetradrachm  of  Tigranea,  King  of  Syria. 

ally  white ;  sometimes,  however,  it  was  of 
blue,  like  that  of  Darius ;  and  it  was  sown 
with  pearls  or  other  gems  (Zech.  ix.  16), 
and  enriched  with  gold  (Rev.  ix.  7).  It 
was  peculiarly  the  mark  of  Oriental  sover- 
eigns (1  Mace.  xiii.  32).     A  crown  was 


used  by  the  kings  of  Israel,  even  iu  battle 
(2  Sam.  i.  10)  ;  but  in  all  probability  this 
was  not  the  state  crown  (2  Sam.  xii.  30), 
although  used  in  the  coronation  of  Joash 
(2  K.  xi.  12).  In  Esth.  i.  11,  ii.  17,  we 
have  ceiher  for  the  turban  worn  by  the 
Persian  king,  queen,  or  other  eminent  per- 
sons to  whom  it  was  conceded  as  a  special 
favor  (viii.  15).  The  diadem  of  the  king 
differed  from  that  of  others  in  having  an 
erect  triangular  peak.  The  words  in  Ez. 
xxiii.  15  mean  long  and  flowing  turbans  of 
gorgeous  colors. 

Dial.  The  word  ma'alSth  is  the  same 
as  that  rendered  "  steps  "  in  A.  V.  (Ex.  xx. 
26;  1  K.  X.  19),  and  "degrees"  in  A.  V. 
(2  K.  XX.  9,  10,  11;  Is.  xxxviii.  8),  where, 
to  give  a  consistent  rendering,  we  should 
read  with  the  margin  the  "  degrees  "  rather 
than  the  "dial  "  of  Ahaz.  In  tlie  absence 
of  any  materials  for  determining  the  shape 
and  structure  of  the  solar  instrument,  which 
certainly  appears  intended,  the  best  course 
is  to  follow  the  most  strictly  natural  mean- 
ing of  the  words,  and  to  consider  that  the 
ma'aldth  were  really  stairs,  and  that  the 
shadow  (perhaps  of  some  column  or  obelisk 
on  the  top)  fell  on  a  greater  or  smaller 
number  of  them  according  as  the  sun  was 
low  or  high.  The  terrace  of  a  palac3 
might  easily  be  thus  ornamented. 

Diamond  (Heb.  yahaldm),  a  precicas 
stone,  the  third  in  the  second  row  on  the 
breastplate  of  the  high-priest  (Ex.  xxviii. 
18,  xxxix.  11),  and  mentioned  by  Ezekiol 
xxviii.  13)  among  the  precious  stones  of 
the  king  of  Tyre.  Some  suppose  yahaldm 
to  be  the  "  emerald."  Respecting  shdmtr, 
which  is  translated  "  diamond  "  in  Jer.  xvii. 
1,  see  under  Adamant. 

Dian'a.  This  Latin  word,  properly  de- 
noting a  Roman  divinity,  is  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Greek  Artemis,  the  tutelary 
goddess  of  the  Ephesians,  who  plays  so 
important  a  part  in  the  narrative  of  Acts 
xix.  The  Ephesian  Diana  was,  however, 
regarded  as  invested  with  very  different 
attributes,  and  is  rather  to  be  identified 
with  Astarte  and  other  female  divinities  of 
the  East.  The  coin  below  will  give  some 
notion  of  the  image  of  the  true  Ephesian 
Diana,  which  was  grotesque  and  archaic  in 
character.  The  head  wore  a  mural  crown, 
each  hand  held  a  bar  of  metal,  and  the 
lower  part  ended  in  a  rude  block  covered 
with  figures  of  animals  and  mystic  inscrip- 
tions. TMs  idol  was  regarded  as  an  object 
of  peculiar  sanctity,  and  was  believed  to 
have  fallen  down  from  heaven  (Acts  xix. 
35).  The  cry  of  the  mob  (Acts  xix.  28), 
"  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians !  "  and 
the  strong  expression  in  ver.  27,  "whom 
all  Asia  and  the  world  worshippeth,"  may 
be  abundantly  illustrated  from  a  variety  of 
sources.  The  term  "  great"  was  evidently 
a  title  of  honor  recognized  as  belonging  to 


DIBLAIM  147 

the  Ephesian  goddess.    We  find  it  in  in- 
scriptions. 


DIONYSIUS 


Ureck  Imperial  Copjier  Coin  of  Epheaus  and  Smyrna. 
Domitia  with  name  of  proconsul. 

Dibla'im,  mother  of  Hosea's  wife  Go- 
mer  (Hos.  i.  3). 

Dib'lath  (accurately  Diblah),  a  place 
named  only  in  Ez.  vi.  14,  as  if  situated  at 
one  of  the  extremities  of  the  land  of  Israel, 
is  perhaps  only  another  form  of  Eiblah. 

Di'bon.  1.  A  town  on  the  east  side  of 
Jordan,  in  the  rich  pastoral  country,  which 
was  taken  possession  of  and  rebuilt  by 
the  children  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  3,  34). 
From  this  circumstance  it  possibly  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Dibon-Gad  (Num. 
xxxiii.  45,  46).  Its  first  mention  is  in 
Num.  xxi.  30,  and  from  this  it  appears  to 
have  belonged  originally  to  the  Moabites. 
We  find  Dibon  counted  to  Reuben  in  the 
lists  of  Joshua  (xiii.  9,  17).  In  the  time 
of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  however,  it  was 
again  in  possession  of  Moab  (Is.  xv.  2 ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  18,  22,  comp.  24).  In  the  same 
denunciations  of  Isaiah  it  appears,  prob- 
ably, under  the  name  of  Dimon.  In  mod- 
ern times  the  name  Dhiban  has  been  dis- 
covered as  attached  to  extensive  ruins  on 
the  Roman  road,  about  three  miles  north 
of  the  Arnon  (  Wady  Modjeh).  2.  One  of 
the  towns  which  were  re-inhabited  by  the 
men  of  Judah  after  the  return  from  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  xi.  25),  identical  with  Dmo- 

NAH. 

Di'bon-Gad.     [Dibon.] 

Dib'ri,  a  Danite,  father  of  Shelomith 
(Lev.  xxiv.  11). 

Didrachmon.     [Money;  Shekel.] 

Did'ymus,  that  is,  the  Twin,  a  sur- 
name of  the  Apostle  Thomas  (John  xi.  16, 
XX.  24,  xxi.  2).     [Thomas.] 

Dik'lah  (Gen.  x.  27;  l  Chr.  i.  21),  a 
son  of  Joktan,  whose  settlements,  in  com- 
mon with  those  of  the  other  sons  of  Jok- 
tan, must  be  looked  for  in  Arabia.  The 
name  in  Hebrew  signifies  "  a  palm-tree  ;  " 
hence  it  is  thought  that  Diklah  is  a  part  of 
Arabia  containing  many  palm-trees. 

Dil'ean,  one  of  the  cities  in  the  low- 
lands of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  38).  It  has  not 
been  identified  with  certainty. 

Dim'nahi,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
lun,  given  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (Josh, 
xxi.  35). 

Di'inon,TheWaters  of,  some  streams 
on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  land  of 
Moab,  against  which  Isaiah  is  here  uttering 


denunciations  (Is.  xv.  9).  Gesenius  con- 
jectures that  the  two  names  Dimon  and 
Dibon  are  the  same. 

Dimo'nah,  a  city  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  22),  perhaps  the  same  as  Dibon 
in  Neh.  xi.  25. 

Di'nah,  the  daughter  of  Jacob  by  Leali 
(Gen.  XXX.  21).  She  accompanied  her 
father  from  Mesopotamia  to  Canaan,  and, 
having  ventured  among  the  inhabitants, 
was  violated  by  Shechem  the  son  of  Hamor, 
the  chieftain  of  the  territory  in  which  her 
father  had  settled  (Gen.  xxxiv.).  Shechem 
proposed  to  make  the  usual  reparation  by 
paying  a  sum  to  the  father  and  marrying 
her  (Gen.  xxxiv.  12).  But  in  this  case  the 
suitor  was  an  alien,  and  the  crown  of  the 
offence  consisted  in  its  having  been  com- 
mitted by  an  alien  against  the  favored  peo- 
ple of  God;  he  had  "wrought  folly  in  Is- 
rael "  (xxxiv.  7).  The  proposals  of  Hamor, 
who  acted  as  his  deputy,  were  framed  on 
the  recognition  of  the  hitherto  complete 
separation  of  the  two  peoples ;  he  proposed 
the  fusion  of  the  two  by  the  establishment 
of  the  rights  of  intermarriage  and  com- 
merce. The  sons  of  Jacob,  bent  upon  re- 
venge, availed  themselves  of  the  eagerness, 
which  Shechem  showed,  to  effect  their  pur- 
pose ;  they  demanded,  as  a  condition  of  the 
proposed  union,  the  circumcision  of  the 
Shechemites.  They  therefore  assented; 
and  on  the  third  day,  when  the  pain  and 
fever  resulting  from  the  operation  were  at 
the  highest,  Simeon  and  Levi,  own  brothers 
to  Dinah,  attacked  them  unexpectedly,  slew 
all  the  males,  and  plundered  their  city. 

Di'naites  (Ezr.  iv.  9),  the  name  of 
some  of  the  Cuthaean  colonists  who  were 
placed  in  the  cities  of  Samaria  after  the 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes. 

Din'habah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  32 ;  1  Chr.  i. 
43),  the  capital  city,  and  probably  the  birth- 
plaee,  of  Bela,  son  of  Beor,  king  of  Edom. 

Dionys'ia,  "the  feast  of  Bacchus," 
which  was  celebrated,  especially  in  later 
times,  with  wild  extravagance  and  licen- 
tious enthusiasm.  Women,  as  well  as  men, 
joined  in  the  processions,  acting  the  part  of 
Maenads,  crowned  with  ivy  and  bearing 
the  thyrsus.  Shortly  before  the  persecu- 
tion of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  168  b.  c,  in 
which  the  Jews  "were  compelled  to  go  in 
procession  to  Bacchus  carrying  ivy "  (2 
Mace.  vi.  7),  the  secret  celebration  of  the 
Bacchanalia  in  Italy  had  been  revealed  to 
the  Roman  senate  (b.  c.  186).  A  decree 
was  passed  forbidding  its  observance  in 
Rome  or  Italy.  This  fact  offers  the  best 
commentary  on  the  conduct  of  Antiochus. 

Dionys'ius  the  Areopagite  (Acts 
xvii.  34),  an  eminent  Athenian,  converted 
to  Christianity  by  the  preaching  of  St. 
Paul.  He  is  said  to  have  been  first  bishop 
of  Athens.  The  writings  which  were  once 
attributed  to  him  are  now  confessed  to  be 


DIONYSUS 


148 


DIVINATION 


the  production  of  some  neo-PIatonists  of 
the  6th  century. 

Diony'sus  (2  Mace.  xiv.  33 ;  3  Mace.  ii. 
29),  also  called  Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine. 
His  worship  was  greatly  modified  by  the  in- 
corporation of  Eastern  elements,  and  as- 
sumed the  twofold  form  of  wild  orgies  and 
mystic  rites.  To  the  Jew,  Dionysus  Avould 
necessarily  appear  as  the  embodiment  of 
paganism  in  its  most  material  shape,  sanc- 
tioning the  most  tumultuous  passions  and 
the  worst  excesses. 

Dioscorin'thius.     [Months.] 

Diot'rephes,  a  Christian  mentioned  in 
3  John  9,  but  of  whom  notliing  is  known. 

Disciple.     [Schools.] 

Diseases.     [Medicine.] 

Disll.  [Basin;  Chargee].  In  ancient 
Egypt,  and  also  in  Judaea,  guests  at  the 
table  handled  their  food  with  the  fingers. 
The  same  is  the  case  in  modern  Egypt. 
Each  person  breaks  oflE"  a  small  piece  of 
bread,  dips  it  in  the  dish,  and  then  conveys 
it  to  his  mouth,  together  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  meat  or  other  contents  of  the 
dish.  To  pick  out  a  delicate  morsel  and 
hand  it  to  a  friend  is  esteemed  a  compli- 
ment, and  to  refuse  such  an  offering  is 
contrary  to  good  manners.  Judas  dipping 
his  hand  in  the  same  dish  with  our  Lord 
was  showing  especial  friendliness  and  inti- 
macy. 

Dis^han,  the  youngest  son  of  Seir  the 
Ilorite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  21,  28,  30;  1  Chr.  i. 
38,  42). 

Dis'hon.  1.  The  fifth  son  of  Seir  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  21,  26,  30;  1  Chr.  i.  38).  2.  The 
son  of  Anah  and  grandson  of  Seir  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  25;  1  Chr.  i.  38). 

Dispersion,  The  Jews  of  the,  or 
simply  The  Dispeksion,  was  the  general 
title  applied  to  those  Jews  who  remained 
settled  in  foreign  countries  after  the  return 
from  the  Babylonian  exile,  and  during  the 
period  of  the  second  Temple.  The  Disper- 
sion, as  a  distinct  element  influencing  the 
entire  character  of  the  Jews,  dates  from  the 
Babylonian  exile.  Outwardly  and  inward- 
ly, by  its  effects  both  on  the  Gentiles  and  on 
the  people  of  Israel,  the  Dispersion  appears 
to  have  been  the  clearest  providential  prep- 
aration for  the  spread  of  Christianity.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  the  Dis- 
persion was  divided  into  three  great  sec- 
tions, the  Babylonian,  the  Syrian,  the 
Egyptian.  Precedence  was  yielded  to  the 
first.  From  Babylon  the  Jews  spread 
throughout  Persia,  Media,  and  Parthia. 
The  Greek  conquests  in  Asia  extended  the 
limits  of  the  Dispersion.  Seleucus  Nicator 
transplanted  large  bodies  of  Jewish  colo- 
nists from  Babylonia  to  the  capitals  of  his 
western  provinces.  His  policy  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  successor  Antiochus  the  Great ; 
and  the  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes  only  served  to  push  forward  the  Jewish  j 


emigration  to  the  remoter  districts  of  hia 
empire.  Large  settlements  of  Jews  were 
established  in  Cyprus,  in  the  islands  of  the 
Aegaean,  and  on  the  Avestern  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  Jews  of  the  Syrian  provinces 
gradually  formed  a  closer  connection  with 
their  new  homes,  and  together  with  the 
Greek  language  adopted  in  many  respects 
Greek  ideas.  This  Hellenizing  tendency, 
however,  found  its  most  free  development 
at  Alexandria.  The  Jewish  settlements 
established  there  by  Alexander  and  Ptolemy 
I.  became  the  source  of  the  African  disper- 
sion, which  spread  over  the  north  coast  of 
Africa,  and  perhaps  inland  to  Abyssinia. 
At  Cyrene  and  Berenice  (Tripoli)  the  Jew- 
ish inhabitants  formed  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  population.  The  Jewish  settle- 
ments in  Home  were  conseqiient  upon  the 
occupation  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey,  b.  c. 
63.  The  captives  and  emigrants  whom  he 
brought  with  Mm  were  located  in  the  trans- 
Tiberine  quarter.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius 
the  Jews  became  objects  of  suspicion  from 
their  immense  numbers ;  and  the  internal 
disputes  led  to  their  banishment  from  the 
city  (Acts  xviii.  2).  This  expulsion,  if 
general,  can  only  have  been  temporary,  for 
in  a  few  years  the  Jews  at  Eome  were 
numerous  (Acts  xxviii.  17,  ff.).  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Dispersion  on  the  rapid  prom- 
ulgation of  Christianity  can  scarcely  be 
overrated.  The  course  of  the  apostolic 
preaching  followed  in  a  regular  progress 
the  line  of  Jewish  settlements.  The  mixed 
assembly  from  which  the  first  converts  were 
gathered  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  represent- 
ed each  Division  of  the  Dispersion  (Acta 
ii.  9-11;    (1)   Parthians  .  .  .  Mesopotamia; 

(2)  Judaea    (i.  e.  Syria)  .  . .  Pamphylia ; 

(3)  Egypt  .  .  .  Greece;  (4)  Romans  .  .  .  ), 
and  these  converts  naturally  prepared  the 
way  for  the  apostles  in  the  interval  wliich 
preceded  the  beginning  of  the  separate  ap- 
ostolic missions.  St.  James  and  St.  Peter 
wrote  to  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  (Jam. 
i.  1 ;  1  Pet.  i.  1). 

Divination  has  been  universal  in  all 
ages,  and  all  nations  alike  civilized  and 
savage.  Numerous  forms  of  divination  are 
mentioned,  such  as  divination  by  rods  (Hos. 
iv.  12 ;  divination  by  arrows  (Ez.  xxi.  21)  ; 
divination  by  cups  (Gen.  xliv.  5)  ;  consul- 
tation of  Teraphim  (Zech.  x.  2 ;  Ez.  xxi. 
21 ;  1  Sam.  xv.  23)  [Terapaim]  ;  divina- 
tion by  the  liver  (Ez.  xxi.  21)  ;  divination 
by  dreams  (Deut.  xiii.  2,  3;  Judg.  vii.  13; 
Jer.  xxiii.  32)  ;  consultation  of  oracles  (Is. 
xli.  21-24,  xliv.  7).  Moses  forbade  every 
species  of  divination  because  a  prying  into 
the  future  clouds  the  mind  with  supersti- 
tion, and  because  it  would  have  been  an 
incentive  to  idolatry :  indeed  the  frequent 
denunciations  of  the  sin  in  the  prophets 
tend  to  prove  that  these  forbidden  arts  pre- 
sented peculiar  temptations  to  apostate  Is- 


DIVORCE 


149 


DOR 


rael.  But  God  supplied  his  people  with 
substitutes  for  divination,  which  would  have 
rendered  it  superfluous,  and  left  them  in  no 
doubt  as  to  his  will  in  circumstances  of 
danger,  had  they  continued  faithful.  It 
was  only  when  they  were  unfaithful  that 
the  revelation  was  withdrawn  (1  Sam. 
xxviii.  6;  2  Sam.  ii.  1,  v.  23,  &c.).  Super- 
stition not  unfrequently  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  scepticism,  and  hence,  amid  the  gen- 
eral infidelity  prevalent  through  the  Roman 
empire  at  our  Lord's  coming,  imposture 
was  rampant ;  as  a  glance  at  the  pages  of 
Tacitus  will  suflice  to  prove.  Hence  the 
lucrative  trades  of  such  men  as  Simon 
Magus  (Acts  viii.  9),  Bar-jesus  (Acts  viii. 
6,  8),  the  slave  with  the  spirit  of  Python 
(Acts  xvi.  IG),  the  vagabond  Jews,  exorcists 
(Luke  xi.  19;  Acts  xix.  13),  and  others  (2 
Tim.  iii.  13;  Rev.  xix.  20,  &c.),  as  well  as 
the  notorious  dealers  in  magical  books  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  19). 

Divorce.  The  law  regulating  this  sub- 
ject is  found  Deut.  xxiv.  1-4,  and  the  cases 
in  which  the  right  of  a  husband  to  divorce 
his  wife  was  lost,  are  stated  ih.  xxii.  19,  29. 
The  ground  of  divorce  is  a  point  on  which 
the  Jewish  doctors  of  the  period  of  the  N. 
T.  widely  differed ;  the  school  of  Shammai 
seeming  to  limit  it  to  a  moral  delinquency 
in  the  woman,  whilst  that  of  Hillel  extended 
it  to  trifling  causes,  c.  g.,  if  the  wife  burnt 
the  food  she  was  cooking  for  her  husband. 
The  Pharisees  wished  perhaps  to  embroil 
our  Saviour  with  these  rival  schools  by  their 
question  (Matt.  xix.  3)  ;  by  His  answer  to 
which,  as  well  as  by  His  previous  maxim 
(v.  31),  he  declares  that  but  for  their  hard- 
ened state  of  heart,  such  questions  would 
have  no  place.  Yet  from  the  distinction 
made,  "  but  I  say  unto  you,"  v.  31,  32,  it 
seems  to  follow,  that  he  regarded  all  the 
lesser  causes  than  "  fornication  "  as  stand- 
ing on  too  weak  ground,  and  declined  the 
question  of  how  to  interpret  the  words  of 
Moses. 

Diz'ahab,  a  place  in  the  Arabian  Des- 
ert, mentioned  Deut.  i.  1,  is  identified  with 
Dahab,  a  cape  on  the  W.  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Akabah. 

Dod'ai,  an  Ahohite  who  commanded  the 
course  of  the  2d  month  (1  Chr.  xxvii. 
4).  It  is  probable  that  he  is  the  same  as 
Dodo,  2. 

Dod'anim,  Gen.  x.  4 ;  1  Chr.  i.  7  (in 
some  copies  and  in  marg.  of  A.  V.  1  Chr. 
i.  7,  Rodanim),  a  family  or  race  descended 
from  Javan,  the  son  of  Japhet  (Gen.  x.  4 ; 
1  Chr.  i.  7).  The  weight  of  authority  is  in 
favor  of  the  former  name.  Dodanira  is  re- 
garded as  identical  with  the  Dardani,  who 
were  found  in  lustorical  times  in  Illyricum 
and  Troy. 

Dod'avah,  a  man  of  Maresha  in  Judah, 
father  of  Eliezer,  who  denounced  Jehosha- 
phat's  alliance  with  Ahaziah  (2  Clir.  xx.  37.) 


Do'do.  1.  A  man  of  Bethlehem,  father 
of  Elhanan,  who  was  one  of  David's  thirty 
captains  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  24;  1  Chr.  xi.  26). 
He  is  a  different  person  from,  2.  Dodo 
THE  Ahohite,  father  of  Eleazar,  the  second 
of  the  three  mighty  men  who  were  over  the 
thirty  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9  ;  1  Chr,  xi.  12).  He, 
or  his  son  —  in  which  case  we  must  suppose 
the  words  "Eleazar  son  of"  to  have  es- 
caped from  the  text  —  probably  had  the 
command  of  the  second  monthly  course  (1 
Chr.  xxvii.  4).  In  the  latter  passage  the 
name  is  Dodai. 

Do'eg,  an  Idumaean,  chief  of  Saul's 
herdmen.  He  was  at  Nob  when  Ahimelech 
gave  David  the  sword  of  Goliath,  and  not 
only  gave  information  to  Saul,  but  when 
others  declined  the  oflSce,  himself  executed 
the  king's  order  to  destroy  the  priests  of 
Nob,  with  their  families,  to  the  number  of 
85  persons,  together  with  all  their  property 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  7,  xxii.  9, 18,  22;  Ps.  Iii.). 

Dog,  an  animal  frequently  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  It  was  used  by  the  Hebrews 
as  a  watch  for  their  houses  (Is.  Ivi.  10), 
and  for  guarding  their  flocks  (Job,  xxx.  1). 
Then  also,  as  now,  troops  of  hungry  and 
semi-wild  dogs  used  to  wander  about  the 
fields  and  streets  of  the  cities,  devouring 
dead  bodies  and  other  offal  (1  K.  xiv.  11, 
xvi.  4,  xxi.  19,  23,  xxii.  38 ;  2  K.  ix.  10,  36 ; 
Jer.  XV.  3;  Ps.  lix.  6,  14),  and  thus  became 
such  objects  of  dislike  that  fierce  and  cruel 
enemies  are  poetically  styled  dogs  in  Ps. 
xxii.  16,  20.  Moreover  the  dog  being  an 
unclean  animal  (Is.  Ixvi.  3),  the  terms  dog, 
dead  dog,  dog's  head,  were  used  as  terms 
of  reproach,  or  of  humility  in  speaking  of 
one's  self  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  14 ;  2  Sam.  iii.  8,  ix. 
8,  xvi.  9;  2  K.  viii.  13).  Stanley  mentions 
that  he  saw  on  the  very  site  of  Jezrcel  the 
descendants  of  the  dogs  that  devoured  Jez- 
ebel, prowling  on  the  mounds  without  the 
walls  for  offal  and  carrion  thrown  out  to 
them  to  consume. 

Doors.     [Gates.] 

Doph'kah,  a  place  mentioned  (Num. 
xxxiii.  12)  as  a  station  in  the  Desert  where 
the  Israelites  encamped ;  see  Wilderness. 

Dor  (Josh.  xvii.  11;  IK.  iv.  11;  1 
Mace.  XV.  11),  an  ancient  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites  (Josh.  xii.  23),  whose  ruler  was 
an  ally  of  Jabin  king  of  Hazor  against 
Joshua  (Josh.  xi.  1,  2).  It  was  probably 
the  most  southern  settlement  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians on  the  coast  of  Syria.  It  appears  to 
have  been  within  the  territory  of  tlie  tribe 
of  Asher,  though  allotted  to  Mana88eli(Josh, 
xvii.  11 ;  Judg.  i.  27).  The  original  inhab- 
itants were  never  expelled ;  but  during  the 
prosperous  reigns  of  David  and  Sobmon 
tbey  were  made  tributary  (Judg.  i.  27,  28), 
and  the  latter  monarch  stationed  at  Dor 
one  of  his  twelve  purveyors  (1  K-  iv-  11)« 
Jerome  places  it  on  the  coast,  "  in  the  ninth 
mile  from  Caesarea,  on  the  way  to  Ptole- 


DORA 


150 


DREAMS 


tnais."  Just  at  the  point  indicated  is  the 
small  village  of  Tantura,  probably  an  Arab 
corruption  of  Dora,  consisting  of  about 
thirty  houses,  wholly  constructed  of  ancient 
materials. 

Dora.    1  Mace.  xv.  11,  13,25.    [Dob.] 

Dor'eas.    [Tabitha.] 

Dosith'eus,  "  a  priest  and  Levite," 
who  carried  the  translation  of  Esther  to 
Egypt  (Esth.  xi.  1,  2). 

Do'thaim.    [Dothan.] 

Do'than,  a  place  first  mentioned  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  17)  in  connection  with  the  history  of 
Joseph,  and  apparently  as  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Shechem.  It  next  appears  as  the 
residence  of  Elisha  (2  K.  vi.  13).  Later 
still  we  encounter  it  under  the  name  of 
Dothaim,  as  a  landmark  in  the  account  of 
Holofernes's  campaign  against  Bethulia 
(Jud.  iv.  6,  vii.  3,  18,  viii.  3).  It  was 
known  to  Eusebius,  who  places  it  12  miles 
to  the  N.  of  Sebaste  (Samaria)  ;  and  here 
it  has  been  discovered  in  our  own  times, 
still  bearing  its  ancient  name  unimpaired. 

Dove  (Heb.  r<5»<ife).  The  first  mention 
of  this  bird  occurs  in  Gen.  viii.  The  dove's 
rapidity  of  flight  is  alluded  to  in  Ps.  Iv.  6 ; 
the  beauty  of  its  plumage  in  Ps.  Lxviii.  13; 
its  dwelling  in  the  rocks  and  valleys  in  Jer. 
xlviii.  28,  and  Ez.  vii.  16;  its  mournful 
voice  in  Is.  xxxviii.  14,  lix.  11 ;  Nah.  ii.  7; 
its  harmlessness  in  Matt.  x.  16 ;  its  sim- 
plicity in  Hos.  vii.  11,  and  its  amativeness 
in  Cant.  i.  15,  ii.  14.  Doves  are  kept  in  a 
domesticated  state  in  many  parts  of  the 
East.  In  Persia  pigeon-houses  are  erected 
at  a  distance  from  the  dwellings,  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  the  dung  as  manure. 
There  is  probably  an  allusion  to  such  a  cus- 
tom in  Is.  Ix.  8. 

Dove's  Dung.  Various  explanations 
have  been  given  of  the  passage  in  2  K.  vi. 
25,  which  describes  the  famine  of  Samaria 
to  have  been  so  excessive,  that  "  an  ass's 
head  was  sold  for  fourscore  pieces  of  silver, 
and  the  fourth  part  of  a  cab  of  dove's  dung 
for  five  pieces  of  silver."  Bochart  has 
labored  to  show  that  it  denotes  a  species 
of  deer,  "chick-pea,"  which  he  says  the 
Arabs  call  xisnAn,  and  sometimes  improp- 
erly "  dove's  or  sparrow's  dung."  It  can 
scarcely  be  believed  that  even  in  the  worst 
horrors  of  a  siege  a  substance  so  vile  as  is 
implied  by  the  literal  rendering  should 
have  been  used  for  food. 

Dowry.    [Marbiage.] 

Drachm  (2  Mace.  iv.  19,  X.  20,  xii.  43 ; 
Luke  XV.  8,  9),  a  Greek  silver  coin,  vary- 
ing in  weight  on  account  of  the  use  of  dif- 
ferent talents.  In  Luke  (A.  V.  "  piece 
of  silver")  denarii  seem  to  be  intended. 
[Monet;  Silver,  Piece  of.] 

Dragon.  The  translators  of  the  A.  V., 
apparently  following  the  Vulgate,  have 
rendered  by  the  same  word  "  dragon  "  the 
two  Hebrew  words  Tan  and  Tannin,  which 


appear  to  be  quite  distinct  in  meaning.  L 
The  former  is  used,  always  in  the  plural, 
in  Job  XXX.  29 ;  Is.  xxxiv.  13,  xliii.  20 ;  in 
Is.  xiii.  22;  in  Jer.  x.  22,  xlix.  33;  in  Ps. 
xliv.  19;  and  in  Jer.  ix.  11,  xiv.  6,  Ii.  37; 
Mic.  i.  8.  It  is  always  applied  to  some 
creatures  inhabiting  the  desert,  and  we 
should  conclude  from  this  that  it  refers 
rather  to  some  wild  beast  than  to  a  serpent. 
The  Syriac  renders  it  by  a  word  wliich, 
according  to  Pococke,  means  a  "jackal." 
II.  The  word  tannin  seems  to  refer  to  any 
great  monster,  whether  of  the  land  or  the 
sea,  being  indeed  more  usually  applied  to 
some  kind  of  serpent  or  reptile,  but  not 
exclusively  restricted  to  that  sense.  When 
we  examine  special  passages  we  find  the 
word  used  in  Gen.  i.  21,  of  the  great  sea- 
monsters,  the  representatives  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  deep.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
Ex.  vii.  9,  10,  12,  Deut.  xxxii.  33,  Ps.  xci. 
13,  it  refers  to  land-serpents  of  a  powerful 
and  deadly  kind.  In  the  N.  T.  it  is  only 
found  in  the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  xii.  3,  4,  7, 
9,  16,  17,  &c.),  as  applied  metaphorically 
to  "the  old  serpent,  called  the  Devil,  and 
Satan,"  the  description  of  the  "  dragon  " 
being  dictated  by  the  symbolical  meaning 
of  the  image  rather  than  by  any  reference 
to  any  actually  existing  creature.  The 
reason  of  this  scriptural  symbol  is  to  be 
sought  not  only  in  the  union  of  gigantic 
power  with  craft  and  malignity,  of  which 
the  serpent  is  the  natural  emblem,  but  in 
the  record  of  the  serpent's  agency  in  the 
temptation  (Gen.  iii.). 

Dram.    [Daric] 

Dreams.  The  Scripture  declares,  that 
the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  upon  the 
soul  extends  to  its  sleeping  as  well  as  its 
waking  thoughts.  But,  in  accordance  with 
the  principle  enunciated  by  St.  Paul  in  1 
Cor.  xiv.  15,  dreams,  in  which  the  under- 
standing is  asleep,  are  placed  below  the 
visions  of  prophecy,  in  which  the  under- 
standing phays  its  part.  It  is  true  that  the 
book  of  Job,  standing  as  it  does  on  the 
basis  of  "  natural  religion,"  dwells  on 
dreams  and  "  visions  in  deep  sleep,"  as  the 
chosen  method  of  God's  revelation  of  Him- 
self to  man  (see  Job  iv.  13,  vii.  14,  xxxiii. 
15).  But  in  Num.  xii.  6;  Deut.  xiii.  1,  3, 
5 ;  Jer.  xxvii.  9 ;  Joel  ii.  28,  &c.,  dreamers 
of  dreams,  whether  true  or  false,  are  placed 
below  "prophets,"  and  even  below  "divi- 
ners ; "  and  similarly  in  the  climax  of  1 
Sam.  xxviii.  6,  we  read  that  "Jehovah 
answered  Saul  not,  neither  by  dreams,  nor 
by  Urim  [by  symbol],  nor  by  prophets." 
Under  the  Christian  dispensation,  while 
we  read  frequently  of  trances  and  visions, 
dreams  are  never  referred  to  as  vehicles 
of  divine  revelation.  In  exact  accordance 
with  this  principle  are  the  actual  records  of 
the  dreams  sent  by  God.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  such  dreams  were  granted,  for  pre- 


DRESS 


151 


DRESS 


diction  or  for  warning,  to  those  who  were 
aliens  to  the  Jewish  covenant.  And,  where 
dreams  are  recorded  as  means  of  God's 
revelation  to  His  chosen  servants,  they  are 
almost  always  referred  to  the  periods  of 
tlieir  earliest  and  most  imperfect  knowledge 
of  Him. 

Dress.  This  subject  includes  the  follow- 
ing particulars :  1.  Materials.  2.  Color 
and  decoration.  3.  Name,  form,  and  mode 
of  wearing  the  various  articles.  4.  Special 
usages  relating  thereto.  1.  The  earliest 
and  simplest  robe  was  made  out  of  the 
leaves  of  a  tree,  portions  of  which  were 
sewn  together,  so  as  to  form  an  apron  (Gen. 
iii.  7).  After  the  fall,  the  skins  of  animals 
supplied  a  more  durable  material  (Gen.  iii. 
21),  which  was  adapted  to  a  rude  state  of 
society,  and  is  stated  to  have  been  used  by 
various  ancient  nations.  Skins  were  not 
wholly  disused  at  later  periods  :  the  "  man- 
tle "  worn  by  Elijah  appears  to  have  been 
the  skin  of  a  sheep  or  some  other  animal 
with  the  wool  left  on.  It  was  characteristic 
of  a  prophet's  office  from  its  mean  appear- 
ance (Zech.  xiii.  4 ;  cf.  Matt.  vii.  15).  Pe- 
lisses of  sheepskin  still  form  an  ordinary 
article  of  dress  in  the  East.  The  art  of 
weaving  hair  was  known  to  the  Hebrews  at 
an  early  period  (Ex.  xxvi.  7,  xxxv.  6)  ;  the 
sackcloth  used  by  mourners  was  of  this 
material.  John  the  Baptist's  robe  was  of 
camel's  hair  (Matt.  iii.  4).  "Wool,  we  may 
presume,  was  introduced  at  a  very  early 
period,  the  flocks  of  the  pastoral  families 
being  kept  partly  for  their  wool  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  12)  :  it  was  at  all  times  largely  em- 
ployed, particular!}'  for  the  outer  garments 
(Lev.  xiii.  47;  Deut.  xxii.  11;  &c.).  It  is 
I^robable  that  the  acquaintance  of  the  He- 
brews with  linen,  and  perhaps  cotton,  dates 
from  the  period  of  the  captivity  in  Egypt, 
when  they  were  instructed  in  the  manufac- 
ture (1  Chr.  iv.  21).  After  their  return  to 
Palestine  we  have  frequent  notices  of  linen. 
Silk  was  not  introduced  until  a  very  late 
period  (Rev.  xviii.  12).  The  use  of  mixed 
material,  such  as  wool  and  flax,  was  forbid- 
den (Lev.  xix.  19 ;  Deut.  xxii.  11).  2.  Color 
and  decoration.  —  The  prevailing  color  of 
the  Hebrew  dress  was  the  natural  white  of 
the  materials  employed,  which  might  be 
brought  to  a  high  state  of  brilliancy  by  the 
art  of  the  fuller  (Mark  ix.  3).  It  is  un- 
certain when  the  art  of  dyeing  became 
known  to  the  Hebrews;  the  dress  worn  by 
Joseph  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3,  23)  is  variously 
taken  to  be  either  a  "  coat  of  divers  colors," 
or  a  tunic  furnished  with  sleeves  and  reach- 
ing down  to  the  ankles.  The  latter  is 
probably  the  correct  sense.  The  notice  of 
scarlet  thread  (Gen.  xxxviii.  28)  implies 
some  acquaintance  with  dyeing.  The 
Egyptians  had  carried  the  art  of  weaving 
and  embroidery  to  a  high  state  of  perfec- 
tion, and  &om  them  the  Hebrews  learned  | 


various  methods  of  producing  decorated 
stuffs.  The  elements  of  ornamentation 
were  —  (1)  weaving  with  threads  previous- 
ly dyed  (Ex.  xxxv.  25) ;  (2)  the  introduc- 
tion of  gold  thread  or  wire  (Ex.  xxvii.  6,  ff".)  ; 
(3)  the  addition  of  figures.  These  devices 
may  have  been  either  woven  into  the  stuff", 
or  cut  out  of  other  stuff"  and  afterwards  at- 
tached by  needlework  :  in  the  former  case 
the  pattern  would  appear  only  on  one  side, 
in  the  latter  the  pattern  might  be  varied. 
Robes  decorated  with  gold  (Ps.  xlv.  13), 
and  at  a  later  period  with  silver  thread  (cf. 
Acts  xii.  21),  were  worn  by  royal  person- 
ages ;  other  kinds  of  embroidered  robes 
were  worn  by  the  wealthy  both  of  Tyre  (Ez. 
xvi.  13)  and  Palestine  (Judg.  v.  30;  Ps. 
xlv.  14).  The  art  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  maintained  among  the  Hebrews  :  the 
Babylonians  and  other  Eastern  nations 
(Josh.  vii.  21 ;  Ez.  xxvii.  24),  as  well  as  the 
Egyptians  (Ez.  xxvii.  7),  excelled  in  it. 
Nor  does  the  art  of  dyeing  appear  to  have 
been  followed  up  in  Palestine  :  dyed  robes 
were  imported  from  foreign  countries 
(Zeph.  i.  8),  particularly  from  Phoenicia, 
and  were  not  much  used  on  account  of 
their  expensiveness :  purple  (Prov.  xxxi. 
22 ;  Luke  xvi.  19)  and  scarlet  (2  Sam.  i. 
24)  were  occasionally  worn  by  the  wealthy. 
The  surrounding  nations  were  more  lavish 
in  their  use  of  them  :  the  wealthy  Tyrians 
(Ez.  xxvii.  7),  the  Midianitish  kings  (Judg. 
viii.  26),  the  Assyrian  nobles  (Ez.  xxiii.  6), 
and  Persian  officers  (Esth.  viii.  15),  are  all 
represented  in  purple.  3.  The  names, 
forms,  and  mode  of  wearing  the  robes.  —  It 
is  difficult  to  give  a  satisfactory  account  of 
the  various  articles  of  dress  mentioned  in 
the  Bible.  The  general  characteristics  of 
Oriental  dress  have  indeed  preserved  a  re- 
markable uniformity  in  all  ages  :  the  mod- 
ern Arab  dresses  much  as  the  ancient  He- 
brew did ;  there  are  the  same  flowing  robes, 
the  same  distinction  between  the  outer  and 
inner  garments,  the  former  heavy  and 
warm,  the  latter  light,  adapted  to  the  rapid 
and  excessive  changes  of  temperature  in 
those  countries ;  and  there  is  the  same  dis- 
tinction between  the  costume  of  the  rich  and 
the  poor,  consisting  in  the  multiplication 
of  robes  of  a  finer  texture  and  more  ample 
dimensions.  Hence  the  numerous  illustra- 
tions of  ancient  costume,  which  may  be 
drawn  from  the  usages  of  modern  Orientals, 
supplying  in  great  measure  the  want  of 
contemporaneous  representations.  The  cos- 
tume of  the  men  and  women  was  very  simi- 
lar ;  there  was  sufficient  aifference,  however, 
to  mark  the  sex,  and  it  was  strictly  forbidden 
to  a  woman  to  wear  the  appendages,  such  as 
the  staff",  signet-ring,  and  other  ornaments, 
or,  according  to  Josephus,  the  weapons,  of  h 
man ;  as  well  as  to  a  man  to  wear  the  outer 
robe  of  a  woman  (Deut.  xxii.  5).  We  shall 
first  describe  the  robes  which  were  common 


DKESS 


152 


DRESS 


to  the  two  sexes,  and  then  those  which  were 
peculiar  to  women.  (1.)  The  cethdncth  was 
tlie  most  essential  article  of  dress.  It  was 
a  closely-fitting  garment,  resembling  in  form 
and  use  our  shi^-t,  though  unfortunately 
translated  coat  in  the  A.  V.  The  material 
of  which  it  was  made  was  either  wool,  cot- 
ton, or  linen.  The  primitive  cithdneth  was 
without  sleeves  and  reached  only  to  the 
knee.  Another  kind  reached  to  the  wrists 
and  ankles.  It  was  in  either  case  kept 
close  to  the  body  by  a  girdle,  and  the  fold 
formed  by  the  overlapping  of  the  robe 
served  as  an  inner  pocket.  A  person  wear- 
ing the  cithdneth  alone  was  described  as 
naked,  A.  V.  The  annexed  woodcut  (fig. 
1)  represents  the  simplest  style  of  Oriental 


Tig.  1.  —  An  Egyptian.    (I^ane's  Modem  Egyptians.) 

dress,  a  long  loose  shirt  or  cUhdneth  with- 
out a  girdle,  reaching  nearly  to  the  ankle. 
(2.)  The  sddin  appears  to  have  been  a 
wrapper  of  fine  linen,  which  might  be  used 
in  various  ways,  but  especially  as  a  night- 
shirt (Mark  xiv.  51).  (3.)  The  meil  was 
an  upper  or  second  tunic,  the  difference 
being  that  it  was  longer  than  the  first.  As 
an  article  of  ordinary  dress  it  was  worn  by 
kings  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  4),  prophets  (f  Sam. 
xxviii.  14),  nobles  (Job  i.  20),  and  youths 
(1  Sam.  ii.  19).  It  may,  however,  be 
doubted  whether  the  term  is  used  in  its 
specific  sense  in  these  passages,  and  not 
rather  for  any  robe  that  chanced  to  be  worn 
over  the  ceihoneth.  Where  two  tunics  are 
mentioned  (Luke  iii.  11)  as  being  worn  at 
the  same  time,  the  second  would  be  a  meil ; 
travellers  generally  wore  two,  but  the  prac- 
tice was  forbidden  to  the  disciples  (Matt. 
X.  10 ;  Luke  ix.  3).  The  dress  of  the  mid- 
dle and  upper  classes  in  modern  Egypt  (fig. 
2)  illustrates  the  customs  of  the  Hebrews. 
(4.)  The  ordinary  outer  garment  consisted 


of  a  quadrangular  piece  of  woollen  cloth, 
probably  resembling  in  shape  a  Scotch 
plaid.  The  size  and  texture  would  vary 
with  the  means  of  the  wearer.  The  He- 
brew terms  referring  to  it  are  —  simlah, 
sometimes  put  for  clothes  generally  (Gen. 
XXXV.  2,  xxxvii.  34 ;  Ex.  iii.  22,  xxii.  9 ; 
Deut.  X.  18 ;  Is.  iii.  7,  iv.  1)  ;  heged,  which 


Tig.  2.  —  An  Egyptian  of  the  Upper  Classes.    (Lane.) 

is  more  usual  in  speaking  of  robes  of  a 
handsome  and  substantial  character  (Gen. 
xxvii.  15,  xli.  42 ;  Ex.  xxviii.  2 ;  IK.  xxii. 
10;  2  Chr.  xviii.  9;  Is.  Ixiii.  1);  cesuth, 
appropriate  to  passages  where  covering  or 
protection  is  the  prominent  idea  (Ex.  xxii. 
26 ;  Job  xxvi.  6,  xxxi.  19) ;  and  lastly 
Ubush,  usual  in  poetry,  but  specially  ap- 
plied to  a  warrior's  cloak  (2  Sam.  xx.  8), 
priests'  vestments  (2  K.  x.  32),  and  royal 
apparel  (Esth.  vi.  11,  viii.  15).  Another 
term,  mad,  is  specifically  applied  to  a  long 
cloak  (Judg.  ii.  16;  2  Sam.  xx.  8),  and  to 
the  priest's  coat  (Lev.  vi.  10).  The  beged 
might  be  worn  in  various  ways,  either 
wrapped  round  the  body,  or  worn  over  the 
shoulders,  like  a  shawl,  with  the  ends  or 
"  skirts  "  hanging  down  in  front,  or  it  might 
be  thrown  over  the  head,  so  as  to  conceal 
the  face  (2  Sam.  xv.  30;  Esth.  vi.  12). 
The  ends  were  skirted  with  a  fringe  and 
bound  with  a  dark  purple  ribbon  (Num.  xv. 
38)  :  it  was  confined  at  the  waist  by  a 
girdle,  and  the  fold,  formed  by  the  over- 
lapping of  the  robe,  served  as  a  pocket, 
''ne  dress  of  the  women  differed  from  that 
of  the  men  in  regard  to  the  outer  garment, 
the  cethdneth  being  worn  equally  by  both 
sexes  (Cant.  v.  3).  The  names  of  their  dis- 
tinctive robes  were  as  follow:  (1)  mitjia- 
chath  (veil,  wimple,  A.  V.),  a  kind  of  sIkiwI 
(Ruth  iii.  15 ;  Is.  iii.  22)  ;  (2)  ma'aiAphdh 
Iniantle,  A.  V.),  another  kind  of  shawl  \l.s. 


DRESS 


153 


DRINK 


iii.  22);  (3)  tsafph  {veil,  A.  V.),  probably 
a  light  summer  dress  of  handsome  appear- 
ance and  of  ample  dimensions ;  (4)  rddid 
(veil,  A.  v.),  a  similar  robe  (Is.  iii.  23; 
Cant.  V.  7) ;  (5)  pethigl  (stomacher,  A. 
v.),  a  term  of  doubtful  origin,  but  proba- 
bly significant  of  a  gay  holiday  dress  (Is. 
iii.  24) ;  (G)  gilyonim  (Is.  iii.  23),  also  a 
doubtful  word,  probably  means,  as  in  the 
A.  v.,  glasses.  The  garments  of  females 
were  terminated  by  an  ample  border  of 
fringe  (skiris,  A.  V.),  which  concealed  the 
feet  (Is.  xlvii.  2;  Jer.  xiii.  22).  Figs.  3 
and  4  illustrate  some  of  the  peculiarities 
of  female  dress ;  the  former  is  an  Egyptian 
woman  in  her  walking  dress :  the  latter 
represents  a  dress,  probably  of  great  an- 
tiquity, still  worn  by  the  peasants  in  the 
south  of  Egypt.  The  references  to  Greek 
or  Roman  dress  are  few :  the  ^Aauu'g  (2 
Mace.  xii.  35 ;  Matt,  xxvii.  28)  was  either 
the  paXudarnentum,  the  military  scarf  of 
the  Roman  soldiery,  or  the  Greek  chlamys 
itself,  which  was  introduced  under  the  Em- 
perors :  it  was  especially  worn  by  officers. 
The  travelling  cloak  referred  to  by  St.  Paul 
(2  Tim.  iv.  13)  is  generally  identified  with 
(he  Roman  paenula,  of  which  it  may  be  a 
corruption.  It  is,  however,  otherwise  ex- 
plained as  a  travelling-case  for  carrying 
clothes  or  books.  4.  Special  usages  re- 
lating to  dress.  —  The  length  of  the  dress 
rendered  it  inconvenient  for  active  exer- 
cise ;  hence  the  outer  garments  were  either 
left  in  the  house  by  a  person  working  close 
by  (Matt.  xxiv.  18)  or  were  tlirown  off 
wiiea  the  occasion    arose  (Mark  x.  50; 


j  entering  a  house  the  upper  gannent  was 
\  probably  laid  aside,  and  resumed  on  going 
j  out  (Acts  xii.  8).  In  a  sitting  posture,  tlie 
garments  concealed  the  feet;  this  was  hold 
to  be  an  act  of  reverence  (Is.  vi  2).  Tlif» 
number  of  suits  possessed  by  the  Hebrews 
was   considerable :    a  single  suit  consist- 


Xlg.  8.— An  Egyptian  Woman.    (Lane.) 

John  xiii.  4;  Acts  vii.  58),  or,  if  this  was 
not  possible,  as  in  the  case  of  a  person 
travelling,  they  were  girded  up  (1  K.  xviii. 
46;    2  K.  iv.  29,  ix.  1;  1  Pet.  i.  13);  on 


Fig.  4.  —  A  Woman  of  the  Boathem  Frorinee  of  tTppct 
£g7pL    (Lane.) 

ed  of  an  under  and  upper  garment,  Tlie 
presentation  of  a  robe  in  many  instances 
amounted  to  installation  or  investiture 
(Gen.  xii.  42;  Esth.  viii.  15;  Is.  xxii. 
21) ;  on  the  other  hand,  taking  it  away 
amounted  to  dismissal  from  office  (2  Mace, 
iv.  38").  The  production  of  the  best  robe 
was  a  mark  of  special  honor  in  a  household 
(Luke  XV.  22).  The  number  of  robes  thus 
received  or  kept  in  store  for  presents  was 
very  large,  and  formed  one  of  the  main 
elements  of  wealth  in  the  East  (Job  xxii. 
16;  Matt.  vi.  19;  James  v.  2),  so  that  to 
have  clothing  =  to  be  wealtliy  and  power- 
ful (Is.  iii.  6,  7).  On  grand  occasions  the 
entertainer  offered  becoming  robes  to  his 
guests.  The  business  of  making  clothes 
devolved  upon  women  in  a  family  (Prov. 
xxxi.  21 ;  Acts  ix.  39) ;  little  art  was  re- 
quired in  what  we  may  term  the  tailoring 
department;  the  garments  came  forth  for 
the  most  part  ready  made  from  the  loom, 
so  that  the  weaver  supplanted  the  tailor. 

Drink,  Strong.  The  Hebrew  terra 
sMcar,  in  its  etymological  sense,  applies  to 
any  beverage  that  had  inioxicatirig  qual- 
ities. We  may  infer  from  Cant.  viii.  2 
that  the  Hebrews  were  in  the  habit  of  ex- 
pressing the  juice  of  other  fruits  besides 
the  grape  for  the  purpose  of  making  wine ; 
the  pomegranate,  which  is  there  noticed, 
was  probably  one  out  of  many  fruits  so 
used.     With  regard  to  the  application  of 


DEOMEDARY 


154 


EAGLE 


the  term  in  later  tiraes  we  have  the  ex- 
plicit statement  of  Jei'ome,  as  well  as  other 
sources  of  information,  from  which  we 
may  state  tliat  the  following  beverages  were 
known  to  the  Jews  :  1.  Beer,  which  was 
largely  consumed  in  Egypt  under  the  name 
of  zythus,  and  was  thence  introduced  into 
Palestine.  It  was  made  of  barley;  cer- 
tain herbs,  such  as  lupine  and  skirret,  were 
used  as  substitutes  for  hops.  2.  Cider, 
which  is  noticed  in  the  Mishna  as  apple- 
wine.  3.  iZoMey-wiVje,  of  which  there  were 
two  sorts,  one  consisting  of  a  mixture  of 
wine,  honey,  and  pepper;  the  other  a  de- 
coction of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  termed 
debash  (honey)  by  the  Hebrews,  and  dibs 
by  the  modern  Syrians.  4.  Date-wine, 
which  was  also  manufactured  in  Egypt. 
It  was  made  by  mashing  the  fruit  in  water 
in  certain  proportions.  5.  Various  other 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  enumerated  by 
Pliny  as  supplying  materials  for/ac^i7toMS  or 
home-made  wine,  such  as  figs,  millet,  the  ca- 
rob  fruit,  &c.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
Hebrews  applied  raisins  to  this  purpose  in 
the  simple  manner  followed  by  the  Ara- 
bians, viz.,  by  putting  them  in  jars  of  water 
and  burying  them  in  the  ground  lintil  fer- 
mentation takes  place. 

Dromedary.     [Camel.] 

Drusil'la,  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.  (Acts  xii.  1,  19,  ff.)  and  Cypres.  She 
was  at  first  betrothed  to  Antioclius  Epiph- 
anes,  prince  of  Commagene,  but  was  mar- 
ried to  Azizus,  king  of  Emesa.  Soon  af- 
ter, Felix,  procurator  of  Judaea,  brought 
about  her  seduction  by  means  of  the  Cyp- 
rian sorcerer  Simon,  and  took  her  as  his 
wife.  In  Acts  xxiv.  24,  we  find  her  in 
company  with  Felix  at  Caesarea.  FelLx 
had  by  Drusilla  a  son  named  Agrippa,  who, 
together  with  his  mother,  perished  in  the 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  under  Titus. 

Dulcimer  (Heb.  Sumphoniah),  a  mu- 
sical instrument,  mentioned  in  Dan.  iii.  5, 
15,  probably  the  bagpipe.  The  same  in- 
strument is  still  in  use  amongst  peasants 
in  the  N.  W.  of  Asia  and  in  Southern 
Europe,  where  it  is  known  by  the  similar 
name  Sampogna  or  Zampogna. 

Du'mah..  1.  A  son  of  Ishmael,  most 
probably  the  founder  of  the  Islfmaelite 
tribe  of  Arabia,  and  thence  the  name  of 
the  principal  place,  or  district,  inhabited  by 
tliat  tribe  (Gen.  xxv.  14 ;  1  Chr.  i.  30 ;  Is. 
xxi.  11).  2.  A  city  in  the  mountainous 
district  of  Judah,  near  Hebron  (Josh.  xv. 
52),  represented  by  the  ruins  of  a  village 
called  ed-Daumeh,  6  miles  south-west  of 
Hebron. 

Dung.  The  uses  of  dung  were  twofold, 
as  manure,  and  as  fuel.  The  manure  con- 
sisted either  of  straw  steeped  in  liquid 
manure  (Is.  xxv.  10),  or  the  sweepings 
(Is.  V.  25)  of  the  streets  and  roads,  which 
were  carefully  removed  from  about  the 


houses  and  collected  in  heai)s  outside  the 
walls  of  the  towns  at  fixed  spots  (hence 
the  dung-gate  at  Jerusalem,  Neh.  ii.  13), 
and  thence  removed  in  due  course  to  the 
fields.  The  mode  of  applying  manure  to 
trees  was  by  digging  holes  about  their 
roots  and  inserting  it  (Luke  xiii.  8),  as 
still  practised  in  Southern  Italy.  In  the 
case  of  sacrifices  the  dung  was  burnt  out- 
side the  camp  (Ex.  xxix.  14;  Lev.  iv.  11, 
viii.  17;  Num.  xix.  5)  :  hence  the  extreme 
opprobrium  of  the  threat  in  Mai.  ii.  3.  Par- 
ticular directions  were  laid  down  in  the 
law  to  enforce  cleanliness  with  regard  to 
human  ordure  (Deut.  xxiii.  12,  ff".)  :  it  was 
the  grossest  insult  to  turn  a  man's  house 
into  a  receptacle  for  it  (2  K.  x.  27 ;  Ezr. 
vi.  11;  Dan.  ii.  5,  iii.  29,  "dunghill"  A. 
V.)  ;  public  establishments  of  that  nature 
are  still  found  in  the  large  towns  of  the 
East.  —  The  difficulty  of  procuring  fuel  in 
Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  has  made  dung 
in  all  ages  valuable  as  a  substitute :  it  was 
probably  used  for  heating  ovens  and  for 
baking  cakes  (Ez.  iv.  12,  15),  the  equable 
heat  which  it  produced  adapting  it  pecu- 
liarly for  the  latter  operation.  Cow's  and 
camel's  dung  is  still  used  for  a  similar  pur 
pose  by  the  Bedouins. 

Dungeon.     [Prison.] 

Du'ra,  the  plain  where  Nebuchadnezzar 
set  up  the  golden  image  (Dan.  iii.  1)  has 
been  sometimes  identified  with  a  tract  a 
little  below  Tekrit,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  where  the  name  Dur  is  still  found. 
M.  Oppert  places  the  plain  (or,  as  he  calls 
it,  the  "vaUey")  of  Dura  to  the  south- 
east of  Babylon,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mound  of  Dowair  or  Duair. 

Dust.      [MOOKNING.] 


E. 


Eagle  (Heb.  nesher).  The  Hebrew 
word,  which  occurs  frequently  in  the  O.T., 
may  denote  a  particular  species  of  the  Fal- 
conidae,  as  in  Lev.  xi.  13 ;  Deut.  xiv.  12, 
where  the  nesher  is  distinguished  from  the 
ossifrage,  osprey,  and  other  raptatorial 
birds ;  but  the  term  is  used  also  to  express 
the  griffon  vulture  (  Vultur  fulvus)  in  two 
or  three  passages.  At  least  four  distinct 
kinds  of  eagles  have  been  observed  in  Pal- 
estine, viz.  the  golden  eagle  {Aquila  Chry- 
saCtos'),  the  spotted  eagle  (A.  iiaevia),  the 
commonest  species  in  the  I'ocky  districts, 
the  imperial  eagle  {Aquila  Jleliaca),  and 
the  very  common  Circaetos  gallicus,  which 
preys  on  the  numerous  reptilia  of  Pales- 
tine. The  Heb.  nesher  may  stand  for  any 
of  these  different  species,  though  perhaps 
more  particular  reference  to  the  golden  and 
imperial  eagles  and  the  griffon  vulture  may 
be  intended.    The  passage  iu  Mic.  i.  16, 


EARNEST 


155 


EARTHQUAKE 


"  Enlarge  thy  baldness  as  the  eagle,"  may 
refer  to  the  griflbn  vulture  (  Vultur  fiilvus), 
in  which  case  the  simile  is  peculiarly  appro- 
priate, for  the  whole  head  and  neck  of  this 
bird  are  destitute  of  true  feathers.  The 
"eagles  "  of  Matt.  xxiv.  28,  Luke  xvii.  37, 
may  include  the  Vultur  fulvus  and  Neo- 
phron percnopterus  ;  though,  as  eagles  fre- 
quently prey  upon  dead  bodies,  there  is  no 
necessity  to  restrict  the  Greek  word  to  the 
VuUuridae.  The  figure  of  an  eagle  is  now 
and  has  been  long  a  favorite  military 
ensign.  The  Persians  so  employed  it;  a 
fact  wliich  illustrates  the  passage  in  Is. 
xlvi.  11.  The  same  bird  was  similarly  em- 
ployed by  the  Assyrians  and  the  Romans. 

Earnest  (2  Cor.  i.  22,  v.  5 ;  Eph.  i.  14). 
The  equivalent  in  the  original  is  arrhabon 
(ayya/itwv),  a  Graecized  form  of  the  Heb. 
'irdbdn,  wliich  was  introduced  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians into  Greece,  and  also  into  Italy, 
where  it  reappears  under  the  forms  of  ar- 
rhabo  and  arrha.  The  Hebrew  word  was 
used  generally  for  pledge  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
17),  and  in  its  cognate  forms  for  surety 
^rov.  xvii.  18)  and  hostage  (2  K.  xiv.  14). 
The  Greek  derivative,  however,  acquired  a 
more  technical  sense  as  signifying  the  de- 
posit paid  by  the  purchaser  on  entering 
into  an  agreement  for  the  purchase  of  any- 
thing. 

Earrings.  The  material  of  which  ear- 
rings were  made  was  generally  gold  (Ex. 
xxxii.  2),  and  their  form  circular.  They 
were  worn  by  women  and  by  youth  of  both 


Egyptian  Earringf .    From  WUklnion. 

sexes  (Ex.  I.  e.).  It  had  been  inferred 
from  the  passage  quoted,  and  from  Judg. 
viii.  24,  that  they  were  not  worn  by  men  : 
these  passages  are,  however,  by  no  means 
conclusive.  The  earring  appears  to  have 
been  regarded  with  superstitious  reverence 
as  an  amulet.  On  this  account  they  were 
surrendered  along  with  the  idols  by  Jacob's 
household  (Gen.  xxxv.  4).  Chardin  de- 
scribes earrings,  with  talismanic  figures  and 
characters  on  them,  as  still  existing  in  the 
East.  Jewels  were  sometimes  attached  to 
the  rings.  The  size  of  the  earrings  still 
worn  in  eastern  countries  far  exceeds  what 
is  usual  among  ourselves;  hence  they 
formed  a  handsome  present  (Job  xlii.  11),  1 


or  offering  to  the  service  of  God  (Num. 
xxxi.  50). 

Eartn.  The  term  is  used  in  two  widely 
different  senses  :  (1)  for  the  material  of 
which  the  earth's  surface  is  composed ;  (2) 
as  the  name  of  the  planet  on  which  man 
dwells.  The  Hebrew  language  discrimi- 
nates between  these  two  by  the  use  of  sepa- 
rate terms,  Adamah  for  the  former,  Erets 
for  the  latter.  I.  Adamah  is  the  earth  in  the 
sense  of  soil  or  ground,  particularly  as  being 
susceptible  of  cultivation.  The  earth  sup- 
plied the  elementary  substance  of  which 
man's  body  was  formed,  and  the  terms  adam 
and  adamah  are  brought  into  juxtaposition, 
implying  an  etymological  connection  (Gen. 
ii.  7).  II.  Erets  is  applied  in  a  more  or 
less  extended  sense  :  1.  to  the  whole  world 
(Gen.  i.  1) ;  2.  to  land  as  opposed  to  sea 
(Gen.  i.  10)  ;  3.  to  a  country  (Gen.  xxi.  32)  ; 

4.  to  a  plot  of  ground  (Gen.  xxiii.  15)  ;  and 

5.  to  the  ground  on  which  a  man  stands 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  3).  The  two  former  senses 
alone  concern  us,  the  first  involving  an 
inquiry  into  the  opinions  of  the  Hebrews  on 
Cosmogony,  the  second  on  Geography.  I. 
CosMOGONT.  1.  The  earth  was  regarded 
not  only  as  the  central  point  of  the  universe, 
but  as  the  universe  itself,  every  other  body 
— the  heavens,  sun,  moon,  and  stars  — being 
subsidiary  to,  and,  as  it  were,  the  comple- 
ment of  the  earth.  2.  The  earth  was  regarded 
in  a  twofold  aspect ;  in  relation  to  God,  as 
the  manifestation  of  His  infinite  attributes ; 
in  relation  to  man,  as  the  scene  of  his  abode. 
1.  The  Hebrew  cosmogony  is  based  upon 
the  leading  principle  that  the  universe  ex- 
ists, not  independently  of  God,  nor  yet  co- 
existent with  God,  nor  yet  in  opposition  to 
Him,  as  a  hostile  element,  but  dependently 
upon  Him,  subsequently  to  Him,  and  in 
subjection  to  Him.  2.  Creation  was  regard- 
ed as  a  progressive  work  —  a  gradual  devel- 
opment from  the  inferior  to  the  superior 
orders  of  things.  II.  Geography.  There 
seem  to  be  traces  of  the  same  ideas  as  pre- 
vailed among  the  Greeks,  that  the  world 
was  a  disk  (Is.  xl.  22),  bordered  by  the 
ocean,  with  Jerusalem  as  its  centre,  like 
Delphi,  as  the  navel,  or,  according  to  an- 
other view,  the  highest  point  of  the  world. 
As  to 'the  size  of  the  earth,  the  Hebrews 
had  but  a  very  indefinite  notion. 

Earthenware.  [Pottert.] 
Earthquake.  Earthquakes,  more  or 
less  violent,  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
Palestine,  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
numerous  traces  of  volcanic  agency  visible 
in  the  features  of  that  country.  The  re- 
corded instances,  however,  are  but  few ;  the 
most  remarkable  occurred  in  the  reign  of 
Uzziah  (Am.  i.  1 ;  Zech.  xiv.  5),  which  Jo- 
sephus  connected  with  tlie  sacrilege  and 
consequent  punishment  of  that  monarch  (2 
Chr.  xxvi.  16,  ff.).  From  Zech.  xiv.  4,  we 
are  led  to  infer  that  a  great  convulsion  took 


EAST 


156 


EBIASAPH 


place  at  this  time  in  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
the  mountain  being  split  so  as  to  leave  a 
valley  between  its  summits.  Josephus  re- 
cords something  of  the  sort,  but  his  account 
is  by  no  means  clear.  We  cannot  but  think 
that  the  two  accounts  have  the  same  foun- 
dation, and  tliat  the  Mount  of  Olives  was 
really  affected  by  the  earthquake.  An 
earthquake  occurred  at  tlie  time  of  our 
Saviour's  crucifixion  (Matt,  xxvii.  51-54), 
■which  may  be  deemed  miraculous  rather 
from  the  conjunction  of  circumstances  than 
from  the  nature  of  the  phenomenon  itself. 
Earthquakes  are  not  unfrequently  accom- 
panied by  fissures  of  the  eartli's  surface ; 
instances  of  this  are  recorded  in  connection 
with  the  destruction  of  Korah  and  his  com- 
pany (Num.  xvi.  32),  and  at  the  time  of  our 
Lord's  death  (Matt,  xxxvii.  51)  ;  the  former 
may  be  paralleled  by  a  similar  occurrence 
at  Oppido  in  Calabria  a.  d.  1783,  where  the 
earth  opened  to  the  extent  of  500,  and  a 
depth  of  more  tlian  200  feet. 

East.  The  Hebrew  terms,  descriptive 
of  the  east,  differ  in  idea,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  in  application;  (l^kedem  properly 
means  that  which  is  before  or  in  front  of 
a  person,  and  was  applied  to  the  east  from 
Uie  custom  of  turning  in  that  direction  when 
describing  the  points  of  the  compass,  before, 
behind,  the  right,  and  the  left,  representing 
respectively  E.,W.,  S.,  andN.  (Job  xxiii.8, 
9)  ;  (2)  mizrach  means  the  place  of  the  sun's 
rising.  Bearing  in  mind  this  etymological 
distinction,  it  is  natural  that  kedem  should 
be  used  when  the  four  quarters  of  the  world 
are  described  (as  in  Gen.  xiii.  14,  xxviii. 
14;  Job  xxiii.  8,  9;  Ez.  xlvii.  18,  ff.),  and 
mizrach  when  the  east  is  only  distinguished 
fi-om  the  west  (Josh.  xi.  3 ;  Ps.  1.  1,  ciii.  12, 
cxiii.  3;  Zech.  viii.  7),  or  from  some  other 
one  quarter  (Dan.  viii.  9,  xi.  44 ;  Am.  viii. 
12)  ;  exceptions  to  this  usage  occur  in  Ps. 
cvii.  3,  and  Is.  xliii.  5 ;  each,  however,  ad- 
mitting of  explanation.  Again,  kedem  is 
used  in  a  strictly  geographical  sense  to 
describe  a  spot  or  country  immediately  be- 
fore another  in  an  easterly  direction ;  hence 
it  occurs  in  such  passages  as  Gen.  ii.  8,  iii. 
24,  xi.  2,  xiii.  11,  xxv.  6;  and  hence  the 
subsequent  application  of  the  term,  as  a 
proper  name  (Gen.  xxv.  6,  eastward,  unto 
the  land  of  Kedem),  to  the  lands  lying  im- 
mediately eastward  of  Palestine,  viz.  Arabia, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Babylonia ;  on  the  other 
hand  mizrach  is  used  of  the  far  east  with  a 
less  definite  signification  (Is.  xli.  2,  25, 
xliii.  5,  xlvi.  11). 

!Baster.  The  occurrence  of  this  word 
in  the  A.  V.  of  Acts  xii.  4,  is  chiefly  noticea- 
ble as  an  example  of  the  want  of  consistency 
in  the  translators.  In  the  earlier  English 
versions  Easter  had  been  frequently  used 
as  the  translation  of  pascha  (jiuaxu).  At 
the  last  revision  Passover  was  substituted 
in  all  passages  but  this.    [Passoveb.J 


E'bal.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Shobal 
the  son  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23 ;  1  Chr.  i. 
40).  2.  Obal  the  son  of  Joktan  (1  Chr.  i. 
22 ;  conip.  Gen.  x.  28. 

E'bal,  Mount,  a  mount  in  the  promised 
land,  on  which,  according  to  the  conmiand 
of  Moses,  the  Israelites  were,  after  their 
entrance  or>  the  promised  land,  to  "put" 
the  curse  which  should  fall  upon  them  if 
they  disobeyed  the  commandments  of  Je 
hovah.  The  blessing  consequent  on  obedi- 
ence was  to  be  similarly  localized  on  Mount 
Gerizim  (Deut.  xi.  26-29).  Ebal  and 
Gerizim  are  the  mounts  which  form  the 
sides  of  the  fertile  valley  in  which  lies 
Nabliis,  the  ancient  Suechem  —  Ebal  on 
the  north  and  Gerizim  on  the  south.  One 
of  the  most  serious  variations  between  the 
Hebrew  text  of  the  Pentateuch  and  tlie 
Samaritan  text,  is  in  reference  to  Ebal  and 
Gerizim.  In  Deut.  xxvii.  4,  the  Samaritan 
has  Gerizim,  while  the  Hebrew  (as  in  A.  V.) 
has  Ebal,  as  the  mount  on  wliich  the  altar  to 
Jehovah  and  the  inscription  of  the  law  were 
to  be  erected.  Upon  this  basis  they  ground 
the  sanctity  of  Gerizim  and  the  authenticity 
of  the  temple  andholy  place,  wliich  did  exist 
and  still  exist  there.  The  modern  name  of 
Ebal  is  Sitti  Salamiyah,  from  a  Moham- 
medan female  saint,  whose  tomb  is  stand- 
ing on  the  eastern  part  of  the  ridge,  a  httle 
before  the  highest  point  is  reached. 

E'bed.  1.  (Many  MSS.  have  Eber.)  Fa- 
ther of  Gaal,  who  with  his  brethren  assisted 
the  men  of  Shechem  in  their  revolt  against 
Abimelech  (Judg.  ix.  26,  28,  30,  31,  35).  2. 
Son  of  Jonathan ;  one  of  the  Bene-Adin  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezr. 
viii.  6). 

E'bed-Me'lech,  an  Aethiopian  eunuch 
in  the  service  of  king  Zedekiah,  tlrrough 
whose  interference  Jeremiah  was  released 
from  prison  (Jer.  xxxviii.  7,  If.,  xxxix.  15, 
ff.).  His  name  seems  to  be  an  official  ti- 
tle =  King's  slave,  i.  e.  minister. 

Eb'en-e'zer  ("the  stone  of  help"),  a 
stone  set  up  by  Samuel  after  a  signal  de- 
feat of  the  Philistines,  as  a  memorial  of  the 
"help"  received  on  the  occasion  from  Je- 
hovah (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  Its  position  is  care- 
fully defined  as  between  Mizpeh  and  Shen. 

E'ber.  1.  Son  of  Salah,  and  great-grand- 
son of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  24 ;  1  Chr.  i.  19). 
For  confusion  between  Eber  and  Heber  see 
Heber.  2.  Son  of  Elpaal  and  descendant 
of  Sharahaim  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1 
Chr.  viii.  12).  3.  A  priest  in  the  days  of 
Joiakim  the  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  20). 

Ebi'asaph,  a  Kohathite  Levite  of  the 
family  of  Korah,  one  of  the  forefathers  of 
the  prophet  Samuel  and  of  Heman  the 
singer  (1  Chr.  vi.  23,  37).  The  same  man 
is  probably  intended  in  ix.  19.  The  name 
appears  also  to  be  identical  with  Abiasafh, 
and  in  one  passage  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  1)  to  be 
abbreviated  to  Asaph. 


EBONY 


157 


ECLIPSE  OF  THE  SUN 


Ebony  (Heb.  hobntni)  occurs  only  in 
Ez.  xxvii.  15,  as  one  of  the  valuable  com- 
modities imported  into  Tyre  by  the  men  of 
Dedan.  The  best  kind  of  ebony  is  yield- 
ed by  the  Diospyros  ebenum,  a  tree  which 
grows  in  Ceylon  and  Southern  India.  There 
is  every  reason  for  believing  that  the  ebony 
aiForded  by  the  Diospyros  ebenum  was  im- 
ported from  India  or  Ceylon  by  Phoenician 
traders. 

Ebro'nah,  one  of  the  halting-places  of 
the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  immediately  pre- 
ceding Ezion-geber  (Num.  xxxiii.  34,  35). 

Ecbat'ana  (Heb.  Achmithd).  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  name  of  this  place  is 
really  contained  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
Many  of  the  best  commentators  understand 
the  expression,  in  Ezr.  vi.  2,  differently, 
and  translate  it  "in  a  coffer."  In  the  apoc- 
ryphal books  Ecbatana  is  frequently  men- 
tioned (Tob.  iii,  7,  xiv.  12,  14 ;  Jud.  i.  1,  2 ; 
2  Mace.  ix.  3,  &c.).  Two  cities  of  the  name 
of  Ecbatana  seem  to  have  existed  in  ancient 
times,  one  the  capital  of  Northern  Media, 
the  Media  Atropatene  of  Strabo ;  the  other 
the  metropolis  of  the  larger  and  more  im- 
portant province  known  as  Media  Magna. 
The  site  of  the  former  appears  to  be  marked 
by  the  very  curious  ruins  at  Takht-i-Sulet- 
man  (lat.  36°  28',  long.  47°  9') ;  while  that 
of  the  latter  is  occupied  by  Hamadan,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  mod- 
em Persia.  There  is  generally  some  diffi- 
culty in  determining,  when  Ecbatana  is 
mentioned,  whether  the  northern  or  the 
southern  metropolis  is  intended.  Few  wri- 
ters are  aware  of  the  existence  of  the  two 
cities,  and  they  lie  sufficiently  near  to  one 
another  for  geographical  notices  in  most 
cases  to  suit  either  site.  The  northern  city 
was  the  "  seven- walled  town  "  described  by 
Herodotus,  and  declared  by  him  to  have 
been  the  capital  of  Cyrus  (Herod,  i.  98,  99, 
153)  ;  and  it  was  thus  most  probably  there 
that  the  roll  was  found  which  proved  to 
Darius  that  Cyrus  had  really  made  a  decree 
allowing  the  Jews  to  rebuild  their  temple. 
The  peculiar  feature  of  the,site  of  Takht-i- 
Sidefman  is  a  conical  hill  rising  to  the 
height  of  about  150  feet  above  the  plain, 
and  covered  both  on  its  top  and  sides  with 
massive  ruins  of  the  most  antique  and  prim- 
itive character.  In-  the  2d  book  of  Macca- 
bees (ix.  3,  &c.)  the  Ecbatana  mentioned 
is  undoubtedly  the  southern  city,  now  rep- 
resented both  in  name  and  site  by  llama- 
dan.  This  place,  situated  on  the  northern 
flank  of  the  great  mountain  called  formerly 
Orontes,  and  now  Elwend,  was  perhaps  as 
ancient  as  the  other,  and  is  far  better  known 
in  history.  If  not  the  Median  capital  of 
Cyrus,  it  was  at  any  rate  regarded  from  the 
time  of  Darius  Hystaspis  as  the  chief  city 
of  the  Persian  satrapy  of  Media,  and  a.s 
such  it  became  the  summer  residence  of 
the  Persian  kings  from  Darius  downwards. 


The  Ecbatana  of  the  book  of  Tobit  is  thought 
by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  to  be  the  northern 
city. 

Ecelesias'tes.  The  title  of  this  book 
is  in  Hebrew  Koheleth,  a  feminine  noun, 
signifying  one  who  speaks  publicly  in  an 
assembly,  and  hence  rendered  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  by  Ecclesiastes,  which  is  adopted 
in  the  English  version.  Koheleth  is  the 
name  by  which  Solomon  speaks  of  luraself 
throughout  the  book.  "The  words  of  the 
preacher  (Heb.  Koheleth)  the  son  of  David, 
king  of  Jerusalem"  (i.  1).  The  apparent 
anomaly  of  the  feminine  termination  indi- 
cates that  the  abstract  noun  has  been  trans- 
ferred from  the  office  to  the  person  holding 
it.  The  Book  is  that  which  it  professes  to 
be,  —  the  confession  of  a  man  of  wide  expe- 
rience looking  back  upon  his  past  life  and 
looking  out  upon  the  disorders  and  calami- 
ties which  surround  liim.  The  writer  is  a 
man  who  has  sinned  in  giving  way  to  self- 
ishness and  sensuality,  who  has  paid  the 
penalty  of  that  sin  in  satiety  and  weariness 
of  life,  but  who  has  through  all  this  been 
under  the  discipline  of  a  divine  education, 
and  has  learnt  from  it  the  lesson  which  God 
meant  to  teach  him.  It  is  tolerably  clear 
that  the  recurring  burden  of  "Vanity  of 
vanities"  and  the  teaching  which  recom- 
mends a  life  of  calm  enjoyment,  mark, 
whenever  they  occur,  a  kind  of  halting- 
place  in  the  succession  of  thoughts. 

Ecclesias'ticus,  one  of  the  books  of 
the  Apocrypha,  is  the  title  given  in  the 
Latin  Version  to  the  book  which  is  called 
in  the  Septuagint  The  Wisix)m  of  Jescs 
THE  Son  of  Siracu.  The  word  desig- 
nates the  character  of  the  writing,  as  pub- 
licly used  in  the  services  of  the  Church. 
The  writer  describes  himself  as  Jesus  (i.  e. 
Jeshua)  the  son  of  Sirach,  of  Jerusalem  (i. 
27),  but  we  know  nothing  of  the  author. 
The  language  in  which  the  book  was  origi- 
nally composed  was  Hebrew,  i.  e.  perhaps 
the  Aramean  dialect;  and  the  Greek  trans- 
lation incorporated  in  the  LXX.  was  made 
by  the  grandson  of  the  author  in  Egypt 
"  in  the  reign  of  Euergetes,"  perhaps  Ptol- 
emy VII.  Physcon,  who  also  bore  the  sur- 
name of  Euergetes  (b.  o.  170-117). 

Eclipse  of  the  Sun.  No  historical 
notice  of  an  eclipse  occurs  in  the  Bible, 
but  there  are  passages  in  the  prophets 
which  contain  manifest  allusion  to  this  phe- 
nomenon (Am.  viii.  9 ;  Mic.  iii.  6 ;  Zech. 
xiv.  6;  Joel  ii.  10,  31,  iii.  15).  Some  of 
these  notices  probably  refer  to  eclipses 
that  occurred  about  the  time  of  tlie  respec- 
tive compositions ;  thus  the  date  of  Amos 
coincides  with  a  total  eclipse,  wliich  oc- 
curred Feb.  9,  B.  c.  784,  and  was  visible  at 
Jerusalem  shortly  after  noon ;  that  of  Mi- 
cah  with  the  eclipse  of  June  5,  b.  c.  716. 
A  passing  notice  in  Jer.  xv.  9  coincides  in 
date  with  the  eclipse  of  Sept.  30,  b.  c.  610, 


ED 


158 


EDOM 


80  well  known  from  Herodotas's  account 
(i.  74,  103).  The  darkness  that  overspread 
tne  world  at  the  crucifixion  cannot  with 
reason  be  attributed  to  an  eclipse,  as  the 
moon  was  at  the  full  at  the  time  of  the 
Passover. 

Ed,  i.  e.  "witness,"  a  word  inserted  in 
the  Auth.  Vers,  of  Josh.  xxii.  34,  apparent- 
ly on  the  authority  of  a  few  MSS.,  and  also 
of  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  Versions,  but  not 
existing  in  the  generally  received  Hebrew 
text. 

E'dar,  Tower  of  (accur.  Eder),  a 
place  named  only  in  Gen.  xxxv.  21.  Ac- 
cording to  Jerome  it  was  1000  paces  from 
Bethlehem. 

E'den.  1.  The  first  residence  of  man, 
called  in  the  Septuagint  Paradise.  The 
latter  is  a  word  of  Persian  origin,  and  de- 
scribes an  extensive  tract  of  pleasure  land, 
somewhat  like  an  English  park;  and  the 
use  of  it  suggests  a  wider  view  of  man's 
first  abode  than  a  garden.  The  descrip- 
tion of  Eden  is  as  follows  :  —  "  And  the 
Lord  God  planted  a  garden  in  Eden  east- 
ward. .  .  .  And  a  river  goeth  forth  from 
Eden  to  water  the  garden ;  and  from  thence 
it  is  divided  and  becomes  four  heads  (or 
arms).  The  name  of  the  first  is  Pison : 
that  is  it  which  compasseth  the  whole  land 
of  Havilah,  where  is  the  gold.  And  the 
gold  of  that  land  is  good :  there  is  the  bdel- 
lium and  the  onyx  stone.  And  the  name 
of  the  second  river  is  Gihon;  that  is  it 
n  hi'*.h  compasseth  the  whole  land  of  Cush. 
And  the  name  of  the  third  river  is  Hid- 
dekel;  that  is  it  which  floweth  before  As- 
syria. And  the  fourth  river,  that  is  Eu- 
phrates" (Gen.  ii.  8-14).  In  the  eastern 
portion  then  of  the  region  of  Eden  was 
the  garden  planted.  The  Hiddekel  is  the 
Tigris ;  but  with  regard  to  the  Pison  and 
Gihon,  a  great  variety  of  opinion  exists. 
Many  ancient  writers,  as  Josephus,  identi- 
fied the  Pison  with  the  Ganges,  and  the  Gihon 
with  the  Nile.  Others,  guided  by  the  posi- 
tion of  the  two  known  rivers,  identify  the 
two  unknown  ones  with  the  Phasis  and 
Araxes,  which  also  have  their  sources  in 
the  liighlands  of  Armenia.  Others,  again, 
have  transferred  the  site  to  the  sources  of 
the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  and  place  it  in 
Bactria;  others,  again,  in  the  valley  of 
Cashmere.  Such  speculations  may  be  mul- 
tiplied ad  infinitum,  and  have  sometimes 
assumed  the  wildest  character.  2.  One 
jof  the  marts  which  supplied  the  luxury  of 
Tyre  with  richly  embroidered  stuffs.  It  is 
associated  with  Haran,  Sheba,  and  Asshur. 
In  2  K.  xix.  12,  and  Is.  xxxvii.  12,  "  the 
sons  of  Eden  "  are  mentioned  with  Gozan, 
Haran,  and  Rezcph,  as  victims  of  the  As- 
syrian greed  of  conquest.  In  the  absence 
of  positive  evidence,  probability  seems  to 
point  to  the  N.  W.  of  Mesopotamia  as  the 
loctility  of  Eden.    3.  Beth-Eden,  "house 


of  pleasure ; "  probably  the  name  of  a 
country  residence  of  the  kings  of  Damas- 
cus (Am.  1.  5). 

E'den.  1.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of 
Joah,  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr. 
xxix.  12).  2.  Also  a  Levite,  contemporary 
and  probably  identical  with  the  preceding 
(2  Chr.  xxxi.  15). 

E'der.  1.  One  of  the  towns  of  Judah, 
in  the  extreme  south,  and  on  the  borders 
of  Edom  (Josh.  xv.  21).  No  trace  of  it 
has  been  discovered  in  modern  times.  2. 
A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari,  in  tlie 
time  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  23,  xxiv.  30). 

E'dom,  Idume'a,  or  Idumae'a.  The 
name  Edom  was  given  to  Esau,  the  first-born 
son  of  Isaac,  and  twin  brother  of  Jacob, 
when  he  sold  his  birthright  to  the  latter  for 
a  meal  of  lentil  pottage.  The  peculiar 
color  of  the  pottage  gave  rise  to  the  name 
Edom,  which  signifies  "  red "  (Gen.  xxv. 
29-34) .  The  country  which  the  Lord  subse- 
quently gave  to  Esau  was  hence  called  the 
"  field  of  Edom  "  (Gen.  xxxii.  3),  or  "  land 
of  Edom  "  (Gen.  xxxvi.  16 ;  Num.  xxxiii. 
87),  and  his  descendants  were  called  the 
Edomites.  Probably  its  physical  aspect 
may  have  had  something  to  do  with  this. 
Edom  was  previously  called  Mount  Seir 
(Gen.  xxxii.  3,  xxxvi.  8),  from  Seir  the 
progenitor  of  the  Horites  (Gen.  xiv.  6, 
xxxvi.  20-22).  The  name  Seir  was  perhaps 
adopted  on  account  of  its  being  descriptive 
of  the  "rugged"  character  of  the  territory. 
The  original  inhabitants  of  the  country 
were  called  Horites,  from  Hori,  the  grand- 
son of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  22),  because 
that  name  was  descriptive  of  their  habits  as 
"  Troglodjrtes,"  or  "  dwellers  in  caves." 
Edom  was  wholly  a  mountainous  country. 
It  embraced  the  narrow  mountainous  tract 
(about  100  miles  long  by  20  broad)  extend- 
ing along  the  eastern  side  of  the  Arabah 
from  the  northern  end  of  the  gulf  of  Elath 
to  near  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
It  was  separated  from  Moab  on  the  N.  by 
the  "brook  Zered"  (Dent.  ii.  13,  14,  18), 
probably  the  modem  Wady-el-Alisy.  The 
ancient  capital  of  Edom  was  Bozrah  (Busei- 
reh)  near  the  northern  border  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
33;  Is.  xxxiv.  6,  Ixiii.  1;  Jer.  xlix.  13,  22). 
But  Sela  (Petra)  appears  to  have  been  the 
principal  stronghold  in  the  days  of  Amazi- 
ah  (b.  c.)  838 ;  2  K.  xiv.  7)  :  Elath  and 
Eziongeber  were  the  sea-ports  (2  Sam.  viii. 
14;  IK.  ix.  26).  Esau's  bitter  hatred  to 
his  brother  Jacob  for  fraudulently  obtaining 
his  blessing  appears  to  have  been  inlierit- 
ed  bj'  his  latest  posterity.  The  Edomites 
peremptorily  refused  to  permit  tlie  Israel- 
ites to  pass  through  their  land  (Num.  xx. 
18-21).  For  a  period  of  400  years  we 
hear  no  more  of  the  Edomites.  Tliey  were 
then  attacked  and  defeated  by  Saul  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  47).  Some  forty  years  later 
David  overthrew  their  army  in  the  "  Valley 


EDOM 


159 


EGLON 


of  Salt,"  and  his  general,  Joab,  following 
up  the  victory,  destroyed  nearly  the  whole 
male  population  (1  K.  xi.  15,  IG),  and 
placed  Jewish  garrisons  in  all  the  strong- 
holds of  Edora  (2  Sam.  viii.  13,  14).  In 
the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (b.  c.  914)  the 
Edomites  attempted  to  invade  Israel  in 
conjunction  with  Ammon  and  Moab,  but 
were  miraculously  destroyed  in  the  valley 
of  Berachah  (2  Chr.  xx.  22),  A  few  years 
later  they  revolted  against  Jehoram,  elected 
a  king,  and  for  half  a  century  retained  their 
independence  (2  Chr.  xxi.  8).  They  were 
then  attacked  by  Amaziah,  and  Sela  their 
great  stronghold  was  captured  (2  K.  xiv.  7 ; 
2  Chr.  XXV.  11,  12).  Yet  the  Israelites 
were  never  able  again  completely  to  subdue 
them  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  17).  When  Nebuchad- 
nezzar besieged  Jerusalem  the  Edomites 
joined  him,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
plunder  of  the  city  and  slaughter  of  the 
Jews.  Their  cruelty  at  that  time  seems  to 
be  specially  referred  to  in  the  137th  Psalm. 
It  was  on  account  of  these  acts  of  cruelty 
committed  upon  the  Jews  in  the  day  of 
their  calamity  that  the  Edomites  were  so 
fearfully  denounced  by  the  later  prophets 
(Is.  xxxiv.  5-8,  Ixiii.  1-4;  Jer.  xlix.  17; 
Lam.  iv.  21;  Ez.  xxv.  13,  14;  Am.  i.  11, 
12;  Obad.  10,  sq.).  On  the  conquest  of 
Judah,  the  Edomites,  probably  in  reward 
for  their  services  during  the  war,  were 
permitted  to  settle  in  southern  Palestine, 
and  the  whole  plateau  between  it  and  Egypt, 
which  now  usually  bore  the  Greek  name  of 
Idumaea ;  but  they  were  about  the  same 
time  driven  out  of  Edom  Proper  by  the 
Nabatheans.  For  more  than  four  centuries 
they  continued  to  prosper.  But  during  the 
warlike  rule  of  the  Maccabees  they  were 
again  completely  subdued,  and  even  forced 
to  conform  to  Jewish  laws  and  rites,  and 
submit  to  the  government  of  Jewish  pre- 
fects. The  Edomites  were  now  incorporat- 
ed with  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the  whole 
province  was  often  termed  by  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  Idumaea.  Immediately 
before  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 
20,000  Idumaeans  were  admitted  to  the 
Holy  City,  which  they  filled  with  robbery 
and  bloodshed.  From  this  time  the  Edom- 
ites, as  a  separate  people,  disappear  from 
the  page  of  history.  —  Little  is  known  of 
their  religion;  but  that  little  shows  them 
to  have  been  idolaters  (2  Chr.  xxv.  14,  '15, 
20).  Their  habits  were  singular.  Tlie 
Horites,  their  predecessors  in  Mount  Seir, 
were,  as  their  name  implies,  troglodytes,  or 
dwellers  in  caves ;  and  the  Edomites 
seem  to  have  adopted  their  dwellings  as 
well  as  their  country.  Everywhere  we 
meet  with  caves  and  grottos  hewn  in  the 
soft  sandstone  strata.  Tliose  at  Petra  are 
well  known.  The  nature  of  the  climate, 
the  dryness  of  the  soil,  and  their  great  size, 
render  them  healthy,  pleasant,  and  com- 


modious habitations,  wMle  their  security 
made  them  specially  suitable  to  a  country 
exposed  in  every  age  to  incessant  attacks 
of  robbers. 

E'domites.     [Edom.] 

Ed'rei.  1.  One  of  the  two  capital  cities 
of  Bashan  (Num.  xxi.  33 ;  Deut.  i.  4,  iii.  10 ; 
Josh.  xii.  4).  In  Scripture  it  is  only  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  victory  gained 
by  the  Israelites  over  the  Amorites  under 
Og  their  king,  and  the  territory  thus  ac- 
quired. The  ruins  of  this  ancient  city, 
still  bearing  the  name  Edr'a,  stand  on  a 
rocky  promontory  which  projects  from  the 
S.  W.  corner  of  the  Lejah.  The  ruins  are 
nearly  three  miles  in  circumference,  and 
have  a  strange  wild  look,  rising  up  in  black 
shattered  masses  from  the  midst  of  a  wilder- 
ness of  black  rocks.  2.  A  town  of  northern 
Palestine,  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
and  situated  near  Kedesh  (Josh.  xix.  37). 
About  two  miles  south  of  Kedesh  is  a  coni- 
cal rocky  hill  called  Tell  Khuraibeh,  the 
"  Tell  of  the  ruin,"  which  may  be  the  site 
of  Edrei. 

fiducation.  Although  nothing  is  more 
carefully  inculcated  in  the  Law  than  the 
duty  of  parents  to  teach  their  children  its 
precepts  and  principles  (Ex.  xii.  26,  xiii.  8, 
14 ;  Deut.  iv.  5,  9,  10,  vi.  2,  7,  20,  &c.), 
yet  there  is  little  trace  among  the  Hebrews 
in  earlier  times  of  education  in  any  other 
subjects.  The  wisdom  therefore  and  in- 
struction, of  which  so  much  is  said  in  the 
Book  of  Proverbs,  are  to  be  understood 
chiefly  of  moral  and  religious  discipline, 
imparted,  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
Law,  by  the  teaching  and  under  the  exam- 
ple of  parents.  In  later  times  the  prophe- 
cies, and  comments  on  them  as  well  as  on 
the  earlier  Scriptures,  together  with  other 
subjects,  were  studied.  Parents  were  re- 
quired to  teach  their  children  some  trade. 
Previous  to  the  captivity,  the  chief  deposi- 
taries of  learning  were  the  schools  or  col- 
leges, from  which  in  most  cases  proceeded 
that  succession  of  public  teachers,  who  at 
various  times  endeavored  to  reform  the 
moral  and  religious  conduct  of  both  rulers 
and  people.  Besides  the  prophetical  schools 
instruction  was  given  by  the  priests  in  the 
Temple  and  elsewhere,  but  their  subjects 
were  doubtless  exclusively  concerned  with 
religion  and  worship. 

Eg^ah,  one  of  David's  wives  during 
his  reign  in  Hebron,  and  the  mother  of  his 
son  Ithream  (2  Sam.  iii.  5;  1  Chr.  iii.  3). 
According  to  the  ancient  Hebrew  tradition, 
she  was  Michal. 

Egla'im,  a  place  named  only  in  Is.  xv. 
8,  probably  the  same  as  En-eglaim. 

Eg'lon.      1.  A   king  of   the   Moabites 
(Judg.  iii.  12,  ff.),  who,  aided  by  the  Am- 
monites and  the   Amulekitcs,  crossed   the 
Jordan  and  took  "  the  city  of  palm-trees. 
Here,  according  to  Joscphu.s,  he  built  <um- 


EGYPT 


160 


EQYTT 


self  a  palace,  and  continued  for  eighteen 
years  to  oppress  the  children  of  Israel, 
who  paid  him  tribute.  He  was  slain  by 
Ehud,  [Ehud.]  2.  A  town  of  Judah  in 
the  low  country  (Josh.  xv.  39).  During 
the  struggles  of  the  conquest,  Eglon  was 
one  of  a  confederacy  of  live  towns,  which 
under  Jerusalem  attempted  resistance,  by 
attacking  Gibeon  after  the  treaty  of  the  lat- 
ter with  Israel  (Josh.  x.).  The  name  sur- 
vives in  the  modern  Ajlan,  a  shapeless 
mass  of  ruins,  about  10  miles  from  Eleu- 
theropolis  and  14  from  Gaza,  on  the  S.  of 
the  great  maritime  plain. 

Egypt,  a  country  occupying  the  north- 
eastern angle  of  Africa.  Its  limits  appear 
always  to  have  been  very  nearly  the  same. 
In  Ezekiel  (xxix.  10,  xxx.  6)  the  whole 
country  is  spoken  of  as  extending  from 
Migdol  to  Syene,  which  indicates  the  same 
limits  to  the  east  and  the  south  as  at  pres- 
ent. Names. —  The  common  name  of  Egypt 
in  the  Bible  is  "  Mizraim,"  or  more  fully 
"  the  land  of  .Mizraim."  In  form  Mizraim 
is  a  dual,  and  accordingly  it  is  generally 
joined  with  a  plural  verb.  When,  there- 
fore, in  Gen.  x.  6,  Mizraim  is  mentioned  as 
a  son  of  Ham,  we  must  not  conclude  that 
anything  more  is  meant  than  that  Egypt  was 
colonized  by  descendants  of  Ham.  The  dual 
number  doubtless  indicates  the  natural  di- 
vision of  the  country  into  an  upper  and  a 
lower  region.  The  singular  Mazor  also 
occurs,  and  some  suppose  that  it  indicates 
Lower  Egypt,  but  there  is  no  sure  ground 
for  this  assertion.  The  Arabic  name  of 
Egypt,  Mizr,  signifies  "  red  mud."  Egypt 
is  also  called  in  the  Bible  "  the  land  of 
Ham  "  (Ps.  cv.  23,  27 ;  comp.  Ixxviii.  51), 
a  name  most  probably  referring  to  Ham  the 
son  of  Noah;  and  "  Eahab,"  the  proud  or 
insolent;  both  these  appear  to  be  poetical 
appellations.  The  common  ancient  Egyp- 
tian name  of  the  country  is  written  in  hier- 
oglyphics KEM,  which  was  perhaps  pro- 
nounced Chem.  This  name  signifies,  alike 
in  the  ancient  language  and  in  Coptic, 
' '  black,"  and  may  be  supposed  to  have 
been  given  to  the  land  on  account  of  the 
blackness  of  its  alluvial  soil.  We  may 
reasonably  conjecture  that  Kem  is  the 
Egyptian  equivalent  of  Ham,  and  also  of 
Mazor,  these  two  words  being  similar  or 
even  the  same  in  sense.  Under  the  Pha- 
raohs Egypt  was  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower,  "■  tlie  two  regions."  In  subsequent 
times  this  double  division  obtained.  In  the 
time  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  Upper 
Egypt  was  divided  into  the  Heptanomis  and 
tlie  Thebafs,  making  altogether  three  prov- 
inces, but  the  division  of  the  whole  coun- 
try into  two  was  even  then  the  most  usual. 
G^.neral  Appearance,  Climate,  Sfc.  —  The 
general  appearance  of  the  country  cannot 
have  greatly  changed  since  the  days  of 
Moses.     The  Delta  was  always  a  vast  level  i 


plain,  although  of  old  more  perfectly  wa- 
tered than  now  by  the  branches  of  the  Kile 
and   numerous   canals,   while   the   narrow 
valley  of  Upper  Egj'pt  must  have  sutTered 
still  less  alteration.     Anciently,  however, 
the   rushes    must    have    been    abundant; 
whereas  now  they  have  almost  disappeared, 
except  in  the  lakes.     The  whole  country  is 
remarkable  for  its  extreme  fertility,  which 
especially  strikes  the  beholder  when   the 
rich  green  of  the  fields  is  contrasted  with 
the  utterly  bare  yellow  mountains  or  the 
sand-strewn   rocky  desert   on   either   side. 
The  climate  is  equable  and  healthy.     Rain 
is   not   very   unfrequent  on   the   northern 
coast,  but  inland   very   rare.     Cultivation 
nowhere  depends  upon  it.     This  absence  of 
rain  is  mentioned  in  Deut.  (xi.  10,  11)  as 
rendering   artificial    irrigation    necessary, 
unlike  the  case  of  Palestine,  and  in  Zech. 
(xiv.  18)  as  peculiar  to  the  country.     Egypt 
has  been  visited  in  all  ages  by  severe  pesti- 
lences.    Famines  are  frequent,  and  one  in 
the  middle  ages,  in  the  time  of  the  Fdtimee 
Khaleefeh    El-Mustansirbillah,    seems    to 
have  been  even  more  severe  than  that  of 
Joseph.     The   inundation  of  the  Nile  fer- 
tilizes and  sustains  the  country,  and  makes 
the  river  its  chief  blessing.     The  Nile  was 
on    this    account     anciently   worshipped. 
The  rise  begins  in  Egypt  about  the  summer 
solstice,   and  the    inundation   commences 
about    two    months    later.      The  greatest 
height   is   attained  about  or  somewhat  af- 
ter the  autumnal   equinox.     The   inunda- 
tion lasts  about  three  months.     Cultivation, 
Agriculture,  ^c. — The  ancient  prosperity 
of  Egypt  is  attested  by  the  Bible  as  well 
as   by   the   numerous   monuments   of   the 
country.     As  early  as  the  age  of  the  Great 
Pyramid  it  must  have  been  densely  popu- 
lated.    The  contrast  of  the  present  state 
of  Egypt  to  its  former  prosperity  is   more 
to  be  ascribed  to  political   than   to   phys- 
ical causes.     Egypt  is  naturally  an  agri- 
cultural country.     As  far  back  as  the  days 
of  Abraham,  we  find  that  when  the  prod- 
uce   failed   in   Palestine,   Egypt  was   the 
natural  resource.     In  the  time  of  Joseph 
it  was  evidently  the  granary,  at  least  dur- 
ing famines,  of  the  nations  around.      The 
inundation,  as'  taking  the  place  of  rain,  has 
always  rendered  the  system  of  agriculture 
peculiar;  and  the  artificial  irrigation  dur- 
ing the  time  of  low  Nile  is  necessarily  on 
the   same   principle.      Vines   were  exten- 
sively cultivated.     Of  other  fruit-trees,  the 
date-palm  was  the  most  common  and  valu- 
able.    The  gardens   resembled  the  fields, 
being  watered  in  the  same  manner  by  irri- 
gation.    On  the  tenure  of  land  much  light 
is  thrown  by  the  history  of  Joseph.     Be- 
fore the  famine  each  city  and  large  village 
had  its   field   (Gen.  xli.  48) ;    but  Joseph 
gained   for   Pharaoh   all   the   land,  except 
that  of  the  priests,  in  exchange  for  food, 


EGYPT 


161 


EGYPT 


and  required  for  the  right  thus  obtained  a 
fifth  of  the  produce,  which  became  a  law 


Qranary,  Bhowinpr  how  the  prain  was  pnt  in,  and  that  the 
•ioora  a  b  were  intended  for  taking  it  out.    (Wilkinson.) 


(xlvii.  20-26).  Religion.— The  basis  of 
the  religion  was  Nigritian  fetichism,  the 
lowest  kind  of  nature-worship,  differing  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  and  hence 
obviously  indigenous.  Upon  this  were  in- 
grafted, first,  cosmic  worship,  mixed  up 
with  traces  of  primeval  revelation,  as  in 
Babylonia ;  and  then,  a  system  of  personi- 
fications of  moral  and  intellectual  abstrac- 
tious.  There  were  three  orders  of  gods  — 
the  eight  great  gods,  the  twelve  lesser,  and 
the  Osirian  group.  There  was  no  promi- 
njLt  hero-worship,  although  deceased  kings 
and  other  individuals  often  received  divine 
honors.      The  great  doctrines  of  the  im- 


mortality of  the  soul,  man's  responsibility, 
and  future  rewards  and  punishments,  were 
taught.  Among  the  rites,  circumcision  is 
the  most  remarkable :  it  is  as  old  as  the 
time  of  the  ivth  dynasty.  The  Israelites 
in  Egypt  appear  during  the  oppression,  for 
the  most  part,  to  have  adopted  the  Egyptian 
religion  (Josh.  xxiv.  14;  Ez.  xx.  7,  8). 
The  golden  calf,  or  rather  steer,  was  prob- 
ably taken  from  the  bull  Apis,  certainly 
from  one  of  the  sacred  bulls.  Remphan 
and  Chiun  were  foreign  divinities  adopted 
into  the  Egyptian  Pantheon.  Ashtoreth 
was  worshipped  at  Memphis.  Doubtless 
this  worship  was  introduced  by  the  Phoeni- 
cian Shepherds.  Army.  —  There  are  some 
notices  of  the  Egyptian  army  in  the  O.  T. 
They  show,  like  the  monuments,  that  its 
most  important  branch  was  the  chariot- 
force.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  led 
600  chosen  chariots  besides  his  whole  char- 
iot-force in  pursuit  of  the  Israelites.  The 
warriors  fighting  in  chariots  are  probably 
the  "  horsemen  "  mentioned  in  tlie  relation 
of  this  event  and  elsewhere,  for  in  Egyptian 
they  are  called  the  "  horse  "or  "  cavalry." 
We  have  no  subsequent  indication  in  the 
Bible  of  the  constitution  of  an  Egyptian 
army  until  the  time  of  t!ie  xxiid  dynasty, 
when  we  find  that  Shishak's  invading  force 
was  partly  composed  of  foreigners ;  whether 
mercenaries  or  allies,  cannot  as  yet  be  pos- 
itively determined,  although  the  monuments 
make  it  most  probable  that  they  were  of 
the  former  character. "  The  army  of  Necho, 
defeated  at  Carchemish,  seems  to  have  been 
similarly  composed,  although  it  probably 
contained  Greek  mercenaries,  who  soon 
afterwards    became    tlie    most    important 


Disciplined  Troops  of  the  time  of  the  XVIIIth  Dynasty.    (Wilkinson.) 


foreign  element  in  the  Egyptian  forces. 
Domestic  Life.  —  The  sculptures  and  paint- 
ings of  the  tombs  give  us  a  very  full  insight 
into  the  domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians. What  most  strikes  us  in  their  man- 
ners is  the  high  position  occupied  by  wo- 
11 


men,  and  the  entire  absence  of  the  harem 
system  of  seclusion.  Marriage  appears  to 
have  been  universal,  at  least  with  Uie  richer 
class:  and  if  polygamy  were  tolerated  it 
was  rarely  practised.  There  were  no 
castes,  although  great  classes  were   rery 


EGYPT 


162 


EGYPT 


distinct.  The  occupations  of  the  higher 
class  were  the  superintendence  of  their 
fields  and  gardens ;  their  diversions,  the 
pursuit  of  game  in  the  deserts,  or  on  the 
rif  er,  and  fishing.  The  tending  of  cattle 
was  left  to  the  most  despised  of  the  lower 
class.  The  Egyptian  feasts,  and  the  dances, 
music,  and  feats  which  accompanied  them, 
for  the  diversion  of  the  guests,  as  well  as 
the  common  games,  were  probably  intro- 
duced among  the  Hebrews  in  the  most  lux- 
urious days  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judah.  The  account  of  the  noontide  din- 
ner of  Joseph  (Gen.  xliii.  16,  31-34)  agrees 
with  the  representations  of  the  monuments. 
The  funeral  ceremonies  were  far  more  im- 
portant than  any  events  of  the  Egyptian 
life,  as  the  tomb  was  regarded  as  the  only 
true  home.  Magicians. —  We  find  frequent 
reference  in  the  Bible  to  the  magicians  of 
Egypt  (Gen.  xli.  8;  Ex.  vii.  11,  &c.).  The 
monuments  do  not  recognize  any  such  art, 
and  we  must  conclude  that  magic  was  se- 
cretly practised,  not  because  it  was  thought 
to  be  unlawful,  but  in  order  to  give  it  im- 
portance. Industrial  Arts.  —  The  indus- 
trial arts  held  an  important  place  in  the 
occupations  of  the  Egyptians.  The  work- 
ers in  fine  flax  and  the  weavers  of  white 
linen  are  mentioned  in  a  manner  that 
shows  they  were  among  the  chief  contribu- 
tors to  the  riches  of  the  country  (Is.  xix. 
9).  The  fine  linen  of  Egypt  found  its  way 
to  Palestine  (Prov.  vii.  16).  Pottery  was 
a  great  branch  of  tfie  native  manufactures, 
and  appears  to  have  furnished  employment 
to  the  Hebrews  during  the  bondage  (Ps. 
Ixxxi.  6,  Ixviii.  13;  comp.  Ex.  i.  14).  Fes- 
tivals. —  The  religious  festivals  were  numer- 
ous, and  some  of  them  were,  in  the  daj^s  of 
Herodotus,  kept  with  great  merrymaking 
and  license.  The  feast  which  the  Israelites 
celebrated  when  Aaron  had  made  the  gold- 
en calf  seems  to  have  been  very  much  of 
the  same  character.  History.  —  The  an- 
cient history  of  Egypt  may  be  divided  into 
three  portions  :  —  the  old  monarchy,  ex- 
tending from  the  foundation  of  the  king- 
dom to  the  invasion  of  the  Hyksos ;  the 
middle,  from  the  entrance  to  the  expulsion 
of  the  Hyksos ;  and  the  new,  from  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  native  monarchy  by 
Amosis  to  the  Persian  conquest.  (1.) 
The  Old,  Monarchy.  —  Memphis  was  tlie 
most  ancient  capital,  the  foundation  of 
which  is  ascribed  to  Menes,  the  first  mortal 
king  of  Egypt.  The  names  of  the  kings, 
divided  into  thirty  dynasties,  are  handed 
down  in  the  lists  of  Manetho,*  and  are 
also  known  from  the  works  which  they  ex- 
ecuted. The  most  memorable  epoch  in 
the  history  of  the  Old  Monarchy  is  that  of 

•  Manetho  was  an  Egyptian  priest  who  lived  under  the 
Ptolemies  in  the  3d  century  B.  c,  and  wrote  in  Greek  a 
history  of  Esypt,  in  which  he  divided  the  kings  into  thirty 
dynasties.  'I'lic  work  itself  is  lost,  but  tlie  lists  of  dynas- 
ties have  been  preserved  by  the  Christian  writei'8. 


I  the  Pyramid  kings,  placed  in  Manetlio's 
fourth  dynasty.  Their  names  are  found 
upon  tliese  monuments  :  the  builder  of  the 
I  great  pyramid  is  called  Suphis  by  Manetho, 
I  Cheops  by  Herodotus,  and  Khufu  or  Shu- 
fui  in  an  inscription  upon  the  pyramid. 
j  The  erection  of  the  second  pyramid  is  at 
!  tributed  by  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  to 
j  Chephren ;  and  upon  the  neighboring  tombs 
1  has  been  read  the  name  of  Khafra  or 
I  Shafre.  The  builder  of  the  third  pyramid 
i  is  named  Mycerinus  by  Herodotn»s  and 
Diodorus';  and  in  this  very  pyramid  a  cofiBn 
has  been  found  bearing  the  name  Menkura. 
The  most  powerful  kings  of  the  Old  Mon- 
archy were  those  of  Manetho's  twelfth  dy- 
nasty :  to  tliis  period  are  assigned  the  con- 
struction of  tfie  Lake  of  Moeris  and  the 
Labyrinth.  (2.)  The  Middle  Monarchy. — 
Of  this  period  we  only  know  that  a  nomad- 
ic horde  called  Hyksos  f  for  several  centu- 
ries occupied  and  made  Egypt  tributary ; 
that  their  capital  was  Memphis ;  that  in  the 
Sethroite  nome  they  constructed  an  immense 
earth-camp,  which  they  called  Abaris ;  that 
at  a  certain  period  of  their  occupation 
two  independent  kingdoms  were  formed  in 
Egypt,  one  in  the  Thebaid,  which  held  in- 
timate relations  with  Ethiopia;  anotlier  at 
Xois,  among  the  marshes  of  the  Nile ;  and 
that,  finally,  the  Egyptians  regained  their 
independence  and  expelled  the  Hyksos, 
who  thereupon  retired  into  Palestine.  The 
Hyksos  form  the  fifteenth,,  sixteenth,  and 
seventeenth  dynasties.  Manetho  says  they 
were  Arabs,  but  he  calls  the  six  kings  of  the 
fifteenth  dynasty  Phoenicians.  (3.)  The 
New  Monarchy  extends  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eighteenth  to  the  end  of 
the  thiHieth  dynasty.  The  kingdom  was 
consolidated  by  Amosis,  who  succeeded 
in  expelling  the  Hyksos,  and  thus  prepared 
the  way  for  the  foreign  expeditions  which 
his  successors  carried  on  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  extending  from  Mesopotamia  in  the 
former  to  Ethiopia  in  the  latter  continent. 
The  glorious  era  of  Egyptian  liistory  was 
under  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  when  Sethi 
I.,  B.  c.  1322,  and  his  grandson,  Kameses 
the  Great,  b.  c.  1311,  both  of  whom  repre- 
sent the  Sesostris  of  the  Greek  historians, 
carried  their  arms  over  the  Avholc  of  West- 
ern Asia,  and  southwards  into  Souddn,  and 
amassed  vast  treasures,  which  were  expend- 
ed on  public  works.  Under  tlie  later  kings 
of  the  nineteenth  dynasty  the  power  of 
Egypt  faded  :  the  twentieth  and  twenty-first 
dynasties  achieved  nothing  worthy  of  rec- 
ord; but  with  the  twenty-second -wc  enter 
upon  a  period  that  is  interesting  from  its 
associations  with  Biblical  history,  the  first 
of  this  dynasty,  Sheshonk  I.  (Seconchis) 
B.  c.  990,  being  the  Shishak  wlio  invaded 
Judca  in  Rchoboam's  reign  and  pillaged 


t  This,  their   Egyptian    name,  is  derived  by  Manetha 
from  By):,  a  king,  and  Hos,  a  ihepheiU. 


EGYPT 


163 


EKRON 


the  Temple  (1  Kings  xiv.  25).  Probably  his 
successor,  Osorkon  I.,  is  tlie  Zerah  of  Scrip- 
ture, defeated  by  Asa.  Egypt  makes  no 
figure  in  Asiatic  liistory  during  the  xxiiird 
and  xxivth  dynasties ;  under  the  xxvth  it  re- 
gained, in  part  at  least,  its  ancient  impor- 
tance. This  was  an  Ethiopian  line,  the 
warlike  sovereigns  of  which  strove  to  the 
utmost  to  repel  the  onward  stride  of  As- 
syria. So,  whom  we  are  disposed  to  iden- 
tity with  Shebek  II.  or  Sebichus,  the  second 
Ethiopian,  made  an  alliance  with  Hoshea 
the  last  king  of  Israel.  Tehrak  or  Tirha- 
kah,  the  third  of  this  house,  advanced 
against  Sennacherib  in  support  of  Heze- 
kiah.  After  this,  a  native  dynasty  again 
occcupied  the  throne,  the  xxvith,  of  Salte 
kings.  Psametek  I.  or  Psamraetichus  I. 
(b.  c.  664),  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
head  of  this  dynasty,  warred  in  Palestine, 
and  took  Ashdod,  Azotus,  after  a  siege  of 
twenty-nine  years.  Neku  or  Necho,  the 
son  of  Psamraetichus,  continued  the  war  in 
the  East,  and  marched  along  the  coast  of 
Palestine  to  attack  the  king  of  Assyria. 
At  Megiddo  Josiah  encountered  him  (b.  c. 
608-7),  notwithstanding  the  remonstrance 
of  the  Egyytian  king,  which  is  very  illus- 
trative of  the  policy  of  the  Pharaohs  in  the 
East  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  21),  do  less  than  is  his 
lenient  conduct  after  t'^e  defeat  and  death  of 
the  king  of  Judah.  The  army  of  Necho  was 
after  a  short  space  routed  at  Carchemish  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  b.  c.  605-4  (Jer.  xlvi.  2) . 
The  second  successor  of  Necho,  Apries  or 
Pharaoh -Ilophra,  sent  his  army  into  Pales- 
tine to  the  aid  of  Zedekiah  (Jer.  xxxvii.  5,  7, 
11 ) ,  so  that  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  was  raised 
for  a  time,  and  kindly  received  the  fugitives 
from  the  captured  city.  He  seems  to  have 
been  afterwards  attacked  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar in  his  own  country.  There  is,  however, 
no  certain  account  of  a  complete  subjuga- 
tion of  Egypt  by  the  king  of  Babylon. 
Amasis,  the  successor  of  Apries,  had  a  long 
and  prosperous  reign,  and  somewhat  re- 
stored the  weight  of  Egypt  in  the  East. 
But  the  new  power  of  Persia  was  to  prove 
even  more  terrible  to  his  house  than  Baby- 
lon had  been  to  the  house  of  Psammetichus, 
and  the  son  of  Amasis  had  reigned  but  six 
montlis  when  Cambyses  reduced  the  coun- 
try to  the  condition  of  a  province  of  his 
empire,  b.  c.  525.  —  With  respect  to  the 
difficult  question  of  the  period  of  the  so- 
journ of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  may  suffice.  The  chronol- 
ogy of  Egypt  is  now  so  far  settled  that  the 
accession  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  may  be 
regarded  as  fixed  to  within  a  few  years  of 
B.  c.  1525.  The  era  of  the  Exodus,  in  the 
system  of  Ussher,  is  b.  c.  1491.  The  obvi- 
ous conclusion  agrees  with  the  statement 
of  Manetho,  that  Moses  left  Egypt  under 
Amosis,  the  first  king  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty.     The  same  king,  as  we  have  al- 


ready seen,  expelled  the  Shepherd  Kings; 
and  there  is,  in  fact,  no  doubt  that  the  great 
power  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  was  con- 
nected with  this  expulsion.  In  this  change 
of  dynasty  many  writers  see  a  natural  ex- 
planation of  the  "  new  king  who  knew  not 
Joseph."  If  this  view  is  correct,  Joseph 
would  have  come  into  Egypt  under  one  of 
tlie  later  kings  of  the  Shepherd  dynasty. 
But,  plausible  as  this  theory  is,  the  uncer- 
tainty in  which  Scriptural  chronology  is  in- 
volved prevents  us  from  coming  to  any 
definite  conclusion.  Lepsius  and  other 
eminent  Egyptologers  place  the  arrival  of 
the  Israelites  under  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
and  the  Exodus  under  the  nineteenth,  in 
the  year  1314  b.  c.  He  identifies  the  chief 
oppressor,  from  whom  Moses  fled,  with 
the  great  king  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty, 
Rameses  II.,  and  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exo- 
dus with  his  son  and  successor  Menptah, 
or  Phthahmen.  Mr.  Poole,  however, 
takes  an  entirely  opposite  view,  and  places 
not  only  the  arrival  of  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt,  but  also  the  Exodus,  within  the 
dynasties  of  the  Shepherd  kings.  It  seems 
impossible  to  come  to  any  definite  conclu- 
sion upon  the  subject.  The  difficulty  of  a 
solution  is  still  further  increased  by  the 
uncertainty  as  to  the  length  of  the  sojourn 
of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  whether  it  was 
215  years,  according  to  the  Septuagint,  or 
430  years,  according  to  the  Hebrew. 

Egyptian,  Egyptians.  Natives  of 
Egypt. 

E'hi,  head  of  one  of  the  Benjamite 
houses  according  to  the  list  in  Gen.  xlvi. 
21.  He  seems  to  be  the  same  as  Ahi-ram 
in  the  list  in  Num.  xxvi.  38,  and  if  so, 
Ahiram  is  probably  the  right  name,  as  the 
family  were  called  Ahiramites.  In  1  Chr. 
viii.  1,  the  same  person  seems  to  be  called 
Aharah,  and  perhaps  also  Ahoah,  in  ver.  4, 
Ahiah,  ver.  7,  and  Aher,  1  Chr.  vii.  12. 

E'h.ud.  1.  Ehud,  the  son  of  Bilhan, 
and  great-grandson  of  Benjamin  the  Patri- 
arch (1  Chr.  vii.  10,  viii.  6).  2.  Ehud  son 
of  Gera  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Judg. 
iii.  15),  the  second  Judge  of  the  Israelites. 
In  the  Bible  he  is  not  called  a  Judge,  but  a 
deliverer  (l'.  c.)  :  so  Othniel  (Judg.  iii.  9) 
and  all  the  Judges  (Neh.  ix.  27).  As  a 
Benjamite  he  was  specially  chosen  to  de- 
stroy Eglon,  who  liad  established  himself  in 
Jericho,  which  was  included  in  the .  boun- 
daries of  that  tribe.  He  was  very  strong, 
and  left-handed.     [Eglon.] 

E'ker,  a  descendant  of  Judah  through 
the  families  of  Hezron  and  Jerahmeel  (1 
Chr.  ii.  27). 

Ek'ron,  one  of  the  five  towns  belong- 
ing to  the  lords  of  the  Philistines,  and  the 
most  northerly  of  the  five  (Josh.  xui.  J;. 
Like  the  other  Philistine  cUies  its  situa- 
tion was  in  the  lowlands.  It  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Judah  (Josh.  XV.  45,  46    Judg.  i.  18), 


EKRONITES 


164 


ELDAAH 


and  indeed  formed  one  of  the  landmarks 
on  his  north  border.  We  afterwards,  how- 
ever, find  it  mentioned  among  the  cities  of 
Dan  (Josh.  xix.  43).  But  it  mattered  Uttle 
to  wliich  tribe  it  nominally  belonged,  for 
before  the  monarchy  it  was  again  in  full 
possession  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  v.  10). 
'Akir,  the  modern  representative  of  Ekron, 
lies  at  about  5  miles  S.  W.  of  Ramleh. 
In  the  Apocrypha  it  appears  as  Accaron 
(1  Mace.  X.  89,  only). 

£k'ronites.  Tliis  word  appears  in 
Josh.  xiii.  3,  and  1  Sam.  v.  10.  In  the  for- 
mer it  should  be  singular — "the  Ekron- 
ite." 

£l'ad.all,  a  descendant  of  Ephraim 
through  Shuthelah  (1  Chr.  vii.  20). 

E'lah.  1.  The  son  and  successor  of 
Baasha,  king  of  Israel  (1  K.  xvi.  8-10); 
his  reign  lasted  for  little  more  than  a  year 
(corap.  ver.  8  with  10).  He  was  killed, 
while  drunk,  by  Zimri,  in  the  house  of  his 
steward  Arza,  who  was  probably  a  confed- 
erate in  the  plot.  2.  Father  of  Hoshea, 
the  last  king  of  Israel  (2  K.  xv.  80,  xvii.  1). 

£'lah.  1.  One  of  the  dukes  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  41 ;  1  Chr.  i.  62).  2.  Shimei 
ben-Elah  was  Solomon's  commissariat  offi- 
cer in  Benjamin  (1  K.  iv.  18).  3.  A  son 
of  Caleb  the  son  of  Jephunneh  (1  Chr.  iv. 
'15).  4.  Son  of  Uzzi,  a  Benjamite  (1  Chr. 
ix.  8),  and  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  tribe 
at  the  settlement  of  the  country. 

Elah,  The  Valley  of  (=  Valley  of 
the  Terebintli),  a  valley  in  (not  "  by,"  as 
the  A.  V.  has  it)  which  the  Israelites  were 
encamped  against  the  Philistines  when  Da- 
vid killed  GoHath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  19).  It 
is  once  more  mentioned  in  tiie  same  con- 
nection (xxi.  9).  It  lay  somewhere  near 
Socoh  of  Judah  and  Azekah,  and  was 
nearer  Ekron  than  any  other  Philistine 
town.  So  much  may  be  gathered  from  the 
narrative  of  1  Sam.  xvii. 

U'laill  seems  to  have  been  originally  the 
name  of  a  man,  the  son  of  Shem  (Gen.  x. 
22;  1  Chr.  i.  17).  Commonly,  however,  it 
is  used  as  the  appellation  of  a  country 
(Gen.  xiv.  1,  9;  Is.  xi.  11,  xxi.  2;  Jer. 
XXV.  25;  xlix.  34-39;  Ez.  xxxii.  24;  Dan. 
viii.  2).  1.  The  Elam  of  Scripture  appears 
to  be  the  province  lying  south  of  Assyria 
and  east  of  Persia  Proper,  to  which  He- 
rodotus gives  the  name  of  Cissia  (iii.  91,  v. 
49,  &c.),  and  which  is  termed  Susis  or 
Susiana  by  the  geographers.  It  appears 
from  Gen.  x.  22,  that  this  country  was  ori- 
ginally peopled  by  descendants  of  Shem, 
closely  allied  to  the  Aramaeans  (Syrians) 
and  the  Assyrians ;  and  from  Gen.  xiv. 
1-12,  it  is  evident  that  by  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham a  very  important  power  had  been  built 
up  in  the  same  region.  It  is  plain  that  at 
this  early  time  the  predominant  power  in 
Lower  Mesopotamia  was  Elam,  which  for 
a  while  held  tlie  place  possessed  earlier  by 


Babylon  (Gen.  x.  10),  and  later  by  either 
Babylon  or  Assyria.  2.  A  Korhite  Levite, 
fifth  son  of  Meshelemiah ;  one  of  the  Bene- 
Asaph.  in  the  time  of  king  David  (1  Chr. 
xxvi.  3).  3.  A  chief  man  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  one  of  the  sons  of  Sliishak  (1 
Chr.  viii.  24).  4.  "  Children  of  Elam,"  to 
the  number  of  1254,  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  (Ezr.  ii.  7 ;  Neh.  vii. 
12;  1  Esd.  V.  12),  and  a  further  detach- 
ment of  71  men  with  Ezra  in  the  second 
caravan  (Ezr.  viii.  7 ;  1  Esd.  viii.  33).  Elam 
occurs  amongst  the  names  of  those,  the 
cliief  of  the  people,  who  signed  the  cove- 
nant with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  14).  5.  la 
the  same  lists  is  a  second  Elam,  whose 
sons,  to  the  same  number  as  in  the  former 
case,  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii. 
31 ;  Neh.  vii.  34),  and  which  for  the  sake 
of  distinction  is  called  "the  other  Elam." 
6.  One  of  the  priests  who  accompanied 
Nehemiah  at  tlie  dedication  of  the  new  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  42). 

£'lamites.  This  word  is  found  only  in 
Ezr.  iv.  9.  The  Elamites  were  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  country  called  Elam; 
they  M'ere  descendants  of  Shem,  and  per- 
haps drew  their  name  from  an  actual  man 
Elam  (Gen.  x.  22). 

El'asall.  1.  One  of  the  Bene-Pashur, 
a  priest,  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  who  had  mar- 
ried a  Gentile  wife  (Ezr.  x.  22).  2.  Son  of 
Shaphan;  one  of  the  two  men  who  were 
sent  on  a  mission  by  King  Zedekiah  to  Neb- 
uchadrtezzar  at  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  8). 

E'lath,  E'loth,  the  name  of  a  town  of 
the  land  of  Edom,  commonly  mentioned 
together  with  Ezion-geber,  and  situate  at 
the  head  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  which  was 
thence  called  the  Elanitic  Gulf.  It  first 
occurs  in  the  account  of  the  wanderings 
(Deut.  ii.  8),  and  in  later  times  must  have 
come  under  the  rule  of  David  in  his  con- 
quest of  the  land  of  Edom  (2  Sam.  viii.  14). 
We  find  the  place  named  again  in  connec- 
tion with  Solomon's  navy  (1  K.  ix.  26 ; 
comp.  2  Chr.  viii.  17).  It  was  apparently 
included  in  the  revolt  of  Edom  against  Jo- 
ram  recorded  in  2  K.  viii.  20;  but  it  was 
taken  by  Azariah  (xiv.  22).  After  this, 
however,  "  Rezin  king  of  Syria  recovered 
Elath,  and  drave  out  the  Jews  from  Elath, 
and  the  Syrians  came  to  Elath  and  dwelt 
there  to  this  day "  (xvi.  6).  From  this 
time  the  place  is  not  mentioned  until  the 
Roman  period,  during  which  it  became  a 
frontier-town  of  the  south,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Christian  bishop.  The  Arabic 
name  is  Eyleh. 

El-Beth'el,  the  name  which  Jacob  is 
said  to  have  bestowed  on  the  place  at  which 
God  appeared  to  him  when  he  was  flying 
from  Esau  (Gen.  xxv.  7). 

El'daah  (Gen.  xxv.  4;  1  Chr.  i.  S3),  the 
last,  in  order,  of  the  sons  of  Midian.  No 
satisfactory  trace  of  the  tribe  which  we  may 


ELDAD 


165 


ELEPH 


Buppose  to  have  taken  tlie  appellation  has 
yet  been  found. 

El'dad  and  Me'dad,  two  of  the  70 
elders  to  whom  was  communicated  the  pro- 
phetic power  of  Moses  (Num.  xi.  16,  26). 
Although  their  names  were  upon  the  list 
which  Moses  had  drawn  up  (xi.  26),  they 
did  not  repair  with  the  rest  of  their  breth- 
ren to  the  tabernacle,  but  continued  to 
propliesy  in  the  camp.  Moses,  being  re- 
quested by  Joshua  to  forbid  this,  refused  to 
do  so,  and  expressed  a  wish  that  the  gift  of 
prophecy  might  be  diffused  throughout  the 
people. 

Elder.  The  term  elder  or  old  man,  as 
the  Hebrew  literally  imports,  was  one  of 
extensive  use,  as  an  official  title,  among 
the  Hebrews  and  the  surrounding  nations. 
It  had  reference  to  various  offices  (Gen. 
xxiv.  2,  1.  7;  2  Sam.  xii.  17;  Ez.  xxvii.  9). 
As  betokening  a  political  office,  it  applied 
not  only  to  the  Hebrews,  but  also  to  the 
Egyptians  (Gen.  1.  7),  the  Moabites  and 
Midianites  (Num.  xxii.  7).  Wherever  a 
patriarchal  system  is  in  force,  the  office 
of  the  elder  will  be  found,  as  the  keystone 
of  the  social  and  political  fabric ;  it  is  so 
at  the  present  day  among  the  Arabs, 
where  the  Sheikh  (=  the  old  mart)  is  the 
highest  authority  in  the  tribe.  The  earli- 
est notice  of  the  elders  acting  in  concert 
as  a  political  body  is  at  the  time  of  the 
Exodus.  They  were  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  so  much  so  that  elders 
and  people  are  occasionally  used  as  equiva- 
lent terms  (comp.  Josh.  xxiv.  1  with  2,  19, 
21;  I  Sam.  viii.  4  with  7,  10,  19).  Their 
authority  was  undefined,  and  extended  to 
all  matters  concerning  the  public  weal. 
When  the  tribes  became  settled  the  elders 
were  distinguished  by  different  titles  ac- 
cording as  they  were  acting  as  national 
representatives,  as  district  governors  over 
the  several  tribes  (Deut.  xxxi.  28;  2  Sam. 
xix.  11),  or  as  local  magistrates  in  the  pro- 
vincial towns,  whose  duty  it  was  to  sit  in 
the  gate  and  administer  justice  (Deut.  xix. 
12;  Ruth  iv.  9,  11;  1  K.  xxi.  8).  Their 
number  and  influence  may  be  inferred  from 
1  Sam.  XXX.  26,  ff.  They  retained  their  po- 
sition under  all  the  political  changes  which 
the  Jews  underwent :  under  the  Judges 
(Judg.  ii.  7;  1  Sam.  iv.  3);  under  the 
kings  (2  Sam.  xvii.  4) ;  during  the  captivity 
(Jer.  xxix.  1 ;  Ez.  viii.  1) ;  subsequently 
to  tlie  return  (Ezr.  v.  5,  vi.  7,  14,  x.  8, 14)  ; 
under  the  Maccabees,  when  they  were  de- 
Bcribed  sometimes  as  the  senate  (1  Mace, 
xii.  6;  2  Mace.  i.  10,  iv.  44,  xi.  27),  some- 
times by  their  ordinary  title  (1  Mace.  vii. 
83,  xi.  23,  xii.  35)  ;  and,  lastly,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era,  when  they 
are  noticed  as  a  distinct  body  from  the  San- 
hedrim. St.  Luke  describes  the  whole 
order  by  the  collective  term  7TQrnfii:ri[Qi<>v 
(Luke  xxii.  66;  Acts  xxii.  6).     With  re- 


spect to  the  elders  in  the  Christian  Church, 
see  Bishop. 

El'ead,  a  descendant  of  Ephraira  (1 
Chr.  vii.  21). 

Elea'leh,  a  place  on  the  east  of  Jordan, 
taken  possession  of  and  rebuilt  by  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  (Num.  xxxii.  3,  37).  By 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  it  is  mentioned  as  a 
Moabite  town  (Is.  xv.  4,  xvi.  9 ;  Jer.  xlviii. 
34V 

Ele'asah.  1.  Son  of  Helez,  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Judah,  of  the  family  of 
Hezron  (1  Chr.  ii.  39).  2.  Son  of  Rapha, 
or  Rephaiah  ;  a  descendant  of  Saul  through 
Jonathan  and  Merib-baal  or  Mephibosheth 
(1  Chr.  viii.  37,  ix.  43). 

Elea'zar.  1.  Third  son  of  Aaron,  by 
Elisheba,  daugliter  of  Amminadab.  After 
the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu  without 
children  (Lev.  x.  1;  Num.  iii.  4),  Eleazar 
was  appointed  chief  over  the  principal  Le- 
vites  (Num.  iii.  32).  With  his  brother 
Ithamar  he  ministered  as  a  priest  during 
their  father's  lifetime,  and  immediately  be- 
fore his  death  was  invested  on  Mount  Hor 
with  the  sacred  garments,  as  the  successor 
of  Aaron  in  the  office  of  high-priest  (Num. 
XX.  28).  One  of  his  first  duties  was  in 
conjunction  with  Moses  to  superintend  the 
census  of  the  people  (Num.  xxvi.  3).  Af- 
ter the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  Joshua  he 
took  part  in  the  distribution  of  the  land 
(Josh.  xiv.  1).  The  time  of  his  death  is 
not  mentioned  in  Scripture.  2.  The  son 
of  Abinadab,  of  the  hill  of  Kirjath-jearim 
(1  Sam.  vh.  1).  3.  The  son  of  Dodo  the 
Ahohite,  i.  c.  possibly  a  descendant  of 
Ahoah  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr. 
viii.  4)  ;  one  of  the  three  principal  mighty 
men  of  David's  army  (2  Sara,  xxiii.  9 ;  1 
Chr.  xi.  12).  4.  A  Merarite  Levite,  son  of 
Mahli,  and  grandson  of  Merari  (1  Chr. 
xxiii.  21,  22,  xxiv.  28).  5.  A  priest  who 
took  part  in  the  feast  of  dedication  under 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  42).  6.  One  of  the 
sons  of  Parosh ;  an  Israelite  (i.  e.  a  layman) 
who  had  married  a  foreign  wife,  and  had  to 
put  her  away  (Ezr.  x.  25;  1  Esdr.  ix.  26). 
7.  Son  of  Phinehas  a  Levite  (Ezr.  viii.  33 ; 
1  Esdr.  viii.  63).  8.  Sumamed  Avaran 
(1  Mace.  ii.  5),  the  fourth  son  of  Matta- 
thias,  who  fell  by  a  noble  act  of  self-devo- 
tion in  an  engagement  with  Antiochus  Eu- 
pator,  B.  c  164  (1  Mace.  vi.  43,  ff.).  In  a 
former  battle  with  Nicanor,  Eleazar  was 
appointed  by  Judas  to  read  "  the  holy  book  " 
before  the  attack,  and  the  watchword  in  the 
fight  — "The  help  of  God"— was  his 
own  name  (2  Mace.  viii.  23).  9-  The  son 
of  Eliud,  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Matt.  i.  15). 

El-elo'he-Is'rael,  the  name  bestowed 
by  Jacob  on  the  altar  which  he  erected 
facing  the  city  of  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiiL 
19.  20). 

Elepll,  one  of  the  towns  allotted  to  Ben- 


ELEPHANT 


166 


ELIAKIM 


jamin,  a  ad  named  next  to  Jerusalem  (Josh, 
xviii.  28). 

Elephant.  The  word  does  not  occur 
in  the  text  of  the  canonical  Scriptures  of 
the  A.  v.,  but  is  found  as  the  marginal 
reading  to  Uehemoth,  in  Job  xl.  15.  ^^  £le- 
phanfs  teeth  "  is  the  marginal  reading  for 
"  ivory  "  in  1  K.  x.  22 ;  2  Chr.  ix.  41.  El- 
ephants, however,  are  repeatedly  mentioned 
in  the  1st  and  2d  books  of  Maccabees,  as 
being  used  in  warfare  (1  Mace.  vi.). 

Eleu'therus,  a  river  of  Syria  men- 
tioned in  1  Mace.  xi.  7 ;  xii.  30.  It  sepa- 
rated Syria  from  Phoenicia,  and  formed  the 
northern  limit  of  Coele-syria.  It  is  the 
modern  Nahr-el-Kebtr,  "  Great  River." 

Elha'nan.  1.  A  distinguished  warrior 
in  the  time  of  King  David,  who  performed 
a  memorable  exploit  aga,instthe  Philistines, 
tliough  in  what  that  exploit  exactly  con- 
sisted, and  who  the  hero  himself  was,  it  is 
not  easy  to  determine,  (a.)  2  Sam.  xxi.  19 
Bays  that  he  was  the  "  son  of  Jaare  Oregira 
the  Betblehemite,"  and  that  he  "  slew  Goli- 
ath the  Gittite,  the  staff  of  whose  spear  was 
like  a  weaver's  beam."  Here,  in  the  A.  V. 
the  words  "the  brother  of"  are  inserted,  to 
bring  the  passage  into  agreement  with, 
(6.)  1  Chr.  XX.  5,  which  states  that  "  El- 
hanan,  son  of  Jair  (or  Jaor)  slew  Lahrai 
the  brother  of  Goliath  the  Gittite,  the  staff  of 
whose  spear,"  &c.  Of  these  two  statements 
the  latter  is  probably  the  more  correct, — 
the  differences  between  them  being  much 
smaller  in  the  original  than  in  English.  2. 
The  son  of  Dodo  of  Bethlehem,  one  of 
"  the  thirty  "  of  David's  guard,  and  named 
first  on  the  list  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  24 ;  1  Chr. 
xi.  26). 

E'li  was  descended  from  Aaron  through 
Ithamar,  the  youngest  of  his  two  surviving 
eons  (Lev.  x.  1,  2,  12 ;  comp.  1  K.  ii.  27 
with  2  Sam.  viii.  17;  1  Chr.  xxiv.  3).  As 
the  history  makes  no  mention  of  any  high- 
priest  of  the  line  of  Ithamar  before  Eli,  he 
is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
of  that  line  who  held  the  oflBce.  From  him, 
his  sons  having  died  before  him,  it  appears 
to  have  passed  to  his  grandson,  Ahitub  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  3),  and  it  certainly  remained  in  his 
family  till  Abiathar,  the  grandson  of  Ahitub, 
was  "thrust  out  from  being  priest  unto  the 
Lord  "  by  Solomon  for  his  share  in  Adoni- 
jah's  rebellion  (1  K.  ii.  26,  27 ;  i.  7),  and  the 
high-priesthood  passed  back  again  to  the 
family  of  Eleazar  in  the  person  of  Zadok  (1 
K.  ii.  35).  Its  return  to  the  elder  branch 
was  one  part  of  the  punishment  which  had 
been  denounced  against  Eli  during  his  life- 
time, for  his  culpable  negligence  (1  Sam. 
ii.  22-25)  when  his  sons  by  their  rapacity 
and  liccHtiousness  profaned  the  priesthood, 
and  brought  the  rites  of  religion  into  abhor- 
rence among  the  people  (1  Sam.  ii.  27-36, 
whh  1  K.  ii.  27).  Notwithstanding  this 
one  great  blemish,  the  character  of  Eli  is 


marked  by  eminent  piety,  as  shown  by  hia 
meek  submission  to  the  divine  judgment  (1 
Sam.  iii.  18),  and  his  supreme  regard  for 
the  ark  of  God  (iv.  18).  In  addition  to  the 
office  of  higli-priest  he  held  that  of  judge, 
being  the  immediate  predecessor  of  his  pu- 
pil Samuel  (1  Sam.  vii.  6,  15-17),  the  last 
of  the  judges.  He  died  at  the  advanced 
age  of  98  years  (1  Sam.  iv.  15),  overcome 
by  the  disastrous  intelligence  that  the  ark 
of  God  had  been  taken  in  battle  by  the  Phi- 
listines, who  had  also  slain  his  sons  Hophni 
and  Phinehas. 

Eliab.  1.  Son  of  Helon  and  leader  of 
the  tribe  of  Zebulun  at  the  time  of  the  cen- 
sus in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  (Num.  i.  9, 
ii.  7,  vii.  24,  29,  x.  16.  2.  A  Keubenite, 
son  of  Pallu  or  Phallu.  father  or  progenitor 
of  Dathan  and  Abiram  (Num.  xxvi.  8,  9, 
xvi.  1,  12;  Deut.  xi.  6).  3.  One  of  Da- 
vid's brothers,  the  eldest  of  the  family  (1 
Chr.  ii.  13;  1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  xvii.  13,  28). 
4.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  David,  who  was 
both  a  "porter"  and  a  musician  on  the 
"psaltery"  (1  Chr.  xv.  18,  20,  xvi.  5).  5. 
One  of  the  warlike  Gadite  leaders  who  came 
over  to  David  when  he  was  in  the  wilder- 
ness taking  refuge  from  Saul  (1  Chr.  xii. 
9).  6.  An  ancestor  of  Samuel  the  proph- 
et; a  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Nahath  (I 
Chr.  vi.  27).  7.  Son  of  Nathanael,  one  of 
the  forefathers  of  Judith,  and  therefore  be- 
longing to  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (Jud.  viii.  1). 

Eli'ada.  1.  One  of  David's  sons  ;  ac- 
cording to  the  lists,  the  youngest  but  one 
of  the  family  born  to  him  after  his  estab- 
lisliment  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  16;  1 
Chr.  iii.  8).  2.  A  mighty  man  of  war,  a 
Benjamite,  who  led  200,000  of  his  tribe  to 
the  army  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  17). 

Eli'adah.  Father  of  Rezon,  the  cap- 
tain of  a  marauding  band  of  Zobah  which 
annoyed  Solomon  (1  K.  xi.  23). 

Eli'ah.  1.  A  Benjamite;  one  of  the 
sons  of  Jeroham.  and  a  chief  man  of  the 
tribe  (1  Chr.  viii.  27).  2.  One  of  the  Bene- 
Elam ;  an  Israelite  (i.  e.  a  layman)  in  the 
times  of  Ezra,  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezr.  x.  26). 

Eli'ahba,  a  Shaalbonite,  one  of  the 
Thirty  of  David's  guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  32 ; 
1  Chr.  xi.  33). 

Eli'akim.  1.  Son  of  Hilkiah;  master 
of  Hezekiah's  household  ("over  the  house," 
as  Is.  xxxvi.  3),  2  K.  xviii.  18,  26,  37.  He 
succeeded  Shebna  in  this  office,  after  he  had 
been  ejected  from  it  as  a  punishment  for  his 
pride  (Is.  xxii.  15-20).  Eliakim  was  a  good 
man,  as  appears  by  the  title  emphatically 
applied  to  hira  by  God,  "  my  servant  EUa- 
kim"  (Is.  xxii.  20),  and  as  was  evinced  by 
his  conduct  on  the  occasion  of  Sennache- 
rib's invasion  (2  K.  xviii.  37,  xix.  1-5),  and 
also  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  his 
high  station,  in  which  he  acted  as  a  "father 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  the 


ELIAM 


167 


ELIHU 


house  of  Judah"  (Is.  xxii.  21).  2.  The 
original  name  of  Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah 
(2  K.  xxiii.  34;  2  Chr.  xxxvi.  4).  3.  A 
priest  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah,  who  as- 
sisted at  the  dedication  of  the  new  wall  of 
Jenisalera  (Neh.  xii.  41).  4.  Eldest  son 
of  Abiud,  or  Judah ;  brother  of  Joseph,  and 
father  of  Azor  (Matt.  i.  13).  5.  Son  of 
Melea,  and  father  of  Jonan  (Luke  iii.  30, 
31). 

Eli'am.  1.  Father  of  Bathsheba,  the 
wife  of  David  (1  Sam.  xi.  3)«,  2.  Son  of 
Aliithopliel  the  Gilonite ;  one  of  David's 
"thirty"  warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34). 

£li'as,  the  form  in  which  the  name  of 
Elijah  is  given  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha and  N.  Test. 

Eli'asaph.  1.  Son  of  Deuel;  head  of 
the  tribe  of  Dan  at  the  time  of  the  census 
in  the  Wilderness  of  Sinai  (Nuin.  i.  14,  ii. 
14,  vii.  42,  47,  x.  20).  2.  Son  of  Lael;  a 
Levite,  and  "  chief  of  the  house  of  the  fa- 
ther of  the  Gershonite  "  at  the  same  time 
(Num.  iii.  24). 

Eli'ash.ib.  1.  A  priest  in  the  time  of 
King  David,  eleventh  in  the  order  of  the 
"governors"  of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chr. 
xxiv.  12).  2.  Asonof  Elioenai;  one  of  the 
latest  descendants  of  the  royal  family  of  Ju- 
dah (1  Chr.  iii.  24).  3.  High-priest  at  Je- 
rusalem at  the  time  of  the  rebuilding  of  the 
walls  under  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  1,  20,  21). 
4.  A  singer  in  the  time  of  Ezra  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  24).  5.  A 
son  of  Zattu  (Ezr.  x.  27),  and,  Q.  A  son 
of  liani  (x.  36),  both  of  whom  had  trans- 
gressed in  the  same  manner. 

Eli'atliall,  one  of  the  sons  of  Heman,  a 
musician  in  the  Temple  in  the  time  of  King 
David  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4),  who  with  twelve 
of  his  sons  and  brethren  had  the  twentieth 
division  of  the  temple-service  (xxv.  27). 

Eli'dad,  son  of  Chislon ;  the  man  chosen 
to  represent  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  in  the 
division  of  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num. 
xxxiv.  21). 

E'liel.  1.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  tribe 
of  Manasseh  on  the  east  of  Jordan  (1  Chr. 
V.  24).  2.  Son  of  Toah;  a  forefather  of 
Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Chr.  vi.  34).  3.  One 
of  the  Bene-Shimhi ;  a  chief  man  in  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  viii.  20).  4.  Like  the 
preceding,  a  Benjamite,  but  belonging  to  the 
Bene-Shashak  (1  Chr.  viii.  22).  5.  "The 
Mahavite ; "  one  of  the  heroes  of  David's 
guard  in  the  extended  list  of  1  Chr.  (xi. 
46).  6.  Another  of  the  same  guard,  but 
without  any  express  designation  (xi.  47). 
7.  One  of  the  Gadite  heroes  who  came 
across  Jordan  to  David  when  he  was  in 
the  wilderness  of  Judah  hiding  from  Saul 
(1  Chr.  xii.  11).  8.  A  Kohathite  Levite, 
at  the  time  of  the  transportation  of  the  Ark 
from  the  House  of  Obed-edom  to  Jerusalem 
(1  Chr.  XV.  9,  11).  9.  A  Levite  in  the 
time  of  Hezekiah ;  one  of  the  overseers  of 


the  offerings  made  in  the  Temple  (2  Chr. 
xxxi.  13). 

Elie'nai,  one  of  the  Bene-shimhi;  a 
descendant  of  Benjamin,  and  a  chief  man 
in  the  tribe  (1  Chr.  viii.  20). 

Elie'zer.  1.  Abraham's  chief  servant, 
called  by  him  "  Eliezer  of  Damascus " 
(Gen.  XV.  2).  There  is  an  apparent  con- 
tradiction in  the  A.  V.,  for  it  does  not  ap- 
pear how,  if  he  was  "  of  Damascus,"  he 
could  be  "born  in  Abraham's  house"  (ver. 
3).  But  the  phrase  "  son  of  my  house," 
only  imports  that  he  was  one  of  Abraham's 
household,  not  that  he  was  born  in  his 
house.  It  was,  most  likely,  this  same 
Eliezer  who  is  described  in  Gen.  xxiv.  2. 
2.  Second  son  of  Moses  and  Zipporah,  to 
whom  his  father  gave  this  name,  "  because, 
said  he,  the  God  of  my  father  was  my  help, 
that  delivered  me  from  the  sword  of  Pha- 
raoh" (Ex.  xviii.  4;  1  Chr.  xxiii.  15,  17). 
He  remained  with  his  mother  and  brother 
Gershom,  in  the  care  of  Jethro  liis  grand- 
father, when  Moses  returned  to  Egypt  (Ex. 
iv.  18),  she  having  been  sent  back  to  her 
father  by  Moses  (Ex.  xviii.  2),  though  she 
set  off  to  accompany  him,  and  went  part 
of  the  way  with  him.  3.  One  of  the  sons 
of  Becher,  the  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr. 
vii.  8).  4.  A  priest  in  the  reign  of  David 
(1  Chr.  XV.  24).  5.  Son  of  Zichri,  ruler 
of  the  Eeubenites  in  the  reign  of  David  (1 
Chr.  xxvii.  16).  6.  Son  of  Dodavah,  of 
Mareshah  in  Judah  (2  Chr.  xx.  37),  a  proph- 
et, who  rebuked  Jehoshaphat  for  joining 
himself  with  Ahaziah  king  of  Israel.  7. 
A  chief  Israelite  —  a  "man  of  understand- 
ing"—  whom  Ezra  sent  with  others  from 
Ahava  to  Casiphia,  to  induce  some  Levitea 
and  Nethinim  to  accompany  him  to  Jeru- 
salem (Ezr.  viii.  16).  8,  9,  10.  A  priest, 
a  Levite,  and  an  Israelite  of  the  sons  of 
Harim,  who,  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  had  mar- 
ried foreign  wives  (Ezr.  x.  18,  23,  31).  11. 
Son  of  Jorira,  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ 
(Lukeii.  29). 

Elihoe'nai,  son  of  Zerahiah,  one  of  the 
Bene-Pahath-moab,  who  with  200  men  re- 
turned from  the  Captivity  with  Ezra  (Ezr. 
viii.  4). 

Eliho'repll,  son  of  Shisha,  and  one  of 
Solomon's  scribes  (1  K.  iv.  3). 

Eli'hu.  1.  One  of  the  interlocutors  in  the  - 
book  of  Job.  [Job.]  He  is  described  as 
the  "  son  of  Barachel  the  Buzite,"  and  thus 
apparently  referred  to  the  family  of  Buz, 
the  son  of  Nahor,  and  nephew  of  Abra- 
ham (Gen.  xxii.  21).  2.  Son  of  Tohu;  ii 
forefather  of  Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Sam. 
i.  1).  3.  In  1  Chr.  xxvii.  18,  Elihu  "ol 
the  brethren  of  David  "  is  mentioned  as  the 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Jidah.  4.  One  of 
the  captains  of  the  thousands  of  Manasseh 
(1  Chr.  xii.  20)  who  followed  David  to 
Ziklag  after  be  had  left  tlie  FJiili?tine  army 
on  the  eve  of  the  battle  of  Gilboa.    5.  JL 


ELIJAH 


168 


ELIJAH 


Korhite  Levite  in  the  time  of  David;  one 
of  the  doorkeepers  of  the  house  of  Jehovah. 
He  was  a  son  of  Shemaiah,  and  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Obed-edom  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  7). 

fHi'jah.  has  been  well  entitled  "the 
grandest  and  the  most  romantic  character 
that  Israel  ever  produced."  Certainly 
there  is  no  personage  in  the  O.  T.  whose 
career  is  more  vividly  portrayed,  or  who 
exercises  on  us  a  more  remarkable  fasci- 
nation. "Elijah  the  Tishbite  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Gilead,"  is  literally  all  that 
is  given  us  to  know  of  his  parentage 
and  locality.  To  an  Israelite  of  the  tribes 
west  of  Jordan  the  title  "  Gileadite " 
must  have  conveyed  a  similar  impression, 
though  in  a  far  stronger  degree,  to  that 
wliich  the  title  "  Celt "  does  to  us.  What 
the  Highlands  were  a  century  ago  to  the 
towns  in  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  that, 
and  more  than  that,  must  Gilead  have  been 
to  Samaria  or  Jerusalem.  It  is  impossible 
rightly  to  estimate  his  character  without 
recollecting  this  fact.  It  is  seen  at  every 
turn.  Of  his  appearance  as  he  "  stood  be- 
fore "  Ahab,  with  the  suddenness  of  motion 
to  this  day  characteristic  of  the  Bedouins 
from  his  native  hills,  we  can  perhaps  re- 
alize something  from  the  touches,  few,  but 
strong,  of  tlie  narrative.  His  chief  char- 
acteristic was  his  hair,  long  and  thick,  and 
hanging  down  his  back;  which,  if  not  be- 
tokening the  immense  strength  of  Samson, 
yet  accompanied  powers  of  endurance  no 
less  remarkable.  His  ordinary  clothing 
consisted  of  a  girdle  of  skin  round  his 
loins,  which  he  tightened  when  about  to 
move  quickly  (1  K.  xviii.  46).  But  in  ad- 
dition to  this  he  occasionally  wore  the 
"  mantle,"  or  cape,  of  sheepskin,  which 
has  supplied  us  with  one  of  our  most  fa- 
miliar figures  of  speech.  In  this  mantle, 
in  moments  of  emotion,  he  would  hide  his 
face  (IK.  xix.  13),  or  when  excited  would 
roll  it  up  as  into  a  kind  of  staff.  The  soli- 
tary life  in  which  these  external  peculiari- 
ties had  been  assumed  had  also  nurtured 
that  fierceness  of  zeal  and  that  directness 
of  address  which  so  distinguished  him.  It 
was  in  the  wild  loneliness  of  the  hills  and 
ravines  of  Gilead  that  the  knowledge  of 
Jehovah,  the  living  God  of  Israel,  had  been 
.  impressed  on  his  mind,  which  was  to  form 
tlie  subject  of  his  mission  to  the  idolatrous 
court  and  country  of  Israel.  The  northern 
kingdom  had  at  this  time  forsaken  almost  en- 
tirely the  faith  of  Jehovah.  The  worship  of 
the  calves  had  been  a  departure  from  Him ; 
but  still  it  would  appear  that  even  in  the 
presence  of  the  calves  Jehovah  was  ac- 
knowledged, and  they  were  at  any  rate  a 
national  institution,  not  one  imported  from 
the  idolatries  of  any  of  the  surrounding 
countries.  But  the  case  was  quite  differ- 
ent when  Ahab  introduced  the  foreign  reli- 
gion of  his  wife's  family,  the  worship  of 


the  Phoenician  Baal.  It  is  as  a  witness 
against  these  two  evils  that  Elijah  comes 
forward.  1.  What  we  may  call  the  first 
Act  in  his  life  embraces  between  three  and 
four  years  —  three  years  and  six  months 
for  the  duration  of  the  drought,  according 
to  the  statements  of  the  New  Testament 
(Luke  iv.  25 ;  James  v.  17),  and  three  or 
four  months  more  for  the  journey  to  Horeb, 
and  the  return  to  Gilead  (IK.  xvii.  1-xix. 
21).  His  introduction  is  of  the  most 
startling  description :  he  suddenly  appears 
before  Ahab,  as  with  the  unrestrained  free- 
dom of  eastern  manners  he  would  have  no 
difficulty  in  doing,  and  proclaims  the  ven- 
geance of  Jehovah  for  the  apostasy  of  the 
king.  What  immediate  action  followed  on 
this  we  are  not  told;  but  it  is  plain  that 
Elijah  had  to  fly  before  some  threatened 
vengeance  either  of  the  king,  or  more  prob- 
ably of  the  queen  (comp.  xix.  2).  Per- 
haps it  was  at  tliis  juncture  that  Jezebel 
"  cut  off  the  prophets  of  Jehovah"  (1  K. 
xviii.  4).  He  was  directed  to  the  brook 
Cherith.  There  in  the  hollow  of  the  tor- 
rent-bed he  remained,  supported  in  the 
miraculous  manner  with  which  we  are  all 
familiar,  till  the  failing  of  the  brook  obliged 
him  to  forsake  it.  His  next  refuge  was  at 
Zarephath,  a  Phoenician  town  lying  be- 
tween Tyre  and  Sidon,  certainly  the  laat 
place  at  which  the  enemy  of  Baal  would 
be  looked  for.  The  widow  woman  in  whose 
house  he  lived  seems,  however,  to  have 
been  an  Israelite,  and  no  Baal-worshipper, 
if  we  may  take  her  adjuration  by  "Jeho- 
vah thy  God"  as  an  indication.  Here 
Elijah  performed  the  miracles  of  prolong- 
ing the  oil  and  the  meal ;  and  restored  the 
son  of  the  widow  to  life  after  his  apparent 
death.  In  this,  or  some  other  retreat,  an 
interval  of  more  than  two  years  must  have 
elapsed.  The  drought  continued,  and  at 
last  the  full  horrors  of  famine,  caused  by 
the  failure  of  the  crops,  descended  on  Sa- 
maria. The  king  and  his  chief  domestic 
officer  divided  between  them  the  mournful 
duty  of  ascertaining  that  neither  round  the 
springs,  which  are  so  frequent  a  feature  of 
central  Palestine,  nor  in  the  nooks  and 
crannies  of  the  most  shaded  torrent-beds, 
was  there  any  of  the  herbage  left,  which 
in  those  countries  is  so  certain  an  indica- 
tion of  the  presence  of  moisture.  It  is  the 
moment  for  the  reappearance  of  the  proph- 
et. He  shows  himself  first  to  the  min- 
ister. There,  suddenly  planted  in  his  path, 
is  the  man  whom  he  and  his  niiister  have 
been  seeking  for  more  than  three  years. 
Before  the  sudden  a])parition  of  that  wild 
figure,  and  that  stern,  unbroken  counte- 
nance, Obadiah  could  not  but  full  on  his 
face.  Elijah,  however,  soon  calms  his  agi- 
tation —  "  As  Jehovah  of  hosts  liveth,  be- 
fore whom  I  stand,  I  will  surely  sl'ow  ray- 
self  to  Ahab ; "  and  thus  relievea  jf  luB 


ELIJAH 


169 


ELIJAH 


fear  that,  as  on  a  former  occasion,  Elijah 
would  disappear  before  he  could  i-eturn 
with  the  king,  Obadiah  departs  to  inform 
Ahab  that  tlie  man  they  seek  is  there. 
Ahab  arrived,  Elijah  makes  his  charge  — 
"  Thou  hast  forsaken  Jehovah  and  fol- 
lowed the  Baals."  He  then  commands 
that  all  Israel  be  collected  to  Mount 
Carmel  with  the  four  hundred  and  fifty 
prophets  of  Baal,  and  the  four  hun- 
dred of  Asherah  (Ashtaroth),  the  latter 
being  under  the  especial  protection  of 
the  queen.  Tliere  are  few  more  sublime 
stories  in  history  than  this.  On  the  one 
hand  the  solitary  servant  of  Jehovah,  ac- 
companied by  his  one  attendant;  with  his 
wild  shaggy  hair,  his  scanty  garb  and 
dheepskin  cloak,  but  with  calm  dignity  of 
demeanor  and  the  minutest  regularity  of 
procedure,  repairing  the  ruined  altar  of 
Jehovah  with  twelve  stones  — on  the  other 
hand  the  850  prophets  of  Baal  and  Ashta- 
roth, doubtless  in  all  the  splendor  of  their 
vestments  (2  K.  x.  22),  with  the  wild  din 
of  their  vain  repetitions  and  the  maddened 
fury  of  their  disappointed  hopes,  and  the 
silent  people  surrounding  all.  The  conclu- 
sion of  the  long  day  need  only  be  glanced 
at.  The  fire  of  Jehovah  consuming  both 
sacrifice  and  altar  —  the  prophets  of  Baal 
killed,  it  would  seem  by  Elijah's  own 
hand  (xviii.  40)  —  the  king,  with  an  apathy 
almost  unintelligible,  eating  and  drinking 
in  the  very  midst  of  the  carnage  of  his  own 
adherents  —  the  rising  storm  —  the  ride 
across  the  plain  to  Jezreel,  a  distance  of  at 
least  16  miles ;  the  prophet,  with  true  Ai-ab 
endurance,  running  before  the  chariot,  but 
also  with  true  Arab  instinct  stopping  short 
of  the  city,  and  going  no  farther  than  the 
"  entrance  of  Jezreel."  So  far  the  triumph 
had  been  complete;  but  the  spirit  of  Jezebel 
was  not  to  be  so  easily  overcome,  and  her 
first  act  is  a  vow  of  vengeance  against  the 
author  of  this  destruction.  Elijah  takes 
refuge  in  fliglit.  The  danger  was  great, 
and  the  refuge  nmst  be  distant.  The  first 
stage  on  the  journey  was  Beersheba.  Here 
Elijah  halted.  His  servant  he  left  in  the 
town ;  while  he  himself  set  out  alone  into 
the  wilderness.  His  spirit  is  quite  brok- 
en, and  he  wanders  forth  over  the  dreary 
sweeps  of  those  rocky  hills  wishing  for 
death.  But  God,  who  had  brouglit  His 
servant  into  this  difficulty,  provided  him 
with  the  means  of  escaping  from  it.  The 
prophet  was  wakened  from  his  dream  of 
despondency  beneath  tlie  solitary  bush  of 
the  wilderness,  was  fed  with  the  bread  and 
the  water  which  to  this  day  are  all  a  Bed- 
ouin's requirements,  and  went  forward,  in 
tiie  strength  of  that  food,  a  journey  of  forty 
days  to  the  mount  of  God,  even  to  Horeb. 
Here,  in  the  cave,  one  of  the  numerous 
caverns  in  those  awful  mountains,  he  re- 
mained for  certainly  one  night.    In  the 


morning  came  the  "  word  of  Jehovah"  — 
the  question,  "  What  doest  thou  here, 
Elijah?"  In  answer  to  this  invitation  the 
prophet  opens  his  griefs.  The  reply  comes 
in  that  ambiguous  and  indirect  form  in 
which  it  seems  necessary  that  the.  deepest 
communications  with  the  human  mind 
should  be  couched,  to  be  efiectual.  He  is 
directed  to  leave  the  cavern  and  stand  on 
the  mountain  in  the  open  air,  face  to  face 
with  Jehovah.  Then,  as  before  with  Moses 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  6),  "The  Lord  passed  by," 
passed  in  all  the  terror  of  His  most  appall- 
ing manifestations ;  and  penetrating  the 
dead  silence  which  followed  these,  came 
the  mysterious  symbol  — the  "still  small 
voice,"  and  still  as  it  was  it  spoke  in  louder 
accents  to  the  wounded  heart  of  Elijah  than 
the  roar  and  blaze  which  had  preceded  it. 
To  him  no  less  unmistakably  than  to  Moses, 
centuries  before,  it  was  proclaimed  that 
Jehovah  was  "  merciful  and  gracious,  long- 
sutfering  and  abundant  in  goodness  and 
truth."  Elijah  knew  the  call,  and  at  once 
stepping  forward  and  hiding  his  face  in 
his  mantle,  stood  waiting  for  the  Di- 
vine communication.  Three  commands 
were  laid  on  him  —  three  changes  were  to 
be  made.  Of  these  three  commands  the 
two  first  were  reserved  for  Elisha  to  ac- 
complish, the  last  only  was  executed  by 
Elijah  himself.  His  first  search  was  for 
Elisha.  Apparently  he  soon  found  him; 
we  must  conclude  at  his  native  place,  Abel- 
meholah.  Elisha  was  ploughing  at  the 
time,  and  Elijah  "passed  over  to  him"  — 
possibly  crossed  the  river  —  and  cast  his 
mantle,  the  well-known  sheepskin  cloak, 
upon  him,  as  if,  by  that  familiar  action, 
claiming  him  for  his  son.  A  moment  of 
hesitation,  and  then  commenced  that  long 
period  of  service  and  intercourse  wliich 
continued  till  Elijah's  removal,  and  which 
after  that  time  procured  for  Elisha  one  of 
the  best  titles  to  esteem  and  reverence  — 
"  Elisha  the  son  of  Shaphat,  who  poured 
water  on  the  hands  of  Ehjah."  2.  Ahab 
and  Jezebel  now  probably  believed  that 
their  threats  had  been  efiectual,  and  that 
they  had  seen  the  last  of  their  tormentor. 
After  the  murder  of  Naboth,  Ahab  loses  no 
time  in  entering  on  his  new  acquisition. 
But  his  triumph  was  a  short  one.  Elijah 
had  received  an  intimation  from  Jehovah 
of  what  was  taking  place,  and  rapidly  as 
the  accusation  and  death  of  Naboth  had 
been  hurried  over,  he  was  there  to  meet 
his  ancient  enemy  on  the  very  scene  of  his 
crime.  And  then  follows  the  curse,  in 
terms  fearful  to  any  Oriental  —  peculiarly 
terrible  to  a  Jew  —  and  most  of  all  signifi- 
cant to  a  successor  of  the  apostate  princes 
of  the  northern  kingdom.  The  whole  of 
Elijah's  denunciation  may  possibly  be  re- 
covered by  putting  together  the  words  re- 
called by  Jehu,  2  K.  ix.  2G,  36,  37,  and 


ELIJAH 


170 


ELIOENAI 


those  given  in  1  K.  xxi.  19-25.  3.  A 
space  of  three  or  four  years  now  elapses 
(comp.  1  K.  xxii.  1,51,  2  K.  i.  17)  before 
we  again  catch  a  glimpse  of  Elijah.  Ahazi- 
ah  has  met  with  a  fatal  accident,  and  is  on 
his  death-bed  (2  K.  i.  1,  2;  1  K.  xxii.  51). 
In  his  extremity  he  sends  to  an  oracle  or 
shrine  of  Baal  at  the  FhiUstine  town  of 
Ekron,  to  ascertain  the  issue  of  his  illness. 
But  the  oracle  is  nearer  at  hand  than  the 
distant  Ekron.  An  intimation  is  conveyed 
to  the  prophet,  probably  at  that  time  inhab- 
iting one  of  the  recesses  of  Carmel,  and,  as 
on  the  former  occasions,  he  suddenly  ap- 
pears on  the  path  of  the  messengers,  with- 
out preface  or  inquiry  utters  his  message  of 
death,  and  as  rapidly  disappears.  But  this 
check  only  roused  the  wrath  of  Ahaziah.  A 
captain  was  despatched,  with  a  party  of  fifty, 
to  take  Elijah  prisoner.  "  And  there  came 
down  fire  from  heaven  and  consumed  him 
and  his  fifty."  A  second  party  was  sent, 
only  to  meet  the  same  fate.  The  altered 
tone  of  the  leader  of  a  third  party  brought 
Elijah  down.  But  the  king  gained  nothing. 
The  message  was  delivered  to  his  face  in 
the  same  words  as  it  had  been  to  the  mes- 
sengers, and  Elijah  was  allowed  to  go 
harmless.  4.  It  must  have  been  shortly 
after  the  death  of  Ahaziah  that  Elijah  made 
a  communication  with  the  southern  king- 
dom. When  Jehoram  the  son  of  Jehosha- 
phat  began  "  to  walk  in  the  ways  of  the 
kings  of  Israel,"  Elijah  sent  him  a  letter 
denouncing  liis  evil  doings,  and  predicting 
his  death  (2  Chr.  xxi.  12-15.)  In  its  con- 
tents the  letter  bears  a  strong  resemblance 
to  the  speeches  of  Elijah,  while  in  the 
dfctails  of  style  it  is  very  peculiar,  and  quite 
different  from  the  narrative  in  which  it  is 
embedded.  5.  The  closing  transaction  of 
Elijah's  life  introduces  us  to  a  locality 
heretofore  unconnected  with  him.  It  was 
at  GiLGAL  —  probably  on  the  western  edge 
of  the  hills  of  Ephraim  —  that  the  prophet 
received  the  divine  intimation  that  his  de- 
parture was  at  hand.  He  was  at  the  time 
with  Elisha,  who  seems  now  to  have  become 
his  constant  companion,  and  whom  he 
endeavors  to  persuade  to  remain  behind 
while  he  goes  on  an  errand  of  Jehovah.  But 
Elisha  will  not  so  easily  give  up  his  mas- 
ter. They  went  together  to  Bethel.  Again 
Elijah  attempts  to  escape  to  Jericho,  and 
again  Elisha  protests  that  he  will  not  be 
separated  from  him.  At  Jericho  he  makes 
a  final  effort  to  avoid  what  they  both  so 
much  dread.  But  Elisha  is  not  to  be  con- 
quered, and  the  two  set  off  across  the 
undulating  plain  of  burning  sand,  to  the 
distant  river — Elijah  in  his  mantle  or  cape 
of  sheepskin,  Elisha  in  ordinary  clothes. 
Fifty  men  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  ascend 
the  abrupt  heights  behind  the  town  to  watch 
what  happens  in  the  distance.  Talking  as 
they  go,  the  two  reach  the  river,  and  stand 


on  the  shelving  bank  beside  its  swift  brown 
current.  But  they  are  not  to  stop  even 
here.  It  is  as  if  the  aged  Gileadite  cannot 
rest  till  he  again  sets  foot  on  his  own  side 
of  the  river.  He  rolls  up  his  mantle  as  into 
a  staff,  and  with  his  old  energy  strikes  the 
waters  as  Moses  had  done  before  him,  — 
strikes  them  as  if  they  were  an  enemy ;  and 
they  are  divided  hither  and  thither,  and 
they  two  go  over  on  dry  ground.  "  And  it 
came  to  pass  as  they  still  went  on  and 
talked,  that,  behold,  a  chariot  of  fire  and 
horses  of  fire,  and  parted  them  both  asun- 
der, and  Elijah  went  up  by  the  whirlwind  in- 
to the  skies." — And  here  ends  all  the  direct 
information  which  is  vouchsafed  to  us  of  the 
life  and  work  of  this  great  prophet.  How 
deep  was  the  impression  which  he  made  on 
the  mind  of  the  nation  may  be  judged  of  from 
the  fixed  belief  which  many  centuries  after 
prevailed  that  Elijah  would  again  appear  for 
the  relief  and  restoration  of  his  country. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  the  deep  impression 
which  Elijah  had  thus  made  on  his  nation 
only  renders  more  remarkable  tlie  departure 
which  the  image  conveyed  by  the  later 
references  to  him  evinces,  from  that  so 
sharply  presented  in  the  records  of  his 
actual  life.  With  the  exception  of  the 
eulogiuras  contained  in  the  catalogues  of 
worthies  in  the  book  of  Jesus  the  son  of 
Sirach  (xlviii.)  and  1  Mace.  ii.  58,  and  the 
passing  allusion  in  Luke  ix.  54,  none  of 
these  later  references  allude  to  his  works 
of  destruction  or  of  portent.  They  all  set 
forth  a  very  different  side  of  his  cliaracter 
to  that  brought  out  in  the  historical  nar- 
rative. They  speak  of  his  being  a  man 
of  hke  passions  with  ourselves  (James  v. 
17)  ;  of  his  kindness  to  the  widow  of  Sarep- 
ta  (Luke  iv.  25);  of  his  "restoring  all 
things  "  (Matt.  xvii.  11)  ;  "turning  the  hearts 
of  the  fathers  to  the  children,  and  the  diso- 
bedient to  the  wisdom  of  the  just  "  (Mai.  iv. 
5,  6;  Luke  i.  17).  2.  A  priest  of  the  sons 
of  Harim,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
(Ezr.  X.  21). 

!EI'lka,  aHarodite,  one  of  David's  guard 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  25). 

E'lim  (Ex.  XV.  27 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  9),  the 
second  station  where  the  Israelites  en- 
camped after  crossing  the  Red  Sea.  It  is 
distinguished  as  having  had  "twelve  wells 
(rather  '  fountains ')  of  water,  and  three- 
score and  ten  palm-trees." 

Elim'elech,  a  man  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  of  the  family  of  the  Hezronites,  who 
dwelt  in  Bethlehem-Ephratah  in  the  days 
of  the  Judges.  In  consequence  of  a  great 
dearth  in  the  land  he  went  with  his  wife 
Naomi,  and  his  two  sons,  Mahlon  and  Chil- 
ion,  to  dwell  in  Moab,  where  he  and  his  sons 
died  without  posterity  (Ruth  i.  2,  3,  &c.). 

Elioe'nai.  1.  Eldest  son  of  Neariah, 
the  son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chr.  iii.  23,  24).  2. 
Head  of  a  family  of  the  Simeonites  (1  Chr. 


ELIPHAL 


171 


ELISHA 


iv.  36).  3.  Head  of  one  of  the  families  of 
tlie  sons  of  Becher,  the  son  of  Benjamin  (1 
Chr.  vii.  8).  4.  Seventh  son  of  Meshele- 
miah,  the  son  of  Kore,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph, 
a  Korhite  Levite,  and  oneoftlie  door-keep- 
ers of  the  "  house  of  Jehovah  "  (1  -Chr. 
xxvi.  3).  5.  A  priest  of  the  sons  of  Pashur, 
in  the  days  ol  Ezra,  one  of  those  who  had 
married  foreign  wives  (Ezr.  x.  22).  He  is 
possibly  the  same  as,  6.  who  is  mentioned 
in  Neh.  xii.  41,  as  one  of  the  priests  who 
accompanied  Nehemiah  with  trumpets  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem. 
7.  An  Israelite,  of  the  sons  of  Zattu,  who 
had  also  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  27). 

El'iphal,  son  of  Ur,  one  of  David's 
guard  (1  Chr.  xi.  35).     [Euphelet,  3.] 

Eliph'alet,  the  last  of  the  thirteen 
sons  born  to  David,  after  his  establishment 
in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  16  ;  1  Chr.  xiv.  7). 
[Eliphelet,  2.] 

El'iphaz.  1.  The  son  of  Esau  and 
Adah,  and  father  of  Teman  (Gen.  xxxvi.  4 ; 
1  Chr.  i.  35,  36).  2.  The  chief  of  the 
"  three  friends  "  of  Job.  He  is  called  "  the 
Temanite ; "  hence  it  is  naturally  inferred 
that  he  was  a  descendant  of  Teman.  On 
him  falls  the  main  burden  of  the  argument, 
that  God's  retribution  in  this  world  is  per- 
fect and  certain,  and  that  consequently 
suffering  must  be  a  proof  of  previous  sin 
(Job  iv.,  v.,  XV.,  xxii.).  The  great  truth 
brought  out  by  him  is  the  unapproachable 
majesty  and  purity  of  God  (iv.  12-21,  xv. 
12-16).     [Job.] 

Eliph'eleh,  a  Merarite  Levite ;  one  of 
the  gate-keepers  appointed  by  David  to 
play  on  the  harp  "  on  the  Sheminith"  on 
the  occasion  of  bringing  up  the  Ark  to  the 
city  of  David  (1  Chr.  xv.  18,  21). 

Eliph'elet.  1.  The  name  of  a  son  of 
David,  one  of  the  children  born  to  him  after 
his  establishment  in  Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  iii. 
6).  2.  Another  son  of  David,  belonging 
also  to  the  Jerusalem  family,  and  apparent- 
ly the  last  of  his  sons  (1  Chr.  iii.  8).  3. 
Son  of  Ahasbai,  son  of  the  Maachathite. 
One  of  the  thirty  warriors  of  David's  guard 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  34).  4.  Son  of  Eshek,  a  de- 
scendant of  king  Saul  through  Jonathan  (1 
Chr.  viii.  39).  5.  Oneoftlie  leaders  of  the 
Bene-Adonikam,  who  returned  from  Baby- 
lon with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  13).  6.  A  man 
of  the  Bene-Hashum  in  the  time  of  Ezra 
who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  33). 

Elis'abeth,  the  wife  of  Zacharias  and 
mother  of  John  the  Baptist.  She  was  her- 
self of  the  priestly  family,  and  a  relation 
(Luke  i.  36)  of  the  mother  of  our  Lord. 

Elise'us,  the  form  in  which  the  name 
Elisha  appears  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Apocry- 
pha and  the  N.  T.  (Ecclus.  xlviii.  12 ;  Luke 
iv.  27). 

Eli'sha,  8*n  of  Shaphat  of  Abel-me- 
holah ;  the  attendant  and  disciple  of  Eli- 
Jab,    and  subsequentlj  his    successor  as 


prophet  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  1.  The 
earliest  mention  of  his  name  is  in  the  com- 
mand to  Elijah  in  the  cave  at  Horeb  (1  K. 
xix.  16,  17).  But  our  first  introduction  to 
the  future  prophet  is  in  the  fields  of  his 
native  place.  Abel-meholah  was  probably 
in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  Elijah,  on  his 
way  from  Sinai  to  Damascus  by  the  Jordan 
valley,  lights  on  his  successor  engaged  in 
the  labors  of  the  field.  To  cross  to  him,  to 
throw  over  his  shoulders  the  rough  mantle 
—  a  token  at  once  of  investiture  with  the 
prophet's  office,  and  of  adoption  as  a  son  — 
was  to  Elijah  but  the  work  of  an  instant, 
and  the  prophet  strode  on  as  if  what  he 
had  done  were  nothing —  "  Go  back  again, 
for  what  have  I  done  unto  thee  ?  "  Elisha 
was  not  a  man  who,  having  put  his  hand  to 
the  plough,  was  likely  to  look  back ;  he  de- 
layed merely  to  give  the  farewell  kiss  to  his 
father  and  mother,  and  preside  at  a  parting 
feast  with  his  people,  and  then  followed  the 
great  prophet  on  his  northward  road.  Sev- 
en or  eight  years  must  have  passed  between 
the  call  of  Elisha  and  the  removal  of  his 
master,  and  during  the  whole  of  that  time 
we  hear  nothing  of  him.  But  when  that 
period  had  elapsed  he  reappears,  to  become 
the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  history  of 
his  country  during  the  rest  of  his  long  life. 
In  almost  every  respect  Elisha  presents  the 
most  complete  contrast  to  Elijah.  The  co- 
pioils  collection  of  his  sayings  and  doings 
which  are  preserved  from  the  3d  to  the  9th 
chapter  of  the  2d  book  of  Kings,  is  full  of 
testimonies  to  this  contrast.  Elijah  was  a 
true  Bedouin  child  of  the  desert.  If  he 
enters  a  city  it  is  only  to  deliver  his  mes- 
sage of  fire  and  be  gone.  Elisha,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  a  civilized  man,  an  inhab- 
itant of  cities.  And  as  with  his  man- 
ners so  with  his  appearance.  The  touches 
of  the  narrative  are  very  slight;  but  we 
can  gather  that  his  dress  was  the  ordinary 
garment  of  an  Israelite,  the  beged,  prob- 
ably similar  in  form  to  the  long  abbeyeh  of 
the  modern  Syrians  (2  K.  ii.  12),  that  his 
hair  was  worn  trimmed  behind,  in  contrast 
to  the  disordered  locks  of  Elijah  (ji.  23, 
as  explained  below),  and  that  he  used  a 
walking-staff  (iv.  29)  of  the  kind  ordinari- 
ly carried  by  grave  or  aged  citizens  (Zech. 
viii.  4).  The  call  of  Elisha  seems  to  have 
taken  place  about  four  years  before  the 
death  of  Ahab.  He  died  in  the  reign  of 
Joash,  the  grandson  of  Jehu.  This  «m- 
braces  a  period  of  not  less  than  65  years, 
for  certainly  55  of  which  he  held  the  office 
of  "prophet in  Israel  "  (2  K.  v.  8).  After 
the  departure  of  his  master,  Elisha  returned 
to  dwell  at  Jericho  (2  K.  ii.  18).  The  town 
had  been  lately  rebuilt  (1  K.  xvi.  34),  and 
was  the  residence  of  a  body  of  the  "  sons 
of  the  prophets  "  (2  K.  ii.  5,  15).  One  of 
the  springs  of  Jericho  was  noxious  at  the 
time  of  Elisha's  visit.    At  the  request  of 


ELISHA 


172 


EUSHA 


the  men  of  Jericho  he  remedied  this  evil. 
He  took  salt  in  a  new  vessel,  and  cast  it 
liito  the  water  at  its  source  in  the  name  of 
Jehovah.  2.  We  next  meet  with  Elisha  at 
Bethel,  in  the  heart  of  the  country,  on  his 
way  from  Jericho  to  Mount  Carmel  (2  K. 
ii.  23).  His  last  visit  had  been  made  in 
company  with  Elijah  on  their  road  down 
to  the  Jordan  (ii.  2).  Here  the  boys  of 
the  town  were  clustered,  waiting,  as  they 
still  wait  at  the  entrance  of  the  villages  of 
Palestine,  for  the  chance  passer-by.  In 
the  short-trimmed  locks  of  Elisha,  how 
were  they  to  recognize  the  successor  of  the 
prophet,  with  whose  shaggy  hair  streaming 
over  his  shoulders  they  were  all  familiar? 
So  with  the  license  of  the  Eastern  cliildren 
they  scoff  at  the  new  comer  as  he  walks 
by  —  "Go  up,  roundhead!  go  up,  round- 
head ! "  For  once  Elisha  as^med  the 
sternness  of  his  master.  He  turned  upon 
them  and  cursed  them  in  the  name  of  Je- 
hovah, and  we  all  know  the  catastrophe 
which  followed.  3.  Elisha  extricates  Je- 
horam  king  of  Israel,  and  the  kings  of  Ju- 
dah  and  Edom,  from  their  difficulty  in  the 
campaign  against  Moab,  arising  from  want 
of  water  (iii.  4-27).  This  incident  proba- 
bly took  place  at  the  S.  E.  end  of  tlie  Dead 
Sea.  4.  The  widow  of  one  of  the  sons 
of  the  prophets  is  in  debt,  and  her  two  sons 
are  about  to  be  Uiken  from  her  and  sold  as 
slaves.  She  has  no  property  but  a  pot  of 
oil.  This  Elisha  causes  (in  his  absence, 
iv.  6)  to  multiply,  until  the  widow  has  filled 
with  it  all  the  vessels  wliich  she  could  bor- 
row. 5.  The  next  occurrence  is  at  Shu- 
nera  and  Mount  Carmel  (iv.  8-37).  The 
story  divides  itstlf  into  two  parts,  separated 
from  each  other  by  several  years,  (a.) 
Elisha,  probably  on  his  way  between 
Carmel  and  the  Jordan  valley,  calls  acci- 
dentally at  Shunem.  Here  he  is  hospi- 
tably entertained  by  a  woman  of  sub- 
stance, apimreutly  at  that  time  ignorant 
of  the  character  of  her  guest.  There  is 
no  occasion  here  to  quote  the  details  of 
this  charming  narrative.  (6.)  An  interval 
has  eUipsed  of  several  years.  The  boy  is 
now  old  enough  to  accompany  his  father 
to  the  corn-field,  where  the  harvest  is  pro- 
ceeding. The  fierce  rays  of  the  morning 
sun  are  too  powerful  for  him,  and  he  is 
carried  home  to  his  mother  only  to  die  at 
noon.  She  says  nothing  of  their  loss  to 
her  husband,  but  depositing  her  child  on 
the  bed  of  the  man  of  God,  at  once  starts 
in  quest  of  him  to  Mount  Carmel.  No  ex- 
planation is  needed  to  tell  Elisha  the  exact 
state  of  the  case.  The  heat  of  the  season 
will  allow  of  no  delay  in  taking  the  neces- 
sary steps,  !»fld  Gehazi  is  at  once  despatched 
to  run  back  to  Shunem  with  the  utmost 
speed.  He  takes  the  prophet's  walking- 
staff  in  his  hand,  which  he  is  to  lay  on  the 
&ce  of  the  child.    The  mother  and  Elisha 


follow  in  haste.  Before  they  reach  the 
village  the  sun  of  that  long,  anxious,  sum- 
mer afternoon  nmst  have  set.  Gehazi 
meets  them  on  the  road,  but  he  has  no  re- 
assuring report  to  give ;  the  placing  of  the 
staff  jon  the  face  of  the  dead  boy  had  called 
forth  no  sign  of  life.  Then  Elisha  enters 
the  house,  goes  up  to  liis  own  chamber, 
"  and  he  shut  the  door  on  them  twain  and 
prayed  unto  Jehovah."  The  child  is  re- 
stored to  life.  6.  The  scene  now  changes 
to  Gilgal,  apparently  at  a  time  when  Elisha 
was  residing  there  (iv.  38-41).  The  sons 
of  the  prophets  are  sitting  round  him.  It 
is  a  time  of  famine.  The  food  of  the  party 
must  consist  of  any  herbs  that  can  be 
found.  The  great  caldron  is  put  on  at 
the  command  of  Elisha,  and  one  of  the 
company  brings  his  blanket  full  of  such 
wild  vegetables  as  he  has  collected,  and 
empties  it  into  the  pottage.  But  no  sooner 
have  they  begun  their  meal  than  the  taste 
betrays  the  presence  of  some  noxious  herb, 
and  they  cry  out,  "  There  is  death  in  the 
pot,  O  man  of  God ! "  In  this  case  the 
cure  was  effected  by  meal  which  Elisha 
cast  into  the  stew  in  the  caldron.  7.  (iv. 
42-44).  This  in  all  probability  belongs  to 
the  same  time,  and  also  to  the  same  place, 
as  the  preceding.  A  man  from  Baal- 
shalisha  brings  the  man  of  God  a  present 
of  the  first-fruits,  which  under  the  law 
(Num.  xviii.  8,  12;  Deut.  xviii.  3,  4)  were 
the  perquisite  of  the  ministers  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. 8.  The  simple  records  of  these 
domestic  incidents  amongst  the  sons  of  tlie 
prophets  are  now  interrupted  by  an  occur- 
rence of  a  more  important  character  (v. 
1-27).  The  chief  captain  of  the  army  of 
Syria,  to  whom  his  country  was  indebted 
for  some  signal  success,  was  afflicted  wijlh 
leprosy  (v.  27).  One  of  the  members  of 
his  establishment  is  an  Israelite  girl,  kid- 
napped by  the  marauders  of  Syria  in  one 
of  their  forays  over  the  border,  and  she 
brings  into  that  Syrian  household  the  fame 
of  the  name  and  skill  of  Elisha.  The  news 
is  communicated  by  Naaman  himself  to  the 
king.  Benhadad  had  yet  to  learn  the  posi- 
tion and  character  of  Elisha.  He  writes  to 
tlie  king  of  Israel  a  letter  very  characteris- 
tic of  a  military  prince.  With  this  letter, 
and  with  a  present,  and  a  full  retinue  of 
attendants  (13,  15,  23),  Naaman  proceeds 
to  Samaria,  to  the  house  of  Elisha.  Elisha 
still  keeps  in  the  background,  and  while 
Naaman  stands  at  the  I'ocrway,  contents 
himself  with  sending  out  a  messenger  with 
the  simple  direction  to  bathe  seven  times 
in  the  Jordan.  The  independent  behavior 
of  the  prophet,  and  the  simplicity  of  the 
prescription,  all  combined  to  enrage  Naa- 
man. His  slaves,  however,  knew  how  to 
deal  with  the  quick  but  not  ungenerous 
temper  of  their  master,  and  the  result  is, 
that  he  goes  down  to  the  Jordan  and  dips 


ELISHA 


173 


ELISHA 


himself  seven  times,  "  and  liis  flesh  came 
again  like  the  flesh  of  a  little  child,  and  lie 
was  clean."  His  first  business  after  his 
cure  is  to  thank  his  benefactor.  He  re- 
turns with  his  whole  following,  and  this 
time  he  will  not  be  denied  the  presence  of 
Elisha ;  but  making  his  way  in,  and  stand- 
ing before  him,  he  gratefully  acknowledges 
the  power  of  the  God  of  Israel,  and  en- 
treats him  to  accept  the  present  which  he 
has  brought  from  Damascus.  Elisha  is 
firm,  and  refuses  the  otf'er,  though  re- 
peated with  the  strongest  adjuration.  But 
Gehazi  cannot  allow  such  treasures  thus 
to  escape  him.  So  he  frames  a  story  by 
which  the  generous  Naaman  is  made  to 
Bend  back  with  him  to  Elisha's  house  a 
considerable  present  in  money  and  clothes. 
He  then  went  in  and  stood  before  his  mas- 
ter as  if  nothing  had  happened.  But  the 
prophet  was  not  to  be  so  deceived.  His 
heart  had  gone  after  his  servant  through 
the  whole  transaction,  even  to  its  minutest 
details,  and  he  visits  Gehazi  with  the  tre- 
mendous punishment  of  the  leprosy,  from 
which  he  has  just  relieved  Naaman.  9. 
(vi.  1-7).  We  now  return  to  the  sons  of 
the  prophets ;  but  tliis  time  the  scene  ap- 
pears to  be  changed,  and  is  probably  at 
Jericho,  and  during  the  residence  of  Elisha 
there.  As  one  of  them  was  cutting  at  a 
tree  overhanging  the  stream,  the  iron  of  his 
axe  flew  ofl*  and  sank  into  the  water.  His 
cry  soon  brought  the  man  of  God  to  his  aid. 
The  stream  of  the  Jordan  is  deep  up  to  the 
very  bank,  especially  when  the  water  is  so 
low  as  to  leave  the  wood  dry,  and  is  more- 
over so  turbid  that  search  would  be  useless. 
But  the  place  at  which  the  lost  axe  en- 
tered the  water  is  shown  to  Elisha ;  he  breaks 
off  a  stick  and  casts  it  into  the  stream,  and 
the  iron  appears  on  the  surface,  and  is  re- 
covered by  its  possessor.  .  10.  (vi.  8-23). 
Elisha  is  now  residing  at  Dothan,  half  way 
on  the  road  between  Samaria  and  Jezreel. 
The  incursions  of  the  Syrian  marauding 
bands  (comp.  v.  2)  still  continue.  Their 
manoeuvres  are  not  hid  from  the  man  of 
God,  and  by  his  warnings  he  saves  the  king 
"  not  once  nor  twice."  A  strong  party 
with  chariots  is  despatched  to  effect  the 
capture  of  Elisha.  They  march  by  night, 
and  before  morning  take  up  their  station 
round  the  base  of  the  eminence  on  which 
the  ruins  of  Dothan  still  stand.  Elisha's 
servant  is  the  first  to  discover  the  danger. 
But  Elisha  remains  unmoved  by  his  fears. 
He  prays  to  Jehovah,  and  the  whole  of  the 
Syrian  warriors  are  struck  blind.  Then 
descending,  he  offers  to  lead  them  to  the 
person  and  the  place  which  they  seek.  He 
conducts  them  to  Samaria.  There,  at  the 
prayer  of  the  prophet,  theirsight  is  restored, 
*nd  they  find  themselves  not  in  a  retired 
country  village,  but  in  the  midst  of  the 
capital  of  Israel,  and  in  the  presence  of 


the  king  and  his  troops.  After  such  a  re- 
pulse it  is  not  surprising  that  the  maraud- 
ing forays  of  the  Syrian  troops  ceased.  11. 
(vi.  24-vii.  2).  But  the  king  of  Syria 
could  not  rest  under  such  dishonor.  He 
abandons  his  marauding  system,  and  gathers 
a  regular  army,  with  whicli  he  lays  siege  to 
Samaria.  The  awful  extremities  to  which 
the  inliabitants  of  the  place  were  driven 
need  not  here  be  recalled.  12.  (viii.  1-6). 
We  now  go  back  several  years  to  an  inci- 
dent connected  with  the  lady  of  Shunem, 
at  a  period  antecedent  to  the  cure  of  Naa- 
man and  the  transfer  of  his  leprosy  to 
Gehazi  (v.  1,  27).  Elisha  had  been  made 
aware  of  a  famine  which  Jehovah  was  about 
to  bring  upon  the  land  for  seven  years ;  and 
he  had  warned  his  friend  the  Shunammite 
tliereof  that  she  might  provide  for  her  safety. 
At  the  end  of  the  seven  years  she  returned 
to  her  native  place,  to  find  that  during  her 
absence  her  house  with  the  field-land  at- 
tached to  it  had  been  appropriated  by  some 
other  person.  To  the  king  therefore  the 
Shunammite  had  recourse.  And  now  oc- 
curred one  of  those  rare  coincidences  which 
it  is  impossible  not  to  ascribe  to  something 
more  tiian  mere  chance.  At  the  very  mo- 
ment of  the  entrance  of  the  woman  and 
her  son  the  king  was  listening  to  a  recital^ 
by  Gehazi  of  "  all  the  great  tilings  which 
Elisha  had  done."  The  woman  was  in- 
stantly recognized  by  Gehazi.  From  her 
own  mouth  the  king  hears  the  repetition 
of  the  wonderful  tale,  and,  wliether  from 
regard  to  Elisha,  or  struck  by  the  extraor- 
dinary coincidence,  orders  her  land  to  be 
restored  with  the  value  of  all  its  produce 
during  her  absence.  13.  (viii.  7-15). 
Hitherto  we  have  met  with  the  prophet 
only  in  his  own  country.  We  now  find 
him  at  Damascus.  He  is  there  to  carry 
out  the  command  given  to  Elijah  on  Horeb 
to  anoint  Hazael  to  be  king  over  Syria. 
At  the  time  of  his  arrival  Benliadad  was 
prostrate  with  his  last  illness.  The  king's 
first  desire  is  naturally  to  ascertain  his 
own  fate ;  and  Hazael  is  commissioned  to 
be  the  bearer  of  a  present  to  the  prophet, 
and  to  ask  the  question  on  tlie  part  of 
his  master,  "  Shall  I  recover  of  this  dis- 
ease ? "  The  reply,  probably  originally 
ambiguous,  is  doubly  uncertain  in  tlie  pres- 
ent doubtful  state  of  the  Hebrew  text ;  but 
the  general  conclusion  was  unmistakable : 
"  Jeliovah  hath  showed  me  that  he  shall 
surely  die."  But  this  was  not  all  that  had 
been  revealed  to  the  prophet.  If  Benhadad 
died,  who  would  be  king  in  his  stead  but 
the  man  who  now  stood  before  him  ?  The 
prospect  was  one  which  drew  forth  the  tears 
of  the  man  of  God.  At  Hazaol's  request 
Elisha  confesses  the  reason  of  his  tears. 
But  the  prospect  is  one  which  has  no  sor- 
row for  Hazael.  His  only  doubt  is  the 
possibility  of  such  good  fortune  for  one  so 


ELISHAH 


174 


ELON 


mean.  "  But  wliat  is  thy  slave,  dog  that 
he  is,  that  he  should  do  this  great  thing?  " 
To  which  Elisha  replies,  "  Jehovah  hath 
showed  me  that  thou  wilt  be  king  over 
Syria."  Returning  to  the  king,  Hazael 
tells  him  only  half  the  dark  saying  of  the 
man  of  God  —  "  He  told  me  that  thou 
Bhouldest  surely  recover."  But  that  was 
the  last  day  of  Benhadad's  life.  14.  (ix. 
1-10).  Two  of  the  injunctions  laid  on 
Elijah  had  now  been  carried  out ;  the  third 
still  remained.  The  time  was  come  for 
the  fulfilment  of  the  curse  upon  Ahab  by 
anointing  Jehu  king  over  Israel.  Elisha's 
personal  share  in  the  transaction  was  con- 
fined to  giving  directions  to  one  of  the 
sons  of  the  prophets.  [Jehu.]  15.  Be- 
yond this  we  have  no  record  of  Elisha's 
having  taken  any  part  in  the  revolution  of 
Jehu,  or  the  events  which  followed  it.  He 
does  not  again  appear  till  we  find  liim  on 
his  death-bed  in  his  own  house  (xiii.  14- 
19).  16.  (xiii.  20-22).  The  power  of  the 
prophet,  however,  docs  not  terminate  with 
his  death.  Even  in  the  tomb  he  restores  the 
dead  to  life. 

Eli'shah,  the  eldest  son  of  Javan  (Gen. 
X.  4).  The  residence  of  his  descendants  is 
described  in  Ez.  xxvii.  7,  as  the  "  isles  of 
Elishah,"  whence  the  Phoenicians  obtained 
their  purple  and  blue  dyes.  Some  connect 
the  race  of  Elishah  with  the  Aeolians, 
others  with  Elis,  and  in  a  more  extended 
sense  Peloponnesus,  or  even  Hellas.  It 
appears  correct  to  treat  it  as  the  designa- 
tion of  a  race  rather  than  of  a  locality. 

Elisll'aina.  1.  Son  of  Ammihud,  the 
"prince"  or  "captain"  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  (Num. 
i.  10,  ii.  18,  vU.  48,  x.  22).  From  1  Chr. 
vii.  26  we  find  that  he  was  grandfather  to 
the  great  Joshua.  2.  A  son  of  King  David, 
born  to  him  of  his  wives  after  his  establish- 
ment in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  16 ;  1  Chr. 
iii.  8,  xiv.  7.)  3.  Another  son  of  David  (1 
Chr.  iii.  6),  who  in  the  other  lists  is  called 
Elishua.  4.  A  descendant  of  Judah ;  the 
son  of  Jekamiah  (1  Chr.  ii.  41).  5.  The 
father  of  N ethaniah  and  grandfather  «f  Ish- 
mael  (2  K.  xxv.  25 ;  Jer.  xli.  1).  6.  Scribe 
to  king  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12,  20,  21). 
7.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chr.  xvii.  1). 

Elistl'aphat,  son  of  Zichri ;  one  of  the 
captains  of  hundreds  in  the  time  of  Jehoiada 
(2  Chr.  xxiii.  8). 

Elish'etaa,  the  wife  of  Aaron  (Ex.  vi. 
23).  She  was  the  daughter  of  Amminadab, 
and  sister  of  Naashon  the  captain  of  the 
host  of  Judah  (Num.  ii.  3). 

£lish.u'a,  one  of  David's  sons,  born  after 
his  settlement  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  15 ; 
1  Chr.  xiv.  5). 

E'liud,  sou  of  Achim  in  the  genealogy 
of  Christ  (Matt.  i.  15). 

Eliz'aphan.    1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Uz- 


ziel,  chief  of  the  house  of  the  Kohathites 
at  the  time  of  the  census  in  the  wilderness 
of  Sinai  (Num.  iii.  30).  2.  Son  of  Par- 
nach  ;  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  (Num. 
xxxiv.  25). 

Eli'zur,  son  of  Shedeur ;  prince  of  the 
tribe,  and  over  the  host  of  Reuben  (Num. 
i.  5,  ii.  10,  vii.  30,  35,  x.  18). 

Elkanah..  1.  Son,  or  rather  grandson 
(see  1  Chr.  vi.  22,  23  [7,  8]),  of  Korah,  ac- 
cording to  Ex.  vi.  24.  2.  A  descendant  of 
the  above  in  the  line  of  Ahimoth,  otherwise 
Mahath,  1  Chr.  vi.  26,  35  (Heb.  11,  20). 
3.  Another  Kohathite  Levite,  was  son  of 
Jeroham,  and  father  of  Samuel  the  illus- 
trious Judge  and  Prophet  (1  Chr.  vi.  27, 
34).  All  that  is  known  of  him  is  contained 
in  the  above  notices  and  in  1  Sam.  i.  1,  4. 
8,  19,  21,  23,  and  ii.  2,  20.  4.  A  Levite 
(1  Chr.  ix.  16).  5.  A  Korhite  who  joined 
David  while  he  was  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii. 
6).  6.  An  officer  in  the  household  of  Ahaz, 
king  of  Judah,  who  was  slain  by  Zichri  the 
Ephraimite,  wlien  Pekah  invaded  Judah. 
(2  Chr.  xxviii.  7). 

El'kosh,  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet 
Nahum,  hence  called  "the  Elkoshite," 
Nah.  i.  1.  Two  widely  difiTering  Jewish 
traditions  assign  as  widely  different  locali- 
ties to  this  place.  In  the  time  of  Jerome 
it  was  believed  to  exist  in  a  small  village 
of  Galilee.  Others  assign  it  to  Alkush,  a 
village  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
about  two  miles  north  of  Mosul.  The  for- 
mer is  more  in  accordance  with  the  internal 
evidence  afforded  by  the  prophecy,  which 
gives  no  sign  of  having  been  written  in  As- 
syria. 

El'lasar,  the  city  of  Arioch  (Gen.  xiv. 
1),  seems  to  be  the  Hebrew  representative 
of  the  old  Chaldaean  town  called  in  the 
native  dialect  Larsa  or  Larancha.  Larsa 
was  a  town  of  Lower  Babylonia  or  Chaldaea, 
situated  nearly  half  way  between  Ur  (^Mug- 
heir)  and  Erech  (  Warka),  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Euphrates.     It  is  now  Senkereh. 

Elm,  Hos.  iv.  13.     See  Oak. 

Elmo'dam,  son  of  Er,  in  the  genealo- 
gy of  Joseph  (Luke  iii.  28). 

El'naam,  the  father  of  Jeribai  and  Josh- 
aviah,  two  of  David's  guard,  according  to 
1  Chr.  xi.  46. 

El'nathan.  1.  The  maternal  grand- 
ftvther  of  Jehoiachin  (2K.  xxiv.  8)  is  doubt- 
less the  same  man  with  Elnathan  the  son  of 
Achbor  (Jer.  xxvi.  22,  xxxvi.  12,  25).  2. 
The  name  of  three  persons,  apparently  Le- 
vites,  in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ez.  viii.  16). 

E'lon.  1.  A  Hittite,  whose  daughter 
was  one  of  Esau's  wives  (Gen.  xxvi.  34, 
xxxvi.  2).  2.  The  second  of  the  three 
sons  attributed  to  Zebulun  (Gen.  xlvi.  14 ; 
Num.  xxvi.  26) ;  and  the  founder  of  the 
family  of  the  Elonites.  3.  Elon  the  Zeb- 
ulonite,  who  judged  Israel  for  ten  years,  and 
was  buried  in  Aijalon  in  Zebulun  (Judg. 


ELON-BETH-HANAN 


175 


EMBEOIDERER 


xli.  11,  12).  4.  One  of  the  towns  in  the 
border  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  43). 

E'lon-beth'-hanan  is  named  with 
two  Danite  towns  as  forming  one  of  Solo- 
mon's commissariat  districts  (1  K.  iv.  9). 

E'lonites,  The,  Num.  xxvi.  26.  [Elon, 

.E'loth,  1  K.  ix.  26.     [Elath.] 

Elpa'al,  a  Benjamite,  son  of  Hushim 
and  brother  of  Abitub  (1  Chr.  viii.  11).  He 
was  the  founder  of  a  numerous  family. 

Elpa'let,  one  of  David's  sons  born  in 
Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  xir.  5). 

El-pa'ran.  Literally  "the  terebinth 
of  Paran  "  (Gen.  xiv.  6).     [Paran.] 

El'tekeh.,  one  of  the  cities  in  tlie  bor- 
der of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  44),  which  with  its 
suburbs  was  allotted  to  the  Kohathite  Le- 
vites  (xxi.  23). 

El'tekon,  one  of  the  towns  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  in  the  mountains  (Josh.  xv.  59). 
It  has  not  yet  been  identified. 

El'tolad,  one  of  the  cities  in  the  south 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  30)  allotted  to  Simeon 
(Josh.  xix.  4) ;  and  in  possession  of  that 
tribe  until  the  time  of  David  (1  Chr.  iv. 
29). 

JE'lul,  Neh.  vi.  15;  1  Mace.  xiv.  27. 
[Months.] 

Elu'zai,  one  of  the  warriors  of  Benja- 
min, wno  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr. 
xii.  5). 

El'ymas,  the  Arabic  name  of  the  Jew- 
ish magus  or  sorcerer  Barjesus  (Acts  xiii. 
6,  ff.). 

El'zabad.  1.  One  of  the  Gadite  heroes 
who  came  across  the  Jordan  to  David  (1 
Chr.  xii.  12).  2.  A  Korhite  Levite  (1  Chr. 
xxvi.  7). 

El'zaphan,  second  son  of  Uzziel,  who 
was  the  son  of  Kohath  son  of  Levi  (Ex. 
vi.  22). 

Embalmillg,  the  process  by  which 
dead  bodies  are  preserved  from  putrefac- 
tion and  decay.  It  was  most  general 
among  the  Egyptians,  and  it  is  in  connec- 
tion with  this  people  that  the  two  instances 
which  we  meet  with  in  the  O.  T.  are  men- 
tioned (Gen.  1.  2,  26).  Of  the  Egyptian 
method  of  embalming  there  remain  two 
minute  accounts,  which  have  a  general 
kind  of  agreement,  though  they  differ  in 
details.  Herodotus  (ii.  86-89)  describes 
tlu-ee  modes,  varying  in  completeness  and 
expense,  and  practised  by  persons  regular- 
ly trained  to  the  profession  who  were  initi- 
ated into  the  mysteries  of  the  art  by  their 
ancestors.  The  erabalmers  first  removed 
part  of  the  brain  through  the  nostrils,  by 
means  of  a  crooked  iron,  and  destroyed  the 
rest  by  injecting  caustic  drugs.  An  incision 
was  then  made  along  the  flank  with  a  sharp 
Ethiopian  stone,  and  the  whole  of  the  in- 
testines removed.  The  cavity  was  rinsed 
out  with  palm-wine,  and  afterwards  scoured 
with  pounded  perfumes.     It  was  then  filled 


with  pure  myrrh  pounded,  cassia,  and  oth« 
er  aromatics,  except  frankincense.  Thia 
done,  the  body  was  sewn  up  and  steeped  in 
natron  for  seventy  days.  When  the  sev- 
enty days  were  accomplished,  the  embalm- 
ers  washed  the  corpse  and  swathed  it  in 
bandages  of  linen,  cut  in  strips  and  smeared 
with  gum.  They  then  gave  it  up  to  the 
relatives  of  the  deceased,  who  provided  for 


i\^A^^]iiiiiiniiiiiii!miimiuffi 


The  Mummy's  Head,  seen  at  Rn  open  panel  of  the  coffin. 
CWilkinsou.) 

it  a  wooden  case,  made  in  the  shape  of  a 
man,  in  which  the  dead  was  placed,  and  de- 
posited in  an  erect  position  against  the  wall 
of  the  sepulchral  chamber.  The  second 
mode  of  embalming  cost  about  20  minae.  In 
this  case  no  incision  was  made  in  the  body, 
nor  were  the  intestines  removed,  but  cedar- 
oil  was  injected  into  the  stomach  by  the 
rectum.  The  oil  was  prevented  from  es- 
caping, and  the  body  was  then  steeped  in 
natron  for  the  appointed  number  of  days. 
On  the  last  day  the  oil  was  withdrawn,  and 
carried  ofi"  with  it  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines in  a  state  of  solution,  while  the  flesh 
was  consumed  by  the  natron,  and  nothing 
was  left  but  the  skin  and  bones.  The  body 
in  this  state  was  returned  to  the  relatives 
of  the  deceased.  The  third  mode,  wliich 
was  adopted  by  the  poorer  classes,  and  cost 
but  little,  consisted  in  rinsing  out  the  intes- 
tines with  syrmaea,  an  infusion  of  senna 
and  cassia,  and  steeping  the  body  for  the 
usual  number  of  days  in  natrum.  It  does 
not  appear  that  embalming,  properly  so 
called,  was  practised  by  the  Hebrews. 

Embroiderer.  This  term  is  given  in 
the  A.  V.  as  the  equivalentof  »(J/i^TO,the pro- 
ductions of  the  art  being  described  as  "  nee- 
dlework" (rikm&h).  In  Exodus  tlie  em- 
broiderer is  contrasted  with  the  "  cunning 
workman"  {chdsheb').  Various  explana- 
tions have  been  offered  as  to  the  distinction 
between  them,  but  most  of  these  overlook 
the  distinction  marked  in  the  Bible  itself, 
viz.  that  the  r6kim  wove  simply  a  varie- 
gated texture,  without  gold  tliread  or  fig- 
ures, and  that  the  cMsheb  interwove  gold 
thread  or  figures  into  the  variegated  tex- 
ture.     The   distinction,  as  given  by  the 


EMERALD 


176 


EN-DOR 


Talmudists,  is  this  —  that  rikmdh,  or  "  nee- 
dlework," was  where  a  pattern  was  attached 
to  the  stuff'  by  being  sewn  on  to  it  on  one 
side,  and  the  work  of  the  chdshib  when  the 
pattern  was  worked  into  the  stuff  by  the 
loom,  and  so  appeared  onboth sides.  The  art 
of  embroidery  by  the  loom  was  extensively 
practised  among  the  nations  of  antiquity. 
In  addition  to  the  Egyptians,  the  Babyloni- 
ans were  celebrated  for  it;  but  embroid- 
ery in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  i.  e. 
with  the  needle,  was  a  Phrygian  invention 
of  later  date  (Piin.  viii.  48). 

Smerald,  a  precious  stone,  first  in  the 
second  row  on  the  breastplate  of  the  high- 
priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  18,  xxxix.  11),  imported 
to  Tyre  from  Syria  (Ez.  xxvii.  16),  used  as 
a  seal  or  signet  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  6),  as  an 
ornament  of  clotliing  and  bedding  (Ez. 
xxviii.  13;  Jud.  x.  21),  and  spoken  of  as 
one  of  tiie  foundations  of  Jerusalem  (Rev. 
xxi.  19;  Tob.  xi5i.  16).  The  rainbow  round 
the  throne  is  compared  to  Emerald  in  Rev. 
iv.  3. 

EmerodS  (Deut.  xxviii.  27 ;  1  Sam.  v. 
6,  9,  12,  vi.  4,  5,  11).  Probably  hemorrhoi- 
dal tumors,  or  bleeding  piles,  are  intended. 
These  are  very  common  in  Syria  at  pres- 
ent, oriental  habits  of  want  of  exercise  and 
improper  food,  producing  derangement  of 
the  liver,  constipation,  &c.,  being  such  as 
to  cause  them. 

IB'iniins,  a  tribe  or  family  of  gigantic 
Btature  which  originally  inhabited  the  re- 
gion along  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  They  were  related  to  the  Anakim, 
and  were  generally  called  by  the  same 
name ;  but  their  conquerors  the  Moabites 
termed  them  Emim  —  that  is,  "terrible 
men  "  (Deut.  ii.  11)  — most  probably  on  ac- 
count of  their  fierce  aspect. 

Emman'uel,   ilatt.  i.  23.     [Immatt- 

UEL.] 

Em'maus,  the  village  to  which  the  two 
disciples  were  going  when  our  Lord  ap- 
peared to  them  on  the  way,  on  the  day  of 
His  resurrection  (Luke  xxiv.  13).  Luke 
makes  its  distance  from  Jerusalem  sixty 
stadia  (A.  V.  "threescore  furlongs"),  or 
about  74  miles ;  and  Josephus  mentions  "  a 
village  called  Emmaus "  at  the  same  dis- 
tance. The  site  of  Emmaus  remains  yet 
to  be  identified. 

Ena'maus,  or  Nieop'Olis  (l  Mace.  iii. 
40),  a  toAvn  in  the  plain  of  Philistia,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  of  Judah,  22  Roman 
miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  10  from  Lydda. 
It  was  fortified  by  Bacchides,  the  general  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  when  he  was  engaged 
in  the  war  with  Jonathan  Maccabaeus  (1 
Mace.  ix.  50).  It  was  in  the  plain  beside 
this  city  that  Judas  Maccabaeus  so  signally 
defeated  the  Syrians  with  a  mere  handful 
of  men,  as  related  in  1  Mace.  iii.  57,  iv.  3, 
&c.  A  small  miserable  village  called  'Amwds 
still  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city. 


Em'mor,  the  father  of  Sychem  (Acta 
vii.  IG).     [Hamor.] 

En,  at  the  beginning  of  many  Hebrew 
words,  signifies  a  spring  or  fountain. 

E'nam,  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah  in 
the  Shefelah  or  lowland  (Josh.  xv.  34). 

E'nan.  Ahira  ben-Enan  was  "pricse" 
of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  at  the  time  of  the 
numbering  of  Israel  in  the  wilderness  of 
Sinai  (Num.  i.  15). 

Encampment  primarily  denoted  the 
resting-place  of  an  army  or  company  of 
travellers  at  night  (Ex.  xvi.  13 ;  Gen.  xxxii. 
21),  and  was  hence  applied  to  the  army  or 
c;i»*avan  when  on  its  march  (Ex.  xiv.  19; 
Josh.  X.  5,  xi.  4;  Gen.  xxxii.  7,  8).  Among 
nomadic  tribes  war  never  attained  to  the 
dignity  of  a  science,  and  their  encamp- 
ments were  consequently  devoid  of  all  the 
appliances  of  more  systematic  warfare. 
The  description  of  the  camp  of  the  Israel- 
ites, on  their  march  from  ^gypt  (Num.  ii., 
iii.),  supplies  the  greatest  amount  of  in- 
formation on  the  subject.  The  tabernacle, 
corresponding  to  the  chieftain's  tent  of  an 
ordinary  encampment,  was  placed  in  the 
centre,  and  around  and  facing  it  (Num.  ii. 
1),  arranged  in  four  grand  divisions,  cor- 
responding to  the  four  points  of  the  com- 
pass, lay  the  host  of  Israel,  according  to 
their  standards  (Num.  i.  52,  ii.  2).  In  the 
centre,  round  the  tabernacle,  and  with  no 
standard  but  the  cloudy  or  fiery  pillar  wliich 
rested  over  it,  were  the  tents  of  the  priests 
and  Levites.  The  former,  with  Moses  and 
Aaron  at  their  head,  were  encamped  on  the 
eastern  side.  The  order  of  encampment 
was  preserved  on  the  march  (Num.  ii. 
17). 

Enchantments.  1.  Heb.  Idttm  or 
Uh&tim  (Ex.  vii.  11,  22,  viii.  7),  secret 
arts.  2.  Cishdphim  (2  K.  ix.22;  Mic.  v. 
12;  Nah.  iii.  4),  "muttered  spells."  The 
belief  in  the  power  of  certain  formulae  was 
imiversal  in  the  ancient  world.  3.  Li- 
chdsMm  (Eccl.  x.  11).  This  word  is  es- 
pecially used  of  the  charming  of  serpents, 
Jer.  viii.  17  (cf.  Ps.  Iviii.  5 ;  Ecclus.  xii. 
13;  Eccl.  X.  11).  4.  The  word  nSchd- 
shir/i  is  used  of  the  enchantments  sought 
b}'^  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  1).  It  properly 
alludes  to  ophiomancy,  but  in  this  place 
has  a  general  meaning  of  endeavoring  to 
gain  omens.  5.  Chcber  is  used  for  magic 
(Is.  xlvii.  9,  12).  Any  resort  to  these  meth- 
ods of  imposture  was  strictly  forbidden  in 
Scripture  (Lev.  xix.  26 ;  Is.  xlvii.  9,  &c.), 
but  to  eradicate  the  tendency  is  almost  im- 
possible (2  K.  xvii.  17 ;  2  Chr.  xxxiii.  6), 
and  we  find  it  still  flourishing  at  the  Chris- 
tian era  (Acts  xiii.  6,  8,  viii.  9,  11 ;  Gal.  v. 
20;  Rev.  ix.  21). 

En'-dor,  a  place  in  the  territory  of  Issa- 
char,  and  yet  possessed  by  Manasseh  (Josh. 
xvii.  11).  Endor  was  long  held  in  memory 
by  the  Jewish  people  as  connected  with  the 


EN  -EGLAIM 


177 


ENOCH,  THE  BOOK  Oi' 


great  victory  over  Sisera  and  Jabin.  It 
was  here  tliat  the  witch  dwelt  wliom  Saul 
consulted  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  7).  It  was  known 
to  Eusebius,  who  describes  it  as  a  large  vil- 
lage 4  miles  S.  of  Tabor.  Here  to  the  N. 
of  Jehel  Duky  the  name  still  lingers.  The 
distance  from  the  slopes  of  Gilboa  to  En- 
dor  is  7  or  8  miles,  over  difficult  ground. 

En-egla'im,  a  place  named  only  by 
Ezekiel  (xlvii.  10),  apparently  as  on  the 
Dead  Sea ;  but  whether  near  to  or  far  from 
Engedi,  on  the  west  or  east  side  of  the  Sea, 
it  is  impossible  to  ascertain. 

En-gan'nim.  1.  A  city  in  the  low 
country  of  Judah,  named  between  Zanoah 
and  Tappuali  (Josh.  xv.  34).  2.  A  city  on 
the  border  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  21), 
allotted  with  its  "  suburbs"  to  theGershon- 
ite  Levites  (xxi.  29),  probably  Jentn,  the 
first  village  encountered  on  the  ascent  from 
the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  into  the  hills 
of  the  central  country. 

Engedi,  a  town  in  the  wildernfiss  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  62),  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (Ez.  xlvii.  10).  Its  origi- 
nal name  was  Hazazon-Tamar,  on  account 
of  the  palm- groves  which  surrounded  it  (2 
Chr.  XX.  2;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  14).  Its  site  is 
about  the  middle  of  the  western  shore  of 
the  lake,  at  the  fountain  of  Ain  Jidy,  from 
which  the  place  gets  its  name.  It  was  im- 
mediately after  an  assault  upon  the  "  Am- 
orites,  that  dwelt  in  Hazazon-Tamar,"  that 
the  five  Mcsopotamian  kings  were  attacked 
by  the  rulers  of  the  plain  of  Sodom  (Gen. 
xir.  7;  comp.  2  Chr.  xx.  2).  Saul  was 
told  that  David  was  in  the  "wilderness  of 
Engedi;"  and  he  took  "3000  men,  and 
went  to  seek  David  and  his  men  upon  the 
rocks  of  the  wild  goats  "  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  1- 
4).  The  vineyards  of  Engedi  were  cele- 
brated by  Solomon  (Cant.  i.  14). 

Engine,  a  term  exclusively  applied  to 
military  affairs  in  the  Bible.  The  engines 
to  which  the  term  is  applied  in  2  Chr.  xxvi. 
15.  were  designed  to  propel  various  missiles 


"SMi 


Awyrian  War-engine.    (From  Bofta,  pi.  160.) 

from  the  walls  of  a  besieged  town  :  one,  with 

which  the  Hebrews  were  acquainted,  was 

12 


tlie  battering-ram,  described  in  Ez.  xxvi.  9, 
and  still  more  precisely  in  Ez.  iv.  2,  xxi.  22. 

Engraver.  His  chief  business  was  cut- 
ting names  or  devices  on  rings  and  seals ; 
the  only  notices  of  engraving  are  in  con- 
nection with  the  high-i)riest's  dress  —  tlie 
two  onyx-stones,  the  twelve  jewels,  and  the 
mitre-plate  having  inscriptions  on  them 
(Ex.  xxviii.  11,  21,  36). 

En-had'dah,  one  of  the  cities  on  the 
border  of  Issachar  named  next  to  Engan- 
nim  (Josh.  xix.  21). 

En-hak'kore,  the  spring  which  burst 
out  in  answer  to  the  cry  of  Samson  after 
his  exploit  with  the  jawbone  (Judg.  xv.  19). 

En-ha'zor,  one  of  the  fenced  cities  in 
the  inheritance  of  Naphtali,  distinct  from 
Hazor  (Josh.  xix.  37).  It  has  not  yet  been 
identified. 

En-mish'pat,  Gen.  xiv.  7.    [Kadesh.] 

Enoch.  1.  The  eldest  son  of  Cain 
(Gen.  iv.  17),  who  called  the  city  which  he 
built  after  his  name  (18).  2.  The  son  of 
Jared  and  fiither  of  Methuselah  (Gen.  v. 
21,  fF. ;  Luke  iii.  28).  In  the  Epistle  of  Jude 
(24)  he  is  described  as  "the  seventh  from 
Adam ;  "  and  the  number  is  probably  no- 
ticed as  conveying  the  idea  of  divine  com- 
pletion and  rest,  while  Enoch  was  hjmself 
a  type  of  perfected  humanity.  Alter  the 
birth  of  Methuselah  it  is  said  (Gen.  v.  22-24) 
that  Enoch  "  walked  with  God  three  hun- 
dred years  .  .  .  and  he  was  not ;  for  God 
took  him."  The  phrase  "  walked  with 
God  "  is  elsewhere  only  used  of  Noah  (Gen. 
vi.  9;  cf.  Gen.  xvii.  1,  &c.),  and  is  to  be 
explained  of  a  prophetic  life  spent  in  im- 
mediate converse  with  the  spiritual  world. 
In  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  spring 
and  issue  of  Enoch's  life  are  clearly  marked. 
—  Both  the  Latin  and  Greek  fathers  com- 
monly coupled  Enoch  and  Elijah  as  historic 
witnesses  of  the  possibility  of  a  resurrection 
of  the  body  and  of  a  true  human  existence 
in  glory ;  and  the  voice  of  early  ecclesias- 
tical tradition  is  almost  unanimous  in  re- 
garding them  as  "  the  two  witnesses  "  (Rev. 
xi.  3,  ff.)  who  should  fall  before  "  the  beast." 

Enoch,  The  Book  of.  The  first  trace 
of  its  existence  is  generally  found  in  the 
Epistle  of  St.  Jude  (14,  15),  but  the 
words  of  the  Apostle  leave  it  uncertain 
whether  he  derived  his  quotation  from  tra- 
dition or  from  writing,  though  tlie  wide 
spread  of  the  book  in  the  second  century 
seems  almost  decisive  in  favor  of  the  latter 
supposition.  Considerable  fragments  are 
preserved  in  the  Chronographia  of  Georgi- 
us  Syncellus  (about  792  a.  d.),  and  these, 
with  the  scanty  notices  of  earlier  writers, 
constituted  the  sole  remains  of  the  book 
known  in  Europe  till  the  close  of  tJie  last 
century.  Meanwhile,  however,  a  report 
was  current  tliat  the  entire  book  was  pre- 
served in  Abyssinia;  and  at  length,  in  1773, 
Bruce  brought  with  him  on  his  return  from 


ENON 


178 


EPHES-DAMMIM 


Egypt  three  MSS.  containing  the  complete 
Ethiopic  translation.  The  Ethiopia  trans- 
lation was  made  from  the  Greek,  and  prob- 
ably towards  tlie  middle  or  close  of  the 
fourth  century.  But  it  is  uncertain  wliether 
the  Greek  text  was  the  original,  or  itself  a 
translation  from  the  Hebrew.  In  its  present 
shape  the  book  consists  of  a  series  of  reve- 
lations supposed  to  have  been  given  to 
Enoch  and  Noah,  which  extend  to  the  most 
varied  aspects  of  nature  and  life,  and  are 
designed  to-  offer  a  comprehensive  vindica- 
tion of  the  action  of  Providence.  Notwith- 
standing the  quotation  in  St.  Jude,  and  the 
wide  circulation  of  the  book  itself,  the 
apocalypse  of  Enoch  was  uniformly  and 
distinctly  separated  from  the  canonical 
Scriptures. 

E'non,  a  place  "  near  to  Salim,"  at 
which  John  baptized  (John  iii.  23).  It  was 
evidently  west  of  the  Jordan  (comp.  iii.  22, 
with  26,  and  with  i.  28),  and  abounded  in 
water.  This  is  indicated  by  tlie  name, 
which  is  merely  a  Greek  version  of  a  Chal- 
dee  word,  signifying  "springs."  Aenon  is 
given  in  the  Onotnasticon  as  8  miles  south 
of  Scythopolis  "near  Salem  and  the  Jordan." 

!B'd.OS,  the  son  of  Seth ;  properly  called 
Enosh,  as  in  1  Chr.  i.  1  (Gen.  iv.  20,  v.  6, 
7,  9,  10,  11;  Luke  iii.  38). 

E'nosh.  The  same  as  the  preceding  (1 
Chr.  i.  1). 

En-rimmon;  one  of  the  places  which 
the  men  of  Judah  re-inhabited  after  their 
return  from  the  Captivity  (Neh.  xi.  29). 
Perhaps  the  same  as  "  Ain  and  Rimmon  " 
(Josh.  XV.  32),  and  "Ain,  Remmon  "  (xix. 
7;  and  see  1  Chr.  iv.  32). 

En-ro'gel,  a  spring  which  formed  one 
of  the  landmarks  on  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween Judah  (Josh.  xv.  7)  and  Benjamin 
(xviii.  16).  Here,  Jonathan  and  Ahimaaz 
remained,  after  the  flight  of  David,  awaiting 
intelligence  from  within  the  walls  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  17 ;  and  here,  by  the  stone  Zoheleth, 
which  is  close  to  En-rogel,  Adonijah  lield 
the  feast,  which  was  the  first  and  last  act 
of  his  attempt  on  the  crown  (1  K.  i.  9).  It 
may  be  identified  with  the  present  "  Foun- 
tain of  the  Virgin,"  'Ain  Unim  ed-Daraj 
—  the  perennial  source  from  which  the 
Pool  of  Siloam  is  supplied. 

En'-Slieinesll,  a  spring  which  formed 
one  of  the  landmarks  on  the  north  bounda- 
ry of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  7)  and  the  south 
boundary  of  Benjamin  (xviii.  17),  perhaps 
Ain- Hand  or  Ain-Chdt, —  the  "  Well  of  the 
Apostles,"  —  about  a  mile  below  Bethany. 

Ensign  (nes  ;  in  the  A.  V.  generally 
"  ensign,"  sometimes  "  standard ;  "  degel, 
"  standard,"  with  the  exception  of  Cant.  ii. 
4,  "banner;  "  6ih,  "ensign").  The  dis- 
tinction between  tliese  three  Hebrew  terms 
is  sufficiently  marked  by  their  respective 
iises  :  nis  is  a  signal :  degel  a  military  stan- 
dard for  a  large  division  of  an  army ;  and 


6ih,  thfe  same  for  a  small  one.  Neither  of 
them,  however,  expresses  the  idea  which 
"standard"  conveys  to  our  minds,  viz.  a 
flag  ;  the  standards  in  use  among  the  He- 
brews probably  resembled  those  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Assyrians  —  a  figure  or  de- 
vice of  some  kind  elevated  on  a  pole.  (1.) 
The  notices  of  the  nes  or  "ensign"  are 
most  frequent ;  it  consisted  of  some  well- 
understood  signal  which  was  exliibited  on 
the  top  of  a  pole  from  a  bare  mountain  top 
(Is.  xiii.  2,  xviii.  3).  What  the  nature  of 
the  signal  was,  we  have  no  means  of  stat- 
ing. The  important  point  to  be  observed 
is,  that  the  nSs  was  an  occasional  signal, 
and  not  a  military  standard.  (2.)  The  terra 
dcgel  is  used  to  describe  the  standards  which 
were  given  to  each  of  the  four  divisions  of 
the  Israelite  army  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus 
(Num.  i.  52,  ii.  2,  ff.,  x.  14,  ff.).  The  char- 
acter of  the  Hebrew  military  standards  is 
quite  a  matter  of  conjecture ;  they  probably 
resembled  the  Egyptian,  which  consisted 
of  a  sacred  emblem,  such  as  an  animal,  a 
boat,  or  the  king's  name. 

En-tap'puah.  It  is  probably  identi- 
cal with  Tappuah,  the  position  of  which  will 
be  elsewhere  examined  (Josh.  xvii.  7). 

Epaene'tus,  a  Christian  at  Rome, 
greeted  by  St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  5,  and 
designated  as  his  beloved,  and  the  first  fruit 
of  Asia  unto  Christ. 

Ep'aphras,  a  fellow-laborer  with  the 
Apostle  Paul,  mentioned  Col.  i.  7,  as  hav- 
ing taught  the  Colossian  church  the  grace 
of  God  in  truth,  and  designated  a  faithful 
minister  of  Christ  on  their  behalf.  He  was 
at  that  time  with  St.  Paul  at  Rome  (Col.  iv. 
12),  find  seems  by  the  expression  there  used 
to  have  been  a  Colossian  l.y  birth.  We  find 
him  again  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  Phi- 
lemon (ver.  23),  which  was  sent  at  the  same 
time  as  that  to  the  Colossians.  Epaphras 
may  be  the  same  as  Epaphroditus,  but  the 
notices  in  the  N.  T.  do  not  enable  us  to 
speak  with  any  confidence. 

Epapkrodi'tus  (Phil,  ii,  25,  iv.  18). 
See  above  under  Epaphkas. 

E'phah,  the  first,  in  order,  of  the  sons 
of  Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  4 ;  1  Chr.  i.  33),  after- 
wards mentioned  by  Isaiah  (Ix.  6,  7). 

E'phah.  1.  Concubine  of  Caleb,  in  the 
line  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  46).  2.  Son  of  Jah- 
dai ;  also  in  the  line  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  47). 

Ephah.     [Measures.] 

E'phai,  aNetophathite,  whose  sons  were 
among  the  "  captains  of  the  forces  "  left  in 
Judah  after  the  deportation  to  Babylon 
(Jer.  xl.  8,  xli.  3,  comp.  xl.  13). 

E'pher,  the  second,  in  order,  of  the 
sons  of  Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  4 ;  1  Chr.  i.  33). 

E'pher.     1.  A  son  of  Ezra,  among  the 

descendants  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  17).     2. 

I  One  of  the  heads  of  the  families  of  Manas- 

seli  on  the  east  of  Jordan  (1  Chr.  v.  24). 

1     E'phes-dam'mim,   a  place   between 


EPHESIANS 


179 


EPHESUS 


Socoh  and  Azekah,  at  wliich  the  Philistines 
■were  encamped  before  the  affray  in  which 
Goliath  was  killed  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1).  Under 
the  sliorter  form  of  Pas-dammim  it  occurs 
once  again  in  a  similar  connection  (1  Chr. 
xi.  13). 

Ephesians,  The  Epistle  to  the,  was 
written  by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  during  his 
first  captivity  at  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  16), 
apparently  immediately  after  he  had  writ- 
ten the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  [Colos- 
siANS,  Ep.  to],  and  during  that  period 
(perhaps  the  early  part  of  a.  d.  62)  when 
his  imprisonment  had  not  assumed  the 
severer  character  which  seems  to  have 
marked  its  close.  This  epistle  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  Christian  church  at  Ephesus. 
[Ephesus.]  Its  contents  may  be  divided 
into  two  portions,  the  first  mainly  doctrinal 
(ch.  i.-iii.),  the  second  hoi'tatory  and 
practical.  The  Apostle  reminds  his  con- 
verts that  they  had  been  redeemed  from 
sin  by  grace,  and  not  by  works,  and  he 
exhorts  them  to  walk  worthy  of  this  call- 
ing, and  to  keep  the  unity  of  the  Spirit. 

Eph'esus,  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia,  and  an  illustrious  city  in 
the  district  of  Ionia,  nearly  opposite  the 
island  of  Samos.  St.  -Paul's  life  furnishes 
illustrations  of  the  mercantile  relations  of 
Ephesus  with  Achaia  on  the  W.,  Mace- 
donia on  the  N.,  and  Syria  on  the  E.  As 
to  the  relations  of  Ephesus  to  the  inland 
regions  of  the  continent,  these  also  are 
prominently  brought  before  us  in  the  Apos- 
tle's travels.  The  "  upper  coasts  "  (Acts 
xix.  1)  through  which  he  passed,  when 
about  to  take  up  his  residence  in  the  city, 
were  the  Phrygian  table-lands  of  the  in- 
terior. Two  great  roads  at  least,  in  the 
Roman  times,  led  eastward  from  Ephesus ; 
one  through  the  passes  of  Tmolus  to  Sardis 
(Rev.  iii.  1)  and  thence  to  Galatia  and  the 
N.  E.,  the  other  round  the  extremity  of 
Pactyas  to  Magnesia,  and  so  up  the  valley 
of  the  Maeander  to  Iconium,  whence  the 
communication  was  direct  to  the  Euphrates 
and  to  the  Syrian  Antioch.  There  seem 
to  have  been  Sardian  and  M^nesian  gates 
on  the  E.  side  of  Ephesus  corresponding  to 
these  roads  respectively.  There  were  also 
coast-roads  leading  northwards  to  Smyrna 
and  southwards  to  Miletus.  By  the  latter  of 
these  it  is  probable  that  the  Ephesian  elders 
travelled  when  summoned  to  meet  Paul  at 
the  latter  city  (Acts  xx.  17,  18).  Con- 
spicuous at  the  head  of  the  harbor  of  Ephe- 
sus was  the  great  temple  of  Diana  or 
Artemis,  the  tutelary  divinity  of  the  city. 
This  building  was  raised  on  immense  sub- 
structions, in  consequence  of  the  swampy 
nature  of  the  ground.  The  earlier  temple, 
which  had  been  begun  before  the  Persian 
war,  was  burnt  down  in  the  night  when 
Alexander  the  Great  was  born ;  and  an- 
other structure,  raised  by  the  enthusiastic 


co-operation    of    all    the    inhabitants    of 
"  Asia,"  had  taken  its  place.     The  mag- 
nificence of  this  sanctuary  was  a  proverb 
throughout  the  civilized  world.     In  conse- 
quence of  this  devotion  the  city  of  Ephesus 
was  called  vtwxoqoi;  (Acts  xix.  35)  or  "war- 
den "  of  Diana.     Another  consequence  of 
the  celebrity  of  Diana's  worship  at  Ephesus 
was,    that  a   large   manufactory   grew   up 
there  of  portable  shrines,  which  strangers 
purchased,  and  devotees  carried  with  them 
on  journeys  or  set  up  in  their  houses.     Of 
the  manufacturers  engaged  in  this  business, 
perhaps  Alexander  the  "coppersmith"  (2 
Tim.  iv.  14)   Avas   one.     The  case  of  De- 
metrius the  "  silversmith  "  is  explicit.     The 
city  was  celebrated  for  its  magical  arts.    In 
illustration  of   the  magical    books   which 
were  publicly  burnt  (ver.  19)  under  the  in- 
fluence of  St.  Paul's  preaching,  it  is  enough 
here  to   refer   to   the   Ephesian   Writings 
(mentioned  by  Plutarch  and  others),  which 
were  regarded  as  a  charm  when  pronounced, 
and  when  written  down  were  carried  about 
as  amulets.     Asia  was  a  proconsular  prov- 
ince; and  in  harmony  with   this   fact  we 
find  proconsuls  (A.  V.  "  deputies")  special- 
ly mentioned  (ver.  38).     Again  we  learn 
from   Pliny  (v.  31)  that  Ephesus  was   an 
assize  town;  and  in  the  sacred  narrative 
(ver.  38)  we  find  the  court- days  alluded  to 
as  actually  being  held  (A.  V.  "the  law  is 
open  ")  during  the  uproar.     Ephesus  itself 
was  a  "  free  city,"  and  had  its  own  assem- 
blies and  its  own  magistrates.     The  senate 
is  mentioned  by  Josepbus ;  and  St.  Luke, 
in  the  narrative  before  us,  speaks  of  "the 
people  "  and  of  its   customary  assemblies 
(ver.    39,  A.   V.   "  a  lawful   assembly  "). 
We  even  find  conspicuous  mention  made 
of  one  of  the   most  important  municipal 
officers  of  Ephesus,  the  "  Town-Clerk  "  or 
keeper  of  the  records,  whom  we  know  from 
other  sources  to  have  been  a  person   of 
great  influence   and   responsibility.     It  is 
remarkable  how  all  these  political  and  re- 
ligious characteristics  of  Ephesus,  which 
appear  in  the  sacred  narrative,  are  illus- 
trated   by    inscriptions    and   coins.      The 
coins  of  Ephesus  are  full  of  allusions  to 
the  worship  of  Diana  in  various  aspects. 
The  Jews  were  established  there  in  consid- 
erable numbers   (Acts  ii.  9,  vi.  9).     It  is 
here,  and  here  only,  that  we  find  disciples 
of  John  the  Baptist  explicitly  mentioned 
after  the  ascension  of  Christ  (Acts  xviii. 
25,  xix.  3).     The  case   of  ApoUos   (xviii. 
24)  is  an  exemplification  further  of  the  in- 
tercourse between  this  place  and  Alexan- 
dria.    The  first   seeds  of  Christian  truth 
were  possibly  sown  at  Ephesus  immediately 
after  the  Great  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.).     In 
St.  Paul's   stay   of  more   than  two  years 
(xix.  8,  10,  XX.  31),  which  formed  the  most 
important  passage  of  his  third  circuit,  and 
during  which  he  labored,  first  in  the  syna- 


EPHLAL 


180 


EPHRAIM 


gogiie  (xix.  8),  and  then  in  the  school  of 
Tyranuus  (ver.  9),  and  also  in  private 
houses  (xx.  20),  and  during  which  he  wrote 
the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  we 
have  the  period  of  the  chief  evangelization 
of  this  shore  of  the  Aegean.  The  address 
at  Miletus  shows  that  the  church  at  Ephe- 
sus  was  thoroughly  organized  under  its 
presbyters.  At  a  later  period  Timothy 
was  set  over  them,  as  we  learn  from  the 
two  epistles  addressed  to  him.  Among  St. 
Paul's  other  companions,  two,  Tropliimus 
and  Tychicus,  were  natives  of  Asia  (xx. 
4),  and  the  latter  probably  (2  Tim.  iv.  12), 
the  former  certainly  (Acts  xxi.  29),  natives 
of  Ephesus.  In  the  same  connection  we 
ought  to  mention  Onesiphorus  (2  Tim.  i. 
16-18)  and  his  household  (iv.  19).  On  the 
other  hand  must  be  noticed  certain  speci- 
fied Ephesian  antagonists  of  the  Apostle, 
the  sons  of  Sceva  and  his  party  (Acts  xix. 
14),  Hymenaeus  and  Alexander  (1  Tim.  i. 
20;  2  Tim.  iv.  14),  and  Phygellus  and  Her- 
mogenes  (2  Tim.  i.  15).  The  whole  place  is 
now  utterly  desolate,  with  the  exception  of 
the  small  Turkish  village  at  Ayascduk. 
The  ruins  are  of  vast  extent. 

Spll'lal,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  of  the 
family  of  Hezron  and  of  Jerahraeel  (1  Chr. 
ii.  37). 

Ephod,  a  sacred  vestment  originally  ap- 
propriate to  the  high-priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  4), 
Ijut  afterwards  worn  by  ordinary  priests  (1 
Sam.  xxii.  18),  and  deemed  characteristic 
of  the  office  (1  Sam.  ii.  28,  xiv.  3 ;  Hos.  iii. 
4).  For  a  description  of  the  robe  itself 
see  High-Priest.  The  importance  of  the 
Ephod  as  the  receptacle  of  the  breastplate 
led  to  its  adoption  in  the  idolatrous  forms 
of  worship  instituted  in  the  time  of  the 
Judges  (Judg.  viii.  27,  xvii.  5,  xviii.  14,  fF.). 

E'phod,  father  of  Hanniel  of  the  tribe 
of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxxiv.  23). 

E'phraim,  the  second  son  of  Joseph 
by  his  wife  Asenath.  The  first  indication 
we  have  of  that  ascendency  over  his  elder 
brother  Manasseh,  which  at  a  later  period 
the  tribe  of  Ephraim  so  unmistakably  pos- 
sessed, is  in  the  blessing  of  the  children  by 
Jacob,  Gen.  xlviii.  Ephraim  would  appear 
at  that  time  to  have  been  about  21  years 
ol  J.  He  was  born  before  the  beginning  of 
the  seven  years  of  famine,  towards  the  lat- 
ter part  of  which  Jacob  had  come  to  Egypt, 
17  years  before  his  death  (Gen.  xlvii.  28). 
Before  Joseph's  death  Ephraim's  family  had 
reached  the  third  generation  (Gen.  1.  23), 
and  it  must  have  been  about  this  time  that 
the  affray  mentioned  in  1  Chr.  vii.  21  oc- 
curred. To  this  early  period  too  must 
probably  be  referred  the  circumstance  al- 
luded to  in  Ps.  Ixxviii.  9.  It  is  at  the  tipie 
of  the  sending  of  the  spies  to  the  Promised 
Land  that  we  are  first  introduced  to  the 
great  hero  to  whom  the  tribe  owed  much 
of  its  subsequent  greatness.    Under  Joshua 


the  tribe  must  have  taken  a  high  position 
in  the  nation,  to  judge  from  the  tone 
which  the  Ephraimites  assumed  on  occa- 
sions shortly  subsequent  to  the  conquest. 
The  boundaries  of  the  portion  of  Epliraim 
are  given  in  Josh.  xvi.  1-10.  The  south 
boundary  was  coincident  for  part  of  its 
length  with  tlie  north  boundary  of  Benja- 
min. It  extended  from  the  Jordan  on  the 
E.,  at  the  reach  opposite  Jericho,  to  tlie 
Mediterranean  on  the  W.,  probably  about 
Joppa.  On  the  N.  of  Ephraim  and  Ma- 
nasseh were  the  tribes  of  Asher,  Zebulun, 
and  Issachar.  The  territory  thus  allotted 
to  the  "  house  of  Joseph"  may  be  rouglily 
estimated  at  55  miles  from  E.  to  W.  by  70 
from  N.  to  S.,  a  portion  about  equal  in  ex- 
tent to  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk 
(Eng.)  combined.  But  though  similar  in 
size,  nothing  can  be  more  different  in  its 
nature  from  those  level  counties  than  this 
broken  and  hilly  tract.  Central  Palestine 
consists  of  an  elevated  district  which  rises 
from  the  flat  ranges  of  the  wilderness  on 
the  south  of  Judah,  and  terminates  on  the 
north  with  the  slopes  which  descend  into 
the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon.  On  the  west 
a  flat  strip  separates  it  from  the  sea,  and 
on  the  east  another  flat  strip  forms  the  val- 
ley of  the  Jordan.'  Of  this  district  tlie 
nortliern  half  was  occupied  by  the  groat 
tribe  we  are  now  considering.  This  was 
the  JJar- Ephraim,  the  "  Mount  Epliraim," 
a  district  which  seems  to  extend  as  far 
south  as  Ramah  and  Bethel  (I  Sara.  i.  1, 
vii.  17;  2  Chr.  xiii.  4,  19,  compared  witli 
XV.  8),  places  but  a  few  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  within  the  limits  of  Benjamin. 
After  the  revolt  of  Jeroboam,  the  history 
of  Ephraim  is  the  history  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  since  not  only  did  the  tribe  be- 
come a  kingdom,  but  the  kitigdom  em- 
braced little  besides  the  tribe.  This  is  not 
surprising,  and  quite  susceptible  of  expla- 
nation. North  of  Ephraim  the  country 
appears  never  to  have  been  really  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Israelites.  And  in 
addition  to  this  original  defect  there  is 
much  in  the  physical  formation  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  upper  portion  of  Pales- 
tine to  explain  why  those  tribes  never  took 
any  active  part  in  the  kingdom.  But  on 
the  other  hand  the  position  of  Ephraim 
was  altogether  different.  It  was  one  at 
once  of  great  richness  and  great  security. 
Her  fertile  plains  and  well  watered  valleys 
could  only  be  reached  by  a  laborious  as- 
cent through  steep  and  narrow  ravines,  all 
but  impassable  for  an  army.  There  is  no 
record  of  any  attack  on  the  central  king- 
dom, either  from  the  Jordan  valley  or  the 
maritime  plain.  On  the  north  side,  from 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  it  was  more  acces- 
sible, and  it  was  from  this  side  that  the 
final  invasion  appears  to  have  been  made. 
E'phraim.    In  "  Baal-hazor  which  is 


EPHRAIM 


181 


ER 


by  Ephraira"  was  Absalom's  sheep-farm, 
at  which  took  place  the  murder  of  Amnon, 
one  of  the  earliest  precursors  of  the  great 
revolt  (2  Sam.  xiii.  23).  There  is  no  clew 
to  its  situation. 

E'phraim,  a  city  "  in  tlie  district  near 
the  wilderness  "  to  which  our  Lord  retired 
with  his  disciples  when  threatened  with  vio- 
lence by  the  priests  (John  xi.  54).  Per- 
haps Ophrah  and  Ephraim  are  identical, 
and  their  modern  representative  is  et-Tai- 
yibeh.  It  is  situated  4  or  5  miles  east  of 
Bethel,  and  16  from  Jerusalem. 

E'phraim,  Gate  of,  one  of  the  gates 
of  the  city  of  Jeinisalem  (2  K.  xiv.  13 ;  2 
Chr.  XXV.  23;  Neh.  viii.  16;  xii.  39),  prob- 
ably at  or  near  the  position  of  the  present 
"  Damascus  gate." 

E'phraim,  The  Wood  of,  a  wood,  or 
rather  a  forest,  on  the  E.  of  Jordan,  in 
which  the  fatal  battle  was  fought  between 
the  armies  of  David  and  of  Absalom  (2 
Sam.  xviii.  6).  The  name  is  probably  de- 
rived from  the  slaughter  of  Ephraim  at  the 
fords  of  Jordan  by  the  Gileadites  under 
Jephthah  (Judg.  xii.  1,  4,  5). 

E'phraimite.  Of  the  tribe  of  Ephra- 
im; elsewhere  called  "  Ephrathite  "  (Judg. 
xii.  5). 

Ephra'in,  a  city  of  Israel,  which  with 
its  dependent  hamlets  Abijah  and  the  army 
of  Judah  captured  from  Jeroboam  (2  Chr. 
xiii.  19).  It  has  been  conjectured  that  this 
Ephrain  or  Ephron  is  identical  with  the 
Ephraim  by  which  Absalom's  sheep-farm 
of  Baal-hazor  was  situated;  with  the  city 
called  Ephraim  near  the  wilderness  in  which 
our  Lord  lived  for  some  time;  and  with 
Ophrah,  a  city  of  Benjamin,  apparently 
not  far  from  Bethel.  But  nothing  more 
than  conjecture  can  be  arrived  at  on  these 
points. 

Eph'ratah  or  Eph'rath.  1.  Second 
wife  of  Caleb  the  son  of  Hezron,  mother 
of  Hur,  and  grandmother  of  Caleb  the  spy, 
according  to  1  Chr.  ii.  19,  50,  and  prob- 
ably 24,  and  iv.  4.  2.  The  ancient  name 
of  Bethlehem-Judah,  as  is  manifest  from 
Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19,  xlviii.  7. 

Eph'rathite.  1.  An  inhabitant  of  Beth- 
lehem (Ruth  i.  2).  2.  An  Ephrairaite  (1 
Sam.  i.  1;   1  K.  xi.  26). 

Eph'ron.  1.  The  son  of  Zochar,  a 
Hittite,  from  whom  Abraham  bought  the 
field  and  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii. 
8-17;  XXV.  9,  xlix.  29,  39,  1.  13).  2.  A 
very  strong  city  on  the  east  of  Jordan  be- 
tween Carnaim  (Ashteroth-Karnaim)  and 
Bethshean,  attacked  and  demolished  by 
Judas  Maccabaeus  (1  Mace.  v.  46-52;  2 
Mace.  xii.  27). 

Eph'ron,  Mount.     The  "cities   of 
Mount  Ephron "  formed  one  of  the  land- 
marks  on  the   northern  boundary  of  the  j 
tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  9). 

Epicureans,  The,  derived  their  name  ! 


from  Epicurus  (342-271  b.  c),  a  philoso- 
pher of  Attic  descent,  whose  "  Garden  "  at 
Athens  rivalled  in  popularity  the  "  Porch" 
and  the  "  Academy."  The  doctrines  of 
Epicurus  found  wide  acceptance  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Alexandria,  and  they  gained  a 
brilliant  advocate  at  Home  in  Lucretius 
(95-50  B.  c).  The  object  of  Epicurus 
was  to  find  in  philosophy  a  practical  guide 
to  happiness.  True  pleasure  and  not  ab- 
solute truth  was  the  end  at  which  he  aimed ; 
experience  and  not  reason  the  test  on 
which  he  relied.  It  is  obvious  that  a  sys- 
tem thus  framed  would  degenerate  by  a 
natural  descent  into  mere  materialism ;  and 
in  this  form  Epicurism  was  the  popular 
philosophy  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  When  St.  Paul  addressed  "  Epicure- 
ans and  Stoics  "  (Acts  xvii.  18)  at  Athens, 
the  philosophy  of  life  was  practically  re- 
duced to  the  teaching  of  those  two  antag- 
onistic schools. 
Epiph'anes  (l  Mace.  i.  10,  x.  1).  [An- 

TIOCHUS    EpIPIIANES.] 

Ep'iphi  (3  Mace.  vi.  38),  name  of  the 
eleventh  month  of  the  Egyptian  Vague 
year,  and  the  Alexandrian  or  Egyptian 
Julian  year. 

Epistle.  The  epistles  of  the  N.  T.  in 
their  outward  form  are  such  as  might  be 
expected  from  men  who  were  brought  into, 
contact  with  Greek  and  Roman  customs, 
themselves  belonging  to  a  different  race, 
and  so  reproducing  the  imported  style  with 
only  partial  accuracy.  They  begin  (the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  1  John  ex- 
cepted) with  the  names  of  the  writer, 
and  of  those  to  whom  the  Epistle  is  ad- 
dressed. Then  follows  the  formula  of  sal- 
utation. Then  the  letter  its«lf  commences, 
in  the  first  person,  the  singular  and  plural 
being  used  indiscriminately.  When  the 
substance  of  the  letter  has  been  completed, 
come  the  individual  messages.  The  con- 
clusion in  this  case  was  probably  modified 
by  the  fact  that  the  letters  were  dictated  to 
an  amanuensis.  When  he  had  done  his  work, 
the  Apostle  took  up  the  pen  or  reed,  and 
added,  in  his  own  large  characters  (Gal. 
vi.  11)  the  authenticating  autograph.  In 
one  instance,  Rom.  xvi.  22,  tlie  amanuensis 
in  his  own  name  adds  his  salutation.  An 
allusion  in  2  Cor.  iii.  1  brings  before  us 
another  class  of  letters  which  must  have 
been  in  frequent  use  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  Christian  CImrch,  by  which  travellers 
or  teachers  were  commended  by  one  church 
to  the  good  offices  of  others. 

Er.  1.  First  born  of  Judah.  Er  "was 
wicked  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord ;  and  the 
Lord  slew  him."  It  does  not  appear  what 
the  nature  of  his  sin  was ;  but,  from  his) 
Canaanitish  birth  on  the  mother's  side,  it 
was  probably  connected  with  the  abomina- 
ble idolatries  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xxxviii.  3-7 ; 
Num.  xxvi.  19).      2.  Descendant  of  Shelah 


ERAN 


182 


ESAU 


the  son  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  21).  3.  Son 
of  Jose,  and  father  of  Elmodam  (Luke 
iii.  28). 

E'ran,  son  of  Shuthelah,  eldest  son  of 
Ephraim  (Num.  xxvi.  36).  Eran  was  the 
head  of  the  fomily  of 

E'ranites,  The,  Num.  xxvi.  36. 

E'reeh,  one  of  the  cities  of  Nimrod's 
kingdom  in  the  land  of  Shinar  (Gen  x.  10), 
doubtless  the  same  as  OrchoS,  82  miles  S. 
and  43  E.  of  Babylon,  the  modern  designa- 
tions of  the  sjte,  Warka,  Irka,  and  Irak, 
bearing  a  considerable  affinity  to  the  origi- 
nal name. 

Eras'tUS.  1.  One  of  the  attendants  or 
deacons  of  St.  Paul  at  Ephesus,  who  with 
Timothy  was  sent  forward  into  Macedonia 
while  the  Apostle  himself  remained  in  Asia 
(Acts  xix.  22).  He  is  probably  the  same 
with  Erastus  who  is  again  mentioned  in  the 
salutations  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iii.  20), 
though  not  the  same  with,  2.  Erastus  the 
chamberlain,  or  rather  the  public  treasurer, 
of  Corinth,  who  was  one  of  the  early  con- 
verts to  Christianity  (Rom.  xvi.  23).  Ac- 
cording to  the  traditions  of  the  Greek 
Church,  he  was  first  treasurer  to  the  Church 
at  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Paneas. 

E'ri,  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi.  16),  and 
ancestor  of  the  Erites  (Num.  xxvi.  16). 

Esa'ias,  the  form  of  the  name  of  the 
prophet  Isaiah  in  the  N.  T.     [Isaiah.] 

E'sar-had'don,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  kings  of  Assyria,  was  the  son  of  Sen- 
nacherib (2  K.  xix.  37)  and  the  grandson  of 
Sargon  who  succeeded  Shalmaneser.  Noth- 
ing is  really  known  of  Esar-haddon  until 
his  accession  (ab.  b.  c.  680 ;  2  K.  xix.  37 ; 
Is.  xxxvii.  38).  He  appears  by  his  monu- 
ments to  have  been  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful —  if  not  the  most  powerful  —  of  all  the 
Assyrian  monarchs.  He  carried  his  arms 
over  all  Asia  between  the  Persian  Gulf,  the 
Armenian  mountains,  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean. In  consequence  of  the  disaffection 
of  Babylon,  and  its  frequent  revolts  from 
former  Assyrian  kings,  Esar-haddon,  hav- 
ing subdued  the  sons  of  Merodach-Baladan 
who  headed  the  national  party,  introduced 
the  new  policy  of  substituting  for  the  former 
government  by  viceroys,  a  direct  depend- 
ence upon  the  Assyrian  crown.  He  is  the 
only  Assyrian  monarch  whom  we  find  to 
have  actually  reigned  at  Babj'lon,  where  he 
built  himself  a  palace,  bricks  from  which 
have  been  recently  recovered  bearing  his 
name.  His  Babylonian  reign  lasted  thir- 
teen years,  fi-om  b.  c.  680  to  b.  c.  667 ;  and 
it  was  doubtless  within  this  space  of  time 
that  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah,  having  been 
seized  by  Ms  captains  at  Jerusalem  on  a 
charge  of  rebellion,  was  brought  before 
him  at  Babylon  (2  Chr.  xxxiii.  11)  and  de- 
tained for  a  time  as  prisoner  there.      As  a 


builder  of  great  works  Esar-haddon  is  par- 
ticularly distinguished.  Besides  his  palace 
at  Babylon,  he  built  at  least  three  otiiers  in 
different  parts  of  his  dominions,  either  for 
himself  or  his  son.  The  south-west  palace 
at  Nimrud  is  the  best  preserved  of  his  con- 
structions. It  is  conjectured  that  Esar- 
haddon  died  about  b.  c.  660. 

E'sau,  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac,  and  twin- 
brother  of  Jacob.  The  singular  appearance 
of  the  child  at  his  birth  originated  the  name 
(Esau  means  hairy,  Gen.  xxv.  25).  This 
was  not  the  only  remarkable  circumstance 
connected  with  the  birth  of  the  infant.  Even 
in  the  womb  the  twin-brothers  struggled  to- 
gether (xxv.  22).  Esau's  robust  frame  and 
"  rough  "  aspect  were  the  types  of  a  wild 
and  daring  nature.  The  peculiarities  of 
his  character  soon  began  to  develop  them- 
selves. He  was,  in  fact,  a  thorough  Bed- 
ouin, a  "  son  of  the  desert,"  who  delighted  to 
roam  free  as  the  wind  of  heaven,  and  who 
was  impatient  of  the  restraints  of  civilized 
or  settled  life.  His  old  father,  by  a  caprice 
of  affection  not  uncommon,  loved  his  wilful, 
vagrant  boy ;  and  his  keen  relish  for  savory 
food  being  gratified  by  Esau's  venison,  he 
liked  him  all  tiie  better  for  his  skill  in  hunt- 
ing (xxv.  28).  An  event  occurred  which 
exhibited  the  reckless  character  of  Esau  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  selfish,  grasping  na- 
ture of  his  brother  on  the  other.  Jacob 
takes  advantage  of  his  brother's  distress  to 
rob  him  of  that  which  was  dear  as  life  itself 
to  an  Eastern  patriarch.  Esau  married  at 
the  age  of  40,  and  contrary  to  the  wish  of 
his  parents.  His  wives  were  both  Canaan- 
ites ;  and  they  "  were  bitterness  of  spirit 
unto  Isaac  and  to  Rebekah"  (Gen.  xxvi. 
34,  35).  Tiie  next  episode  in  the  history 
of  Esau  and  Jacob  is  still  more  painful 
than  the  former.  Jacob,  through  the  craft 
of  his  mother,  is  again  successful,  and  se- 
cures irrevocably  the  covenant  blessing. 
Esau  vows  vengeance.  But  he  knew  not  a 
mother's  watchful  care.  By  a  characteristic 
piece  of  domestic  policy  Rebekah  succeed- 
ed both  in  exciting  Isaac's  anger  against 
Esau,  and  obtaining  his  consent  to  Jacob's 
departure.  When  Esau  heard  that  his  fa- 
ther had  commanded  Jacob  to  take  a  wife 
of  the  daughters  of  his  kinsman  Laban,  he 
also  resolved  to  try  whether  by  a  new  alli- 
ance he  could  propitiate  his  parents.  He 
accordingly  married  his  cousin  Mahalath, 
the  daughter  of  Ishmael  (xxviii.  8,  9). 
This  marriage  appears  to  have  brought  him 
into  connection  with  the  Ishmaelitish  tribes 
beyond  the  valley  of  Arabah.  He  soon  af- 
terwards established  himself  in  Mount  Seir ; 
still  retaining,  however,  some  interest  in 
his  father's  property  in  Southern  Palestine. 
He  was  residing  in  Mount  Seir  when  Jacob 
returned  from  Padan-arara,  and  had  then  be- 
come so  rich  and  powerful  that  the  irapres- 


ESAY 


183 


ESHCOL 


sions  of  his  brother's  early  offences  seem  to  [ 
have  been  almost  completely  effaced.  It ! 
does  not  appear  that  the  brothers  again  met 
until  the  death  of  their  father  about  20  years 
afterwards.  They  united  in  laying  Isaac's 
body  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  Of  Esau's 
subsequent  liistory  nothing  is  known;  for 
that  of  his  descendants  see  Edom. 

fi'say,  the  form  of  the  name  of  Isaiah 
in  Ecclus.  xlviii.  20,  22;  2  Esd.  ii.  18. 
[Isaiah.] 

Esdrae'lon.  This  name  is  merely  the 
Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  word  Jezreel. 
It  occurs  in  this  exact  shape  only  twice  in 
the  A.  V.  (Jud.  iii.  9,  iv.  6).  In  Jud.  iii.  3 
it  is  EsDRAELOM,  and  in  i.  8  Esdrelom,  with 
the  addition  of  "  the  great  plain."  In  the 
O.  T.  the  plain  is  called  the  Valley  of 
Jezkeel;  by  Josephus  "the  great  plain." 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  old  royal 
citj  of  Jezreel,  which  occupied  a  com- 
manding site,  near  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  plain,  on  a  spur  of  Mount  Gilboa. 
*' Thrj  great  plain  of  Esdraelon"  extends 
acrosis  Central  Palestine  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  Jordan,  separating  the  moun- 
tain ranges  of  Carmel  and  Samaria  from 
those  of  Galilee.  The  western  section  of 
it  is  properly  the  plain  of  Accho,  or  'Akka. 
The  main  body  of  the  plain  is  a  triangle. 
Its  base  on  the  east  extends  from  Jenin 
(the  ancient  Engannim)  to  the  foot  of  the 
hills  below  Nazareth,  and  is  about  15  miles 
long :  the  north  side,  formed  by  the  hills 
of  Galilee,  is  about  12  miles  long ;  and  the 
south  side,  formed  by  the  Samaria  range, 
is  about  18  miles.  The  apex  on  the  west 
is  a  narrow  pass  opening  into  the  plain  of 
'Akka.  From  the  base  of  this  triangular 
plain  three  branches  stretch  out  eastward, 
like  fingers  from  a  hand,  divided  by  two 
bleak,  gray  ridges  —  one  bearing  the  fa- 
miliar name  of  Mount  Gilboa :  the  other 
called  by  Franks  Little  Hernion,  but  by 
natives  Jehel  ed-Duhy.  The  central  branch 
is  the  richest  as  well  as  the  most  cele- 
brated. This  is  the  "Valley  of  Jezreel" 
proper  —  the  battle-field  on  which  Gideon 
triumphed,  and  Saul  and  Jonathan  were 
overtlfrown  (Judg.  vii.  1,  sq. ;  1  Sam.  xxix. 
and  xxxi.).  Two  things  are  worthy  of  spe- 
cial notice  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon:  1. 
its  wonderful  richness.  2.  its  desolation. 
If  we  except  the  eastern  branches,  there  is 
not  a  single  inhabited  village  on  its  whole 
surface,  and  not  more  than  one  sixth  of  its 
soil  is  cultivated.  It  is  the  home  of  the 
wild  wandering  Bedouin. 

Es'dras.  The  form  of  the  name  of 
Ezra  the  scribe  in  1  and  2  Esdras. 

Es'dras,  First  Book  of,  the  first  in 
order  of  the  Apocryphal  books  in  the  Eng- 
lish Bible.  It  was  never  known  to  exist  in 
Hebrew,  and  formed  no  part  of  the  Hebrew 
Canon.  As  regards  the  contents  of  the 
book,  and  the  author  or  authors  of  it  —  the 


first  chapter  is  a  transcript  of  the  two  last 
chapters  of  2  Chr.  for  the  most  part  ver- 
batim, and  only  in  one  or  two  paits  slightly 
abridged  and  paraphrased.  Chapters  iii.,  iv., 
and  v.,  to  the  end  of  v.  6,  are  the  original 
portions  of  the  book,  and  the  rest  is  a  tran- 
script more  or  less  exact  of  the  book  of 
Ezra,  with  the  chapters  transposed  and 
quite  otherwise  arranged,  and  a  portion  of 
Nehemiah.  Hence  a  twofold  design  in  the 
compiler  is  discernible.  One  to  introduce 
and  give  Scriptural  sanction  to  the  legend 
about  Zerubbabel ;  the  other  to  explain  the 
great  obscurities  of  the  book  of  Ezra,  in 
which,  however,  he  has  signally  failed.  As 
regards  the  time  and  place  when  the  com- 
pilation was  made,  the  original  portion  is 
that  which  alone  affords  much  clew.  This 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  writer  was  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  Hebrew,  even  if  he 
did  not  write  the  book  in  that  language. 
He  was  well  acquainted  too  with  the  books 
of  Esther  and  Daniel  (1  Esdr.  iii.  1,  2, 
sqq.),  and  other  books  of  Scripture  {ih. 
20,  21,  39,  41,  &c.,  and  45  compared  with 
Ps.  cxxxvii.  7).  But  that  he  did  not  live 
under  the  Persian  kings,  appears  by  the 
undiscriminating  way  in  which  he  uses 
promiscuously  the  phrase  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, or,  Persians  and  Modes,  according 
as  he  happened  to  be  imitating  the  language 
of  Daniel  or  of  the  book  of  Esther. 

Es'dras,  The  Second  Book  of,  in 
the  English  Version  of  the  Apocrypha,  and 
so  called  by  the  author  (2  Esdr.  i.  1).  The 
original  title,  "the  Apocalypse  of  Ezra,"  is 
far  more  appropriate.  Chapters  iii.-xiv. 
consist  of  a  series  of  angelic  revelations 
and  visions  in  which  Ezra  is  instructed  in 
some  of  the  great  mysteries  of  the  moral 
world,  and  assured  of  the  final  triumph  of 
the  righteous.  The  date  of  the  book  is  un- 
certain, but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is 
a  genuine  product  of  Jewish  thouglit.  The 
Apocalypse  was  probably  written  in  Egypt ; 
the  opening  and  closing  chapters  certainly 
were.  Though  this  book  is  included  among 
those  which  are  "  read  for  examples  of  life  " 
by  the  English  Church,  no  use  of  it  is  there 
made  in  public  worship. 

E'sek,  a  well,  which  the  herdsmen  of 
Isaac  dug  in  the  valley  of  Gerar  (Gen. 
xxvi.  20). 

Esh-ba'al,  the  fourth  son  of  Saul,  ac- 
cording to  the  genealogies  of  1  Chr.  viii.  3, 
and  L\.  39,  is  doubtless  the  same  person  as 

Isn-BOSHETH. 

Esh'ban,  a  Horite;  one  of  the  four 
sons  of  DisuAN  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26 ;  1  Chr. 
i.  41). 

Esh.'col,  brother  of  Mamre  the  Amorite, 
and  of  Aner ;  and  one  of  Abraham's  com- 
panions in  liis  pursuit  of  the  four  kings  who 
had  Ch.-ried  off  Lot  (Gen.  xiv.  13,  24). 

Esh'eol,  The  Valley,  or  the  Brook 
of,  a  u-ady  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hebron, 


ESHEAIf 


184 


ESTHEK,  BOOK  OF 


explored  by  the  spies  who  were  sent  by 
Moses  from  Kadesh-barnea  (Num.  xxxiii. 
9  ;  Dc'ut.  i.  24).  The  name  is  still  attached 
to  a  spring  of  fine  water  called  'Ain-£sh- 
Jcali,  in  a  valley  about  two  miles  north  of 
Hebron. 

Esh'can,  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  52). 

!E'shek,  a  Benjamite,  one  of  the  late 
descendants  of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  39). 

Esh'kalonites,  The,    Josh.   xiii.  3. 

[ASHKELON.] 

iEsIl'taol,  a  town  in  the  low  country  — 
the  Shcfdah  —  of  Judah,  afterwards  allotted 
to  Dan  (Josh.  xv.  33,  xix.  41).  Here  Sam- 
eon  spent  his  boyhood,  and  hither  after  his 
last  exploit  his  body  was  brought  (Judg. 
xiii.  25,  xvi.  31,  xviii.  2,  8,  11,  12). 

Esh'taulites,  The,  with  the  Zareath- 
ites,  wCre  among  the  families  of  Kirjath- 
jearim  (1  Chr.  ii.  53). 

Eshtern'oa,  and  in  shorter  form  Esll- 
temoh',  a  town  of  Judah,  in  the  mountains 
(Josh.  XV.  50),  allotted  to  the  priests  (xxi. 
14 ;  1  Chr.  vi.  57).  It  was  one  of  the  places 
frequented  by  David  and  liis  followers  dur- 
ing the  long  period  of  their  wanderings  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  28,  comp.  31).  Its  site  is  at 
Semu'a,  a  village  seven  miles  south  of 
Hebron.  Eshtemoa  appears  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  descendants  of  the  Egyptian 
wife  of  a  certain  Mered  (1  Chr.  iv.  17). 

Esh'ton,  a  name  which  occurs  in  the 
genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  11,  12). 

Es'li,  son  of  Nagge  or  Naggai,  in  the 
genealogy  of  Chrisc  (Luke  iii.  25) . 

Es'ril,  1  Esd.  ix.  34.  [Azareel,  or 
Sharai.] 

Es'rom,  Matt.  i.  3 ;  Luke  iii.  33.    [Hez- 

KON.] 

Essenes',  a  Jewish  sect,  who,  according 
to  the  description  of  Josephus,  combined 
the  ascetic  virtues  of  the  Pythagoreans  and 
Stoics  with  a  spiritual  knowledge  of  the  Di- 
vine Law.  It  seems  probable  that  the  name 
signifies  "seer,"  or  '■^  the  silent,  the  mysteri- 
ous." As  a  sect  the  Essenes  were  distin- 
guished by  an  aspiration  after  ideal  purity 
rather  than  by  any  special  code  of  doctrines. 
From  the  Maccabaean  age  there  was  a  con- 
tinuous efl'ort  among  the  stricter  Jews  to 
attain  an  absolute  standard  of  holiness. 
Each  class  of  devotees  was  looked  upon  as 
practically  impure  by  their  successors,  who 
carried  the  laws  of  purity  still  further ;  and 
the  Essenes  stand  at  the  extreme  limit  of 
the  mystic  asceticism  which  was  thus  grad- 
ually reduced  to  shape.  To  the  Pharisees 
they  stood  nearly  in  the  same  relation  as 
that  in  which  the  Pharisees  themselves 
stood  with  regard  to  the  mass  of  the  people. 
There  were  isolated  communities  of  Es- 
senes, which  were  regulated  by  strict  rules, 
analogous  to  those  of  the  monastic  institu- 
tions of  a  later  date.  All  things  were  held 
in  common,  without  distinction  of  property ; 


and  special  provision  was  made  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  poor.  Self-denial,  temperance, 
and  labor  —  especially  agriculture  —  were 
the  marks  of  the  outward  life  of  the  Es- 
senes; purity  and  divine  communion  the 
objects  of  their  aspiration.  Slavery,  war,  ^ 
and  commerce  were  alike  forbidden.  Their  ' 
best  known  settlements  were  on  the  N.  W. 
shore  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Es'ther,  the  Persian  name  of  Hadas- 
SAH,  daughter  of  Abihail,  the  son  of  Shiraci, 
the  son  of  Kish,  a  Benjamite.  Esther  was 
a  beautiful  Jewish  maiden,  whose  ancestor 
liish  had  been  among  the  captives  led  away 
from  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  when 
Jehoiachin  was  taken  captive.  She  was  an 
orphan  without  father  or  mother,  and  had 
been  brought  up  by  her  cousin  Mordecai, 
who  had  an  office  in  the  household  of  Ahas- 
uerus  king  of  Persia,  and  dwelt  at  **  Shu- 
shan  the  palace."  When  Vashti  was  dis- 
missed from  being  queen,  and  all  the  fairest 
virgins  of  the  kingdom  had  been  collected 
at  Shushan  for  the  king  to  make  choice  of 
a  successor  to  her  from  among  them,  the 
choice  fell  upon  Esther.  The  king  was  not 
aware,  however,  of  her  race  and  parentage ; 
and  so,  on  the  representation  of  Haman  the 
Agagite  that  the  Jews  scattered  through  his 
empire  were  a  pernicious  race,  he  gave  him 
full  power  and  authority  to  kill  them  all, 
young  and  old,  women  and  children,  and 
take  possession  of  their  property.  The 
means  taken  by  Esther  to  avert  this  great 
calamity  from  her  people  and  her  kindred 
are  fully  related  in  the  book  of  Esther. 
History  is  wholly  silent  both  about  Vashti 
and  Esther.  Herodotus  mentions  only  one 
of  Xerxes'  wives ;  Scripture  mentions  two 
only,  if  indeed  either  of  them  were  wives 
at  all.  It  seems  natural  to  conclude  that 
Esther,  a  captive,  and  one  of  tlie  harem, 
was  not  of  the  highest  rank  of  m  ives,  but 
that  a  special  honor,  with  the  name  of 
queen,  may  have  been  given  to  her,  as  to 
Vashti  before  her,  as  the  favorite  concubine 
or  inferior  wife,  whose  ofispring,  however, 
if  she  had  any,  would  not  have  succeeded 
to  the  Persian  throne. 

Es'ther,  Book  of,  one  of  the  latest  of 
the  canonical  books  of  Scripture,  having 
been  written  late  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  or 
early  in  that  of  his  son  Artaxerxes  Longira- 
anus.  The  author  is  not  known,  but  may 
very  probably  have  been  Mordecai  himself. 
Those  who  ascribe  it  to  Ezra,  or  the  men 
of  the  Great  Synagogue,  may  have  merely 
meant  that  Ezra  edited  and  added  it  to  the 
canon  of  Scripture,  which  he  probably  did. 
The  book  of  Esther  is  placed  among  the 
hagiographa  by  the  Jews,  and  in  that  first 
portion  of  them  which  they  call  "the  five 
rolls."  It  is  sometimes  emphatically  called 
Megillah  ("roll"),  without  other  distinc- 
tion, and  is  read  through  by  the  Jews  in 
their  synagogues  at  the  feast  of  Purim.    It 


ETAM 


185 


EUERGETES 


has  often  been  remarked  as  a  peculiarity 
of  this  book  that  the  name  of  God  does  not 
once  occur  in  it.  The  style  of  writing  is 
remarkably  chaste  and  simple.  It  does  not 
in  the  least  savor  of  romance.  The  He- 
brew is  very  like  that  of  Ezra  and  parts  of 
the  Chronicles  ;  generally  pure,  but  mixed 
with  some  words  of  Persian  origin,  and 
Bome  of  Chaldaic  affinity.  In  short  it  is 
just  what  one  would  expect  to  find  in  a 
work  of  the  age  to  which  the  book  of  Es- 
ther professes  to  belong.  As  regards  the 
Septuagint  version  of  the  book,  it  consists 
of  the  canonical  Esther  with  various  inter- 
polations prefixed,  interspersed,  and  added 
at  the  close.  Though,  however,  the  inter- 
polations of  the  Greek  copy  are  thus  mani- 
fest, they  make  a  consistent  and  intelligible 
story.  But  the  Apocryphal  additions  as 
they  are  inserted  in  some  editions  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate,  and  in  the  English  Bible, 
are  incomprehensible. 

E'tam.  1.  A  village  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon,  specified  only  in  the  list  in  1  Chr. 
iv.  32  (comp.  Josh.  xix.  7).  2.  A  place  in 
Judah,  fortified  and  garrisoned  by  lleho- 
boam  (2  Chr.  xi.  6).  Here,  according  to 
the  statements  of  Josephus  and  the  Tal- 
mudists,  were  the  sources  of  the  water  from 
which  Solomon's  gardens  and  pleasure- 
grounds  were  fed,  and  Bethlehem  and  the 
Temple  supplied. 

E'tam,  The  Rock,  a  cliff  or  lofty  rock, 
into  a  cleft  or  chasm  of  which  Samson  re- 
tired after  his  slaughter  of  the  Philistines 
(Judg.  XV.  8,  11).  This  natural  strong- 
hold was  in  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  and  near 
it,  probably  at  its  foot,  was  Lelii  or  Ramath- 
lehi,  and  Enhakkore  (xv.  9,  li,  17,  19). 
The  name  Etam  was  held  by  a  city  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Bethlehem  (2  Chr.  xi.  6), 
which  is  known  to  have  been  situated  in 
the  extremely  uneven  and  broken  country 
round  the  modern  Urias.  Here  is  a  fitting 
scene  for  the  adventure  of  Samson. 

E'tham,  one  of  the  early  resting-places 
of  the  Israelites  when  they  quitted  Egypt, 
the  position  of  which  may  be  very  nearly 
fixed  in  consequence  of  its  being  described 
as  "in  the  edge  of  the  wilderness  "  (Ex. 
xiii.  20;  Num.  xxxiii.  6,  7).  Etham  may 
be  placed  where  the  cultivable  land  ceases, 
near  the  Seba  Bidr  or  Seven  Wells,  about 
three  miles  from  the  western  side  of  the 
ancient  head  of  the  gulf. 

E'than.  1.  Ethan  the  Ezrahite,  one 
of  the  four  sons  of  Mahol,  whose  wisdom 
was  excelled  by  Solomon  (1  K.  iv.  31 ;  I 
Chr.  ii.  6).  His  name  is  in  the  title  of  Ps. 
Ixxxix.  2.  Son  of  Kishi  or  Kushaiah;  a 
Merarite  Levite,  head  of  that  family  in  the 
time  of  king  David  (1  Chr.  vi.  44),  and 
spoken  of  as  a  "  singer."  With  Heman 
and  Asaph,  the  heads  of  the  other  two  fam-  j 
ilies  of  Levites,  Ethan  was  appointed  to 
sound  with  cymbals   (xv.  17,  19).     3.  A] 


Gershonite  Levite,  one  of  the  ancestors 
of  Asaph  the  singer  (1  Chr.  vi.  42,  Heb. 
27). 

Eth'anim.    [Months.] 

Ethba'al,  king  of  Sidon  and  father  of 
Jezebel  (1  K.  xvi.  31).  Josephus  repre- 
sents him  as  king  of  the  Tyrians  as  well  as 
the  Sidonians.  "We  may  thus  identify  him 
with  Eithobalus,  who,  after  having  assas- 
sinated Pheles,  usurped  the  throne  of  Tyre 
for  32  years.  The  date  of  Ethbaal's  reign 
may  be  given  as  about  b.  c.  940-908. 

E'tlier,  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah  in  the 
low  country,  the  Shefelah  (Josh.  xv.  42), 
allotted  to  Simeon  (xix.  7). 

Etllio'pia.  The  country  which  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  described  as  "  Aethio- 
pia  "  and  the  Hebrews  as  "  Cush  "  lay  to 
the  S.  of  Egypt,  and  embraced,  in  its  most 
extended  sense,  the  modern  Nubia,  Sen- 
naar,  Kordofan,  and  northern  Abijssinia,^ 
and  in  its  more  definite  sense  the  kingdom 
of  Meroe.  Syene  marked  the  division  be- 
tween Ethiopia  and  Egypt  (Ez.  xxix.  10). 
The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  had 
much  practical  acquaintance  with  Ethiopia 
itself,  though  the  Ethiopians  were  well 
known  to  them  through  their  intercourse 
with  Egypt.  The  inhabitants  of  Ethiopia 
were  a  Hamitic  race  (Gen.  x.  6).  They 
were  divided  into  various  tribes,  of  which 
the  Sabaeans  were  the  most  powerful.  The 
history  of  Ethiopia  is  closely  interwoven 
with  that  of  Egypt.  The  two  countries 
were  not  unfrequently  united  under  the 
rule  of  the  same  sovereign.  Shortly  be- 
fore our  Saviour's  birth  a  native  dynasty  of 
females,  holding  the  official  title  of  Candace 
(Plin.  vi.  35),  held  sway  in  Ethiopia,  and 
even  resisted  the  advance  of  the  Roman 
arms.  One  of  these  is  the  queen  noticed 
in  Acts  viii.  27. 

Ethio'pian,  properly  "  Cushite  "  (Jer. 
xiii.  23)  ;  used  of  Zerah  (2  Chr.  xiv.  9  [8]), 
and  Ebed-melech  (Jer.  xxxviii.  7,  10,  12, 
xxxix.  IG). 

Ethio'pian  Woman.  The  wife  of 
Moses  is  so  described  in  Num.  xii.  1.  She 
is  elsewhere  said  to  have  been  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  Midianite,  and  in  consequence  of 
this  some  have  supposed  that  the  allusion 
is  to  another  wife  whom  Moses  married 
after  the  death  of  Zipporah. 

Ethiopians,  properly  "Cush"  or 
"Ethiopia"  in  two  passages  (Is.  xx.  4;  Jer. 
xlvi.  9).  Elsewhere  "  Cushites,"  or  inhab- 
itants of  Ethiopia  (2  Chr.  xii.  3,  xiv.  12 
[11],  13  [12],  xvi.  8,  xxi.  16;  Dan.  xi.  43; 
Am.  ix.  7;  Zeph.  ii.  12). 

Eth'nan,  one  of  the  sons  of  Helah  the 
wife  of  Ashur  (1  Chr.  iv.  7). 

Eth'ni,  a  Gershonite  Levite  (1  Chr.  tL 
41;  Heb.  26). 

Eubu'lus,  a  Christian  at  Rome  men- 
tioned by  St.  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv.  21). 

Euer'getes.    [Ptolemaeus  III."] 


EUNICE 


186 


EVANGELIST 


Euni'ce;  mother  of  Timotheus  (2  Tim. 
i.5). 

Eunuch.  The  law  (Deut.  xxiii,  1 ; 
comp.  Lev.  xxii.  24)  is  repugnant  to  thus 
treating  any  Israelite.  The  origination  of 
the  practice  is  ascribed  to  Semiramis,  and 
is  no  doubt  as  early,  or  nearly  so,  as  East- 
ern despotism  itself.  The  complete  assim- 
ilation of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  lat- 
terly of  Judah,  to  the  neighboring  models 
of  despotism,  is  traceable  in  the  rank  and 
prominence  of  eunuchs  (2  K.  viii.  6,  ix.  32, 
xxiii.  11,  XXV.  19;  Is.  Ivi.  3,  4;  Jer.  xxix. 
2,  xxxiv.  19,  xxxviii.  7,  xli.  16,  lii.  25). 
They  mostly  appear  in  one  of  two  rela- 
tions, either  military,  as  "  set  over  the  men 
of  war,"  greater  trustworthiness  possibly 
counterbalancing  inferior  courage  and  mil- 
itary vigor,  or  associated,  as  we  mostly 
recognize  them,  with  women  and  children. 
We  find  the  Assyrian  Rab-Saris,  or  chief 
eunuch  (2  K.  xviii.  17),  employed  together 
with  other  high  officials  as  ambassador.  It 
is  probable  that  Daniel  and  his  companions 
were  thus  treated,  in  fulfilment  of  2  K.  xx. 
17,  18;  Is.  xxxix.  7;  comp.  Dan.  i.  3,  7. 
The  court  of  Ilerod  of  course  had  its  eu- 
nuchs, as  had  also  that  of  Queen  Candace 
(Acts  viii.  27). 

Euo'dlas,  a  Christian  woman  at  Philippi 
(Phil.  iv.  2).     The  name  is  correctly  Eu- 

ODIA. 

Euphra'tes  is  probably  a  word  of 
Aryan  origin,  signifying  "  the  good  and 
abounding  river."  It  is  most  frequently 
denoted  in  the  Bible  by  the  term  "the 
river."  The  Euphrates  is  the  largest,  the 
longest,  and  by  far  the  most  important  of 
the  rivers  of  Western  Asia.  It  rises  from 
two  cliief  sources  in  the  Armenian  moun- 
tains, and  flows  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
entire  course  is  1780  miles,  and  of  this  dis- 
tance more  than  two  thirds  (1200  miles)  is 
navigable  for  boats.  The  width  of  the 
river  is  greatest  at  the  distance  of  700  or 
800  miles  from  its  mouth  —  that  is  to  say, 
from  its  junction  with  the  Kliabour  to  the 
village  of  Wcrai.  It  there  averages  400 
yards.  The  annual  inundation  of  the 
Euphrates  is  caused  by  the  melting  of  the 
snows  in  the  Armenian  highlands.  It  oc- 
curs in  the  month  of  May.  The  great 
hydraulic  works  ascribed  to  Nebuchadnez- 
zar had  for  their  chief  object  to  control 
the  inundation.  The  Euphrates  is  first 
mentioned  in  Scripture  as  one  of  the  four 
rivers  of  Eden  (Gen,  ii.  14).  Its  celebrity 
is  there  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  ab- 
sence of  any  explanatory  phrase,  such  as 
necompanies  the  names  of  the  other  streams. 
We  next  hear  of  it  in  the  covenant  made 
with  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  18),  where  the 
whole  country  from  "the  great  river,  the 
river  Euphrates,"  to  the  river  of  Egypt  is 
promised  to  the  chosen  race.  During  the 
reigus  of  David  and  Solomon  the  dominion 


of  Israel  actually  attained  to  the  full  extent 
both  ways  of  the  original  promise,  the 
Euphrates  forming  the  boundary  of  their 
empire  to  the  N.  E.,  and  the  river  of  Egypt 
to  the  S.  W.  This  wide-spread  territory 
was  lost  upon  the  disruption  of  the  empire 
under  Eehoboam ;  and  no  more  is  heard  in 
Scripture  of  the  Euphrates  until  the  ex- 
pedition of  Necho  against  the  Babylonians 
in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  The  river  still 
brings  down  as  much  water  as  of  old,  but 
the  precious  element  is  wasted  by  the 
neglect  of  man;  the  various  watercourses 
along  which  it  was  in  former  times  con- 
veyed are  dry;  the  main  channel  has 
shrunk;  and  the  water  stagnates  in  un- 
wholesome marshes. 

Euporemus,  the  "  son  of  John,  the 
son  of  Accos,"  one  of  the  envoys  sent  to 
Rome  by  Judas  Maccabaeus,  cir.  b.  c.  161 
(1  Mace.  viii.  17;  2  Mace.  iv.  11).  He 
has  been  identified  with  the  historian  of  the 
same  name,  but  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that 
the  historian  was  of  Jewish  descent. 

Eixroc'lydon,  the  name  given  (Acts 
xxvii.  14)  to  the  gale  of  wind  which  off  the 
south  coast  of  Crete  seized  the  sliip  in 
which  St.  Paul  was  ultimately  wrecked  on 
the  coast  of  Malta.  It  came  down  from 
the  island,  and  therefore  must  have  blown, 
more  or  less,  from  the  nortliward. 

Eu'tychus,  a  youtli  at  Troas  (Acts  xx. 
9),  who  sitting  in  a  window,  and  having 
fallen  asleep  while  St.  Paul  was  discoursing 
far  into  the  night,  fell  from  the  third  story, 
and  being  taken  up  dead,  was  miraculously 
restored  to  life  by  the  Apostle. 

Evangelist  means  "the  publisher  of 
glad  tidings,"  and  therefore  seems  common 
to  the  work  of  the  Christian  ministry  gen- 
erally; yet  in  Eph.  iv.  11,  the  "  evange- 
lists "  appear  on  the  one  hand  after  the 
"apostles  "  and  "prophets  :  "  on  the  other 
before  the  "  pastors  "  and  "  teachers."  This 
passage  accordingly  would  lead  us  to  think 
of  them  as  standing  between  the  two  other 
groups  —  sent  forth  as  missionary  preachers 
of  the  Gospel  by  the  first,  and  as  such  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  labors  of  the  second. 
The  same  inference  would  seem  to  follow 
the  occurrence  of  the  word  as  applied  to 
Philip  in  Acts  xxi.  8.  It  follows  from  what 
has  been  said  that  the  calling  of  the  Evan- 
gelist is  the  proclamation  of  the  glad  tidings 
to  those  who  have  not  known  them,  rather 
than  the  instruction  and  pastoral  care  of 
those  who  have  believed  and  been  baptized. 
It  follows  also  that  the  name  denotes  a 
work  rather  than  an  order.  The  Evangelist 
might  or  might  not  be  a  Bishop-Elder  or  a 
deacon.  The  Apostles,  so  far  as  they 
evangelized  (Acts  viii.  25,  xiv.  7 ;  1  Cor.  i. 
17),  might  claim  the  title,  though  there 
were  many  Evangelists  who  were  not  Apos- 
tles. If  the  Gospel  was  a  written  book, 
and  the  office  of  the  Evangelists  was  to 


EVE 


187 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


read  or  distribute  it,  then  the  writers  of 
.  such  books  were  pre-eminently  the  Evan- 
gelists. In  later  liturgical  language  the 
word  was  applied  to  the  reader  of  the 
Gospel  for  the  day. 

Eve,  the  name  given  in  Scripture  to  the 
first  woman.  The  account  of  Eve's  crea- 
tion is  found  at  Gen.  ii.  21,  22.  Perhaps 
that  which  we  are  chieflj'  intended  to  learn 
from  the  narrative  is  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  union  between  man  and  wife  is 
built,  viz.,  identity  of  nature  and  oneness 
of  origin.  Through  the  subtlety  of  the 
serpent,  Eve  was  beguiled  into  a  violation 
of  the  one  commandment  which  had  been 
imposed  upon  her  and  Adam.  The  Scrip- 
ture account  of  Eve  closes  with  the  birth 
of  Seth. 

E'vi,  one  of  the  five  kings  or  princes  of 
Midian,  slain  by  the  Israelites  (Num.  xxxi. 
8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

E'vil-mero'dach  (2  K.  xxv.  27),  the 
son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He 
reigned  but  a  short  time,  having  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  B.  c.  5G1,  and  being  himself  succeeded 
by  Neriglissar  in  b.  c.  559.  He  was  mur- 
dered by  Neriglissar. 

Excommunication.  I.  Jewish  Ex- 
eommunication.  The  Jewish  system  of  ex- 
communication was  threefold.  For  a  first 
offence  a  delinquent  was  subjected  to  the 
penalty  of  Niddui.  The  twenty-four  of- 
fences for  which  it  was  inflicted  are  vari- 
ous, and  range  in  heinousness  from  the 
offence  of  keeping  a  fierce  dog  to  that  of 
taking  God's  name  in  vain.  The  offender 
was  first  cited  to  appear  in  court ;  and  if 
he  refused  to  appear  or  to  make  amends, 
his  sentence  was  pronounced.  The  term 
of  this  punishment  was  thirty  days ;  and  it 
was  extended  to  a  second  and  to  a  third 
thirty  days  when  necessary.  If  at  the  end 
of  that  time  the  offender  was  still  contu- 
macious, he  was  subjected  to  the  second 
excommunication,  termed  Cherem,  a  word 
meaning  something  devoted  to  God  (Lev. 
xxvii.  21,  28;  Ex.  xxii.  20  [19];  Num. 
xviii.  14).  Severer  penalties  were  now  at- 
tached. The  sentence  was  delivered  by  a 
court  of  ten,  and  was  accompanied  by  a 
solemn  malediction.  Lastly  followed  Sham- 
mdihd,  which  was  an  entire  cutting  off 
from  the  congregation.  The  punishment 
of  excommunication  is  not  appointed  by 
the  Law  of  Moses.  It  is  founded  on  the 
natural  right  of  self-protection  which  all 
societies  enjoy.  The  case  of  Korah,  Da- 
than,  and  Abiram  (Num.  xvi.),  the  curse 
denounced  on  Meroz  (Judg.  v.  23),  the 
commission  and  proclamation  of  Ezra  (vii. 
26,  X.  8),  and  the  reformation  of  Nehemiah 
(xiii.  25),  are  appealed  to  by  the  Talmud- 
ists  as  precedents  by  which  their  proceed- 
ings are  regulated.  In  the  New  Testament, 
Jewish  excommunication  is  brought  prom- 


inently before  us  in  the  case  of  the  man 
that  was  born  blind  (John  ix.).     The  ex- 
pressions here  used  refer,  no  doubt,  to  the 
first  form  of  excommunication,  or  Niddui. 
In  Luke  vi.  22,  it  has  been  thought  that  our 
Lord  referred  specifically  to  the  three  forma 
of  Jewish  excommunication  :  "Blessed  are 
ye  when   men  shall  hate  you,  and  when 
they  shall  sejjarate  you  from  their  com- 
pany, and  shall  reproach  you,  and  cast  out 
your  name  as  evil,  for  the  Son  of  Man's 
sake."    The  three  words  very  accurately 
express   the   simple   separation,  the  addi- 
tional malediction,  and  the  final  exclusion 
of    niddui,  cherem,  and  shammdihd.     II. 
Christian   Excommvnication.     Excommu- 
nication,  as    exercised    by  the    Christian 
Church,  is  not  merely  founded  on  the  nat- 
ural right,  possessed  by  all  societies,  nor 
merely   on    the    example    of   the    Jewish 
Church  and  nation.     It  was  instituted  by 
our  Lord  (Matt,  xviii.  15,  18),  and  it  was 
practised   and  commanded  by  St.  Paul  (I 
Tim.  i.  20;  1  Cor.  v.  11 ;  Tit.  iii.  10).     In 
the  Epistles  we   find  St.   Ptiul   frequently 
claiming  the   right  to   exercise   discipline 
over  his  converts  (comp.  2  Cor.  i.  23,  xiii. 
10).     In  two  cases  we  find  him  exercising 
this  authority  to  the  extent  of  cutting  off 
offenders    from   the    Church.       What    is 
the  full  meaning  of  the  expression,  "  de- 
liver unto  Satan,"  is  doubtful.     All  agree 
that  excommunication  is  contained  in  it, 
but  whether  it  implies   any  further  pun- 
ishment, inflicted  by  the  extraordinary  pow- 
ers committed   specially  to  the  Apostles, 
has   been   questioned.      Introduction   into 
the  Church  is,  in  St.  Paul's  mind,  a  trans- 
lation from    the   kingdom   and  power  of 
Satan  to  tlie  kingdom  and  government  of 
Christ.     This  being  so,  he   could  hardly 
more  naturally  describe  the  effect  of  ex- 
cluding a  man  from  the  Church  than  by  the 
words  "  deliver  him  unto  Satan."    In  ad- 
dition to  the  claim  to  exercise  discipline, 
and  its  actual  exercise  in  the  form  of  ex- 
communication, by  the  Apostles,  we  find 
Apostolic  precepts  directing  that  discipline 
should  be  exercised  by  the  rulers  of  the 
Church,  and  that  in  some  cases  excommu- 
nication should  be  restored  to  (2  Thess.  iii 
14;  Rom.  xvi.  17;  Gal.  v.  12;  1  Tim.  vi. 
3;  Tit.  iii.   10;   2  John  10;    3   John   10; 
Rev.  ii.  20).     "There  are  two  passages  still 
more  important  to  our  subject  (Gal.  i.  8,  9 ; 
1  Cor.  xvi.  22).     It  has  been  supposed  that 
these  two  expressions,  "  let  him  be  Anath- 
ema," "let  him  be  Anathema  Maranatha," 
refer  respectively  to  the  two  later  stages  of 
Jewish  excommunication  —  the  cherem  and 
the  shammdthd.     The  Nature   of  Excom- 
munication is  made  more  evident  by  the 
acts  of  St.  Paul  than  by  any  investigation 
of  Jewish  practice  or  of  the  etymology  of 
words.     We  thus  find,  (1)  that  it  is  a  spir- 
itual penalty,  involving  no  temporal  pun* 


EXECUTIONER 


18^ 


EZBON 


ishmcnt,  except  accidentally;  (2)  that  it 
consists  in  separation  from  the  communion 
of  the  Church;  (3)  that  its  object  is  the 
good  of  the  sufferer  (1  Cor.  v.  5),  and  the 
protection  of  the  sound  members  of  the 
Church  (2  Tim.  iii.  17) ;  (4)  that  its  sub- 
jects are  those  who  are  guilty  of  heresy  (1 
Tim.  i.  20),  or  gross  immorahty  (1  Cor.  v. 
1)  ;  (5)  that  it  is  inflicted  by  the  authority 
of  the  Church  at  large  (Matt,  xviii.  18), 
wielded  by  the  highest  ecclesiastical  officer 
(1  Cor.  V.  3 ;  Tit.  iii.  10)  ;  (6)  that  this 
officer's  sentence  is  promulgated  by  the 
congregation  to  which  the  offender  belongs 
(1  Cor.  V.  4),  in  deference  to  his  superior 
judgment  and  command  (2  Cor.  ii.  9),  and 
in  spite  of  any  opposition  on  the  part  of  a 
minority  (ib.  6) ;  (7)  that  the  exclusion 
may  be  of  indefinite  duration,  or  for  a  pe- 
riod; (8)  that  its  duration  may  be  abridged 
at  the  discretion  and  by  the  indulgence  of 
the  person  who  has  imposed  the  penalty 
(i6.  8) ;  (9)  that  penitence  is  the  condi- 
tion on  which  restoration  to  communion  is 
«  granted  (ib.  7) ;  (10)  that  the  sentence  is 
to  be  publicly  reversed  as  it  was  publicly 
promulgated  (ib.  10). 

Executioner.  The  Hebrew  word  de- 
scribes, in  the  first  instance,  the  office  of 
executioner,  and,  secondarily,  the  general 
duties  of  the  body-guard  of  a  monarch. 
Thus  Fotiphar  was  "  captain  of  the  execu- 
tioners "  (Gen.  xxxvii.  36;  see  margin). 
That  the  "  captain  of  the  guard  "  himself 
occasionally  performed  the  duty  of  an  ex- 
ecutioner appears  from  1  K.  ii.  25,  34. 
Nevertheless  the  post  was  one  of  high  dig- 
nity. 

Exile.     [Captivity.] 

Ex'odus  (that  is,  going  out  [of  Egypt]), 
the  second  book  of  the  Law  or  Pentateuch. 
It  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts  : 
I.  Historical,  i.  1-xviii.  27 ;  and,  II.  Legis- 
lative, xix.  1-xl.  38.  The  former  of  these 
may  be  subdivided  into,  (1.)  the  preparation 
for  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  their 
bondage  in  Egypt;  (2.)  the  accomplish- 
ment of  that  deliverance.  I.  (1.)  The  first 
section  (i,  1-xii.  3G)  contains  an  account  of 
the  following  particulars :  The  great  in- 
crease of  Jacob's  posterity  in  the  land  of 
Egypt,  and  their  oppression  under  a  new 
dynasty,  which  occupied  the  throne  after 
the  death  of  Joseph  (ch.  i.) ;  the  birth,  ed- 
ucation, and  flight  of  Moses  (ii.) ;  his  sol- 
^t  emn  call  to  be  the  deliverer  of  his  people 
(iii.  1-iv.  17),  and  his  return  to  Egypt  in 
consequence  (iv.  18-31)  ;  his  first  ineffectu- 
al attempt  to  prevail  upon  Pharaoh  to  let  the 
Israelites  go,  which  only  resulted  in  an  in- 
crease of  their  burdens  (v.  1-21) ;  a  fur- 
ther preparation  of  Moses  and  Aaron  for 
their  office,  together  with  the  account  of 
their  genealogies  (v.  22-vii.  7)  ;  the  succes- 
sive signs  and  wonders,  by  means  of  which 
the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  the  land  of 


bondage  is  at  length  accomplished,  and  the 
institution  of  the  Passover  (vii.  8-xii.  36). 
(2.)  A  narrative  of  events  from  the  depart- 
ure out  of  Egypt  to  the  arrival  of  the  Is- 
raelites at  Mount  Sinai.  II.  The  solemn 
establishment  of  the  Theocracy  on  Mount 
Sinai.  This  book,  in  short,  gives  a  sketch 
of  the  early  history  of  Israel  as  a  nation : 
and  the  history  has  three  clearly  marked 
stages.  First  we  see  a  nation  enslaved; 
next  a  nation  redeemed;  lastly  a  nation  set 
apart,  and  through  the  blending  of  its  reli- 
gious and  political  life  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  God. 

Ex'odus,  Tlie,  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt.  On  the  date  of  this  event  see 
Egvpt,  p.  163.  The  history  of  the  Exodus 
itself  commences  with  the  close  of  that  of 
the  Ten  Plagues.  [Plaodes  of  Egypt.] 
In  the  night  in  which,  at  midnight,  the 
firstborn  were  slain  (Ex.  xii.  29),  Pharaoh 
urged  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  (ver. 
31,  32).  They  at  once  set  forth  from  Ra- 
meses  (ver.  37,  39),  apparently  during  the 
night  (ver.  42),  but  towards  morning,  on 
the  15th  day  of  the  first  month  (Num.  xxxiii. 
3).  They  made  three  journeys  and  en- 
camped by  the  Red  Sea.  Here  Pharaoh 
overtook  them,  and  the  great  miracle  oc- 
curred by  which  they  were  saved,  while  the 
pursuer  and  his  army  were  destroyed.  [Red 
Sea,  Passage  of.] 

Exorcist.  The  use  of  the  term  exor- 
cists in  Acts  xix.  13  confirms  what  we  know 
from  other  sources  as  to  the  common  prac- 
tice of  exorcism  amongst  the  Jews.  That 
some,  at  least,  of  them  not  only  pretended 
to,  but  possessed,  the  power  of  exorcising, 
appears  by  our  Lord's  admission  when  he 
asks  the  Pharisees,  "If  I  by  Beelzebub 
cast  out  devils,  by  whom  do  your  disciples 
cast  them  out?"  (Matt.  xii.  27).  What 
means  were  employed  by  real  exorcists  we 
are  not  informed.  David,  by  playing  skil- 
fully on  a  harp,  procured  the  temporary 
departure  of  the  evil  spirit  which  troubled 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xvi.  23).  It  was  the  profane 
use  of  the  nauie  of  Jesus  as  a  mere  charm 
or  spell  which  led  to  the  disastrous  issue 
recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xix. 
13-16).  The  power  of  casting  out  devils 
was  bestowed  by  Christ  while  on  earth 
upon  the  Apostles  (Matt.  x.  8)  and  the  sev- 
enty disciples  (Luke  x.  17-19,  and  was,  ac- 
cording to  His  promise  (Mark  xvi.  17), 
exercised  by  believers  after  His  Ascension 
(Acts  xvi.  18)  ;  but  to  the  Christian  miracle, 
whether  as  performed  by  our  Lord  himself 
or  by  His  followers,  the  N.  T.  writers  never 
apply  the  terms  "  exorcise  "  or  "  exorcist." 

Expiation.    [Sackifice.] 

Ez'lbai,  father  of  Naarai,  who  was  one 
of  David's  thirty  mighty  men  (1  Chr.  xi. 
37). 

EzTbon.  1.  Son  of  Gad,  and  founder 
of  one  of  the  Gadite  families  ^Gen.  xlvi. 


EZEKIAS 


189 


EZRA 


16;  "Sum.  xxvi.  IG).  2.  Son  of  Bela,  the 
son  of  Benjamin,  according  to  1  Chr.  vii.  7. 
Ezeki'as,  Matt.  i.  9,  10.  [Hezekiah.] 
Eze'kiel,  one  of  the  four  greater  proph- 
ets, was  the  son  of  a  priest  named  Buzi, 
and  was  faken  captive  in  the  captivity  of  Je- 
hoiachin,  eleven  years  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem.  He  was  a  member  of  a 
community  of  Jewish  exiles  who  settled  on 
the  banks  of  the  Chebar,  a  "river"  or 
stream  of  Babylonia.  It  was  by  this  river 
•'  in  the  land  of  "the  Chaldaeans  "  that  God's 
message  first  reached  him  (i-3).  His  call 
took  place  "  in  tlie  fifth  year  of  king  Jehoia- 
chin's  captivity,"  b.  c.  595  (i.  2),  "  in  the 
thirtieth  year,  in  the  fourth  month."  The  lat- 
ter expression  is  uncertain.  It  now  seems 
generally  agreed  that  it  was  the  30tli  year 
from  the  new  era  of  Nabopolassar,  father  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  began  to  reign  b.  c. 
G25.  The  use  of  this  Chaldee  epoch  is  the 
more  appropriate  as  the  prophet  wrote  in 
Babylonia,  and  he  gives  a  Jewish  chronol- 
ogy in  ver.  2.  The  decision  of  the  ques- 
tion is  the  less  important  because  in  all 
other  places  Ezekiel  dates  from  the  year 
of  Jchoiachin's  captivity  (xxix.  17,  xxx. 
29,  et  passim).  We  learn  from  an  inci- 
dental allusion  (xxiv.  18)  — the  only  refer- 
ence which  he  makes  to  his  personal  history 
—  that  he  was  married,  and  had  a  house 
(viii.  1)  in  his  place  of  exile,  and  lost  his 
wife  by  a  sudden  and  unforeseen  stroke. 
He  lived  in  the  highest  consideration  among 
his  companions  in  exile,  and  their  elders 
consulted  him  on  all  occasions  (viii.  1,  xi. 
25,  xiv.  1,  XX.  1,  &c.).  The  last  date  he 
mentions  is  the  27th  year  of  the  captivity 
(.xxix.'  17),  so  that  his  mission  extended 
over  twenty -two  years,  during  part  of  which 
period  Daniel  was  probably  living,  and  al- 
ready famous  (Ez.  xiv.  14,  xxviii.  3).  He 
is  said  to  have  been  murdered  in  Babylon 
by  some  Jewish  prince  whom  he  had  con- 
victed of  idolatry,  and  to  have  been  buried 
in  the  tomb  of  Shem  and  Arphaxad,  on  the 
b;'nks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  tomb,  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Jehoiachin,  was  shown 
a  few  days'  journey  from  Bagdad.  Ezekiel 
was  distinguished  by  his  stern  and  inflex- 
ible energy  of  will  and  character ;  and  we 
also  observe  a  devoted  adherence  to  the 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  his  national  re- 
ligion. The  depth  of  his  matter,  and  the 
marvellous  nature  of  his  visions,  make  him 
occasionally  obscure.  The  book  is  divided 
into  two  great  parts  —  of  which  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  is  the  turning-point; 
chapters  i.-xxiv.  contain  predictions  deliv- 
ered before  that  event,  and  xxv.-xlviii. 
after  it,  as  we  see  from  xxvi.  2.  Again, 
chapters  i.-xxxii.  are  mainly  occupied  with 
correction,  denunciation,  and  reproof,  while 
tlie  remainder  deal  chiefly  in  consolation 
and  promise.  A  parenthetical  section 
in  the  middle  of  the  book  (xxv.-xxxii.) 


contains  a  group  of  prophecies  against 
seven  foreign  nations,  the  septenary  ar- 
rangement being  apparently  intentional. 
There  are  no  direct  quotations  from  Eze- 
kiel in  the  New  Testament,  but  in  the 
Apocalypse  there  are  many  parallels  and 
obvious  allusions  to  the  later  chapters 
(xl.-xlviii.). 

E'zel,  The  Stone.  A  well-known  stone 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Saul's  residence, 
the  scene  of  the  parting  of  David  and 
Jonathan  when  the  former  finally  fled  from 
the  court  (1  Sam.  xx.  19). 

E'zem,  one  of  the  towns  of  Simeon, 
(1  Chr.  iv.  29). 

E'zer.  1.  A  son  of  Ephraim,  who  was 
slain  by  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Gath, 
while  engaged  in  a  foray  on  their  cattle 
(1  Chr.  vii.  21).  2.  A  priest  who  assisted 
in  the  dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
under  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  42).  3.  Father 
of  Hushah  of  the  sons  of  Hur  (1  Chr. 
iv.  4). 

E'zion-ga'ber,  or  E'zion-ge'ber 
(Num.  xxxiii.  35;  Deut.  ii.  8;  1  K.  ix.  26, 
xxii.  48;  2  Chr.  viii.  17),  the  last  station 
named  for  the  encampment  of  the  Israel- 
ites before  they  came  to  the  wilderness  of 
Zin.  It  probably  stood  at  Ain  el-Ghudy&n 
about  ten  miles  up  what  is  now  the  dry 
bed  of  the  Arabah,  but  which  was  probably 
then  the  northern  end  of  the  gulf. 

Ez'nite,  The.  According  to  the  state- 
ment of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8,  "  Adino  the  Ez- 
nite"  was  another  name  for  "  Josheb-bas- 
shebeth"  a  Tachcemonite  (1  Chr.  xi.  11). 

Ez'ra,  called  Esdras  in  the  Apocrypha, 
the  famous  Scribe  and  Priest,  descended 
from  Hilkiah  the  high-priest  in  Josiah's 
reign,  from  whose  younger  son  Azariah 
sprung  Seraiah,  Ezra's  father,  quite  a  dif- 
ferent person  from  Seraiah  the  high-priest 
(Ezr.  vii.  1).  All  that  is  really  known  of 
Ezra  is  contained  in  the  four  last  chapters  of 
the  book  of  Ezra  and  in  Neh.  viii.  and  xii.  26. 
From  these  passages  we  learn  that  he  was  a 
learned  and  pious  priest  residing  at  Baby- 
lon in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 
The  origin  of  his  influence  with  the  king 
does  not  appear,  but  in  the  seventh  year 
of  his  reign,  in  spite  of  the  unfavorable 
report  which  had  been  sent  by  Rehum  and 
Shirashai,  he  obtained  leave  to  go  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  to  take  with  him  a  company  of 
Israelites,  together  with  priests,  Levites, 
singers,  porters,  and  Nethinim.  The  jour- 
ney of  Ezra  and  his  companions  from  Baby- 
lon to  Jerusalem  took  just  four  months ;  and 
they  brought  up  with  them  a  large  free- 
will offering  of  gold  and  silver,  and  silver 
vessels.  It  appears  that  his  great  design 
was  to  effect  a  religious  reformation  among 
the  Palestine  Jews,  and  to  bring  them  back 
to  the  observation  of  the  Law  of  Moses, 
from  which  they  had  grievously  declined. 
His  first  step,  accordingly,  was  to  enforce  a 


EZRA,  BOOK  OF 


190 


FAIES 


separation  from  their  wives  upon  au  who 
had  made  heathen  marriages,  in  which 
number  were  many  priests  and  Levites,  as 
well  as  other  Israelites.  This  was  effected 
in  little  more  than  six  months  after  his 
arrival  at  Jerusalem.  With  the  detailed 
account  of  this  important  transaction  Ez- 
ra's autobiography  ends  abruptly,  and  we 
hear  nothing  more  of  him  till,  13  years 
afterwards,  in  the  20th  of  Artaxerxes,  we 
find  him  again  at  Jerusalem  with  Nehemiah 
"  the  Tirshatha."  It  seems  probable  that 
after  he  had  effected  the  above-named  ref- 
ormation, and  had  appointed  competent 
judges  and  magistrates,  with  authority  to 
maintain  it,  he  himself  returned  to  the  king 
of  Persia.  The  functions  he  executed  under 
Kehemiah's  government  were  purely  of  a 
priestly  and  ecclesiastical  character.  But 
in  such  he  filled  the  first  place.  As  Ezra  is 
not  mentioned  after  Nehemiah's  departure 
for  Babylon  in  the  32d  Artaxerxes,  and  as 
everj'thing  fell  into  confusion  during  Nehe- 
miah's absence  (Neh.  xiii.),  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  Ezra  may  have  died  or  returned  to 
Babylon  before  that  year.  There  was  a  Jew- 
ish tradition  that  he  was  buried  in  Persia. 
The  principal  works  ascribed  to  him  by  the 
Jews  are  :  1.  The  institution  of  the  Great 
Synagogue.  2.  The  settling  the  canon  of 
Scripture,  and  restoring,  correcting,  and 
editing  the  whole  sacred  volume.  3.  The 
introduction  of  the  Chaldee  character  in- 
stead of  the  old  Hebrew  or  Samaritan. 
4.  The  authorship  of  the  books  of  Chron- 
icles, Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and,  some  add,  Es- 
ther i  and,  many  of  the  Jews  say,  also  of 
the  books  of  Ezckiel,  Daniel,  and  the  twelve 
prophets.  6.  The  establishment  of  syna- 
gogues. 

£z'ra,  Book  of,  is  a  continuation  of 
the  books  of  Chronicles.  Like  these  books, 
it  consists  of  the  contemporary  historical 
journals  kept  from  time  to  time,  which 
were  afterwards  strung  together,  and  either 
abridged  or  added  to,  as  the  case  required, 
by  a  later  hand.  That  later  hand,  in  the 
book  of  Ezra,  was  doubtless  Ezra's  own, 
as  appears  by  the  four  last  chapters,  as  well 
as  by  other  matter  inserted  in  the  previous 
chapters.  The  chief  portion  of  the  last 
chapter  of  2  Chr.  and  Ezr.  i.  was  probably 
written  by  Daniel.  As  regards  Ezr.  ii., 
and  as  far  as  iii.  1,  it  is  found  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  clerical  errors)  in  the  7th  ch.  of 
Nehemiah,  where  it  belongs  beyond  a  shad- 
ow of  doubt.  The  next  portion  extends 
from  iii.  2  to  the  end  of  ch.  vi.  With  the 
exception  of  one  large  explanatory  addition 
by  Ezra,  extending  from  iv.  6  to  23,  this 
portion  is  the  work  of  a  writer  contem- 
porary with  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua,  and  an 
eye-witness  of  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Darius 
Hystaspis.  That  it  was  the  prophet  Hag- 
gai  becomes  tolerably  Bure  when  we  ob- 


serve further  the  remarkable  coincidences 
in  style.  Ezr.  iv.  6-23  is  a  parenthetic  ad- 
dition by  a  much  later  hand,  and  as  the 
passage  most  clearly  shows,  made  in  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  The 
compiler  who  inserted  ch.  ii.,  a  document 
drawn  up  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  to 
illustrate  the  return  of  the  captives  under 
Zerubbabel,  here  inserts  a  notice  of  two 
historical  facts  —  of  which  one  occurred  in 
the  reign  of  Xerxes,  and  the  other  in  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  —  to  illustrate  the  op- 
position offered  by  the  heathen  to  the  re- 
building of  the  Temple  in  the  reign  of 
Cyrus  and  Cambyses.  The  last  four  chap- 
ters, beginning  with  ch.  vii.,  are  Ezra's 
own,  and  continue  the  history  after  a  gap 
of  fifty-eight  years  —  from  the  sixth  of 
Darius  to  the  seventh  of  Artaxerxes.  It  is 
written  partly  in  Hebrew,  and  partly  in 
Chaldee.  The  Chaldee  begins  at  iv.  8,  and 
continues  to  the  end  of  vi.  18.  The  letter 
or  decree  of  Artaxerxes,  vii.  12-26,  is  also 
given  in  the  original  Chaldee.  The  period 
covered  by  the  book  is  eighty  years,  from 
the  first  of  Cyrus,  b.  c.  536,  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighth  of  Artaxerxes,  b.  c. 
456. 

Ez'rahite,  The,  a  title  attached  to  two 
persons  —  Etlian  (1  K.  iv.  31 ;  Ps.  Ixxxix. 
title)  and  Heman  (Ps.  Ixxxviii.  title). 

Ez'ri,  son  of  Chelub,  superintendent  of 
king  David's  farm-laborers  (1  Chr.  xxvii. 
26). 

F. 

Fable.  Of  the  fable,  as  distinguished 
from  the  parable  [Parable],  we  have  but 
two  examples  in  the  Bible,  (1.)  that  of  the 
trees  choosing  their  king,  addressed  by 
Jotham  to  the  men  of  Shechem  (Judg.  ix. 
8-15) ;  (2.)  that  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon 
and  the  thistle,  as  the  answer  of  Jehoash 
to  the  challenge  of  Amaziah  (2  K.  xiv.  9). 
The  fables  of  false  teachers  claiming  to 
belong  to  the  Christian  church,  alluded  to 
by  writers  of  the  N.  T.  (1  Tim.  i.  4,  iv.  7; 
Tit.  i.  14 ;  2  Pet.  i.  16),  do  not  appear  to 
have  had  the  character  of  fables,  properly 
so  called. 

Fair  Havens,  a  harbor  in  the  island 
of  Crete  (Acts  xxvii.  8),  though  not  men- 
tioned in  any  other  ancient  writing,  is  still 
known  by  its  own  Greek  name,  and  appears 
to  have  been  the  harbor  of  Lasaea.  These 
places  are  situated  four  or  five  miles  to  the 
E.  of  Cape  Matala,  which  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous headland  on  the  S.  coast  of  Crete, 
and  immediately  to  the  W.  of  which  the 
coast  trends  suddenly  to  the  N. 

Fairs,  a  word  which  occurs  only  in  Ez. 
xxvii.,  and  there  no  less  than  seven  times 
(ver.  12,  14,  16,  19,  22,  27,  33)  :  in  the  last 
of  these  verses  it  is  rendered  ' '  wares,"  and 


FALLOW-DEER 


191 


FASTS 


this  we  believe  to  be  the  true  meaning  of 
the  word  throughout. 

Pallow-deer  (Heb.  yachrnd-r).  The 
Heb.  word,  which  is  mentioned  only  in 
Deut.  xiv.  5  and  in  1  K.  iv.  23,  is  probably 
the  Alcelaphus  bubalis  of  Barbary  and  N. 
Africa.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  stag,  and 
lives  in  herds. 

Famine.  In  the  whole  of  Syria  and 
Arabia,  the  fruits  of  the  earth  must  ever  be 
dependent  on  rain ;  the  watersheds  having 
few  large  springs,  and  the  small  rivers 
not  being  sufficient  for  the  irrigation  of 
even  the  level  lands.  If  therefore  the 
heavy  rains  of  November  and  December 
fail,  the  sustenance  of  the  people  is  cut  off 
in  the  parching  drought  of  harvest-time, 
when  the  country  is  almost  devoid  of  mois- 
ture. Egypt,  again,  owes  all  its  fertility  to 
its  mighty  river,  whose  annual  rise  inun- 
dates nearly  the  whole  land.  The  causes 
of  dearth  and  famine  in  Egypt  are  occa- 
sioned by  defective  inundation,  preceded 
and  accompanied  and  followed  by  prevalent 
easterly  and  southerly  winds.  The  first 
famine  recorded  in  the  Bible  is  that  of 
Abraham  after  he  had  pitched  his  tent  on 
the  east  of  Bethel  (Gen.  xii.  10).  We 
may  conclude  that  this  famine  was  exten- 
sive, although  this  is  not  quite  proved  by 
the  fact  of  Abraliam's  going  to  Egypt ;  for 
on  the  occasion  of  the  second  famine,  in 
the  days  of  Isaac,  this  patriarch  found 
refuge  with  Abimelech  king  of  the  Philis- 
tines in  Gerar  (Gen.  xxvi.  1,  sq.).  We 
hear  no  more  of  times  of  scarcity  until  the 
great  famine  of  Egypt  which  "  was  over  all 
the  face  of  the  eartli."  We  have  mentioned 
the  chief  causes  of  famines  in  Egypt :  this 
instance  differs  in  the  providential  recur- 
rence of  seven  years  of  plenty,  whereby 
Joseph  was  enabled  to  provide  against  the 
coming  dearth,  and  to  supply  not  only  the 
population  of  Egypt  with  corn,  but  those 
of  the  surrounding  countries  (Gen.  xli. 
53-57).  The  modern  history  of  Egypt 
throws  some  curious  light  on  these  ancient 
records  of  famines ;  and  instances  of  their 
recurrence  may  be  cited  to  assist  us  in  un- 
derstanding their  course  and  extent.  The 
most  remarkable  famine  was  that  of  the 
reign  of  the  FAtimee  Khaleefeh,  El-Mus- 
tansir  billah,  which  is  the  only  instance  on 
record  of  one  of  seven  years'  duration  in 
Egypt  since  the  time  of  Joseph  (a.  h.  457- 
464,  A.  D.  1064-1071).  Vehement  drought 
and  pestilence  continued  for  seven  consec- 
utive years,  so  that  the  people  ate  corpses, 
and  animals  that  died  of  themselves.  The 
famine  of  Samaria  resembled  it  in  many 
particulars ;  and  that  very  briefly  recorded 
in  2  K.  viii.  1,  2,  affords  another  instance 
of  one  of  seven  years.  In  Arabia,  famines 
are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Farthing.  Two  names  of  coins  in 
the  N.  T.  are  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  this 


word. —  1.  xo^piirTije,  quadrans  (Matt.  v. 
26 ;  Mark  xii.  42),  a  coin  current  in  Pales- 
tine in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  It  was  equiv- 
alent to  two  lepta  (A.  V.  "mites").  The 
name  quadrans  was  originally  given  to  the 
quarter  of  the  Roman  as,  or  piece  of  three 
unciae,  therefore  also  called  teruncius.  2. 
aaauQiov  (Matt.  X.  29;  Luke  xii.  6),  prop- 
erly a  small  as,  assarium,  but  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord  used  as  the  Gr.  equivalent  of 
the  Lat.  as.  The  rendering  of  the  Vulg. 
in  Luke  xii.  6  makes  it  probable  that  a  sin- 
gle coin  is  intended  by  two  assaria. 

Fasts.  I.  One  fast  only  was  appointed 
by  the  law,  that  on  the  day  of  Atonement. 
There  is  no  mention  of  any  other  periodi- 
cal fast  in  the  O.  T.,  except  in  Zech.  vii. 
1-7,  viii.  19.  From  these  passages  it  ap- 
pears that  the  Jews,  during  their  captivity, 
observed  four  annual  fasts,  in  the  fourth, 
fifth,  seventh,  and  tenth  months.  Zecha- 
riah  simply  distinguishes  the  fasts  by  the 
months  in  which  they  were  observed ;  but 
the  Mishna  and  St.  Jerome  give  statements 
of  certain  historical  events  which  they  were 
intended  to  commemorate.  The  number 
of  annual  fasts  in  the  present  Jewish  Cal- 
endar has  been  multiplied  to  twenty-eight. 
II.  Public  fasts  were  occasionally  pro- 
claimed to  express  national  humiliation, 
and  to  supplicate  divine  favor.  In  the  case 
of  public  danger,  the  proclamation  appears 
to  have  been  accompanied  with  the  blow- 
ing of  trumpets  (Joel  ii;  1-15).  The  fol- 
lowing instances  are  recorded  of  strictly 
national  fasts :  Samuel  gathered  "  all  Is- 
rael "  to  Mizpeh  and  proclaimed  a  fast  (1 
Sam.  vii.  6) ;  Jehoshaphat  appointed  one 
"  throughout  all  Judah"  when  he  was  pre- 
paring for  war  against  Moab  and  Ammon 
(2  Chr.  XX.  3)  ;  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim, 
one  was  proclaimed  for  "  all  the  people  in 
Jerusalem  and  all  who  came  thither  out  of 
the  cities  of  Judah,"  when  the  prophecy  of 
Jeremiah  was  publicly  read  by  Baruch 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  6-10 ;  cf.  Baruch  i.  5) ;  three 
days  after  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  when 
the  second  temple  was  completed,  "  the 
children  of  Israel  assembled  with  fasting 
and  with  sackclothes  and  earth  upon  them  " 
to  hear  the  law  read,  and  to  confess  their 
sins  (Neh.  ix.  1).  There  are  references  to 
general  fasts  in  the  Prophets  (Joel  i.  14,  ii. 
15;  Is.  Iviii.),  and  two  are  noticed  in  the 
books  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mace.  iii.  46, 
47;  2  Mace.  xiii.  10-12).  III.  Private 
occasional  fasts  are  recognized  in  one  pas- 
sage of  the  law  (Num.  xxx.  13).  The  in- 
stances given  of  individuals  fasting  under 
the  influence  of  grief,  vexation,  or  anxie- 
ty, are  numerous.  IV.  In  the  N.  T.  the 
only  references  to  the  Jewish  fasts  are  the 
mention  of  "the  Fast"  in  Acts  xxvii.  9 
(generally  understood  to  denote  the  Day 
of  Atonement),  and  the  allusions  to  the 
weekly  fasts  (Matt.  ix.   14;  Mark  ii.  18} 


FAT 


192 


FENCED  CITIES 


Luke  V.  33,  xviii.  12;  Acts  x.  30).  These 
fasts  originated  some  time  after  the  cap- 
tivity. They  were  observed  on  the  second 
and  fifth  days  of  the  week,  which,  being  ap- 
pointed as  the  days  for  public  fasts,  seem 
to  have  been  selected  for  these  private  vol- 
untary fasts.  V.  The  Jewish  fasts  were 
observed  with  various  degrees  of  strict- 
ness. Sometimes  there  was  entire  absti- 
nence from  food  (Esth.  iv.  16,  &c.).  On 
other  occasions,  there  appears  to  have  been 
only  a  restriction  to  a  very  plain  diet  (Dan. 
X.  3).  Those  who  fasted  frequently  dressed 
m  sackcloth  or  rent  their  clothes,  put  ashes 
on  their  head  and  went  barefoot  (1  K.  xxi. 
27;  Neh.  ix.  1;  Ps.  xxxv.  13).  VI.  The 
sacrifice  of  the  personal  will,  which  gives 
to  fasting  all  its  value,  is  expressed  in  the 
old  term  used  in  the  law,  afflicting  the  soul. 

Fat.  The  Hebrews  distinguished  be- 
tween the  suet  or  pure  fat  of  an  animal,  and 
the  fat  which  was  intermixed  with  the  lean 
(Neh.  viii.  10).  Certain  restrictions  were 
imposed  upon  them  in  reference  to  the  for- 
mer;  some  parts  of  the  suet,  viz.,  about  the 
stomach,  the  entrails,  tlie  kidneys,  and  the 
tail  of  a  sheep,  which  grows  to  an  excessive 
size  in  many  eastern  countries,  and  pro- 
duces a  large  quantity  of  rich  fat,  were  for- 
bidden to  be  eaten  in  the  case  of  animals 
offered  to  Jehovah  in  sacrifice  (Lev.  iii.  3, 
9,  17,  vii.  3,  23).  The  ground  of  the  pro- 
hibition was  that  the  fat  was  the  richest  part 
of  the  animal,  and  therefore  belonged  to 
Him  (iii.  16).  The  presentation  of  the  fat 
as  the  richest  part  of  the  animal  was  agree- 
able to  the  dictates  of  natural  feeling,  and 
was  the  ordinary  practice  even  of  heathen 
nations.  The  burning  of  the  fat  of  sacri- 
fices was  particularly  specified  in  eachkind 
of  offering. 

Fat,  i.  e.  Vat,  the  word  employed  in 
the  A.  V.  to  translate  the  Hebrew  term. 
yekeb,  in  Joel  ii.  34,  iii.  13.  The  word  com- 
monly used  for  yekeb  is  "winepress"  or 
"  winefat,"  and  once  "pressfat"  (Hag.  ii. 
16).  The  "  vats  "  appear  to  have  been  ex- 
cavated out  of  the  native  rock  of  the  hills 
on  which  the  vineyards  lay. 

Father.  The  position  and  authority  of 
the  father  as  the  head  of  the  family  are  ex- 
pressly assumed  and  sanctioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, as  a  likeness  of  that  of  the  Almighty 
over  His  creatures.  It  lies  of  course  at  the 
root  of  that  so-called  patriarchal  govern- 
ment (Gen.  iii.  16;  1  Cor.  xi.  3),  which 
was  introductory  to  the  more  definite  sys- 
tems which  followed,  and  wliich  in  part,  but 
not  wholly,  superseded  it.  The  father's 
blessing  was  regarded  as  conferring  special 
benefit,  but  his  malediction  special  injury, 
on  those  on  whom  it  fell  (Gen.  ix.  25,  27, 
xxvii.  27-40,  xlviii.  15,  20,  xlix.) ;  and  so 
also  the  sin  of  a  parent  was  held  to  affect, 
in  certain  cases,  the  welfare  of  his  descend- 
ants (2  K.  v.  27).    The  command  to  honor 


parents  is  noticed  by  St.  Paul  as  the  only 
one  of  the  Decalogue  which  bore  a  distinct 
promise  (Ex.  xx.  12;  Eph.  vi.  2),  and  dis- 
respect towards  them  was  condemned  by 
the  Law  as  one  of  the  worst  of  crimes  (Ex. 
xxi.  15,  17 ;  1  Tim.  i.  9).  It  is  to  this  well 
recognized  theory  of  parental  authority  and 
supremacy  that  the  very  various  uses  of 
the  terra  "father"  in  Scrii^ture  are  due. 
"Fathers  "  is  used  in  the  sense  of  seniors 
(Acts  vii.  2,  xxii.  1),  and  of  parents  in  gen- 
er.al,  or  ancestors  (Dan.  v.  2 ;  Jer.  xxvii. 
7;  Matt.  xxiu.  30,  32). 

Fathom.     [Measures.] 

Feasts.     [Festivals.] 

Fe'lix,  a  Roman  procurator  of  Judaea, 
appointed  by  the  Emperor  Claudius,  whose 
freedman  he  was,  on  the  banishment  of 
Ventidius  Cumanus  in  a.  d.  53.  Tacitus 
states  that  Felix  and  Cumanus  were  joint 
procurators ;  Cumanus  having  Galilee,  and 
Felix  Samaria.  Felix  was  the  brother 
of  Claudius's  powerful  fi-eednian  Pallas. 
He  ruled  the  province  in  a  mean,  cruel,  and 
profligate  manner.  His  period  of  office 
Avas  full  of  troubles  and  seditions.  St. 
Paul  was  brought  before  Felix  in  Caesarea. 
He  was  remanded  to  prison  and  kept  there 
two  years,  in  hopes  of  extorting  money 
from  him  (Acts  xxiv.  2Q,  27).  At  the  end 
of  that  time  Porcius  Festus  [Festus]  was 
appointed  to  supersede  Felix,  who,  on  his 
return  to  Rome,  was  accused  by  the  Jews 
in  Caesarea,  and  would  have  suffered  the 
penalty  due  to  his  atrocities,  had  "not  his 
brother  Pallas  prevailed  with  the  Emperor 
Nero  to  spare  him.  This  was  probably  in 
the  year  60  a.  d.  The  wife  of  Felix  was 
Drusilla,  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I., 
the  former  wife  of  Azizus  king  of  Emesa. 

Fenced.  Cities.  The  broad  distinction 
between  a  city  and  a  village  in  Biblical 
language  consisted  in  the  possession  of 
walls.  The  city  had  walls,  the  village  was 
unwalled,  or  had  only  a  watchman's  tower, 
to  which  the  villagers  resorted  in  times  of 
danger.  A  threefold  distinction  is  thus  ob- 
tained—  1.  cities;  2.  unwalled  villages ;  3. 
villages  with  castles  or  towers  (1  Chr.  xxvii. 
25).  The  district  east  of  the  Jordan,  form- 
ing the  kingdoms  of  Moab  and  Bashan,  is 
said  to  have  abounded  from  very  early 
times  in  castles  and  fortresses,  such  as 
were  built  by  Uzziah  to  protect  the  cattle, 
and  to  repel  the  inroads  of  the  neighboring 
tribes,  besides  unwalled  towns  (Dcut.  iii. 
5;  2  Chr.  xxvi.  10).  The  fortifications  of 
the  cities  of  Palestine,  thus  regularly 
"fenced,"  consisted  of  one  or  more  walls 
crowned  with  battlemented  parapets,  hav- 
ing towers  at  regular  intervals  (2  Chr. 
xxxii.  5;  Jer.  xxxi.  38),  on  which  in  later 
times  engines  of  war  were  placed,  and 
watch  was  kept  by  day  and  night  in  time 
of  war  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  9,  15 ;  Judg.  ix.  45 ; 
2  K.  ix.  17.) 


FERRET 


193 


FIR 


Ferret.  One  of  the  unclean  creeping 
things  mentioned  in  Lev.  xi.  30.  The  an- 
imal referred  to  was  probably  a  reptile  of 
the  lizard  tribe.  The  Rabbinical  writers 
seem  to  have  identified  this  animal  with  the 
hedgehog. 

Festivals.  I.  The  religious  times  or- 
dained in  the  Law  fall  under  three  heads  : 
(1.)  Those  formally  connected  with  the 
institution  of  the  Sabbath ;  (2.)  The  his- 
torical or  great  festivals  ;  (3.)  The  Day  of 
Atonement.  (1.)  Immediately  connected 
with  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  are  :  (a) 
The  weekly  Sabbath  itself.  (6)  The  sev- 
enth new  moon  or  Feast  of  Trumpets,  (c) 
The  Sabbatical  Year,  (d)  The  Year  of 
Jubilee.  (2.)" The  great  feasts  are:  (a) 
The  Passover,  (h)  The  Feast  of  Pente- 
cost, of  Weeks,  of  Wheat-harvest,  or,  of 
the  First-fruits,  (c)  The  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles, or  of  Ingathering.  On  each  of 
these  occasions  every  male  Israelite  was 
commanded  "  to  appear  before  the  Lord," 
that  is,  to  attend  in  the  court  of  the  taber- 
nacle or  the  temple,  and  to  make  Ms  offer- 
ing with  a  joyful  heart  (Deut.  xxvii.  7 ; 
Neh.  viii.  9-12).  The  attendance  of  wo- 
men was  voluntary,  but  the  zealous  often 
went  up  to  the  Passover.  On  all  the  days 
of  Holy  Convocation  there  was  to  be  an 
entire  suspension  of  ordinary  labor  of 
all  kinds  (Ex.  xii.  16 ;  Lev.  xvi.  29,  xxiii. 
21,  24,  25,  35).  But  on  the  intervening 
days  of  the  longer  festivals  work  might  be 
carried  on.  Besides  their  religious  pur- 
pose, the  great  festivals  must  have  had  an 
important  bearing  on  the  maintenance  of  a 
feeling  of  national  unity.  The  frequent 
recurrence  of  tlie  sabbatical  number  in  the 
organization  of  these  festivals  is  too  re- 
markable to  be  passed  over,  and  seems, 
when  viewed  in  connection  with  the  sab- 
batical sacred  times,  to  furnish  a  strong 
proof  that  the  whole  system  of  the  festivals 
of  the  Jewish  law  was  the  product  of  one 
mind.  The  agricultural  significance  of  the 
three  great  festivals  is  clearly  set  forth  in 
the  account  of  the  Jewish  sacred  year  con- 
tained in  Lev,  xxiii.  The  times  of  the 
festivals  were  evidently  ordained  in  wis- 
dom, so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possi- 
ble with  the  industry  of  the  people.  (3.) 
For  the  Day  of  Atonement  see  that  article. 
II.  After  the  captivity,  tlie  Feast  of  Purim 
(Esth.  ix.  20,  sq.)  and  that  of  the  Dedica- 
tion (1  Mace.  iv.  56)  were  instituted. 

Fes'tus,  Por'eius,  successor  of  Felix 
as  procurator  of  Judaea  (Acts  xxiv.  27), 
sent  by  Nero  probably  in  the  autumn  of  the 
year  60  a.  d.     A  few  weeks  after  Festus 
reached  his  province  he  heard  the  cause  of 
St.  Paul,  who  had  been  left  a  prisoner  by 
Felix,  in  tlie  presence  of  Herod  Agrippa  j 
II.  and  Bernice  his  sister  (Acts  xxv.   11,  j 
12).     Judaea  was   in  the   same   disturbed  i 
state  during  the  procuratorship  of  Festus,  ; 
13 


I  which  had  prevailed  through  that  of  his 
predecessor.  He  died  probably  in  the  sum- 
mer of  62  A.  D.,  having  ruled  the  province 
less  than  two  years. 

Fetters.  Fetters  were  usually  made  of 
brass,  and  also  in  pairs,  the  word  being  in 
the  dual  number.  Iron  was  occasionally  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose  (Ps.  cv.  18,  cxlix.  8). 

Fever  (kaddachath,  dalleketh,  char- 
chur ;  Lev.  xxvi.  16;  Deut.  xxviii.  22). 
These  words,  from  various  roots,  signifying 
heat  or  inflammation,  are  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  by  various  words  suggestive  of  fever, 
or  a  feverish  affection.  The  third  word 
may  perhaps  be  erysipelas.  Intermittent 
fever  and  dysentery,  the  latter  often  fatal, 
are  ordinary  Arabian  diseases. 

Field.  The  Hebrew  sadeh  is  applied 
to  any  cultivated  ground,  and  in  some  in- 
stances in  marked  opposition  to  the  neigh- 
boring wilderness.  On  the  other  hand  the 
sadeh  is  frequently  contrasted  with  what  is 
enclosed,  whether  a  vineyard,  a  garden,  or 
a  walled  town.  In  many  passages  the  term 
implies  what  is  remote  from  a  house  (Gen. 
iv.  8,  xxiv.  63;  Deut.  xxii.  25)  or  settled 
habitation,  as  in  the  ease  of  Esau  (Gen. 
xxv.  27).  The  separate  plots  of  ground 
were  marked  off  by  stones,  which  might 
easily  be  removed  (Deui.  xix.  14,  xxvii. 
17;  cf.  Job  xxiv.  2;  Prov.  xxii.  28,  xxiii. 
10) ;  the  absence  of  fences  rendered  the 
fields  liable  to  damage  from  straying  cattle 
(Ex.  xxii.  5)  or  fire  (ver.  6;  2  Sam.  xiv. 
30) :  hence  the  necessity  of  constantly 
watching  flocks  and  herds.  From  the  ab- 
sence of  enclosures,  cultivated  land  of  any 
size  might  be  termed  a  field.  It  should  be 
observed  that  the  expressions  "  fruitful 
field"  (Is.  X.  18,  xxix.  17,  xxxii.  15,  16)^ 
and  "plentiful  field"  (Is.  xvi.  10;  Jer. 
xlviii.  33),  are  not  connected  with  sadeh^ 
but  with  carmel,  meaning  a  park  or  well- 
kept  wood,  as  distinct  from  a  wilderness  oc 
a  forest. 

Fig,  Fig-tree  (Heb.  tUndK),  a  word- 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  O.  T,  wherfr 
it  signifies  the  tree  Ficus  Carica  of  Lin- 
naeus, and  also  its  fruit.  The  fig-tree  is 
very  common  in  Palestine  (Deut.  viii.  8).. 
Mount  Olivet  was  famous  for  its  fig-trees- 
in  ancient  times,  and  they  are  still  found' 
there.  "  To  sit  under  one's  own  vine  and. 
one's  own  fig-tree "  became  a  proverbial! 
expression  among  the  Jews  to  denote  peace- 
and  prosperity  (1  K.  iv.  25;  Mic.  iv.  4; 
Zech.  iii.  10). 

Fir  (Heb.  blrSsJi,  hirSth,  Is.  xiv.  8 ;  Ez. 
xxvii.  5,  &c.).  As  the  term  "  cedar  "  is  in 
all  probability  applicable  to  more  than  one 
tree,  so  also  "fir"  in  the  A.  V.  represents 
probably  one  or  other  of  the  following 
trees:  1.  Pinus  sylvestris,  or  Scotch  fir; 
2.  Larch;  3.  Cupressus  serapervirens,  or 
cypress,  all  which  are  at  tliis  day  found  in 
the  Lebanon. 


FIRE 


194 


FIRST-FRUITS 


Pire  is  represented  as  the  symbol  of  Je- 
hovah's presence,  and  the  instrument  of 
his  power,  in  the  way  either  of  approval  or 
of  destruction  (Ex.  iii.  2,  xiv.  19,  &c.)- 
Parallel  with  this  application  of  fire  and 
with  its  symbolical  meaning  are  to  be  noted 
the  similar  use  for  sacrificial  purposes  and 
the  respect  paid  to  it,  or  to  the  heavenly 
bodies  as  symbols  of  deity,  which  prevailed 
among  so  many  nations  of  antiquity,  and 
of  which  the  traces  are  not  even  now  ex- 
tinct :  e.  g.  the  Sabaean  and  Magian  sys- 
tems of  worship,  and  their  alleged  connec- 
tion with  Abraham ;  the  occasional  relapse 
of  the  Jews  themselves  into  sun,  or  its  cor- 
rupted form  of  fire-wbrship  (Is.  xxvii.  9; 
Deut.  xvii.  3,  &c.),  the  worship  or  deifica- 
tion of  heavenly  bodies  or  of  fire,  prevail- 
ing to  some  extent,  as  among  the  Persians, 
80  also  even  in  Egypt.  Fire  for  sacred  pur- 
poses obtained  elsewhere  than  from  the 
altar  was  called  *'  strange  fire,"  and  for  the 
use  of  such  Nadab  and  Abihu  were  pun- 
ished with  death  by  fire  from  God  (Lev.  x. 
1,  2;  Num.  iii.  4,  xxvi.  61). 

Firepan,  one  of  the  vessels  of  the 
Temple  service  (Ex.  xxvii.  3,  xxxviii.  3 ;  2 
K.  XXV.  15;  Jer.  Iii.  19).  The  same  word 
is  elsewhere  rendered  "snuflF-dish"  (Ex. 
XXV.  38,  xxxvii.  23;  Num.  iv.  2)  and  "  cen- 
ser "  (Lev.  X.  1,  xvi.  12;  Num.  xvi.  6,  ff.). 
There  appear,  therefore,  to  have  been  two 
articles  so  called :  one,  like  a  chafing-dish, 
to  carry  live  coals  for  the  purpose  of  burn- 
ing incense;  another,  like  a  snuflTer-dish, 
to  be  used  in  trimming  the  lamps,  in  order  to 
carry  the  snuffers  and  convey  away  the  snuff. 

rirkin.     [Weights  and  Measdres.] 

Firmament.  The  Hebrew  term  rdkta, 
so  translated,  is  generally  regarded  as  ex- 
pressive of  simple  expansion,  and  is  so 
rendered  in  the  margin  of  the  A.  V.  (Gen. 
i.  6).  The  root  means  to  expand  by  beat- 
ing, whether  by  the  hand,  the  foot,  or  any 
instrument.  It  is  especially  used  of  beat- 
ing out  metals  into  thin  plates  (Ex.  xxxix. 
3;  Num.  xvi.  39).  The  sense  of  solidity, 
therefore,  is  combined  with  the  ideas  of 
expansion  and  tenuity  in  the  term.  The 
same  idea  of  solidity  runs  through  all  the 
references  to  the  rdkta.  In  Ex.  xxiv.  10, 
it  is  represented  as  a  solid  floor.  So  again, 
in  Ez.  i.  22-26,  the  "firmament"  is  the 
floor  on  which  the  throne  of  the  Most  High 
is  placed.  Further,  the  oflice  of  the  rdkta 
in  the  economy  of  the  world  demanded 
strength  and  substance.  It  was  to  serve  as 
a  division  between  the  waters  above  and 
the  waters  below  (Gen.  i.  7).  In  keeping 
with  this  view  the  rdkta  was  provided  with 
"windows"  (Gen.  vii.  11;  Is.  xxiv.  18; 
Mai.  iii.  10)  and  "doors  "  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  23), 
through  which  the  rain  and  the  snow  might 
descend.  A  secondary  purpose  which  the 
rdkta  served  was  to  support  the  heavenly 
t)odies,  sun,  moon,  and  stars  (Gen.  i.  14), 


in  which  they  were  fixed  as  nails,  and  from 
which,  consequently,  they  might  be  said  to 
drop  off  (Is.  xiv.  12,  xxxiv.  4;  Matt.  xxiv. 
29). 

First-bom.  Under  the  Law,  in  mem- 
ory of  the  Exodus,  the  eldest  son  was  re- 
garded as  devoted  to  God,  and  was  in  every 
case  to  be  redeemed  by  an  offering  not  ex- 
ceeding 5  shekels,  within  one  month  from 
birth.  If  he  died  before  the  expiration  of 
30  days,  the  Jewish  doctors  held  the  father 
excused,  but  liable  to  the  payment  if  he 
outlived  that  time  (Ex.  xiii.  12-15,  xxii. 
29;  Num.  viii.  17,  xviii.  15,  16;  Lev, 
xxvii.  6).  The  eldest  son  received  a  double 
portion  of  the  father's  inheritance  (Deut. 
xxi.  17),  but  not  of  the  mother's.  Under 
the  monarchy,  the  eldest  son  usually,  but 
not  always,  as  appears  in  the  case  of  Solo- 
mon, succeeded  his  father  in  the  kingdom 
(1  K.  i.  30,  ii.  22).  The  male  first-born  of 
animals  was  also  devoted  to  God  (Ex.  xiii. 
2,  12,  13,  xxii.  29,  xxxiv.  19,  20).  Unclean 
animals  were  to  be  redeemed  with  the  ad- 
dition of  one  fifth  of  the  value,  or  else  put 
to  death ;  or,  if  not  redeemed,  to  be  sold, 
and  the  price  given  to  the  priests  (Lev. 
xxvii.  13,  27,  28). 

First-firuits.  1.  The  Law  ordered  in 
general,  that  the  first  of  all  ripe  fruits  and 
of  liquors,  or,  as  it  is  twice  expressed,  the 
first  of  first-fruits,  should  be  offered  in 
God's  house  (Ex.  xxii.  29,  xxiii.  19,  xxxiv. 
27).  2.  On  the  morrow  after  the  Passover 
sabbath,  i.  e.  on  the  16th  of  Nisan,  a  sheaf 
of  new  corn  was  to  be  brought  to  the  priest, 
and  waved  before  the  altar,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  gift  of  fruitfulness  (Lev.  xxiii. 
5,  6,  10,  12,  ii.  12).  3.  At  the  expiration 
of  7  weeks  from  this  time,  i.  e.  at  the  Feast 
of  Pentecost,  an  oblation  was  to  be  raado 
of  2  loaves  of  leavened  bread  made  from 
the  new  flour,  which  were  to  be  waved  in 
like  manner  with  the  Passover  sheaf  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  15,  17;  Num.  xxviii. 
26).  4.  The  feast  of  ingathering,  i.  e.  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  in  the  7th  month,  was 
itself  an  acknowledgment  of  the  fruits  of 
the  harvest  (Ex.  xxiii.  16,  xxxiv.  22 ;  Lev. 
xxiii.  39).  These  four  sorts  of  offerings 
were  national.  Besides  them,  the  two  fol- 
lowing were  of  an  individual  kind.  5.  A 
cake  of  the  first  dough  that  was  baked,  was 
to  be  offered  as  a  heave-offering  (Num.  xv. 
19,  21).  6.  The  first-fruits  of  the  land 
were  to  be  brought  in  a  basket  to  the  holy 
place  of  God's  choice,  and  there  presented 
to  the  priest,  who  was  to  set  the  basket 
down  before  the  altar  (Deut.  xxvi.  2-11). 
The  offerings  were  the  perquisite  of  the 
priests  (Num.  xviii.  11;  Deut.  xviii.  4). 
Nehemiah,  at  the  Return  from  Captivity, 
took  pains  to  reorganize  the  offerings  of 
first-fruits  of  both  kinds,  and  to  appoint 
places  to  receive  them  (Neh.  x.  35,  87,  xii. 
44).  An  offering  of  first-fruits  is  mentioned 


FISH 


195 


FLOOR 


as  an  acceptable  one  to  the  prophet  Elisha 
(2  K.  iv.  42). 

Pish.  The  Hebrews  recognized  fish  as 
one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  and,  as  such,  give  them  a  place 
in  the  account  of  the  creation  (Gen.  i.  21, 
28),  as  well  as  in  other  passages  where  an 
exhaustive  description  of  living  creatures 
is  intended  (Gen.  ix.  2 ;  Ex.  xx.  4 ;  Deut. 
iv.  18 ;  1  K.  iv.  33)  The  Mosaic  law  (Lev. 
xi.  9,  10)  pronouhoed  unclean  such  fish  as 
were  devoid  of  fins  and  scales  :  these  were 
and  are  regarded  as  unwholesome  in  Egypt. 
Among  the  Philistines,  Dagon  was  repre- 
sented by  a  figure,  half  man  and  half  fish 
(1  Sara.  V.  4).  On  this  account  the  wor- 
ship of  fish  is  expressly  prohibited  (Deut. 
iv.  18).  In  Palestine,  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
was  and  still  is  remarkably  well  stored 
with  fish.  Jerusalem  derived  its  supply 
chiefly  from  the  Mediterranean  (comp.  Ez. 
xlvii.  10).  The  existence  of  a  regular  fish- 
market  is  implied  in  the  notice  of  the  fisli- 
gate,  which  was  probably  contiguous  to  it 
(2  Chr.  xxxiii.  14 ;  Neh.  iii.  3,  xii.  39 ; 
Zeph.  i.  10).  Numerous  allusions  to  the 
art  of  fishing  occur  in  the  Bible.  The 
most  usual  method  of  catching  fish  was  by 
the  use  of  the  net,  either  the  casting  net 
(Hab.  i.  15;  Ez.  xxvi.  5,  14,  xlvii.  10), 
probably  resembling  the  one  used  in  Egypt, 


An  Egyptian  Landing-net.    rWilkinson.) 

as  shown  in  Wilkinson  (iii.  55),  or  the 
draw  or  drag  net  (Is.  xix.  8;  Hab.  i.  15), 
which  was  larger,  and  required  the  use  of 
a  boat :  the  latter  was  probably  most  used 
on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  as  the  number  of 
boats  kept  on  it  was  very  considerable. 
Angling  was  a  favorite  pursuit  of  the 
wealthy  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  followed 
by  the  poor  who  could  not  afford  a  net. 
A  still  more  scientific  method  was  with  the 
trident  or  the  spear,  as  practised  in  Egypt  in 
taking  the  crocodile  (Job  xli.  7)  or  the 
hippopotanms. 

Pitclies  (i.  c.  Vetches),  the  represen- 
tative in  the  A.  V.  of  the  two  Heb.  words 
eussemeih  and  ketsach.     As  to  the  former 


see  Rte.  Keisach  denotes  without  doubt 
the  Nigella  sativa,  an  herbaceous  annual 
plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Ranun- 
culaceae,  and  sub-order  Uelleboreae,  which 
grows  in  the  S.  of  Europe  and  in  the  N.  of 
Africa. 

Flag,  the  representative  in  the  A.  "V. 
of  the  two  Heb.  words  Ach'A  and  sUph.  1. 
AchU,  a  word,  according  to  Jerome,  of 
Egyptian  origin,  and  denoting  "any  green 
and  coarse  herbage,  such  as  rushes  and 
reeds,  which  grows  in  marshy  places."  It 
seems  probable  that  some  specific  plant  is 
denoted  in  Job  viii.  11.  The  word  occurs 
once  again  in  Gen.  xli.  2,  18,  where  it  is 
said  that  the  seven  well-favored  kine  came 
up  out  of  the  river  and  fed  in  an  dchu.  It 
is  perhaps  the  Cypems  esculentus.  2.  Siiph 
(Ex.  ii.  3,  5 ;  Is.  xix.  6)  appears  to  be  used 
in  a  very  wide  sense  to  denote  "  weeds  of 
any  kind." 

Flagon,  a  word  employed  in  the  A.  "V. 
to  render  two  distinct  Hebrew  terms :  1. 
AsMshah  (2  Sam.  vi.  19;  1  Chr.  xvi.  3; 
Cant.  ii.  5;  Hos.  iii.  1).  It  really  means  a 
cake  of  pressed  raisins.  2.  Niebel  (Is.  xxii. 
24)  is  commonly  used  for  a  bottle  or  vessel, 
originally  probably  a  skin,  but  in  later  times 
a  piece  of  pottery  (Is.  xxx.  14). 

Flax.  Two  words  are  used  for  this 
plant  in  the  O.  T.,  or  rather  the  same  word 
slightly  modified.  Eliminating  all  the  places 
where  the  words  are  used  for  the  article 
manufactured  in  the  thread,  the  piece,  or 
the  made  up  garment,  we  reduce  them  to 
two  (Ex.  ix.  31 ;  Josh.  ii.  6).  It  seems 
probable  that  the  cultivation  of  flax  for 
the  purpose  of  the  manufacture  of  linen  was 
by  no  means  confined  to  Egypt;  but  that 
originating  in  India  it  spread  over  Asia  at 
a  very  early  period  of  antiquity.  That  it 
was  grown  in  Palestine  even  before  the  con- 
quest of  that  country  by  the  Israelites  ap- 
pears from  Josh.  ii.  6.  The  various  pro- 
cesses employed  in  preparing  the  flax  for 
manufacture  into  cloth  are  indicated :  1. 
The  drying  process.  2.  The  peeling  of  the 
stalks,  and  separation  of  the  fibres.  3.  The 
hackling  (Is.  xix.  9).  That  flax  was  one 
of  the  most  important  crops  in  Palestine 
appears  from  Hos.  ii.  5,  9. 

Flea,  an  insect  twice  only  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  viz.,  in  1  Sam.  xxiv.  14,  xxvi. 
20.  Fleas  are  abundant  in  the  East,  and 
afford  the  subject  of  many  proverbial  ex- 
pressions. 

Flesh.     [Food.] 

Flint.  The  Heb.  chaUdmtsh  is  rendereil 
flint  in  Deut.  viii.  15,  xxxii.  13 ;  Ps.  cxiv. 
8 ;  and  Is.  1.  7.  In  Job  xxviii.  9  the  same 
word  is  rendered  rock  in  the  text,  and  flint 
in  the  margin.  In  Ez.  iii.  9  the  English 
word  "flint"  occurs  in  the  same  sease,  but 
there  it  represents  the  Heb.  Tzor^ 

Flood.     [Noah.] 

Floor.     [PAVEMEirr.l 


TLOUR 


196 


FOOD 


Plour.     [Bread.] 

Flute  (1  K.  i.  4,  marg.  [Pipe]),  a  mu- 
sical instrument  mentioned  amongst  others 
(Dan.  iii.  6,  7,  10,  15)  as  used  at  the  wor- 
ship of  the  goklen  image  which  Nebuchad- 
nezzar had  set  up. 

PlvtX,  Bloody  (Acts  xxviii.  8),  the 
same  as  our  dysentery,  which  in  the  East 
is,  though  sometimes  sporadic,  generally 
epidemic  and  infectious,  and  then  assumes 
its  worst  form. 

Ply,  Plies.  1.  ZibUb  occurs  only  in 
Eccl.  X.  1  and  in  Is.  vii.  18,  and  is  prob- 
ably a  generic  name  for  any  insect.  The 
zSbAb  from  the  rivers  of  Egypt  has  been 
identified  with  the  zimb  of  which  Bruce 
gives  a  description,  and  which  is  evident- 
ly some  species  of  Tabanus.  2.  'Ardb 
("swarms  of  flies,"  "divers  sorts  of  flies," 
A.  v.),  the  name  of  the  insect,  or  insects, 
which  God  sent  to  punish  Pharaoh ;  see  Ex. 
viii.  21-31 ;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  45,  cv.  31.  As  the 
drdb  are  said  to  have  filled  the  houses  of 
the  Egyptians,  it  seems  not  improbable  that 
common  flies  (^Musddae)  are  more  espe- 
cially intended.  The  identification  of  the 
'Ardb  with  the  cockroach  is  purely  gratui- 
tous. 

Pood.  The  diet  of  Eastern  nations  has 
been  in  all  ages  light  and  simple.  As  com- 
pared with  our  own  habits,  the  chief  points 
of  contrast  are  the  small  amount  of  animal 
food  consumed,  the  variety  of  articles  used 
as  accompaniments  to  bread,  the  substitution 
of  milk  in  various  forms  for  our  liquors, 
and  the  combination  of  what  we  should 
deem  heterogeneous  elements  in  the  same 
dish,  or  the  same  meal.  The  chief  point 
of  agreement  is  the  large  consumption  of 
bread,  the  importance  of  which  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Hebrew  is  testified  by  the  use  of  the 
term  lechem  (originally  food  of  any  kind) 
specifically  for  bread,  as  well  as  by  the  ex- 
pression "staff  of  bread"  (Lev.  xxvi.  26; 
Ps.  cv.  16;  Ez.  iv.  16,  xiv.  13).  Simpler 
preparations  of  corn  were,  however,  com- 
mon ;  sometimes  the  fresh  green  ears  were 
eaten  in  a  natural  state,  the  husks  being 
rubbed  off  by  the  hand  (Lev.  xxiii.  14 ;  Deut. 
xxiii.  25 ;  2  K.  iv.  42 ;  Matt.  xii.  1 ;  Luke 
vi.  1)  ;  more  frequently,  however,  the  grains, 
after  being  carefully  picked,  were  roasted 
in  a  pan  over  a  fire  (Lev.  ii.  14),  and  eaten 
as  "  parched  corn,"  in  which  form  they  were 
an  ordinary  article  of  diet,  particularly 
among  laborers,  or  others  who  had  not  the 
means  of  dressing  food  (Lev.  xxiii.  14 ;  Ruth 
ii.  14 ;  1  Sara.  xvii.  17,  xxv.  18 ;  2  Sam.  xvii. 
28)  :  this  practice  is  still  very  usual  in  the 
East.  Sometimes  the  grain  was  bruised 
(A.  V.  "beaten,"  Lev.  ii.  14,  16),  and  then 
dried  in  the  sun ;  it  was  eaten  eitlier  mixed 
with  oil  (Lev.  ii.  15),  or  made  into  a  soft 
cake  (A.  V.  "  dough ; "  Num.  xv.  20 ;  Neh.  x. 
87 ;  Ez.  xliv.  30).  The  Hebrews  used  a  great 
variety  of  articles  (John  xxi.  5)  to  give  a  rel- 


ish to  oread.  Sometimes  salt  was  so  used 
(Jobvi.  6),  as  we  learn  from  the  passage  just 
quoted;  sometimes  the  bread  was  dipped 
into  the  sour  wine  (A.  V.  "  vinegar ") 
which  the  laborers  drank  (Ruth  ii.  14); 
or,  where  meat  was  eaten,  into  the  gravy, 
which  was  either  served  up  separately  for 
the  purpose,  as  by  Gideon  (Judg.  vi.  19), 
or  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  meat-dish,  as 
done  by  the  Arabs.  Milk  and  its  prepara- 
tions hold  a  conspicuous  place  in  Eastern 
diet,  as  affording  substantial  nourishment; 
sometimes  it  was  produced  in  a  fresh  state 
(Gen.  xviii.  8),  but  more  generally  in  the 
form  of  the  modem  leban,  i.  e.  sour  milk 
(A.  V.  "butter;"  Gen.  xviii.  8;  Judg.  v. 
25;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  Fruit  was  another 
source  of  subsistence :  figs  stand  first  in 
point  of  importance ;  they  were  generally 
dried  and  pressed  into  cakes.  Grapes  were 
generally  eaten  in  a  dried  state  as  raisins. 
Fruit-cake  forms  a  part  of  the  daily  food  of 
the  Arabians.  Of  vegetables  we  have  most 
frequent  notice  of  lentils  (Gen.  xxv.  34 ;  2 
Sam.  xvii.  28,  xxiii.  11;  Ez.  iv.  9),  which 
are  still  largely  used  by  the  Bedouins  in 
travelling ;  beans  (2  Sara.  xvii.  28 ;  Ez.  iv. 
9),  leeks,  onions,  and  garlic,  which  were 
and  still  are  of  a  superior  quality  in  Egypt 
(Num.  xi.  5).  The  modern  Arabians  con- 
sume but  few  vegetables :  radishes  and 
leeks  are  most  in  use,  and  are  eaten  raw 
with  bread.  In  addition  to  these  classes  we 
have  to  notice  some  other  important  articles 
of  food  :  in  the  first  place,  honey,  whether 
the  natural  product  of  the  bee  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
25;  Matt.  iii.  4),  which  abounds  in  most 
parts  of  Arabia,  or  of  the  other  natural  and 
artificial  productions  included  under  that 
head,  especially  the  dibs  of  the  Syrians  and 
Arabians,  ».  e.  grape-juice  boiled  down, 
which  is  still  extensively  used  in  the  East ; 
the  latter  is  supposed  to  be  referred  to  in 
Gen.  xliii.  11,  and  Ez.  xxvii.  17.  With  re- 
gard to  oil,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
used  to  the  extent  we  might  have  anticipat- 
ed. Eggs  are  not  often  noticed,  but  were 
evidently  known  as  articles  of  food  (Is.  x. 
14,  lix.  -5 :  Luke  xi.  12.)  The  Orientals 
have  been  at  all  times  sparing  in  the  use 
of  animal  food :  not  only  does  the  exces- 
sive heat  of  the  climate  render  it  both  un- 
wholesome to  eat  much  meat,  and  expen- 
sive from  the  necessity  of  immediately 
consuming  a  whole  animal,  but  beyond  this 
the  ritual  regulations  of  the  Mosaic  law  in 
ancient,  as  of  the  Koran  in  modern  times, 
have  tended  to  the  same  result.  The  pro- 
hibition expressed  against  consuming  the 
blood  of  any  animal  (Gen.  ix.  4)  was  more 
fully  developed  in  the  Levitical  law,  and 
enforced  by  the  penalty  of  death  (Lev.  iii. 
17,  vii.  26,  xix.  26;  Deut.  xii.  16;  1  Sara, 
xiv.  32,  ff. ;  Ez.  xliv.  7,  15).  Certain  por- 
tions of  the  fat  of  sacrifices  were  also  foi- 
bidden  (Lev.  iii.  9, 10),  as  being  set  apart 


FOOTMAN 


197 


FOUNTAIN 


for  the  altar  (Lev.  iii.  16,  vii.  25  ;  cf.  1  Sam. 
ii.  16,  ff. ;  2  Chr.  vii.  7).  In  addition  to  the 
above,  Christians  were  forbidden  to  eat  the 
flesh  of  animals,  portions  of  which  had 
been  ofTered  to  idols.  All  beasts  and  birds 
classed  as  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  1,  fF. ;  Deut. 
xiv.  4,  flP.)  were  also  prohibited.  Under 
these  restrictions  the  Hebrews  were  per- 
mitted the  free  use  of  animal  food :  gen- 
erally speaking  they  only  availed  them- 
selves of  it  in  the  exercise  of  hospitality 
(Gen.  xviii.  7),  or  at  festivals  of  a  reli- 
gious (Ex.  xii.  8),  public  (1  K.  i.  9;  1  Chr. 
xii.  40),  or  private  character  (Gen.  xxvii. 
4 ;  Luke  xv.  23) ;  it  was  only  in  royal 
households  that  there  was  a  daily  consump- 
tion of  meat  (1  K.  iv.  23;  Neh.  v.  18). 
The  animals  killed  for  meat  were —  calves 
(Gen.  xviii.  7;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24;  Am. 
vi.  4)  ;  lambs  (2  Sam.  xii.  4 ;  Am.  vi.  4)  ; 
oxen,  not  above  three  years  of  age  (1 
K.  i.  9 ;  Prov.  xv.  17 ;  Is.  xxii.  13 ;  Matt, 
xxii.  4)  ;  kids  (Gen.  xxvii.  9 ;  Judg.  vi.  19 ; 
1  Sam.  xvi.  20) ;  harts,  roebucks,  and  fal- 
low-deer (1  K.  iv.  23)  ;  birds  of  various 
kinds ;  fish,  with  the  exception  of  such  as 
were  without  scales  and  fins  (Lev.  xi.  9 ; 
Deut.  xiv.  9).  Locusts,  of  which  certain 
species  only  were  esteemed  clean  (Lev.  xi. 
22),  were  occasionally  eaten  (Matt.  iii.  4), 
tut  considered  as  poor  fare. 

Footman,  a  word  employed  in  the 
Auth.  Version  in  two  senses.  1.  Gener- 
ally, to  distinguish  those  of  the  people  or 
of  the  fighting-men  who  went  on  foot  from 
those  who  were  on  horseback  or  in  chariots. 
But,  2.  The  word  occurs  in  a  more  special 
sense  (in  1  Sam.  xxii.  17  only),  and  as  the 
translation  of  a  different  term  from  the 
above.  This  passage  affords  the  first  men- 
tion of  the  existence  of  a  body  of  swift  run- 
ners in  attendance  on  the  king,  though 
such  a  thing  had  been  foretold  by  Samuel 
(1  Sam.  viii.  11).  This  body  appears  to 
have  been  afterwards  kept  up,  and  to  have 
been  distinct  from  the  body-guard  —  the  six 
hundred  and  the  thirty  —  who  were  origi- 
nated by  David.  See  1  K.  xiv.  27,  28 ;  2 
Chr.  xii.  10,  11;  2  K.  xi.  4,  6,  11,  13,  19. 
In  each  of  these  cases  the  word  Is  the  same 
as  the  above,  and  is  rendered  "  guard ;  " 
but  the  translators  were  evidently  aware  of 
its  signification,  for  they  have  put  the  word 
"  runners  "  in  the  margin  in  two  instances 
(IK.  xiv.  27;  2  K.  xi.  13). 

Forehead.  The  practice  of  veiling  the 
face  in  public  for  women  of  the  higher 
classes,  especially  married  women,  in  the 
East,  sufficiently  stigmatizes  with  reproach 
the  unveiled  face  of  women  of  bad  charac- 
ter (Gen.  xxiv.  65;  Jer.  iii.  3).  The  cus- 
tom among  many  Oriental  nations  both  of 
coloring  the  face  and  forehead,  and  of  im- 
pressing on  the  body  marks  indicative  of 
devotion  to  some  special  deity  or  religious 
sect  is  mentioned  elsewhere.    The  '"jewels 


for  the  forehead,"  mentioned  by  Ezekiel 
(xvi.  12),  and  in  margin  of  A.  V.  (Gen. 
xxiv.  22),  were  in  all  probability  nose-rings 
(Is.  iii.  21). 

Forest.  Although  Palestine  has  never 
been  in  historical  times  a  woodland  coun- 
try, yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  there 
was  much  more  wood  formerly  than  there 
is  at  present.  (1.)  The  wood  of  Ephraim 
clothed  the  slopes  of  the  hills  that  bordered 
the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  the  plain  itself  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Bethshan  (Josh.  xvii. 
15,  ff.).  (2.)  The  wood  of  Bethel  (2.  K.  ii. 
23,  24)  was  situated  in  the  ravine  which 
descends  to  the  plain  of  Jericho.  (3.) 
The  forest  of  Hareth  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5)  was 
somewhere  on  the  border  of  the  Philistine 
plain,  in  the  southern  part  of  Judah.  (4.) 
The  wood  through  which  the  Israelites 
passed  in  their  pursuit  of  the  Philistines  ( 1 
Sam.  xiv.  25)  was  probably  near  Aijalon 
(comp.  V.  31).  (5.)  The  "wood"  (Ps. 
cxxxii.  6)  implied  in  the  name  of  Kirjath- 
jearim  (1  Sam.  vii.  2)  must  have  been 
similarly  situated,  as  also  (6.)  were  the 
"  forests  "  in  which  Jotham  placed  his  forts 
(2  Chr.  xxvii.  4).  (7.)  The  plain  of 
Sharon  was  partly  covered  with  wood  (Is. 
Ixv.  10).  (8.)  The  wood  in  the  wilderness 
of  Ziph,  in  which  David  concealed  himself 
(1  Sam.  xxiii.  15,  ff.),  lay  S.  E.  of  Hebron. 
The  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon  (IK. 
vii.  2,  X.  17,  21 ;  2  Chr.  ix.  16,  20)  was  so 
called  probably  from  being  fitted  up  with 
cedar. 

Fortifications.     [Fenced  Cities.] 

Fortuna'tus  (l  Cor.  xvi.  17),  one  of 
three  Corinthians,  the  others  being  Steph- 
anas and  AchaTcus,  who  were  at  Ephesus 
when  St.  Paul  wrote  his  first  Epistle. 
There  is  a  Fortunatus  mentioned  at  the 
end  of  Clement's  first  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
rinthians, who  was  possibly  tlie  same  per- 
son. 

Fountain.    Among  the  attractive  fea- 


Tountain  at  Nazareth.    (BobertB.) 


FOWL 


198 


FRONTLETS 


tures  presented  by  the  Land  of  Promise  to 
tlie  niition  migrating  from  Egypt  by  way 
of  the  desert,  none  would  be  more  striking 
tlian  the  natural  gush  of  waters  from  the 
ground.  The  springs  of  Palestine,  though 
short-lived,  are  remarkable  for  their  abun- 
dance and  beauty,  especially  those  which 
fall  into  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes  through- 
out its  whole  course.  The  spring  or  foun- 
tain of  living  water,  the  "  eye "  of  the 
landscape,  is  distinguished  in  all  Oriental 
languages  from  the  artificially  sunk  and  en- 
closed well.  Jerusalem  appears  to  have 
possessed  either  more  than  one  perennial 
spring,  or  one  issuing  by  more  than  one 
outlet.  In  Oriental  cities  generally  public 
fountains  are  frequent.  Traces  of  such 
fountains  at  Jerusalem  may  perhaps  be 
found  in  the  names  En-Rogel  (2  Sam.  xvii. 
17),  the  "Dragon-well"  or  fountain,  and 
the  "  gate  of  the  fountain"  (Neh.  ii.  13,.  14). 

Fowl.  Several  distinct  Hebrew  and 
Greek  words  are  thus  rendered  in  the  A. 
V.  of  the  Bible.  Of  these  the  most  com- 
mon is  'dph,  which  is  usually  a  collective 
term  for  all  kinds  of  birds.  In  1  K.  iv.  23, 
among  the  daily  provisions  for  Solomon's 
table,  "  fatted  fowl "  are  included.  In  the 
N.  T.  the  word  translated  "  fowls  "  is  most 
frequently  that  which  comprehends  all  kinds 
of  birds  (including  ravens,  Luke  xii.  24). 
[Sparrow.] 

Pox  (Heb.  sM'dl).  Probably  the 
"jackal"  is  the  animal  signified  in  almost 
all  the  passages  in  the  O.  T.  where  the 
Hebrew  term  occurs.  The  shiVdlim-  of 
Judg.  XV.  4  are  evidently  "jackals,"  and 
not  "  foxes,"  for  the  former  animal  is  gre- 
garious, whereas  the  latter  is  solitary  in  its 
habits.  With  respect  to  the  jackals  and 
foxes  of  Palestine,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  common  jackal  of  the  country  is  the 
Canis  aureus,  which  may  be  heard  every 
night  in  the  villages.  A  vulpine  animal, 
under  the  name  of  Canis  Syriacus,  occurs 
in  Lebanon.  The  Egyptian  Vulpes  Niloti- 
cus,  and  doubtless  the  common  fox  of  our 
own  country,  are  Palestine  species. 

Frankincense,  a  vegetable  resin,  brit- 
tle, glittering,  and  of  a  bitter  taste,  used 
for  the  purpose  of  sacrificial  fumigation 
(Ex.  XXX.  34-36).  It  is  obtained  by  suc- 
cessive incisions  in  the  bark  of  a  tree  called 
the  arbor  thuris,  the  first  of  which  yields 
the  purest  and  whitest  kind;  while  the 
produce  of  the  after  incisions  is  spotted 
with  yellow,  and  as  it  becomes  old  loses  its 
whiteness  altogether.  The  Hebrews  im- 
ported their  frankincense  from  Arabia  (Is. 
Ix.  6;  Jer.  vi.  20),  and  more  particularly 
from  Saba;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  at 
present  the  Arabian  Libanum,  or  Olibanum 
is  of  a  very  inferior  kind,  and  that  the  finest 
frankincense  imported  into  Turkey  comes 
through  Arabia  from  the  islands  of  the  In- 
dian Archipelago.      There    can  be  little 


doubt  that  the  tree  which  produces  the  In- 
dian frankincense  is  the  Boswellia  serraia 
of  Roxburgh,  or  Boswellia  ihurifcra  oi 
Colebrooke.  It  is  still  extremely  uncer- 
tain what  tree  produces  the  Arabian  Olib- 
anum. 

Frog.  The  mention  of  this  reptile  in 
the  O.  T.  is  confined  to  the  passage  in  Es. 
viii.  2-7,  &c.,  in  which  the  plague  of  frogs 
is  described,  and  to  Ps.  Ixxviii.  45,  cv.  30. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  word  occurs  once  only,  in 
Rev.  xvi.  13.  There  is  no  question  as  to 
the  animal  meant.  The  only  known  spe- 
cies of  frog  which  occurs  at  present  in 
Egypt  is  the  Rana  esculenta,  the  edible 
frog  of  the  continent. 

Frontlets,  or  Phylacteries  (Ex. 
xiii.  16;  Deut.  vi.  8,  xi.  18;  Matt,  xxiii.  5). 
These  "  frontlets  "  or  "  phylacteries  "  were 
strips  of  parchment,  on  which  were  written 
four  passages  of  Scripture  (Ex.  xiii.  2-10, 
11-17;  Deut.  vi.  4-9,  13-23)  in  an  ink  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose.  They  were  then 
rolled  up  in  a  case  of  black  calfskin,  which 
was  attached  to  a  stiffer  piece  of  leather, 
having  a  thong  one  finger  broad,  and  one 
and  a  half  cubits  long.  They  were  placed 
at  the  bend  of  the  left  arm.  Those  worn 
on  the  forehead  were  written  on  four  stripa 
of  parchment,  and  put  into  four  little  cells 
within  a  square  case,  on  which  the  letter 
O  was  written.  The  square  had  two  thongs, 
on  which  Hebrew  letters  were  inscribed. 
That  phylacteries  were  used  as  amulets  is 
certain,  and  was  very  natur.il.  The  ex- 
pression "  they  make  broad  their  phylac- 
teries "  (Matt,  xxiii.  5)  refers  not  so  much 
to  the  phylactery  itself,  which  seems  to 


TronUeU  or  FhyUcteries. 

have  been  of  a  prescribed  breadth,  as  to 
the  case  in  which  the  parchment  was  kept, 
which  the  Pharisees,  among  their  other 
pretentious  customs  (Mark  vii.  3,  4 ;  Luke 
V.  33,  &c.),  made  as  conspicuous  as  they 
could.    It'  is  said  that  the  Pharisees  wore 


FULLER 


199 


GABRIEL 


them  always,  whereas  the  common  people 
only  used  tliera  at  prayers.  The  modern 
Jews  only  wear  them  at  morning  prayers, 
nnd  sometimes  at  noon.  In  our  Lord's 
time  they  were  worn  b}'  all  Jews,  except 
the  Karaites^  women,  and  slaves.  Boys,  at 
the  age  of  thirteen  years  and  a  day,  were 
bound  to  wear  them.  The  Karaites  ex- 
plained Deut.  vi.  8,  Ex.  xiii.  9,  &c.,  as  a 
figurative  command  to  remember  the  law, 
as  is  certainly  the  case  in  similar  passages 
(Prov.  iii.  3,  vi.  21,  vii.  3;  Cant.  viii.  6, 
&c.).  It  seems  clear  to  us  that  the  scope 
of  these  injunctions  favors  the  Karaite  in- 
terpretation. 

Fuller.  The  trade  of  the  fullers,  so 
far  as  it  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  appears 
to  have  consisted  chiefly  in  cleansing  gar- 
ments and  whitening  them.  The  process 
of  fulling  or  cleansing  cloth  consisted  in 
treading  or  stamping  on  the  garments  with 
the  feet  or  with  bats  in  tubs  of  water,  in 
which  some  alkaline  substance  answering 
the  purpose  of  soap  had  been  dissolved. 
The  substances  used  for  this  purpose  which 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture  are  natrum 
(Prov.  XXV.  20 ;  Jer.  ii.  22)  and  soap  (Mai. 
iii.  2).  Other  substances  also  are  men- 
tioned as  being  employed  in  cleansing, 
which,  together  with  alkali,  seem  to  identi- 
fy the  Jewish  with  the  Roman  process,  as 
urine  and  chalk.  The  process  of  whiten- 
ing garments  was  performed  by  rubbing  into 
them  chalk  or  earth  of  some  kind.  Creta 
Cimolia  (Cimolite)  was  probably  the  earth 
most  frequently  used.  The  trade  of  the 
fullers,  as  causing  offensive  smells,  and 
also  as  requiring  space  for  drying  clothes, 
appears  to  have  been  carried  on  at  Jerusa- 
lem outside  the  city. 

Puller's  Field,  The,  a  spot  near  Je- 
rusalem (2  K.  xviii.  17 ;  Is.  vii.  3,  xxxvi. 
2)  so  close  to  the  walls  that  a  person  speak- 
ing from  there  could  be  heard  on  them  (2 
K.  xviii.  17,  26).  One  resort  of  the  fullers 
of  Jerusalem  would  seem  to  have  been  be- 
low the  city  on  the  south-east  side.  But 
Rabshakeh  and  his  "  great  host"  must  have 
come  from  the  north;  and  the  Fuller's 
Field  was  therefore,  to  judge  from  this  cir- 
cumstance, on  the  table-land  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  city. 

Funerals.    [Bueial.] 

Furlong.     [Measures.] 

Furnace.  Various  kinds  of  furnaces 
are  noticed  in  the  Bible,  such  as  a  smelting 
or  calcining  furnace  (Gen.  xix.  28  ;  Ex.  ix. 
8,  10,  xix.  18),  especially  a  lime-kiln  (Is. 
xxxiii.  12 ;  Am.  ii.  1) ;  a  refining  furnace 
(Prov.  xvii.  3,  xxvii.  21 ;  Ez.  xxii.  18,  ff.)  ; 
a  large  furnace  built  like  a  brick-kiln  (Dan. 
i  V.  22,  23)  ;  the  potter's  furnace  (Ecclus. 
xxvii.  5 ;  the  blacksmith's  furnace  (Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  28).  The  Persians  were  in  the 
habit  of  using  the  furnace  as  a  means  of  in- 


Tbe  Egyptian  Fotter'i  Furnace.    (Wilkinson.) 

flicting  punishment  (Dan.  I.  c. ;  Jer.  xxix. 
22 ;  2  Mace.  vii.  5 ;  Hos.  vii.  7). 


G. 


Ga'al,  son  of  Ebed,  aided  the  Shechem- 
ites  in  their  rebellion  against  Abimelech 
(Judg.  ix.). 

Ga'ash.  On  the  north  side  of  "  the  liill 
of  Gaash  "  was  the  city  which  was  given  to 
Joshua  (Josh.  xxiv.  30 ;  Judg.  ii.  9 ;  comp. 
Josh.  xix.  49,  60).  It  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  recognized. 

Ga'ba.  The  same  name  as  Geba.  It 
is  found  in  the  A.  V.  in  Josh,  xviii.  2-t; 
Ezr.  ii.  26 ;  Neh.  vii.  30. 

Gab'atha,  Esth.  xii.  1.    [Bigthan.] 

Gab'bai,  apparently  the  head  of  an  im- 
portant family  of  Benjamin  resident  at  Je- 
rusalem (Neh.  xi.  8). 

Gab'batha,  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldee 
appellation  of  a  place,  also  called  "  Pave- 
ment," where  the  judgment-seat  or  bema 
was  planted,  from  his  place  on  which  Pilate 
delivered  our  Lord  to  death  (John  xix.  13). 
The  place  was  outside  the  praetorium,  for 
Pilate  brought  Jesus  forth  from  thence  to 
it.  It  is  suggested  that  Gabbatha  is  a  mere 
translation  of  "  pavement."  It  is  more 
probably  from  an  ancient  root  signifying 
height  or  roundness.  In  this  case  Gabba- 
tha designated  the  elevated  Bcma;  and  the 
"pavement"  was  possibly  some  mosaic  or 
tessellated  work,  either  forming  the  bema 
itself,  or  the  flooring  of  the  court  immedi- 
ately round  it. 

Ga'briel.  The  word,  which  is  not  in 
itself  distinctive,  but  merely  a  description 
of  the  angelic  oflBce,  is  used  as  a  proper 
name  or  title  in  Dan.  viii.  16,  ix.  21,  and  in 
Luke  i.  19,  26.  In  the  ordinary  traditions, 
Jewish  and  Christian,  Gabriel  is  spoken  of 
as  one  of  the  archangels-  In  Scripture  he 
is  set  forth  only  as  the  representative  of  the 
angelic  nature  in  its  ministration  of  com* 
fort  and  sympathy  to  m,in. 


GAD 


200 


GAHAR 


Gad,  Jacob's  seventh  son,  the  first-horn 
of  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid,  and  whole-brother 
to  Asher  (Gen.  xxx.  11-13,  xlvi.  16,  18). 
The  word  means  either  "fortune"  or 
*'  troop  :  "  hence  Leah  said  at  his  birth,  — 
*'  a  troop  (of  children)  cometh  "  (Gen.  xxx. 
ii. ;  corap.  xUx.  19).  Of  the  childhood  and 
life  of  the  patriarch  Gad  nothing  is  pre- 
served. At  the  time  of  the  descent  into 
Egypt  seven  sons  are  ascribed  to  him. 
The  alliance  between  the  tribes  of  Reuben 
and  Gad  was  doubtless  induced  by  the  sim- 
ilarity of  their  pursuits.  Of  all  the  sons  of 
Jacob  these  two  tribes  alone  returned  to 
the  land  which  their  forefathers  had  left 
five  hundred  years  before,  with  their  occu- 
pations unchanged.  At  the  halt  on  the  east 
of  Jordan  we  find  them  coming  forward  to 
Moses  with  the  representation  that  they 
"  have  cattle,"  —  "a  great  multitude  of  cat- 
tle," and  the  land  where  they  now  are  is  a 
"  place  for  cattle."  They  did  not,  however, 
attempt  to  evade  taking  their  proper  share 
of  the  diflSculties  of  subduing  the  land  of 
Canaan,  and  after  that  task  had  been  ef- 
fected they  were  dismissed  by  Joshua  "to 
their  tents,"  to  their  "  wives,  their  little 
ones,  and  their  cattle,"  which  they  had  left 
behind  them  in  Gilead.  The  country  al- 
lotted to  Gad  appears,  speaking  roughly,  to 
have  laia  chiehy  about  the  centre  of  the 
land  east  of  Jordan.  The  south  of  that 
district  —  from  the  Arnon  {Wady  Mojeb), 
about  halfway  down  the  Dead  Sea,  to  Hesh- 
bon,  neaily  due  east  of  Jerusalem  —  was 
occupied  by  Reuben,  and  at  or  about  Hesh- 
bon  the  possessions  of  Gad  commenced. 
They  embraced  half  Gilead,  as  the  oldest 
record  specially  states  (Deut.  iii.  12),  or 
half  the  land  of  the  children  of  Ammon 
(Josh.  xiii.  25),  probably  the  mountainous 
district  which  is  intersected  by  the  torrent 
Jabbok,  including,  as  its  most  northern 
town,  the  ancient  sanctuary  of  Mahanaim. 
On  the  east  the  furthest  landmark  given  is 
"Aroer,  that  faces  Rabbah,"  the  present 
Amman  (Josh.  xiii.  25).  "West  was  the 
Jordan  (27).  Such  was  the  territory  al- 
lotted to  the  Gadites,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  they  soon  extended  themselves  beyond 
these  limits.  The  official  records  of  the 
reign  of  Jotham  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  v.  11,  16) 
show  them  to  have  been  at  that  time  estab- 
lished over  the  whole  of  Gilead,  and  in  pos- 
session of  Bashan  as  far  as  Salcah,  and 
very  far  both  to  the  north  and  the  east  of 
the  border  given  them  originally,  while  the 
Manassites  were  pushed  still  further  north- 
wards to  Mount  Hermon  (1  Chr.  v.  23). 
The  character  of  the  tribe  is  throughout 
strongly  marked  —  fierce  and  warlike  — 
"  strong  men  of  might,  men  of  war  for  the 
battle,  that  could  handle  shield  and  buckler, 
their  faces  the  faces  of  lions,  and  like  roes 
upon  the  mountains  for  swiftness."  Gad 
was  carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath-Pile- 


ser.(l  Chr.  v.  26),  and  in  the  time  of  Jere- 
miah the  cities  of  the  tribe  seem  to  have 
been  inhabited  by  the  Ammonites. 

Gad,  "the  seer,"  or  "the  king's  seer," 
i.  e.  David's  (1  Chr.  xxix.  29 ;  2  Chr.  xxix. 
25;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  11 ;  1  Chr.  xxi.  9),  was  a 
"  prophet "  who  appears  to  have  joined 
David  when  in  the  hold  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5). 
He  reappears  in  connection  with  the  pun- 
ishment inflicted  for  the  numbering  of  the 
people  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  11-19;  1  Chr.  xxi.  9- 
19).  He  wrote  a  book  of  the  Acts  of  Da- 
vid (1  Chr.  xxix.  29),  and  also  assisted  in 
the  arrangements  for  the  musical  service  of 
the  "house  of  God"  (2  Chr.  xxix.  25). 

Gad,  properly  "  the  Gad,"  with  the 
article.  In  the  A.  V.  of  Is.  Ixv.  11  the 
clause  "  that  prepare  a  table  for  that 
troop "  has  in  the  margin  instead  of  the 
last  word  the  proper  name  "  Gad,"  which 
evidently  denotes  some  idol  worshipped  by 
the  Jews  in  Babylon,  though  it  is  impossi- 
ble positively  to  identify  it. 

Gad'ites,  The,  thedercendantsof  Gad, 
and  members  of  his  tribe. 

Gad'ara,  a  strong  city  situated  near  the 
river  Hieromax,  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
over  against  Scythopolis  and  Tiberias,  and 
sixteen  Roman  miles  distant  from  each  of 
those  places.  Josephus  calls  it  the  cap- 
ital of  Peraea.  A  large  district  was  at- 
tached to  it.  Gadara  itself  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  Bible,  but  it  is  evidently  identical 
with  the  "  country  of  the  Gadarenes,"  or 
Gergesenes  (Matt.  viii.  28 ;  Mark  v.  1 ; 
Luke  viii.  26,  37).  The  ruins  of  this  city, 
now  called  Um  Keis,  are  about  two  miles 
in  circumference.  Gadara  derives  its  great- 
est interest  from  having  been  the  scene  of 
our  Lord's  miracle  in  healing  the  demoni- 
acs (Matt.  viii.  28-34 ;  Mark  v.  1-21 ;  Luke 
viii.  26-40).  The  whole  circumstances  of 
the  narrative  are  strikingly  illustrated  by 
the  features  of  the  country.  Another  thing 
is  worthy  of  notice.  The  most  interesting 
remains  of  Gadara  are  its  tombs,  which  dot 
the  cliffs  for  a  considerable  distance  round 
the  city.  Gadara  was  captured  by  Vespa- 
sian on  the  first  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
the  Jews ;  all  its  inhabitants  massacred ; 
and  the  town  itself,  with  the  surrounding 
villages,  reduced  to  ashes. 

Gad'di,  son  of  Susi ;  the  Manassite  spy 
sent  bj'  Moses  to  explore  Canaan  (Num. 
xiii.  11). 

Gad'diel,  a  Zebulonite,  one  of  the 
twelve  spies  (Num.  xiii.  10). 

Ga'di,  father  of  Menahem  (2  K.  xv.  14, 
17). 

Ga'ham,  son  of  Nahor,  Abraham's 
brother,  by  his  concubine  Reumah  (Gen. 
xxii.  24). 

Ga'har.  The  Bene-Gahar  were  among 
the  families  of  Nethinim  who  returned  from 
the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  47, 
Neh.  vii.  49). 


GAIUS 


201 


GALILEE 


Gai'us.  [John,  Second  and  Third 
Epistles  of.] 

Gal'aad,  the  Greek  form  of  the  word 

GiLEAD. 

Ga'lal.  1.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  sons 
of  Asaph  (1  Chr.  ix.  15).  2.  Another  Le- 
vite of  the  family  of  Elkanah  (1  Chr.  ix. 
IG).  3.  A  third  Levite,  son  of  Jeduthun 
(Neh.  xi.  17). 

Gala'tia  is  literally  the  "Gallia"  of 
the  East.  The  Galatians  were  in  their  or- 
igin a  stream  of  that  great  Keltic  torrent 
which  poured  into  Greece  in  the  third  cen- 
tury before  the  Christian  era.  Some  of 
these  invaders  moved  on  into  Thrace,  and 
appeared  on  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont 
and  Bosporus,  when  Nicomedes  I.,  king  of 
Bithynia,  being  then  engaged  in  a  civil  war, 
invited  them  across  to  help  him.  At  the 
end  of  the  Republic,  Galatia  appears  as  a 
dependent  kingdom;  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Empire  as  a  province  (a.  d.  26).  The 
Roman  province  of  Galatia  may  be  roughly 
described  as  the  central  region  of  the  pe- 
ninsula of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  provinces 
of  Asia  on  the  west,  Cappadocia  on  the 
east,  Pamphylia  and  Cilicia  on  the  south, 
and  Bithynia  and  Pontus  on  the  north. 
These  Eastern  Gauls  preserved  much  of 
their  ancient  character,  and  something  of 
their  ancient  language.  The  prevailing 
speech,  however,  of  the  district  was  Greek. 
The  inscriptions  found  at  Ancyra  are 
Greek,  and  St.  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle  in 
Greek.  It  is  difficult  at  first  sight  to  de- 
termine in  what  sense  the  word  Galatia  is 
used  by  the  writers  of  the  N.  T.,  or  whether 
always  in  the  same  sense.  In  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  the  journeys  of  St.  Paul 
through  the  district  are  mentioned  in  very 
general  terms.  On  all  accounts  it  seems 
most  probable  that  Galatia  is  used  by  St. 
Luke  as  an  ethnographical  term,  and  not 
for  the  Roman  province  of  th.at  name. 

Galatians,  The  Epistle  to  the,  was 
written  by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  not  long 
after  his  journey  through  Galatia  and  Phry- 
gia  (Acts  xviii.  23),  and  probably  in  the 
early  portion  of  his  two  years  and  a  half 
stay  at  Ephesus,  which  terminated  with  the 
Pentecost  of  a.  d.  57  or  58.  The  Epistle 
appears  to  have  been  called  forth  by  the 
machinations  of  Judaizing  teachers,  who, 
shortly  before  the  date  of  its  composition, 
had  endeavored  to  seduce  the  churches  of 
this  province  into  a  recognition  of  circum- 
cision (v.  2,  11,  12,  vi.  12,  sq.),  and  had 
openly  sought  to  depreciate  the  apostolic 
claims  of  St.  Paul  (comp.  i.  1,  11).  The 
scope  and  contents  of  the  Epistle  are  thus 
—  (1)  apologetic  (i.,  ii.)  and  polemical  (iii. 
iv.) ;  and  (2)  horatory  and  practical  (v., 
vi.) ;  the  positions  and  demonstrations  of 
the  former  portion  being  used  with  great 
power  and  persuasiveness  in  the  exhorta- 
tions of  the  latter.     Two  historical  ques-  , 


tions  require  a  brief  notice  :  1.  The  rawm- 
ber  of  visits  made  by  St.  Paul  to  the 
churches  of  Galatia  previous  to  his  writing 
the  Epistle.  These  seem  certainly  to  have 
been  two.  The  Apostle  founded  the  churches 
of  Galatia  in  the  visit  recorded  Acts  xvi. 
6,  during  his  second  missionary  journey, 
about  A.  D.  51,  and  revisited  them  at  the 
period  and  on  the  occasion  mentioned  Acts 
xviii.  23,  when  he  went  through  the  coun- 
try of  Galatia  and  Phrygia.  On  this  occa- 
sion it  would  seem  probable  that  he  found 
the  leaven  of  Judaism  beginning  to  work 
in  the  churches  of  Galatia.  2.  Closely  al- 
lied with  the  preceding  question  is  that  of 
the  date,  and  the  place  from  which  the 
Epistle  was  written.  It  was  probably  writ- 
ten about  the  same  time  as  the  Epistle  to 
Romans  at  Corinth,  during  the  three  months 
that  the  Apostle  staid  there  (Acts  xx.  2,  3), 
apparently  the  winter  of  a.  d.  57  or  58. 

Galbanum,  one  of  the  perfumes  era- 
ployed  in  the  preparation  of  the  sacred  in- 
cense (Ex.  XXX.  34).  The  galbanum  of 
commerce  is  brought  chiefly  from  India 
and  the  Levant.  It  is  a  resinous  gum  of  a 
brownish  yellow  color,  and  strong,  disa- 
greeable smell,  usually  met  with  in  masses, 
but  sometimes  found  in  yellowish,  tear-like 
drops.  But,  though  galbanum  itself  is 
well  known,  the  plant  which  yields  it  has 
not  been  exactly  determined. 

Gal'eed,  the  name  given  by  Jacob  to 
the  heap  which  he  and  Laban  made  on 
Mount  Gilead  in  witness  of  the  covenant 
then  entered  into  between  them  (Gen. 
xxxi.  47,  48;  comp.  23,  25). 

Gal'ilee.  This  name,  which  in  the  Ro- 
man age  was  applied  to  a  large  province, 
seems  to  have  been  originally  confined  to  a 
little  "  circuit  "  of  country  round  Kedesh- 
Naphtali,  in  which  were  situated  the  twenty 
towns  given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  as  payment  for  his  work  in  convey- 
ing timber  from  Lebanon  to  Jerusalem 
(Josh.  XX.  7;  1  K.  ix.  11).  They  were 
then,  or  subsequently,  occupied  by  stran- 
gers, and  for  this  reason  Isaiah  gives  to  the 
district  the  name  "  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles  " 
(Is.  ix.  1).  It  is  probable  that  the  strangers 
increased  in  number,  and  became  during 
the  captivity  the  great  body  of  the  inhab- 
itants ;  extending  themselves  also  over  the 
surrounding  country,  they  gave  to  their  new 
territories  the  old  name,  until  at  length 
Galilee  became  one  of  the  largest  provinces 
of  Palestine.  In  the  time  of  our  Loid  all 
Palestine  was  divided  into  three  provinces, 
Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Galilee  (Acts  ix.  31 ; 
Luke  xvii.  11;  Joseph.  £.J.  iii.  3).  The 
latter  included  the  whole  northern  section 
of  the  country,  including  the  ancient  terri- 
tories of  Issachar,  Zebnlun,  Asher,  and 
Naphtali.  On  the  west  it  was  bounded  by 
the  territory  of  Ptolemais,  which  probably 
included  the  whole  plain  of  Akka  to  tha 


GALILEE,  SEA  OF 


202 


GALLIC 


foot  of  Carmel.  The  southern  border  ran  i 
along  the  base  of  Carmel  and  of  the  hills 
of  Samaria  to  Mount  Gilboa,  and  then  de- 
scended the  valley  of  Jezreel  by  Scythop- 
olis  to  the  Jordan.  The  river  Jordan,  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  upper  Jordan  to 
the  fountain  at  Dan,  formed  the  eastern 
border;  and  the  northern  ran  from  Dan 
westward  across  the  mountain  ridge  till  it 
touched  the  territory  of  the  Phoenicians. 
Galilee  was  divided  into  two  sections, 
"Lower"  and  "Upper."  Lower  Galilee 
included  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  with 
its  ofTslioots,  which  run  down  to  the  Jordan 
and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias ;  and  the  whole 
of  the  hill  country  adjoining  it  on  the  north 
to  the  foot  of  the  mountain-range.  It  was 
thus  one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful 
sections  of  Palestine.  The  chief  towns  of 
Lower  Galilee  were  Tiberias,  Tarichaea,  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
and  Sepphoris.  The  towns  most  celebrated 
in  N.  T.  history  are  Nazareth,  Cana,  and 
Tiberias  (Luke  i.  26;  John  ii.  1,  vi.  1). 
Upper  Galilee  embraced  the  whole  moun- 
tain-range lying  between  the  upper  Jordan 
and  Phoenicia.  To  this  region  the  name 
"Galilee  of  the  Gentiles"  is  given  in  the 
O.  and  N.  T.  (Is.  ix.  1 ;  Matt.  iv.  15).  The 
town  of  Capernaum,  on  the  north  shore  of 
the  lake,  was  in  Upper  Galilee.  Galilee 
was  the  scene  of  the  greater  part  of  our 
Lord's  private  life  and  public  acts.  His 
early  years  were  spent  at  Nazareth;  and 
when  He  entered  on  His  great  work  He 
made  Capernaum  His  home  (Matt.  iv.  13, 
ix.  1).  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  first 
three  Gospels  are  chiefly  taken  up  with  our 
Lord's  ministrations  in  this  province,  while 
the  Gospel  of  John  dwells  more  upon  those 
in  Judaea.  The  nature  of  our  Lord's  par- 
ables and  illustrations  was  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  peculiar  features  and  products 
of  the  country.  The  Apostles  were  all 
either  Galileans  by  birth  or  residence  (Acts 
i.  11).  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
Galilee  became  the  chief  seat  of  Jewish 
schools  of  learning,  and  the  residence  of 
their  most  celebrated  Rabbins. 
Galilee,  Sea  of.  [Gennesareth.] 
Gall,  the  representative  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  Hebrew  words  mSrerdh,  or  mer6rdh, 
and  rdsh.  1.  Mirtr&h  or  mirdr&h  denotes 
etymologically  "  that  which  is  bitter;  "  see 
Job  xiii.  26,  "thou  writest  bitter  things 
against  me."  Hence  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  ''  bile  "  or  "  gall "  from  its  intense  bit- 
terness (Job  xvi.  13,  XX.  25) ;  it  is  also 
used  of  the  "  poison  "  of  serpents  (Job  xx. 
14),  wliich  the  ancients  erroneously  be- 
lieved was  their  gall.  2.  R6sh,  generally 
translated  "  gall "  by  the  A.  V.,  is  in  Hos. 
X.  4  rendered  "  hemlock : "  in  Deut.  xxxii. 
S3,  and  Job  xx.  16,  rdsh  denotes  the 
"  poison  "  or  "  venom  "  of  serpents.  From 
Deut.  xxLx.  18,  and  Lam.  iii.  19,  co'jipared 


with  Hos.  X.  4,  it  is  evident  that  the  Hebrew 
term  denotes  some  bitter,  and  perhaps  poi- 
sonous plant.  Other  writers  have  supposed, 
and  with  some  reason  (from  Deut.  xxxii. 
32),  that  some  berry-bearing  plant  must  be 
intended.  Gesenius understands  "poppies." 
The  capsules  of  the  Papaveraceae  may 
well  give  the  name  oi  rdsh  ("head")  to 
the  plant  in  question,  just  as  we  speak  of 
poppy  heads.  The  various  species  of  this 
family  spring  up  quickly  in  corn-fields,  and 
the  juice  is  extremely  bitter.  A  steeped 
solution  of  poppy  heads  may  be  "  the  wa- 
ter of  gall "  of  Jer.  viii.  14.  The  passages 
in  the  Gospels  which  relate  the  circum- 
stance of  the  Roman  soldiers  off"ering  our 
Lord,  just  before  his  crucifixion,  "  vinegar 
mingled  with  gall,"  according  to  St.  Mat- 
thew (xxvii.  34),  and  "wine  mingled  with 
myrrh,"  according  to  St.  Mark's  account 
(xv.  23),  require  some  consideration.  "  Mat- 
thew, in  his  usual  way,"  as  Hengstenberg  re- 
marks, "  designates  the  drink  theologically : 
always  keeping  his  eye  on  the  prophecies 
of  the  O.  T.,  he  speaks  of  gall  and  vinegar 
for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  fulfilment 
of  the  Psalms  more  manifest.  Mark  again 
(xv.  23),  according  to  his  way,  looks  rather 
at  the  outward  quality  of  the  drink." 
"Gall"  is  not  to  be  understood  in  any 
other  sense  than  as  expressing  the  bitter 
nature  of  the  draught.  Notwithstanding 
the  almost  concurrent  opinion  of  ancient 
and  modern  commentators  that  the  "  wine 
mingled  with  myrrh"  was  oflered  to  our 
Lord  as  an  anodyne,  we  cannot  readily 
come  to  the  same  conclusion.  Had  the 
soldiers  intended  a  mitigation  of  suffering, 
they  would  doubtless  have  off'ered  a  draught 
drugged  with  some  substance  having  nar- 
cotic properties.  The  drink  in  question 
was  probably  a  mere  ordinary  beverage  of 
the  Romans. 

Gallery,  an  architectural  term,  de- 
scribing the  porticos  or  verandas  which 
are  not  uncommon  in  Eastern  houses.  It 
is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  Hebrew 
words,  so  translated,  have  any  reference  to 
such  an  object. 

Galley.     [Ship.] 

Gal'lim  ( =  "  heaps,"  or,  possibly, 
"  springs "),  a  place  which  is  twice  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible:  (1.)  As  the  native 
place  of  the  man  to  whom  Michal,  David's 
wife,  was  given  (1  Sam.  xxv.  44).  There 
is  no  clew  to  the  situation  of  the  place. 
(2.)  The  name  occurs  again  in  the  cata- 
logue of  places  terrified  at  the  approach  of 
Sennacherib  (Is.  x.  30).  The  name  of 
Gallim  has  not  been  met  with  in  modem 
times. 

Gal'lio,  Junius  Annaeus  Gallio,  the 
Roman  proconsul  of  Achaia  when  St. 
Paul  was  at  Corinth,  a.  d.  53,  under  the 
Emperor  Claudius  (Acts  xviii.  12).  He 
was  brother  to  Lucius  Annaeus  Seneca,  th» 


GALLOWS 


2U8 


GARDEN 


philosopher.  Jerome  in  the  Chronicle  of 
Eusebius  says  that  he  committed  suicide  in 
the  year  Go  a.  d. 

Gallows.       [PCNISHMENT.] 

Gama'liel.  1.  SonofPedahzur;  prince 
or  captain  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  at  the 
census  at  Sinai  (Num.  i.  10,  ii.  20,  vii.  54, 
69),  and  at  starting  on  the  march  through 
the  wilderness  (x.  23).  2.  A  Pharisee 
and  celebrated  doctqr  of  the  law,  who  gave 
prudent  worldly  advice  in  the  Sanhedrim 
respecting  the  treatment  of  the  followers 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (Acts  v.  34,  ff.).  We 
learn  from  Acts  xxii.  3  that  he  was  the 
preceptor  of  St.  Paul.  He  is  generally 
identified  with  the  very  celebrated  Jewish 
doctor  Gamaliel.  This  Gamaliel  was  son 
of  Rabbi  Simeon,  and  grandson  of  the  cele- 
brated Hillel;  he  was  president  of  the 
Sanhedrim  under  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and 
Claudius,  and  is  reported  to  have  died 
eighteen  years  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem. 

Games.  Among  the  Greeks  the  rage 
for  theatrical  exhibitions  was  such  that 
every  city  of  any  size  possessed  its  theatre 
and  stadium.  At  Ephesus  an  annual  con- 
test was  held  in  honor  of  Diana.  It  is 
probable  that  St.  Paul  was  present  when 
these  games  were  proceeding.  A  direct 
reference  to  the  exhibitions  that  took  place 
on  such  occasions  is  made  in  1  Cor.  xv. 
32.  St.  Paul's  Epistles  abound  with  allu- 
sions to  the  Greek  contests,  borrowed 
probably  from  the  Isthmian  games,  at 
which  he  may  well  have  been  present  dur- 
ing his  first  visit  to  Corinth.  These  con- 
tests (2  Tim.  iv.  7 ;  1  Tim.  vi.  12)  were 
divided  into  two  classes,  the  pancratium, 
consisting  of  boxing  and  wrestling,  and  the 
pentathlon,  consisting  of  leaping,  running, 
quoiting,  hurling  the  spear,  and  wrestUng. 
The  competitors  (1  Cor.  ix.  25;  2  Tim.  ii. 
5)  required  a  long  and  severe  course  of 
previous  training  (1  Tim.  iv.  8),  during 
which  a  particular  diet  was  enforced  (1 
Cor.  ix.  25,  27).  In  the  Olympic  contests 
these  preparatory  exercises  extended  over 
a  period  of  ten  months,  during  the  last  of 
which  they  were  conducted  under  the  super- 
vision of  appointed  officers.  The  contests 
took  place  in  the  presence  of  a  vast  multi- 
tude of  spectators  (Heb.  xii.  1),  the  com- 
petitors being  the  spectacle  (1  Cor.  iv.  9; 
Heb.  X.  33).  The  games  were  opened  by 
the  proclamation  of  a  herald  (1  Cor.  ix. 
27),  whose  office  it  was  to  give  out  the 
name  and  country  of  each  candidate,  and 
especially  to  announce  the  name  of  the 
victor  before  the  assembled  multitude. 
The  judge  was  selected  for  his  spotless 
integrity  (2  Tim.  iv.  8)  :  his  office  was  to 
decide  any  disputes  (Col.  iii.  15)  and  to 
give  the  prize  (1  Cor.  ix.  24;  Phil.  iii.  14), 
consisting  of  a  crown  (2  Tim.  ii.  5,  iv.  8) 
of  leaves  of  wild  olive  at  the  Olympic 


games,  and  of  pine,  or  at  one  period,  ivy, 
at  the  Isthmian,  games.  St.  Paul  alludes 
to  two  only  out  of  the  five  contests,  boxing 
and  running,  more  frequently  to  the  latter. 
In  boxing  (cf.  1  Cor.  ix.  26)  the  hands  and 
arms  were  bound  with  the  cestus,  a  band  of 
leather  studded  with  nails.  The  foot-race 
(2  Tim.  iv.  7)  was  run  in  the  stadium  (1 
Cor.  ix.  24),  an  oblong  area,  open  at  one 
end,  and  rounded  in  a  semicircular  form  at 
the  other,  along  the  sides  of  which  were 
the  raised  tiers  of  seats  on  which  the  spec- 
tators sat.  The  judge  was  stationed  by  the 
goal  (Phil.  iii.  14),  which  was  clearly  visible 
from  one  end  of  the  stadium  to  the  other. 

Gam'madims.  This  word  occurs  only 
in  Ez.  xxvii.  11.  A  variety  of  explanations 
of  the  term  have  been  offered.  (1.)  One 
class  renders  it  "  pygmies."  (2.)  A  second 
treats  it  as  a  geographical  or  local  term. 
(3.)  A  third  gives  a  more  general  sense  to 
the  word,  "  brave  warriors."  Hitzig  sug- 
gests "  deserters."  After  all,  the  render- 
ing in  the  LXX.,  "  guards,"  furnishes  the 
simplest  explanation. 

Ga'moll,  a  priest ;  the  kader  of  the  22d 
course  in  the  service  of  ihe  sanctuary  (1 
Chr.  xxiv.  17). 

Garden.  Gardens  in  the  East,  as  the 
Hebrew  word  indicates,  are  enclosures,  on 
the  outskirts  of  towns,  planted  with  various 
trees  and  shrubs.  From  the  allusions  in 
the  Bible  we  learn  that  they  were  sur- 
rounded by  hedges  of  thorn  (Is.  v.  5),  or 
walls  of  stone  (Pro v.  xxiv.  31).  For  fur- 
ther protection  lodges  (Is.  i.  8 ;  Lam.  ii.  6) 
or  watchtowers  (Mark  xii.  1)  were  built  in 
them,  in  which  sat  the  keeper  (Job  xxvii. 
18)  to  drive  away  the  wild  beasts  and  rob- 
bers, as  is  the  case  to  this  day.  The  gar- 
dens of  the  Hebrews  were  planted  with 
flowers  and  aromatic  shrubs  (Cant.  vi.  2, 
iv.  16),  besides  olives,  fig-trees,  nuts,  or 
walnuts  (Cant.  vi.  11),  pomegranates,  and 
others  for  domestic  use  (Ex.  xxiii.  11; 
Jer.  xxix.  5;  Am.  ix.  14).  Gardens  of 
herbs,  or  kitchen-gardens,  are  mentioned 
in  Deut.  xi.  10,  and  1  K.  xxi.  2.  Cucum- 
bers were  grown  in  them  (Is.  i.  8  ;  Bar.  vi. 
70),  and  probably  also  melons,  leeks, 
onions,  and  garlic,  which  are  spoken 
of  (Num.  xi.  6)  as  the  productions  of  a 
neighboring  country.  The  rose-garden  in 
Jerusalem,  said  to  have  been  situated  west- 
ward of  the  temple  mount,  is  remarkable  as 
having  been  one  of  the  few  gardens,  which, 
from  the  time  of  the  prophets,  existed 
within  the  city  walls.  But  of  all  the  gar- 
dens of  Palestine  none  is  possessed  of  as- 
sociations more  sacred  and  imperishable 
than  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  beside  the 
oil-presses  on  the  slopes  of  Olivet.  In  a 
climate  like  that  of  Palestine  the  neigh- 
borhood of  water  was  an  important  consid- 
eration in  selecting  the  site  of  a  garden. 
To  the  old  Hebrew  poets  "  a  well- watered 


GAREB 


204 


GATH 


garden,"  or  '*  a  tree  planted  by  the  waters," 
was  an  emblem  of  luxuriant  fertility  and 
material  prosperity  (Is.  Iviii.  11;  Jer.  xvii. 
8,  xxxi.  12).  From  a  neighboring  stream 
or  cistern  were  supplied  the  channels  or 
conduits  by  which  the  gardens  were  inter- 
sected, and  the  water  was  thus  conveyed 
to  all  parts  (Ps.  i.  3 ;  Eccl.  ii.  6 ;  Ecclus. 
xxiv.  30).  It  is  matter  of  doubt  what  is  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  expression  "  to  water 
with  the  foot "  in  Deut.  xi.  10.  The  He- 
brews made  use  of  gardens  as  places  of 
burial  (John  xix.  41).  Manasseh  and  his 
Bon  Anion  were  buried  in  the  garden  of 
their  palace,  the  garden  of  Uzza  (2  K. 
xxi.  18,  26).  The  retirement  of  gardens 
rendered  them  favorite  places  for  devotion 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30 ;  John  xviii.  1 ;  cf.  Gen. 
xxiv.  G3).  In  the  degenerate  times  of  the 
monarchy  they  were  selected  as  the  scenes 
of  idolatrous  worship  (Is.  1.  29,  Ixv.  3, 
Ixvi.  17),  and  images  of  the  idols  were 
probably  erected  in  them.  The  traditional 
gardens  and  pools  of  Solomon,  supposed 
to  be  alluded  to  in  Eccl.  ii.  5,  6,  are  shown 
in  the  Wady  Urtds  (i.  e.  Hortus),  about 
an  hour  and  a  quarter  to  the  south  of  Beth- 
lehem. The  "  king's  garden,"  mentioned 
in  2  K.  XXV.  4;  Neh.  iii.  15 ;  Jer.  xxxix.  4, 
lii.  7,  was  near  the  pool  of  Siloara,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tyropoeon,  north  of  Bir  Eyub, 
and  was  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  val- 
leys of  Johoshapliat  and  Ben  Hinnom. 

Ga'reb,  one  of  the  heroes  of  David's 
army  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  38). 

Gareb,  The  Hill,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Jerusalem,  named  only  in  Jer.  xxxi.  39. 

Garlic  (Num.  xi.  5),  is  the  Allium  Sati- 
vum of  Linnaeus,  which  abounds  in  Egypt. 

Garment.     [Dress.] 

Gar'mite,  The.  Keilah  the  Garmite, 
t.  e.  the  descendant  of  Gerem,  is  mentioned 
in  the  obscure  genealogical  lists  of  the 
families  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  19). 

Garrison.  The  Hebrew  words  so  ren- 
dered in  the  A.  V.  are  derivatives  from  the 
root  n&tsab  to  "place,  erect,"  which  m.ay 
be  applied  to  a  variety  of  objects.  (1.) 
Mattsah  and  mattsabah  undoubtedly  mean 
a  "garrison,"  or  fortified  post  (1  Sam.  xiii. 
23,  xiy.  1,  4,  12,  15;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  14). 
(2).  Netsib  is  also  used  for  a  "garrison" 
(in  1  Chr.  xi.  16),  but  elsewhere  for  a 
"column  "  erected  in  an  enemy's  country 
as  a  token  of  conquest  (1  Sam.  xiii.  3). 
(3.)  The  same  word  elsewhere  means 
*' oflBcers"  placed  over  a  vanquished  peo- 
ple (2  Sam.  viii.  6,  14 ;  1  Chr.  xviii.  13 ;  2 
Chr.  xvii.  2).  (4.)  Mattsebah  in  Ez.  xxvi. 
11  means  a  "  pillar." 

Gash'mu.  A  variation  of  the  name 
Geshem  (Neh.  vi.  6). 

Ga'tam,  the  fourth  son  of  Eliphaz  the 
eon  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11 ;  1  Chr.  i.  36), 
and  one  of  the  "  dukes"  of  Eliphaz  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  16). 


Gate.  The  gates  and  gateways  of  east- 
ern cities  anciently  held,  and  still  hold,  an 
important  part,  not  only  in  the  defence  but 
in  the  public  economy  of  the  place.  They 
are  thus  sometimes  taken  as  representing 
the  city  itself  (Gen.  xxii.  17,  xxiv.  60; 
Deut.  xii.  12;  Judg.  v.  8;  Ruth  iv.  10; 
Ps.  Ixxxvii.  2,  cxxii.  2).  Among  the 
special  purposes  for  which  they  were  used 
may  be  mentioned :  1.  As  places  of  pub- 
lic resort  (Gen.  xix.  1,  xxiii.  10,  xxxiv. 
20,  -24;  1  Sam.  iv.  18,  &c.).  2.  Places 
for  public  deliberation,  administration  of 
justice,  or  of  audience  for  kings  and 
rulers,  or  ambassadors  (Deut.  xvi.  18,  xxi. 
19,  XXV.  7;  Josh.  xx.  4;  Judg.  ix.  35,  &c.). 
3.  Public  markets  (2  K.  vii.  1).  In  heathen 
towns  the  open  spaces  near  the  gates  ap- 
pear to  have  been  sometimes  used  as  places 
for  sacrifice  (Acts  xiv.  13 ;  comp.  2  K. 
xxiii.  8).  Regarded  therefore  as  positions 
of  great  importance  the  gates  of  cities  were 
carefully  guarded  and  closed  at  nightfall 
(Deut.  iii.  6;  Josh.  ii.  5,  7;  Judg.  ix.  40, 
44).  They  contained  chambers  over  the 
gateway  (2  Sam.  xviii.  24).  The  doors 
themselves  of  the  larger  gates  mentioned 
in  Scripture  were  two-leaved,  plated  with 
metal,  closed  with  locks  and  fastened  with 
metal  bars  (Deut.  iii.  5;  Ps.  cvii.  16;  Is. 
xlv.  1,  2).  Gates  not  defended  by  iron 
were  of  course  liable  to  be  set  on  fire  by 
an  enemy  (Judg.  ix.  52).  The  gateways 
of  royal  palaces  and  even  of  private  houses 
were  often  richly  ornamented.  Sentences 
from  the  Law  were  inscribed  on  ana  above 
the  gates  (Deut.  vi.  9 ;  Is.  liv.  12 ;  Rev. 
xxi.  21).  The  gates  of  Solomon's  Temple 
were  very  massive  and  costly,  being  over- 
laid with  gold  and  carvings  (IK.  vi.  34,  33 ; 
2  K.  xviii.  16).  Those  of  the  Holy  Place 
were  of  olive-wood,  two-leaved,  and  over- 
laid with  gold ;  those  of  the  temple  of  fir 
(1  K.  vi.  31,  32,  34 ;  Ez.  xli.  23,  24).  The 
figurative  gates  of  pearl  and  precious  stones 
(Is.  liv.  12;  Rev.  xxi.  21)  may  be  regarded 
as  having  their  types  in  the  massive  stone 
doors  which  are  found  in  some  of  the  an- 
cient houses  in  Syria.  These  are  of  sin- 
gle slabs  several  inches  thick,  sometimes 
10  feet  high,  and  turn  on  stone  pivots 
above.  The  parts  of  the  doorway  were 
the  threshold  (Judg.  xix.  27) ;  the  side- 
posts,  the  lintel  (Ex.  xii.  7).  In  the  Tem- 
ple, Levites,  and  in  houses  of  the  wealthier 
classes,  and  in  palaces,  persons  were  es- 
pecially appointed  to  keep  the  door  (Jer. 
XXXV.  4;  2  K.  xii.  9,  xxv.  18,  &c.). 

Gath,  one  of  the  five  royal  cities  of 
the  Pliilistines  (Jjsh.  xiii.  3 ;  1  Sara.  vi. 
17)  ;  and  the  native  place  of  the  gianr.  Go- 
liath (1  Sam.  xvii.  4,  23).  It  probably 
stood  upon  the  conspicuous  hill  now  called 
Tell-es- SAfieh,  upon  the  side  of  the^)lainof 
Philistia,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of 
Judah ;  10  miles  £.  of  Ashdod,  and  about 


GATII-HEPHER 


205 


GEBA 


the  same  distance  S.  by  E.  of  Ekron.  It 
is  irregular  in  form,  and  about  200  ft.  high. 
Gath  occupied  a  strong  position  (2  Chr.  xi. 
8)  on  the  border  of  Judah  and  Philistia  (1 
Sara.  xxi.  10 ;  1  Chr.  xviii.  1)  ;  and  from 
its  strength  and  resources  forming  the  key 
of  both  countries,  it  was  the  scene  of  fre- 
quent struggles,  and  was  often  captured 
and  recaptured  (2  Chr.  xi.  8,  xxvi.  6;  2  K. 
xii.  17;  Am.  vi.  2).  Tiie  ravages  of  war 
to  which  Gath  was  exposed  appear  to  have 
destroyed  it  at  a  comparatively  early  pe- 
riod, as  it  is  not  mentioned  among  the  other 
royal  cities  by  the  later  prophets  (Zeph.  ii. 
4;  Zech.  ix.  5,  6).  It  is  familiar  to  the 
Bible  student  as  the  scene  of  one  of  the 
most  romantic  incidents  in  the  life  of  king 
David  (1  Sam.  xxi.  10-15). 

Gath-he'pher,  or  Git'tah-lie'pher, 
a  town  on  the  border  of  the  territory  of 
Zebulun,  not  far  from  Japhia,  now  Ydfa 
(Josh.  xix.  12,  13),  celebrated  as  the  native 
place  of  the  prophet  Jonah  (2  K.  xiv.  25). 
El-Meshhad,  a  village  2  miles  E.  of  Se- 
finrieh,  is  the  ancient  Gath-hepher. 

Gath-riin'mon.  1.  A  city  given  out 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan  to  the  Levites  (Josh. 
xxi.  24 ;  1  Chr.  vi.  69),  situated  on  the  plain 
of  Philistia,  apparently  not  far  from  Joppa 
(Josh.  xix.  45).  2.  A  town  of  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh  west  of  the  Jordan,  as- 
signed to  the  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  25).  The 
reading  Gath-rimmon  is  probably  an  error 
of  the  transcribers. 

Ga'za  {^ro^QxXy  AzzaK),  one  of  the  five 
chief  cities  of  the  Philistines.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  continuous  existence^and 
importance  from  the  very  earliest  times. 
The  secret  of  this  unbroken  history  is  to 
be  found  in  the  situation  of  Gaza.  It  is 
the  last  town  in  the  S.  W.  of  Palestine,  on 
the  frontier  towards  Egypt.  The  same  pe- 
culiarity of  situation  has  made  Gaza  impor- 
tant in  a  military  sense.  Its  name  means 
"  the  strong ;  "  and  this  was  well  elucidat- 
ed in  its  siege  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
which  lasted  five  months.  In  Gen.  x.  19 
it  appears,  even  before  the  call  of  Abra- 
ham, as  a  "  border "  city  of  the  Canaan- 
ites.  In  the  conquest  of  Joshua  the  terri- 
tory of  Gaza  is  mentioned  as  one  which  he 
was  not  able  to  subdue  (Josh.  x.  41,  xi.  22, 
xiii.  3).  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  47),  and  that  tribe  did 
obtain  possession  of  it  (Judg.  i.  18) ;  but 
they  did  not  hold  it  long;  for  soon  after- 
wards we  find  it  in  the  hands  of  the  Phi- 
listines (Judg.  iii.  3,  xiii.  1,  xvi.  1,  21)  ;  in- 
deed it  seems  to  have  been  their  capital ; 
and  apparently  continued  through  the  times 
of  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David  to  be  a  Philis- 
tine city  (1  Sam.  vi.  17,  xiv.  52,  xxxi.  1 ;  2 
Sam.  xxi.  15).  Solomon  became  master 
of  "Azzah"  (1  K.  iv.  24).  But  in  after 
times  the  same  trouble  witli  the  Philistines 
recurred  (2  Chr.  xxi.  16,  xxvi.  6,  xxviii. 


18).  The  passage  where  Gaza  is  men- 
tioned in  the  N.  T.  (Acts  viii.  2G)  is  full  of 
interest.  It  is  the  account  of  the  baptism 
of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  on  his  return  from 
Jerusalem  to  Egypt.  The  words  '•  which  is 
desert"  have  given  rise  to  much  discus- 
sion. The  probabiUty  is,  that  they  refer 
to  the  road,  and  are  used  by  the  angel  to 
inform  Philip,  who  was  then  in  Samaria, 
on  what  route  he  would  find  the  eunuch. 
Besides  the  ordinary  road  from  Jerusalem 
by  Ramleh  to  Gaza,  there  was  another, 
more  favorable  for  carriages  (Acts  xiii.  28), 
further  to  the  south  through  Hebron,  and 
thence  through  a  district  comparatively 
without  towns  and  much  exposed  to  the  in- 
cursions of  the  people  from  the  desert.  The 
modern  Ghuzzeh  is  situated  partly  on  an 
oblong  hill  of  moderate  height,  and  partly 
on  the  lower  ground.  The  climate  of  the 
place  is  almost  tropical,  but  it  has  deep 
wells  of  excellent  water.  There  are  a  few 
palm-trees  in  the  town,  and  its  fruit-or- 
chards are  very  productive.  But  the  chief 
feature  of  the  neighborhood  is  the  wide- 
spread olive-grove  to  the  N.  and  N.  E. 

Gaza'ra,  a  place  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees,  and  of  great 
importance  in  the  operations  of  both  par- 
ties (1  Mace.  ix.  52,  xiii.  53,  xiv.  7,  33,  34, 
36,  XV.  28,  xvi.  1;  2  Mace.  x.  32-36). 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  Gaz- 
ara  was  the  same  place  as  the  more  ancient 
Gezer  or  Gazkr. 

Ga'zathites,  The  (Josh.  xiii.  3),  the 
inhabitants  of  Gaza. 

Ga'zer,  2  Sam.  v.  25 ;  1  Chr.  xiv,  16. 
[Gezer.] 

Ga'zez,  a  name  which  occurs  twice  in 
1  Chr.  ii.  46 ;  (1)  as  son  of  Caleb  by  Ephah 
his  concubine;  and  (2)  as  son  of  Haran, 
the  son  of  the  same  woman ;  the  second  is 
possibly  only  a  repetition  of  the  first. 

Ga'zites,  The,  inhabitants  of  Gaza 
(Judg.  xvi.  2). 

Gaz'zam.  The  Bene-Gazzam  were 
among  the  families  of  the  Nethinim  who 
returned  from  the  captivity  with  Zerubba- 
bel  (Ezr.  ii.  48;  Neh.  vii.  51). 

Ge'ba,  a  city  of  Benjamin,  with  "  sub- 
urbs," allotted  to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxi.  17; 
1  Chr.  vi.  60).  It  is  named  amongst  the 
first  group  of  the  Benjamite  towns ;  appar- 
ently those  lying  near  to  and  along  the  north 
boundary  (Josh,  xviii.  24).  Here  the  name 
is  given  as  Gaba.  During  the  wars  of  the 
earlier  part  of  the  reign  of  Saul,  Geba  was 
held  as  a  garrison  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  3),  but  they  were  ejected  by  Jonathan. 
Later  in  the  same  campaign  we  find  it  re- 
ferred to  to  define  the  position  of  the  two 
rocks  which  stood  in  the  ravine  below  the 
garrison  of  Michmash,  in  terms  which  fix 
Geba  on  the  south  and  Michmash  on  the 
north  of  the  ravine  (1  Sam.  xiv.  5 ;  the  A.  V. 
has  here  Gibeab).    Exactly  in  accordance 


GEBAL 


206 


GENEALOGY 


idth  this  is  the  position  of  the  modern  vil- 
lage of  Jeha^  which  stands  picturesquely  on 
the  top  of  its  steep  terraced  liill,  on  the  very 
edge  of  the  great  Wady  Suweinit,  looking 
northwards  to  the  opposite  village,  which 
also  retains  its  old  name  of  Mukhmas. 

Ge'bal,  a  proper  name,  occurring  in  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  7,  in  connection  with  Edom  and 
Moab,  Ammon  and  Amalek,  the  Philistines 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre.  The  contexts 
both  of  the  psalm  and  of  the  historical 
records  will  justify  our  assuming  the  Gebal 
of  the  Psalms  to  be  one  and  the  same  city 
with  the  Gebal  of  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  9),  a  mar- 
itime town  of  Phoenicia.  From  the  fact 
that  its  inhabitants  are  written  *'  Giblians  " 
in  the  Vulg.,  and  "  Biblians  "  in  the  LXX., 
we  may  infer  their  identity  with  the  Gib- 
lites,  spoken  of  in  connection  with  Lebanon 
by  Joshua  (xiii.  5),  and  that  of  their  city 
with  the  "  Biblus  "  (or  Byblus)  of  profane 
literature.  It  is  called  Jebail  by  the  Arabs, 
thus  reviving  the  old  BibUcal  name. 

Ge'ber.  1.  The  son  of  Geber  resided 
in  the  fortress  of  Ramoth-Gilead,  and  had 
charge  of  Havoth-Jair,  and  the  district  of 
Argob  (1 K.  iv.  13).  2.  Geber  the  son  of 
Uri  had  a  district  south  of  the  former  —  the 
"land  of  Gilead"  (1  K.  iv.  19). 

Ge'bim,  a  village  north  of  Jerusalem 
(Is.  X.  31),  apparently  between  Anathoth 
(the  modern  Anata)  and  the  ridge  on  which 
Nob  was  situated. 

Gedali'ata.,  son  of  Ahikam  (Jeremiah's 
protector,  Jer.  xxvi.  24),  and  grandson  of 
Shaphan  the  secretary  of  king  Josiah.  Af- 
ter the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  B.  c. 
688,  Nebuchadnezzar  departed  from  Judaea, 
leaving  Gedaliah  with  a  Chaldean  guard 
(Jer.  xl.  5)  at  Mizpali  to  govern  the  vine- 
dressers and  husbandmen  (Jer.  lii.  16)  who 
were  exempted  from  captivity.  Jeremiah 
joined  Gedaliah ;  and  Mispah  became  the 
resort  of  Jews  from  various  quarters  (Jer. 
xl.  6,  11).  He  was  murdered  by  Ishmael 
two  months  after  his  appointment. 

G-ed'eon.  The  Greek  form  of  the  He- 
brew name  Gideon  (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Ge'der.  The  king  of  Geder  was  one  of 
the  31  kings  who  were  overcome  by  Joshua 
on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xii.  13). 
It  is  possible  that  it  may  be  the  same  place 
as  the  Geder  named  in  1  Chr.  iv.  39. 

Gede'rah,  a  town  of  Judah  in  the  low- 
land country(Josh.  xv.  3G),  apparently  in  its 
eastern  part.  No  town  bearing  this  name 
has  however  been  yet  discovered  in  this 
hitherto  little  explored  district. 

Gedo'rathite,  The,  the  native  of  a 
place  called  Gederah,  apparently  in  Ben- 
jamin (1  Chr.  xii.  4). 

Ged'erite,  The,  the  native  of  some 
place  named  Geder  or  Gederah  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  28). 

Ged'eroth,  a  town  in  the  low  country 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  41 ;  2  Chr.  xxviii.  18). 


Gederotha'im,  a  town  in  the  low 
country  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  36),  named 
next  in  order  to  Gederah. 

Ge'dor,  a  town  in  the  mountainous  part 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  58),  a  few  miles  north 
of  Hebron.  Robinson  discovered  a  JedUr 
half  way  between  Bethlehem  and  Hebron, 
about  two  miles  west  of  the  road. 

Geha'zi,  the  servant  or  boy  of  Elisha. 
He  was  sent  as  the  prophet's  messenger  on 
two  occasions  to  the  good  Shunammite  (2 
K.  iv.) ;  obtained  fraudulently  money  and 
garments  from  Naaman,  was  miraculously 
smitten  with  incurable  leprosy,  and  was 
dismissed  from  the  prophet's  service  (2  K. 
v.).  Later  in  the  history  he  is  mentioned 
as  being  engaged  in  relating  to  King  Joram 
all  the  great  things  which  Elisha  had  done 
(2  K.  viii.). 

Gehen'na.    [Hinnom.] 

Gel'iloth,  a  place  named  among  the 
marks  of  the  south  boundary  line  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  17).  The 
name  Geliloth  never  occurs  again  in  this 
locality,  and  it  therefore  seems  probable 
that  Gilgal  is  the  right  reading. 

Gemal'li,  the  father  of  Ammiel,  the 
Danite  spy  (Num.  xiii.  12). 

Gemari'ah.  1.  Son  of  Shaphan  the 
scribe,  and  father  of  Micbaiah.  He  was  one 
of  the  nobles  of  Judah,  and  had  a  cham- 
ber in  the  house  of  the  Lord,  from  which 
Baruch  read  Jeremiah's  alarming  prophecy 
in  the  ears  of  all  the  people,  b.  c.  606  (Jer. 
xxxvi.).  2.  Son  of  Hilkiah,  was  made  the 
bearer  of  Jeremiah's  letter  to  the  captive 
Jews  (Jer.  xxix.). 

Gems.     [Stones,  Precious.] 

Genealogy.  In  Hebrew  the  term  for 
genealogy  or  pedigree  is  "  the  book  of  the 
generations ;  "  and  because  the  oldest  his- 
tories were  usually  drawn  up  on  a  genea- 
logical basis,  the  expression  often  extended 
to  the  whole  history,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  where  "  the  book  of 
the  generation  of  Jesus  Christ"  includes 
the  whole  history  contained  in  that  Gospel. 
The  promise  of  the  land  of  Canaan  to  the 
seed  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  succes- 
sively, and  the  separation  of  the  Israelites 
from  the  Gentile  world;  the  expectation 
of  Messiah  as  to  spring  from  the  tribe  of 
Judah;  the  exclusively  hereditary  priest- 
hood of  Aaron  with  its  dignity  and  emolu- 
ments ;  the  long  succession^of  kings  in  the 
line  of  David ;  and  the  whole  division  and 
occupation  of  the  land  upon  genealogical 
principles  by  the  tribes,  families,  and  houses 
of  fatliers,  gave  a  deeper  importance  to  the 
science  of  genealogy  among  the  Jews  than 
perhaps  any  other  nation.  With  Jacob,  the 
founder  of  the  nation,  the  system  of  reck- 
oning by  genealogies  was  much  further  de- 
veloped. In  Gen.  xxxv.  22-26,  we  have  a 
formal  account  of  the  sons  of  Jacob,  the 
patriarchs  of  the  nation,  repeated  in  Ex.  i. 


GENEALOGY 


207 


GENEALOGY  OF  CHRIST 


1-5.  In  Gen.  xlvi.  we  have  an  exact  gene- 
alogical census  of  the  house  of  Israel  at 
the  time  of  Jacob's  going  down  to  Egypt. 
"When  the  Israelites  were  in  the  wilderness 
of  Sinai,  their  number  was  taken  by  Divine 
command  "after  their  families,  by  the 
house  of  their  fathers."  According  to  these 
genealogical  divisions  they  pitched  their 
tents,  and  marched,  and  offered  their  gifts 
and  offerings,  chose  spies,  and  the  whole 
land  of  Canaan  was  parcelled  out  amongst 
them.  When  David  established  the  temple 
services  on  the  footing  which  continued  till 
the  time  of  Christ,  he  divided  the  priests 
and  Levites  into  courses  and  companies, 
each  under  the  family  chief.  When  Heze- 
kiah  reopened  the  temple,  and  restored 
the  temple  services,  which  had  fallen  into 
disuse,  he  reckoned  the  whole  nation  by 
genealogies.  When  Zerubbabel  brought 
back  the  captivity  from  Babylon,  one  of  his 
first  cares  seems  to  have  been  to  take  a  cen- 
sus of  those  that  returned,  and  to  settle  them 
according  to  their  genealogies.  Passing 
on  to  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  we 
have  a  striking  incidental  proof  of  the 
continuance  of  the  Jewish  genealogical 
economy  in  the  fact  that  when  Augustus 
ordered  the  census  of  the  empire  to  be 
taken,  the  Jews  in  the  province  of  Syria 
immediately  went  each  one  to  his  own  city. 
Another  proof  is  the  existence  of  our 
Lord's  genealogy  in  two  forms  as  given  by 
St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke.  The  mention 
of  Zacharias,  as  "  of  the  course  of  Abia,"  of 
Elizabeth,  as  "  of  the  daughter  of  Aaron," 
and  of  Anna  the  daughter  of  Phanucl,  as 
"  of  the  tribe  of  Aser,"  are  further  indica- 
tions of  the  same  thing.  From  all  this  it  is 
abundantly  manifest  that  the  Jewish  gene- 
alogical records  continued  to  be  kept  till 
near  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  But 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  registers 
of  the  Jewish  tribes  and  families  perished 
at  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  not 
before.  It  remains  to  be  said  that  just 
notions  of  the  nature  of  the  Jewish  genea- 
logical records  are  of  great  importance  with 
a  view  to  the  right  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture. Let  it  only  be  remembered  that  these 
records  have  respect  to  political  and  terri- 
torial divisions,  as  much  as  to  strictly  gen- 
ealogical descent,  and  it  will  at  once  be 
seen  how  erroneous  a  conclusion  it  may 
be,  that  all  who  are  called  "sons"  of  such 
or  such  a  patriarch,  or  chief  father,  must 
necessarily  be  his  very  children.  If  any 
one  family  or  house  became  extinct,  some 
other  would  succeed  to  its  place,  called 
after  its  own  chief  father.  Hence  of  course 
a  census  of  any  tribe  drawn  up  at  a  later 
period,  would  exhibit  different  divisions 
from  one  drawn  up  at  an  earlier.  The 
same  principle  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  in- 
terpreting any  particular  genealogy.  Again, 
when  a  pedigree  was  abbreviated,  it  would 


naturally  specify  such  generations  as  would 
indicate  from  what  chief  houses  the  person 
descended.  But  then  as  regards  the  chron- 
ological use  of  the  Scripture  genealogies, 
it  follows  from  the  above  view  that  great 
caution  is  necessary  in  using  them  as  meas- 
ures of  time,  though  they  are  invaluable 
for  this  purpose  whenever  we  can  be  sure 
that  they  are  complete.  The  Jewish  gen- 
ealogies have  two  forms,  one  giving  the 
generations  in  a  descending,  the  other  in 
an  ascending  scale.  Examples  of  the  de- 
scending form  may  be  seen  in  Ruth  iv.  18- 
22,  or  1  Chr.  iii.  Of  the  ascending,  1  Chr. 
vi.  33-43  (A.  V.)  ;  Ezr.  vii.  1-5.  Females 
are  named  in  genealogies  when  there  is 
anything  remarkable  about  them,  or  when 
any  right  or  property  is  transmitted  through 
them.  See  Gen.  xi.  29,  xxii.  23,  xxv.  1-4, 
XXXV.  22-26 ;  Ex.  vi.  23 ;  Num.  xxvi.  33 ; 
1  Chr.  ii.  4,  19,  50,  35,  &c.    ' 

Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ.  The 
New  Testament  gives  us  the  genealogy  of 
but  one  person,  that  of  our  Saviour.  The 
following  propositions  will  explain  the  true 
construction  of  these  genealogies  :  —  1. 
They  are  both  the  genealogies  of  Joseph 
i.  e.  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the  reputed  and 
legal  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  2.  The 
genealogy  of  St.  Matthew  is  Joseph's  gen- 
ealogy as  legal  successor  to  the  throne  of 
David.  St.  Luke's  is  Joseph's  private  gen- 
ealogy, exhibiting  his  real  birth,  as  David's 
son,  and  thus  showing  why  he  was  heir  to 
Solomon's  crown.  The  simple  principle 
that  one  evangelist  exhibits  that  genealogy 
which  contained  the  successive  heirs  to 
David's  and  Solomon's  throne,  while  the 
other  exhibits  the  paternal  stem  of  him  who 
was  the  heir,  explains  all  the  anomalies  of 
the  two  pedigrees,  their  agreements  as  well 
as  their  discrepancies,  and  the  circumstance 
of  there  being  two  at  all.  3.  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  was  in  all  probability  the 
daughter  of  Jacob,  and  first  cousin  to 
Joseph  her  husband.  But  besides  these 
main  difficulties,  as  they  have  been  thought 
to  be,  there  are  several  others  which  can- 
not be  passed  over  in  any  account,  how- 
ever concise,  of  the  genealogies  of  Christ. 
The  most  startling  is  the  total  discrepancy 
between  them  both  and  that  of  Zerubbabel 
in  the  O.  T.  (1  Chr.  iii.  19-24).  In  this 
last,  of  seven  sons  of  Zerubbabel  not  one 
bears  the  name,  or  anytliing  like  the  name, 
of  Rhesa  or  Abiud ;  and  of  the  next  gen- 
eration not  one  bears  the  name,  or  any- 
thing like  the  name,  of  Eliakim  or  Joanna, 
which  are  in  the  corresponding  generation 
in  Matthew  and  Luke.  Rhesa  is  in  fact 
not  a  name  at  all,  but  it  is  the  Chaldee  title 
of  the  princes  of  the  captivity.  It  is  very 
probable  therefore  that  this  title  should 
have  been  placed  against  the  name  of 
Zerubbabel  by  some  ejirly  Christian  Jew, 
and  thence  crept  into  the  text.     If  this  be 


GENEALOGY  OF  CHRIST 


208 


GENEALOGY  OF  CHRIST 


80,  St.  Luke  will  then  give  Joanna  as  the 
son  of  Zerubbabel.  But  Joanna  is  the  very 
same  name  as  Ilananiah,  the  son  of  Zerub- 
babel according  to  1  Chr.  iii.  19.  [Hana- 
NiAH.]  In  St.  Matthew  this  generation  is 
omitted.  In  the  next  generation  we  iden- 
tify Matthew's  Ab-jud  (Abiud)  with  Luke's 
Juda,  and  both  with  Hodaiah  of  1  Chr.  iii. 
24,  b^  the  simple  process  of  supposing  the 
Shemaiah  of  1  Chr.  iii.  22  to  be  the  same 
person  as  the  Shimei  of  ver.  19.  The 
next  difficulty  is  the  difference  in  the  num- 
ber of  generations  between  the  two  gene- 
alogies. St.  Matthew's  division  into  three 
fourteens  gives  only  42,  while  St.  Luke, 
from  Abraham  to  Christ  inclusive,  reckons 
56,  or,  which  is  more  to  the  point  (since 
the  generations  between  Abraham  and 
David  are  the  same  in  both  genealogies), 
while  St.  Matthew  reckons  28  from  David 
to  Christ,  St.  Luke  reckons  43,  or  42  with- 
out Rhesa.  But  the  genealogy  itself  supplies 
tlie  explanation.  In  the  second  tessaro- 
decade,  including  the  kings,  we  know  that 
three  generatioKS  are  omitted  —  Ahaziah, 
Joash,  Amaziah  •  -  in  order  to  reduce  the 
generations  from  17  to  14 :  the  difference 
between  these  17  and  the  19  of  St.  Luke  be- 
ing very  small,  bo  in  like  manner  it  is 
obvious  that  the  generations  have  been 
abridged  in  the  same  way  in  the  third  di- 
vision to  keep  to  the  number  14.  Another 
difficulty  is  the  apparent  deficiency  in  the 
number  of  the  last  tessaro-decade,  which 
seems  to  contain  only  13  names ;  but  the 
explanation  of  this  is,  that  either  in  the 
process  of  translation,  or  otherwise,  the 
names  of  Jehoiakim  and  Jehoiachin  have 
got  confused  and  expressed  by  the  one 
name  Jechonias.  The  last  difficulty  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  mentioned  here 
is  a  chronological  one.  In  both  the  gen- 
ealogies there  are  but  three  names  be- 
tween Salmon  and  David  —  Boaz,  Obed, 
Jesse.  But,  according  to  the  common 
chronology,  from  the  entrance  into  Canaan 
(when  Salmon  was  come  to  man's  estate) 
to  the  birth  of  David  was  405  years,  or 
from  that  to  500  years  and  upwards.  Now 
for  about  an  equal  period,  from  Solomon  to 
Jehoiachin,  St.  Luke's  genealogy  contains 
20  names.  Obviously  therefore  either  the 
chronology  or  the  genealogy  is  wrong.  It 
must  suffice  here  to  assert  that  the  shorten- 
ing the  interval  between  the  Exodus  and 
David  by  about  200  j'ears,  which  brings  it 
to  the  length  indicated  by  the  genealogies, 
does  in  the  most  remarkable  manner  bring 
Iraelitish  history  into  harmony  with  Egyp- 
tian, with  the  traditional  Jewish  date  of  the 
Exodus,  with  the  fragment  of  Edomitish 
history  preserved  in  Gen.  xxxvi.  31-39, 
and  with  the  internal  evidence  of  the  Israel- 
itish  history  itself.  The  following  pedigree 
will  exhibit  the  successive  generations  as 
given  by  the  two  Evangelists  :  — 


According    Adam 

1 

to               1 

Lamech 

St.  Luke.      Seth 

1 

1 

Noah 

EnoB 

1 

1 

Shem 

Cainan 

i 

,      1 

Aiphaxad 

Maleleel 

1 

1 

CainoM 

Jared 

1 

1 

SaU 

Enoch 

1 

1 

Heber 

Mathusala 

1 

1 

Pbarei 

Phalec  (Pcleg) 

1 

1 

Ezrom 

Ragau  (Reu) 

1 

1 

Aram  (Rom) 

Saruch  (Serug) 

1 

1 

Aminadab 

Nachor 

1 

1 

Noason 

Thara  (Tenth) 

1 

1 

Salmon  —  Raehak 

Accordtng  Abraham 

1 

to  Matt.          1 

Booz  —  Ruth 

ant).  Lvke.    Isaac 

1 

1 

Obed 

Jacob 

1 

Judah 

Jeaie 

1 

According  Solo 

. 

David-Bathjbetw 

mon               According  Nathan 

to  Matt.           1                          to  Luke. 

1 

Boboam 

Mattntha 

Abi» 

1 

Henaa 

1 

Mele* 

Josaphat 

Eliakim 
1 

Joram  (Ahaziah. 
Joaah,  Amaziah) 

Jonan 

1 

1 

Joseph 

Ozias 

1 

Joatham 

Juda 

1 

1 

Sbneon 

Achai 

1 

EzeLia* 

iJivi 

1 

1 

Matthat 

Maiuuse* 

1 

1 

Jorim 

Amon 

1 

1 

Eliezer 

Joeiai 

1 

1 

Jose 

JecfaoDias  (f  e.  Je- 

^r 

hoiakim)  and  his 

brothers  (t.  e.  Je- 
hoahaz,  Zedekiah, 

1 

Elraodam 

and  Sballum). 

„  1 

1 

Cosam 

Jechonias  (».  «.  Je- 

Am. 

Helchi 

hoiachin),  child- 
leff" 

9. 

Neri 

(Matt,  and  Luke.) 

1 

His  heir  was 

.  .  Salathiel 

Zorobabel  (the  Prince  or  Rhesa) 

Joanna  (Hananiah,  in  1  Chr.  iii.  10, 
omitted  by  Matthew,  i.  13) 

Juda,  or  Abiud  (Hodaiah,  1  Chr.  iiL  M) 


Eliakim 

Azor 

Sadoc 

I 
Achim 

Ehud 

Elcazer 


Luke    Joseph 

Semei 

Hattathiaa 

Maath 

Nagga 

EsU 


Aino* 
MattaOi&i — 


•  GENERATION 


209 


GENESIS 


(Matt,  mid  Lute.) 


Joseph 

Jannft 

Meichi 

Levi 
1 


His  heir  wu  . .  Matthan  or  Matthat         Zuke, 


Jacob  BcU 

I  (Jfatt.  and  LuJx.)         | 


Maiy  s>  Jacob's  h>>tr  was    Joseph 

Jesus,  called  Christ. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  whole  num- 
ber of  generations  from  Adam  to  Christ, 
both  inclusive,  is  74,  without  the  second 
Cainan  and  Rhesa. 

Generation.  In  the  long-lived  Patri- 
archal age  a  generation  seems  to  have  been 
computed  at  100  years  (Gen.  xv.  16 ;  comp. 
13,  and  Ex.  xii.  40)  ;  but  subsequently  the 
reckoning  was  the  same  which  has  been 
adopted  by  other  civilized  nations,  viz., 
from  thirty  to  forty  years  (Job  xlii.  16). 
For  generation  in  the  sense  of  a  definite 
period  of  time,  see  Gen.  xv.  16 ;  Deut. 
xxiii.  3,  4,  8,  &c.  As  an  indefinite  period 
of  time  :  —  for  time  past,  see  Deut.  xxxii. 
7 ;  Is.  Iviii.  12 ;  for  time  future,  see  Ps. 
xlv.  17,  Ixxii.  5,  &c.  Generation  is  also 
used  to  signify  the  men  of  an  age,  or  time, 
as  contemporaries  (Gen.  vi.  9;  Is.  liii.  8) ; 
posterity,  especially  in  legal  formulae  (Lev. 
iii.  17,  &c.)  ;  fathers,  or  ancestors  (Ps.  xlix. 
19). 

Genes'areth.    [Gennesaeet.] 

G-en'esis,  the  first  book  of  the  Law  or 
Pentateuch,  so  called  from  its  title  in  the 
Septuagint,  that  is,  Creation.  Respecting 
its  integrity  and  author,  see  Pentateuch. 
The  book  of  Genesis  (with  the  first  chap- 
ters of  Exodus)  describes  the  steps  which  led 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Theocracy.  It 
is  a  part  of  the  writer's  plan  to  tell  us  what 
the  Divine  preparation  of  the  world  was, 
in  order  to  show,  first,  the  significance  of 
the  call  of  Abraham,  and  next,  the  true  na- 
ture of  the  Jewish  theocracy.  He  begins 
with  the  creation  of  the  world,  because  the 
God  who  created  the  world  and  the  God 
who  revealed  Himself  to  the  fathers  is  the 
same  God.  The  bobk  of  Genesis  has  thus 
a  character  at  once  special  and  universal. 
It  embraces  the  world ;  it  speaks  of  God  as 
the  God  of  the  wliole  human  race.  But  as 
the  introduction  to  Jewish  history,  it  makes 
the  universal  interest  subordinate  to  the 
national.  Five  principal  persons  are  the 
pillars,  so  to  speak,  on  which  the  whole 
superstructure  rests :  Adam,  Noah,  Abra- 
ham, Isaac  and  Jacob.  I.  Adam.  The 
creation  of  the  world,  and  the  earliest  his- 
tory of  mankind  (ch.  i.-iii.).  As  yet  no  di- 
vergence of  the  different  families  of  man. 
II.  Noah.  The  history  of  Adam's  de- 
scendants to  tlie  death  of  Noah  (iv.-ix.). 
14 


Here  we  have  (1)  the  line  of  Cain  branch- 
ing off  while  the  history  follows  the  for- 
tunes of  Seth,  whose  descendants  are  (2) 
traced  in  genealogical  succession,  and  in 
an  unbroken  line  as  far  as  Noah,  and  (3) 
the  history  of  Noah  himself  (vi.-ix.),  con- 
tinued to  his  death.  III.  Abraham.  Noah's 
posterity  till  the  death  of  Abraham  (x.-xxv. 
18).  Here  we  have  (1)  the  peopling  of  the 
whole  earth  by  the  descendants  of  Noah's 
three  sons  (xi.  1-9).  The  history  of  two  of 
these  is  then  dropped,  and  (2)  the  line  of 
Shem  only  pursued  (xi.  10-32)  as  far  as  Te- 
rah  and  Abraham,  where  the  genealogical 
table  breaks  off.  (3)  Abraham  is  now  the 
prominent  figure  (xii.-xxv.  18).  But  as 
Terah  had  two  other  sons,  Nahor  and  II a- 
ran  (xi.  27),  some  notices  respecting  their 
families  are  added.  Lot's  migration  with 
Abraham  into  the  land  of  Canaan  is  men- 
tioned, as  well  as  the  fact  that  he  was  the 
father  of  Moab  and  Ammon  (xix.  37,  38), 
nations  whose  later  history  was  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  the  posterity  of 
Abraham.  Nahor  remained  in  Mesopota- 
mia, but  his  family  is  briefly  enumerated 
(xxii.  20-24),  chieily  no  doubtfor  Rebekah's 
sake,  who  was  afterwards  the  wife  of  Isaac. 
Of  Abraham's  own  children,  there  branches 
off  first  the  line  by  Ishmael  (xxi.  9,  &c.), 
and  next  the  children  by  Keturah ;  and  the 
genealogical  notices  of  these  two  branches 
of  his  posterity  are  apparently  brought  to- 
gether (xxv.  1-6,  and  xxv.  12-18),  in  order 
that,  being  here  severally  dismissed  at  the 
end  of  Abraham's  life,  the  main  stream  of 
the  narrative  may  flow  in  the  channel  of 
Isaac's  fortunes.  IV.  Isaac.  Isaac's  life 
(xxv.  19-xxxv.  29),  a  life  in  itself  retiring 
and  uneventful.  But  in  his  sons  the  final 
separation  takes  place,  leaving  the  field 
clear  for  the  great  story  of  the  chosen  seed. 
Even  when  Nahor's  family  comes  on  the- 
scene,  as  it  does  in  ch.  xxix.,  we  hear  only- 
so  much  of  it  as  is  necessary  to  throw  light 
on  Jacob's  history.  V.  Jacob.  The  his- 
tory of  Jacob  and  Joseph  (xxxvi.  1).  Here^ 
after  Isaac's  death,  we  have  (1)  the  geneal- 
ogy of  Esau  (xxxvi.),  who  then  drops  out 
of  the  narrative,  in  order  that  (2)  the  his- 
tory of  the  Patriarchs  may  be  carried  oa 
without  intermission  to  the  death  of  Joseph 
(xxxvii.-l.)  It  will  be  seen  that  a  specific- 
plan  is  preserved  throughout.  The  main 
purpose  is  never  forgotten.  God's  relation 
to  Israel  holds  the  first  place  in  the  writer's 
mind.  It  is  this  which  it  is  his  object  tc 
convey.  The  history  of  that  chosen  seed, 
who  were  the  heirs  of  the  promise  and  the 
guardians  of  the  Divine  oracles,  is  the  oniy 
history  which  interprets  man's  relation  to 
God.  By  its  light  all  others  shine,  and 
may  be  read  when  the  time  shall  come. 
Meanwhile,  as  the  different  families  drop 
off'  here  and  there  from  the  principal  stock, 
their  course  is  briefly  indicated.     Beyond 


GENNESAEET 


210 


GERIZIM 


all-  doubt,  then,  we  may  trace  in  the  book 
of  Genesis  a  systematic  plan. 

G-ennes'aret,  Land  of.  After  the 
miracle  of  feeding  the  five  thousand,  our 
Lord  and  His  disciples  crossed  the  Lake  of 
Gennesaret  and  came  to  the  other  side,  at 
a  place  which  is  called  "  the  land  of  Gen- 
nesaret" (Matt.  xiv.  34;  Mark  vi.  53).  It 
is  generally  believed  that  this  term  was  ap- 
plied to  the  fertile  crescent-shaped  plain  on 
the  western  shore  of  the  lake,  extending 
from  Khan  Minyeh  on  the  north  to  the 
steep  hill  behind  Mejdel  on  the  south,  and 
called  by  the  Arabs  el-Ghuweir,  "  the  little 
Ghor."  Mr.  Porter  gives  the  length  as 
three  miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth  as 
about  one  mile.  Additional  interest  is  given 
to  the  land  of  Gennesaret,  or  el-Ghuweir,  by 
the  probability  that  its  scenery  suggested 
the  parable  of  the  Sower. 

Gennes'aret  Sea  of,  called  in  the  O. 
T.  "  the  Sea  of  Chinnereth,"  or  •'  Cinne- 
roth  "  (Num.  xxxiv.ll ;  Josh.  xii.  3),  from  a 
town  of  that  name  which  stood  on  or  near 
its  shore  (Josh.  xix.  35).  At  its  north-west- 
ern angle  was  a  beautiful  and  fertile  plain 
called  "  Gennesaret "  (Matt.  xiv.  34 ;  Mark 
vi.  63),  from  which  the  name  of  the  lake 
was  taken.  The  lake  is  also  called  in  the 
N.  T.  *'  the  sea  of  Galilee,"  from  the  prov- 
ince of  Galilee  which  bordered  on  its  west- 
ern side  (Matt.  iv.  18;  Mark  vii.  31 ;  John 
vi.  1) ;  and  '*  the  sea  of  Tiberias,"  from 
the  celebrated  city  (John  vi.  1).  Its  mod- 
ern name  is  Bohr  Tubariyeh.  Most  of  our 
Lord's  public  life  was  spent  in  the  environs 
of  the  Sea  of  Gennesaret.  This  region 
was  then  the  most  densely  peopled  in  all 
Palestine.  No  less  than  nine  cities  stood 
on  the  very  shores  of  the  lake.  The  sea 
of  Gennesaret  is  of  an  oval  shape,  about 
thirteen  geographical  miles  long,  and  six 
broad.  The  river  Jordan  enters  it  at 
its  northern  end,  and  passes  out  at  its 
southern  end.  In  fact  the  bed  of  the  lake 
is  just  a  lower  section  of  the  great  Jordan 
valley.  Its  most  remarkable  feature  is  its 
deep  depression,  being  no  less  than  700  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  ocean.  The  scenery 
is  bleak  and  monotonous.  The  great  de- 
pression makes  the  climate  of  the  shores 
almost  tropical.  This  is  very  sensibly  felt 
by  the  traveller  in  going  down  from  the 
plains  of  Galilee.  In  summer  the  heat  is 
intense,  and  even  in  early  spring  the  air 
has  something  of  an  Egyptian  balminess. 
The  water  of  the  lake  is  sweet,  cool,  and 
transparent;  and  as  the  beach  is  every- 
where pebbly  it  has  a  beautiful  sparkling 
look.  It  abounds  in  fish  now  as  in  ancient 
times. 

Gentiles.  In  the  O.  T.  the  Heb. 
gdyim  signified  the  nations,  the  surround- 
ing nsktions,  foreigners  as  opposed  to  Israel 
(Nell.  V.  8),  and  was  used  witii  an  invidious 
meaning.    In  the  N.  T,  it  is  used  as  equiv- 


alent to  Greek.  But  the  A.  V.  is  not  con- 
sistent in  its  translation  of  the  word  Hellen, 
sometimes  rendering  it  by  "  Greek  "  (Acts 
xiv.  1,  xvii.  4;  Rom.  i.  16,  x.  12),  some- 
times by  "  Gentile  "  (Rom.  ii.  9,  10,  iii.  9 ; 
1  Cor.  x.  32).  The  latter  use  of  the  word 
seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  almost  uni- 
versal adoption  of  the  Greek  language. 

Gen'ubatll,  the  son  of  Hadad,  an  Edom- 
ite  of  the  royal  family,  by  an  Egyptian  prin- 
cess, the  sister  of  Tahpenes,  the  queen  of  the 
Pharaoh  who  governed  Egypt  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  reign  of  David  (1  K.  xi.  20; 
comp.  16). 

Ge'ra,  one  of  the  "  sons,"  i.  e.  de- 
scendants, of  Benjamin,  enumerated  in 
Gen.  xlvi.  21,  as  already  living  at  the  time 
of  Jacob's  migration  into  Egypt.  He  was 
son  of  Bela  (1  Chr.  viii.  3).  The  text  of 
this  last  passage  is  very  corrupt ;  and  the 
different  Geras  there  named  seem  to  re- 
duce themselves  into  one  —  the  same  as  the 
son  of  Bela.  Gera,  who  is  named  (Judg. 
iii.  15)  as  the  ancestor  of  Ehud,  and  in  2 
Sam.  xvi.  6,  as  the  ancestor  of  Shimei  who 
cursed  David,  is  probably  also  the  same 
person. 

Gerah.     [Weights  and  Measures.] 

Ge'rar,  a  very  ancient  city  south  of 
Gaza.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  Genesis  (x.  19, 
XX.  1,  xxvi.  16)  ;  also  incidentally  in  2  Chr. 
xiv.  13,  14.  It  must  have  trenched  on  the 
"  south"  or  "south  country  "  of  later  Pal- 
estine. From  a  comparison  of  xxi.  32  with 
xxvi.  23,  26,  Beersheba  would  seem  to  be 
just  on  the  verge  of  this  territory,  and  per- 
haps to  be  its  limit  towards  the  N.  E. 

Gergesenes',    [Gadara.] 

Ger'izim.  On  the  position  of  Mount 
Gerizim,  see  Ebal.  It  is  an  important 
question  whether  Gerizim  was  the  moun- 
tain on  which  Abraham  was  directed  to  of- 
fer his  son  Isaac  (Gen,  xxii.  2,  and  sq.). 
First,  then,  let  it  be  observed  that  it  is  not 
the  mountain,  but  the  district  which  is 
there  called  Moriah,  and  that  antecedently 
to  the  occurrence  which  took  place  "  upon 
one  of  the  mountains  "  in  its  vicinity  —  a 
consideration  which  of  itself  would  natur- 
ally point  to  the  locality,  already  known  to 
Abraham,  as  the  plain  or  plains  of  Moreli, 
"the  land  of  vision,"  "the  high  land;" 
and  therefore  consistently  "the  land  of 
adoration,"  or  "religious  worship,"  as  it  is 
variously  explained.  That  all  these  inter- 
pretations are  incomparably  more  applica- 
ble to  the  natural  features  of  Gerizim  and 
its  neighborhood,  than  to  the  hillock  (in 
comparison)  upon  which  Solomon  built  his 
temple,  none  can  for  a  moment  doubt  who 
have  seen  both.  [Moriah.]  The  Samari- 
tans, therefore,  through  whom  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  true  site  of  Gerizim  has  been 
preserved,  are  probably  not  wrong  when 
they  point  out  still  —  as  they  have  done 
from  time  immemorial  —  Gerizim  as  tho 


GERIZITES 


211 


GETHSEMANE 


hill  upon  which  Abraham's  "  faith  was 
made  perfect."  Another  tradition  of  the 
Samaritans  is  far  less  trustworthy :  viz., 
that  Mount  Gerizira  was  the  spot  where 
Melchisedech  met  Abraham  —  tiiough  there 
certainly  was  a  Salem  or  Shalem  in  that 
neighborhood  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18).  Lastly, 
the  altar  which  Jacob  built  was  not  on  Ger- 
izim,  as  the  Samaritans  contend,  though 
probably  about  its  base,  at  the  head  of  the 
plain  between  it  and  Ebal,  "  in  the  parcel 
of  a  field  "  which  that  patriarch  purchased 
from  the  children  of  Hamor,  and  where  he 
spread  his  tent  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18-20).  Here 
was  likewise  his  well  (John  iv.  6),  and  the 
tomb  of  1^  son  Joseph  (Josh.  xxiv.  32), 
both  of  which  are  still  shown.  We  now 
enter  upon  the  second  phase  in  the  history 
of  Gerizim.  According  to  Josephus,  a 
marriage  contracted  between  Manasseh, 
brother  of  Jaddus,  the  then  high-priest,  and 
the  daughter  of  Sanballat  the  Cuthaean 
(comp.  2  K.  xvii.  24),  having  created  a 
great  stir  amongst  the  Jews,  who  had  been 
strictly  forbidden  to  contract  aUen  mar- 
riages (Ezr.  ix.  2;  Neh.  xiii.  23),  Sanbal- 
lat, in  order  to  reconcile  his  son-in-law  to 
this  unpopular  affinity,  obtained  leave  from 
Alexander  the  Great  to  build  a  temple 
upon  Mount  Gerizim,  and  to  inaugurate  a 
rival  priesthood  and  altar  there  to  those  of 
Jerusalem.  "  Samaria  thenceforth,"  says 
Prideaux,  "  became  the  common  refuge 
and  asylum  of  the  refractory  Jews."  Ger- 
izim is  likewise  still  to  the  Samaritans 
what  Jerusalem  is  to  the  Jews,  and  Mecca 
to  the  Mohammedans. 

Ger'izites,  1  Sam.  xxvii.8.  [Gebzites.] 
Ger^shom.  1.  The  first-born  son  of 
Moses  and  Zipporah  (Ex.  ii.  22,  xviii.  3). 
The  name  is  explained  in  these  passages 
as  =  "  a  stranger  there,"  in  allusion  to 
Moses'  being  a  foreigner  in  Midian  —  "  For 
he  said,  I  have  been  a  stranger  {Ger)  in  a 
foreign  land."  Its  true  meaning,  taking  it 
as  a  Hebrew  word,  is  "  expulsion."  The 
circumcision  of  Gershom  is  probably  relat- 
ed in  Ex.  iv.  25.  2.  The  form  under 
which  the  name  Gershon  —  the  eldest  son 
of  Levi  —  is  given  in  several  passages  of 
Chronicles,  viz.,  1  Chr.  vi.  16,  17,  20,  43, 
62,  71,  XV.  7.  3.  The  representative  of 
the  priestly  family  of  Phinehas,  among 
those  who  accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon 
(Ezr.  viii.  2). 

Qer'slion,  the  eldest  of  the  three  sons 
of  Levi,  born  before  the  descent  of  Jacob's 
family  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi.  11;  Ex.  vi. 
16).  But,  though  the  eldest  born,  the  fam- 
ilies of  Gershon  were  outstripped  in  fame 
by  their  younger  brethren  of  Kohath,  from 
whom  sprang  Moses  and  the  priestly  line 
of  Aaron.  At  the  census  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Sinai  the  whole  number  of  the 
males  of  the  sons  of  Gershon  was  7500 
(Num.  ilL  22),  midway  between  the  Ko- 


hathites  and  the  Merarites.  The  sons  of 
Gershon  (the  Gershonites)  had  charge  of 
the  fabrics  of  the  Tabernacle  —  the  cover- 
ings, curtains,  hangings,  and  cords  (Num. 
iii.  25,  26,  iv.  25,  26)  ;  for  the  transport  of 
these  they  had  two  covered  wagons  and 
four  oxen  (vii.  3,  7).  In  the  encampment 
their  station  was  behind  the  Tabernacle, 
on  the  west  side  (Num.  iii.  23).  In  the 
apportionment  of  the  Levitical  cities  thir- 
teen fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Gershonites. 
These  were  in  the  northern  tribes  —  two  in 
Manesseh  beyond  Jordan,  four  in  Issachar, 
four  in  Asher,  and  three  in  Naphtali. 

Ger'shonites,  The,  the  family  de- 
scended from  Gershon  or  Gershom,  the 
son  of  Levi.  "  The  Gershonite,"  as  ap- 
plied to  individuals  occurs  in  1  Chr.  xxvi.21. 

Ger'zites,  The,  a  tribe  who  with  the 
Geshurites  and  the  Amalekites  occupied 
the  land  between  the  south  of  Palestine 
and  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xxvii.  8).  In  the  name  of  Mount  Gerizim 
we  have  the  only  remaining  trace  of  the 
presence  of  this  old  tribe  of  Bedouins  in 
central  Palestine. 

Ge'sham  (properly  Geshan,  as  in 
A.  V.  of  1611),  one  of  the  sons  of  Jahdai, 
in  the  genealogy  of  Judah  and  family  of 
Caleb  (1  Chr.  ii.  47). 

Ge'shem,  and  Gash'mu,  an  Arabian, 
mentioned  in  Neh.  ii.  19,  and  vi.  1,  2,  6. 
We  may  conclude  that  he  was  an  inhab- 
itant of  Arabia  Petraea,  or  of  the  Arabian 
Desert,  and  probably  the  chief  of  a  tribe. 

Ge'shur,  a  little  principality  in  the 
north-eastern  corner  of  Bashan,  adjoining 
the  province  of  Argob  (Deut.  iii.  14),  and 
the  kingdom  of  Aram  (Syria  in  the  A.  V. ; 
2  Sam.  XV.  8;  comp.  1  Chr.  i.  23).  It  is 
highly  probable  that  Geshur  was  a  section 
of  the  wild  and  rugged  region  now  called 
el-Lejah.     [Argob.J 

Gesh'iiri  and  Gesh'urites.  1.  The 
inhabitants  of  Geshur  (Deut.  iii.  14 ;  Josh, 
xii.  5,  xiii.  11).  2.  An  ancient  tribe  which 
dwelt  in  the  desert  between  Arabia  and 
Philistia  (Josh.  xiii.  2;  1  Sam.  xxvii.  8). 

Ge'ther,  the  third  in  order  of  the  sons 
of  Aram  (Gen.  x.  23).  No  satisfactory 
trace  of  the  people  sprung  from  this  stock 
has  been  found. 

Gethsem'ane,  a  small  "  farm  "  (A.  V. 
"  place ;"  Matt.  xxvi.  36;  Mark  xiv.  32), 
situated  across  the  brook  Kedron  (John 
xviii.  1),  probably  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Olivet  (Luke  xxii.  39),  to  the  N.  W.,  and 
about  i  or  I  of  a  mile  English  from  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  There  was  a  "  gar- 
den," or  rather  orchard,  attached  to  it,  to 
which  the  olive,  fig,  and  pomegranate 
doubtless  invited  resort  by  their  hospitable 
shade.  And  we  know  from  the  Evangel- 
ists Luke  (xxii.  39)  and  John  (xviii.  2) 
that  our  Lord  ofttimes  resorted  thither  with 
his  disciples.  Bat  Gethsemaue  has  not  come 


GEUEL 


212 


GIBEAH 


down  to  us  as  a  scene  of  mirth ;  its  inex- 
haustible associations  are  the  offspring  of  a 
single  event  —  the  Agony  of  the  Son  of  God 
on  the  evening  preceding  His  Passion.  A 
garden,  with  eight  venerable  olive-trees,  and 
a  grotto  to  the  north,  detached  from  it,  and 
in  closer  connection  with  tlie  church  of  the 
Sepulchre  of  the  Virgin,  are  pointed  out  as 
tlie  Gethsemane.  Against  the  contemporary 
antiquity  of  the  olive-trees  it  has  been  urged 
that  Titus  cut  down  all  the  trees  about  Jeru- 
salem. The  probability  would  seem  to  be 
that  they  were  planted  by  Christian  hands 
to  mark  the  spot;  unless,  like  the  sacred 
olive  of  the  Acropolis,  they  may  have  re- 
produced themselves. 

Geu'el,  son  of  Machi,  the  Gadite  spy 
(Num.  xiii.  15). 

Gez'er,  an  ancient  city  of  Canaan, 
whose  king,  Horam,  or  Elam,  coming  to 
the  assistance  of  Lachish,  was  killed  with 
all  his  people  by  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  33,  xii. 
12).  It  formed  one  of  the  landmarks  on 
the  south  boundary  of  Ephraira,  between 
the  lower  Beth-horon  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean (xvi.  3),  the  western  limit  of  the  tribe 
(1  Chr.  vii.  28).  It  was  allotted  with  its 
suburbs  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Josh. 
xxi.  21 ;  1  Chr.  vi.  67) ;  but  the  original 
inhabitants  were  not  dispossessed  (Judg. 
i.  29)  ;  and  even  down  to  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon the  Cananites  were  still  dwelling  there, 
and  paying  tribute  to  Israel  (1  K.  ix.  16). 
Ewald  takes  Gezer  and  Geshur  to  be  the 
same.  In  one  place  Gob  is  given  as  iden- 
tical with  Gezer  (1  Chr.  xx.  4 ;  comp.  2 
Sam.  xxi.  18). 

Gez'rites,  The.  The  word  which  the 
Jewish  critics  have  substituted  in  the  mar- 
gin of  the  Bible  for  the  ancient  reading, 
"the  Gerizite  "  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  8).  [Ger- 
ziTEs,  The.] 

Gri'all,  a  place  named  only  in  2  Sam.  ii. 
24,  to  designate  the  position  of  the  hill 
Ammah. 

Giants.  1.  They  are  first  spoken  of 
in  Gen.  vi.  i,  under  the  name  Nephilim. 
We  are  told  in  Gen.  vi.  1-4  that "  there  were 
Nephilim  in  the  earth,"  and  that  afterwards 
the  "sons  of  God"  mingling  with  the 
beautiful  "daughters  of  men"  produced 
a  race  of  violent  and  insolent  Gibborim 
(A.  V.  "mighty  men").  But  who  were 
the  parents  of  these  giants  ?  who  are  "  the 
sons  of  God  ?  "  ?  They  were  most  proba- 
bly the  pious  Sethites,  though  the  prev- 
alent opinion  both  in  the  Jewish  and  early 
Christian  Church  is  that  they  were  angels. 
It  was  probably  this  ancient  view  which 
gave  rise  to  the  spurious  Book  of  Enoch, 
and  the  notion  quoted  from  it  by  St.  Jude 
(G),  and  alluded  to  by  St.  Peter  (2  Pet.  ii. 
4).  2.  The  Rephaim,  a  name  which  fre- 
quently occurs.  The  earliest  mention  of 
them  is  the  record  of  their  defeat  by  Che- 
dorlaomer  and  some  allied  kings  at  Ashte- 


roth-Karnaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5).  Extirpated, 
however,  from  the  east  of  Palestine,  they 
long  found  a  home  in  the  west  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  18,  sq. ;  1  Chr.  xx.  4).  It  is  probaJble 
that  they  had  possessed  districts  west  of 
the  Jordan  in  early  times,  since  the  "  Val- 
ley of  Rephaim  "  (2  Sam.  v.  18 ;  1  Chr.  xi. 
15;  Is.  xvii.  5),  a  rich  valley  S.  W.  of 
Jerusalem,  derived  its  name  from  them. 
They  were  probably  an  aboriginal  people 
of  which  the  Emim,  Anakim,  and  Zdzim 
were  branches. 

Gib'bar.  Bene-Gibbar,  to  the  number 
of  ninety-five,  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
from  Babylon  (Ezr.  ii.  20). 

Gib'bethon,  a  town  allotted  to  the 
tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  44),  and  after- 
wards given  with  its  "  suburbs  "  to  the  Ko- 
hathite Levites  (xxi.  23). 

Gib'ea.  Sheva  "the  father  of  Mac- 
benah,"  and  "  father  of  Gibea,"  is  men- 
tioned with  other  names  unmistakably 
those  of  places  and  not  persons,  among  the 
descendants  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  49,  comp. 
42).     This  would  seem  to  point  out  Gibea. 

Gib'eah,  a  word  employed  in  the  Bible 
to  denote  a  "  hill."  Like  most  words  of 
this  kind  it  gave  its  name  to  several  towns 
and  places  in  Palestine,  which  would  doubt- 
less be  generally  on  or  near  a  hill.  They 
are  —  1.  Gibeah,  a  city  in  the  mountain- 
district  of  Judah,  named  with  Maon  and 
the  southern  Carmel  (Josh.  xv.  57;  and 
comp.  1  Chr.  ii.  49,  &c.).  2.  Gibeath  is 
enumerated  among  the  last  gi'oup  of  the 
towns  of  Benjamin,  next  to  Jerusalem 
(Josh,  xviii.  28).  It  is  generally  taken  to 
be  the  place  which  afterwards  became  so 
notorious  as  "  Gibeah-of-Benjamin  "  or 
"  of-Saul."  But  this  was  five  or  six  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem.  The  name  being  in 
the  "  construct  state  "  —  Gibeath  and  not 
Gibeah  —  may  it  not  belong  to  the  follow- 
ing name  Kirjath,  and  denote  the  hill  ad- 
joining that  town?  3.  The  place  in  which 
the  Ark  remained  from  the  time  of  its  re- 
turn by  the  Philistines  till  its  removal  by 
David  (2  Sam.  vi.  3,  4 ;  comp.  1  Sam.  vii. 
1,  2).  4.  Gibeah-of-Benjamin,  first  ap- 
pears in  the  tragical  story  of  the  Levite 
and  his  concubine  (Judg.  xix.,  xx.).  It 
was  then  a  "  city,"  with  the  usual  open 
street  or  square  (Judg.  xix.  15,  17,  20), 
and  containing  700  "  chosen  men  "  (xx. 
15),  probably  the  same  whose  skill  as  sling- 
ers  is  preserved  in  the  next  verse.  In 
many  particulars  Gibeah  agrees  very  close- 
ly with  Tuleil-el-Fi'd,  a  conspicuous  emi- 
nence just  four  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
to  the  right  of  the  road.  We  next  meet 
with  Gibeah-of-Benjamin  during  the  Philis- 
tine wars  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (1  Sam. 
xiii.,  xiv.).  It  now  bears  its  full  title.  As 
"  Gibeah-of-Benjamin  "  this  place  is  re- 
ferred to  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  29  (comp.  1  Chr. 
xi.  31),  and  as  '-Gibeah"  it  is  mentioned 


GIBEATH 


213 


GIER-EAGLE 


by  Hosea  (v.  8,  ix.  9,  x.  9),  but  it  does  not 
again  appear  in  the  history.  It  is,  how- 
ever, almost  without  doubt  identical  with 
—  5.  Gibeah-of-Saul.  This  is  not  men- 
tioned as  Saul's  city  till  after  his  anointing 
(1  Sam.  X.  26),  when  he  is  said  to  have 
gone  "  home  "  to  Gibeah.  In  the  subse- 
quent narrative  the  town  bears  its  full 
name  (xi.  4).  6.  Gibeah-in-the-Field, 
named  only  in  Judg.  xx.  31,  as  the  place 
to  which  one  of  the  "  highways  "  led  from 
Gibeah-of-Benjamin.  It  is  probably  the 
same  as  Geba.  The  "  meadows  of  Gaba  " 
(A.  V.  Gibeah;  Judg.  xx.  33)  have  no 
connection  with  the  "  field,"  the  Hebrew 
words  being  entirely  diflferent. 

Gib'eath.,  Josh,  xviii.  28.  [Gibeah,  2.] 

Gib'eathite,  The,  «.  e.  the  native  of 
■Gibeah  (1  Chr.  xii.  3). 

Gib'eon,  one  of  the  four  cities  of  the 
HiviTES,  the  inhabitants  of  which  made  a 
league  with  Joshua  (ix.  3-15),  and  thus 
escaped  the  fate  of  Jericho  and  Ai  (comp. 
xi.  19).  Gibeon  lay -within  the  territory 
of  Benjamin  (xviii.  25),  and  with  its  "  sub- 
urbs "  was  allotted  to  the  priests  (xxi,  17), 
of  whom  it  became  afterwards  a  principal 
station.  It  retains  its  ancient  name  almost 
intact.  El- Jib.  Its  distance  from  Jerusalem 
by  the  main  road  is  as  nearly  as  possible  64 
miles ;  but  there  is  a  more  direct  road  re- 
ducing it  to  5  miles. 

Gib'eonites,  The,  the  people  of  Gib- 
eon,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  three  cities 
associated  with  Gibeon  (Josh.  ix.  17)  — 
Hivites  ;  and  who,  on  the  discovery  of  the 
stratagem  by  which  they  had  obtained  the 
protection  of  the  Israelites,  were  condemned 
to  be  perpetual  bondmen,  hewers  of  wood 
and  drawers  of  water  for  the  congregation, 
and  for  the  house  of  God  and  altar  of  Je- 
hovah (Josh.  ix.  23,  27).  Saul  appears  to 
have  broken  this  covenant,  and  in  a  fit  of 
enthusiasm  or  patriotism  to  have  killed 
some,  and  devised  a  general  massacre  of 
the  rest  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1,  2,  5).  Tlii«  was 
expiated  many  years  after  by  giving  up 
seven  men  of  Saul's  descendants  to  the 
Gibeonites,  who  hung  them  or  crucified 
them  "  before  Jehovah  "  —  as  a  kind  of  sac- 
rifice—  in  Gibeah,  Saul's  own  town  (4,  6,  9). 

Gib'Iites,  The.    [Gebal.] 

Giddal'ti,  one  of  the  sons  of  Heman, 
the  king's  seer  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4). 

Gid'del.  1.  Children  of  Giddel  were 
among  the  Nethinim  who  returned  from 
the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  47 ; 
Neh.  vii.  49).  2.  Bene-Giddel  were  also 
among  the  "  servants  of  Solomon  "  who 
returned  to  Judaea  in  the  same  caravan 
(Ezr.  ii.  56;  Neh.  vii.  58). 

Gid'eon,  a  Manassite,  youngest  son  of 
Joash  of  the  Abiezrites,  an  undistinguished 
family  who  lived  at  Ophrah,  a  town  proba- 
bly on  the  west  of  Jordan  (Judg.  vi.  15). 
He  was  the  fifth  recorded  Judge  of  Israel, 


and  for  many  reasons  the  greatest  of  them 
all.  When  we  first  hear  of  hira  he  waa 
grown  up  and  had  sons  (Judg.  vi.  11,  viii. 
20),  and  from  tl>e  apostrophe  of  the  angel 
(vi.  12)  we  may  conclude  that  he  had  al- 
ready distinguished  himself  in  war  against 
the  roving  bands  of  nomadic  robbers  who 
had  oppressed  Israel  for  seven  years,  and 
whose  countless  multitudes  (compared  to 
locusts  from  their  terrible  devastations,  vi. 
5)  annually  destroyed  all  the  produce  of 
Canaan,  except  such  as  could  be  concealed 
in  mountain-fastnesses  (vi.  2).  It  was 
probably  during  this  disastrous  period  that 
the  emigration  of  Elimelech  took  place 
(Ruth  i.  1,  2).  When  the  angel  appeared, 
Gideon  was  threshing  wheat  with  a  flail  in 
the  winepress,  to  conceal  it  from  the  preda- 
tory tyrants.  His  call  to  be  a  deliverer,  and 
his  destruction  of  Baal's  altar,  are  related 
in  Judg.  vi.  After  this  begins  the  second 
act  of  Gideon's  life.  Clothed  by  the  Spirit 
of  God  (Judg.  vi.  34 ;  comp.  1  Chr.  xii.  18 ; 
Luke  xxiv.  49),  he  blew  a  trumpet,  and 
was  joined  by  Zebulun,  Naphtali,  and  even 
the  reluctant  Asher.  Strengthened  by  a 
double  sign  from  God,  he  reduced  his  army 
of  32,000  by  the  usual  proclamation  (Deut. 
XX.  8;  comp.  1  Mace.  iii.  56).  By  a  sec- 
ond test  at  "the  spring  of  trembling"  he 
again  reduced  the  number  of  his  followers 
to  300  (Judg.  vii.  5,  sq.).  The  midnight 
attack  upon  the  Midianites,  their  panic, 
and  the  rout  and  slaughter  that  followed, 
are  told  in  Judg.  vii.  The  memory  of  this 
splendid  deliverance  took  deep  root  in  the 
national  traditions  (1  Sam.  xii.  11;  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  11;  Is.  ix.  4,  x.  26;  Heb.  xi.  32). 
After  this  there  was  a  peace  of  40  years, 
and  we  see  Gideon  in  peaceful  possession 
of  his  well-earned  honors,  and  surrounded 
by  the  dignity  of  a  numerous  household 
(viii.  29-31).  It  is  not  improbable  that, 
like  Saul,  he  had  owed  a  part  of  his  popu- 
larity to  his  princely  appearance  (Judg. 
viii.  18).  In  this  third  stage  of  his  life 
occur  alike  his  most  noble  and  his  most 
questionable  acts,  viz.,  the  refusal  of  the 
monarchy  on  theocratic  grounds,  and  the 
irregular  consecration  of  a  jewelled  ephod 
formed  out  of  the  rich  spoils  of  Midian 
which  proved  to  the  Israelites  a  temptation 
to  idolatry,  although  it  was  doubtless  in- 
tended for  use  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

Gideo'ni,  a  Benjamite,  father  of  Abidan 
(Num.  i.  14,  iii.  22,  vii.  60,  65,  x.  24). 

Gi'dom,  a  place  named  only  in  Judg. 
XX.  45.  It  would  ap])ear  to  have  been  situ- 
ated between  Gibeah  (  Tuleil-el-  Ful)  and  the 
cliff  Rimmon. 

Gier-eagle,  an  uncltean  bird  mentioned 
in  Lev.  xi.  18  and  Deut.  xiv.  17.  There  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  r&chdm  of  the 
Heb.  Scriptures  is  identical  in  reality  as  in 
name  with  the  racham  of  the  Arabs,  viz., 
the  Egyptian  vulture. 


GIFT 


214 


GIMZO 


Gift.  The  giving  and  receiving  of  pres- 
ents has  in  all  ages  been  not  only  a  more 
frequent,  but  also  a  more  formal  and  sig- 
nificant proceeding  in  the  East  than  among 
ourselves.  We  cannot  adduce  a  more  re- 
markable proof  of  the  important  part  which 
presents  play  in  the  social  life  of  the  East 
than  the  fact  that  the  Hebrew  language  pos- 
sesses no  less  than  fifteen  different  expres- 
sions for  the  one  idea.  The  nature  of  the 
presents  was  as  various  as  were  the  occa- 
sions. The  mode  of  presentation  was  with 
as  much  parade  as  possible.  The  refusal 
of  a  present  was  regarded  as  a  high  indig- 
nity. No  less  an  insult  was  it,  not  to  bring 
a  present  when  the  position  of  the  parties 
demanded  it  (1  Sam.  x.  27). 

Gi'hon.  1.  The  second  river  of  Para- 
dise (Gen.  ii.  13).  [Eden.]  2.  A  place 
near  Jerusalem,  memorable  as  the  scene 
of  the  anointing  and  proclamation  of  Solo- 
mon as  king  (1  K.  i.  33,  38,  45). 

Gil'alai,  one  of  the  priests'  sons  at  the 
consecration  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  36). 

GilbO'a,  a  mountain  range  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  rising 
over  the  city  of  Jezreel  (comp.  1  Sam.  xxviii. 
4  with  xxix.  1).  It  is  only  mentioned  in 
Scripture  in  connection  with  one  event  in 
Israelitish  history,  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Saul  and  Jonathan  by  the  Philistines  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  1 ;  2  Sam.  i.  6,  xxi.  12;  1  Chr. 
x.  1,  8.)  Of  the  identity  of  Gilboa  with  the 
ridge  which  stretches  eastward,  from  the 
ruins  of  Jezreel,  no  doubt  can  be  enter- 
tained.   The  village  is  now  called  Jelbdu. 

Gil'ead.  1.  A  mountainous  region 
hounded  on  the  west  by  the  Jordan,  on  the 
north  by  Basban,  on  the  east  by  the  Arabian 
plateau,  and  on  the  south  by  Moab  and  Am- 
mon  (Gen.  xxxi.  21 ;  Deut.  iii.  12-17).  It  is 
sometimes  called  "  Mount  Gilead  "  (Gen. 
xxxi.  25),  sometimes  "  the  land  of  Gilead  " 
Num.  xxxii.  1)  ;  and  sometimes  simply  "Gil- 
ead "  (Ps.  Ix.  7 ;  Gen.  xxxvii.  25)  ;  but  a  com- 
parison of  the  several  passages  shows  that 
they  all  mean  the  same  thing.  The  name 
Gilead,  as  is  usual  in  Palestine,  describes  the 
physical  aspect  of  the  country.  It  signifies 
"  a  hard  rocky  region."  The  statements  in 
Gen.  xxxi.  48,  are  not  opposed  to  this  ety- 
mology. The  old  name  of  the  district  was 
Gilead,  but  by  a  slight  change  in  the  pro- 
nunciation, the  radical  letters  being  re- 
tained, the  meaning  was  made  beautifully 
applicable  to  the  "heap  of  stones"  Jacob 
and  Laban  had  built  up  —  "  the  heap  of 
witness."  Those  acquainted  with  the  mod- 
em Arabs  and  their  literature  will  see  how 
intensely  such  a  play  upon  the  word  would 
be  appreciated  by  them.  The  mountains 
of  Gilead  have  a  real  elevation  of  from  two 
to  three  thousand  feet ;  but  their  apparent 
elevation  on  the  western  side  is  much  great- 
er, owing  to  the  depression  of  the  Jordan 


valley,  which  averages  about  1000  feet. 
Their  outline  is  singularly  uniform,  resem- 
bling a  massive  wall  running  along  the 
horizon.  The  name  Galaad  occurs  several 
times  in  the  history  of  the  Maccabees  (1 
Mace.  V.  9,  sq.).  2.  Possibly  the  name  of 
a  mountain  west  of  the  Jordan,  near  Jezreel 
(Judg.  vii.  3).  We  are  inclined,  however, 
to  think  that  the  true  reading  in  this  place 
should  be  Gilboa.  3.  Son  of  Machir, 
grandson  of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  29,  30). 
4.  The  father  of  Jephthah  (Judg.  xi.  1,  2). 
Gil'eadites,  The  (Judg.  xii.  4,   5; 

Num.  xxvi.  29 ;  Judg.  x.  3),  a  branch  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  descended  from  Gilead. 
There  appears  to  have  been  an  old  standing 
feud  between  them  and  the  Ephrairaites, 
who  taunted  them  with  being  deserters. 

Gil'gal.  1.  The  site  of  the  first  camp 
of  the  Israelites  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan, 
the  place  at  which  they  passed  the  first  night 
after  crossing  the  river,and  where  tlie  twelve 
stones  were  set  up  which  had  been  taken 
from  the  bed  of  the  stream  (Josh.  iv.  19, 
20,  comp.  3) ;  where  also  they  kept  their 
first  passover  in  the  land  of  Canaan  (v.  10). 
It  was  in  the  "  end  of  the  east  of  Jericho  " 
(A.  V.  "  in  the  east  border  of  Jericho  ")  ap- 
parently on  a  hillock  or  rising  ground  (v. 
3,  comp.  9) ,  in  the  Arboth- Jericho  (A.  V. 
"the  plains"),  that  is,  the  hot  depressed 
district  of  the  Ghor  which  lay  between  the 
town  and  the  Jordan  (v.  10).  We  again 
encounter  Gilgal  in  the  time  of  Saul,  when 
it  seems  to  have  exchanged  its  military  as- 
sociations for  those  of  sanctity.  We  again 
have  a  glimpse  of  it,  some  sixty  years  later, 
in  the  history  of  David's  return  to  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Sam.  xix.).  Its  site  is  uncertain. 
But,  2.  it  was  certainly  a  distinct  place 
from  the  Gilgal  which  is  connected  with  the 
l^st  scene  in  the  life  of  Elijah,  and  with  one 
of  Elisha's  miracles  (2  K.  ii.).  The  men- 
tion of  Baal-shalisha  (iv.  42)  gives  a  clew 
to  its  situation,  when  taken  with  the  notice 
of  Eusebius,  that  that  place  was  fifteen 
miles  from  Diospolis  (Lydda)  towards  the 
north.  In  that  very  position  stand  now  the 
ruins  bearing  the  name  oiJiljilieh,  i.  e.  Gil- 
gal.     3.   The   "  KING   OF  THE    HATION8   OF 

Gilgal,"  or  rather  perhaps  the  "  king  of 
Goim-at-GUgal,"  is  mentioned  in  the  cata- 
logue of  the  chiefs  overthrown  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xii.  23).  4.  A  Gilgal  is  spoken  of 
in  Josh.  XV.  7,  in  describing  the  north  bor- 
der of  Judah. 

Gi'loh,  a  town  in  the  mountainous  part 
of  Judah,  named  in  the  first  group,  with 
Debir  and  Eshtemoh  (Josh.  xv.  51)  ;  it  was 
the  native  place  of  the  famous  Ahithophel 
(2  Sam.  XV.  12). 

Gi'lonite,  The,  native  of  Giloh  (2  Sam. 
XV.  12;  xxiii.  34). 

Gim'zo,  a  town  which  with  its  depen- 
dent villages  was  taken  possession  of  by 
the  Philistines  in  the  reign  of  Aliaz  (2  Chr. 


GIN 


215 


GOAD 


xxviii.  18).  The  name  {Jimzu)  still  re- 
mains attached  to  a  large  village  between 
two  and  three  miles  S.  W.  of  Lydda,  south 
of  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jaffa. 

Gin,  a  trap  for  birds  or  beasts  :  it  con- 
sisted of  a  net  (Is.  viii.  14,  and  a  stick  to 
act  as  a  springe  (Am.  iii.  5). 

Gi'nath,  father  of  Tibni(l  K.  xvi.21, 22). 

Gin.'lietho,  one  of  the  chief  of  the 
priests  and  Levites  who  returned  to  Judaea 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  4).  He  is 
doubtless  the  same  person  as 

Gin'netlion,  a  priest  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  6). 

Girdle,  an  essential  article  of  dress  in 
the  East,  and  worn  both  by  men  and  wo- 
men. The  common  girdle  was  made  of 
leather  (2  K.  i.  8;  Matt.  iii.  4),  like  that 
worn  by  the  Bedouins  of  the  present  day. 
A  finer  girdle  was  made  of  linen  (Jer.  xiii. 
1 ;  Ez.  xvi.  10),  embroidered  with  silk,  and 
sometimes  with  gold  and  silver  thread 
(Dan.  X.  6;  Rev.  i.  13,  xv.  6),  and  fre- 
quently studded  with  gold  and  precious 
stones  or  pearls.  The  manufacture  of  these 
girdles  formed  part  of  the  employment  of 
women  (Prov.  xxxi.  24).  The  girdle  was 
fastened  by  a  clasp  of  gold  or  silver,  or  tied 
in  a  knot  so  that  the  ends  hung  down  in 
front,  as  in  the  figures  on  the  ruins  of  Per- 
sepolis.  It  was  worn  by  men  about  the 
loins  (Is.  v.  27,  xi.  5).  The  girdle  of  wo- 
men was  generally  looser  than  that  of  the 
men,  and  was  worn  about  the  hips,  except 
when  they  were  actively  engaged  (Prov. 
xxxi.  17).  The  military  girdle  was  worn 
about  the  waist ;  the  sword  or  dagger  was 
suspended  from  it  (Judg.  Ri.  16 ;  2  Sam. 
XX.  8;  Ps.  xlv.  3).  Hence  girding  up  the 
loins  denotes  preparation  for  battle  or  for 
active  exertion.  In  times  of  mourning, 
girdles  of  sackcloth  were  worn  as  marks  of 
humiliation  and  sorrow  (Is.  iii.  24,  xxii.  12). 
In  consequence  of  the  costlj'  materials  of 
which  girdles  were  made,  they  were  fre- 
quently given  as  presents  (1  Sam.  xviii.  4 ; 
2  Sam.  xviii.  11).  They  were  used  as 
pockets,  as  among  the  Arabs  still,  and  as 
purses,  one  end  of  the  girdle  being  folded 
back  for  the  purpose  (Matt.  x.  9 ;  Mark  vi. 
8).  The  girdle  worn  by  the  priests  about 
the  close-fitting  tunic  (Ex.  xxviii.  39,  xxxix. 
29)  is  described  by  Josephus  as  made  of 
linen  so  fine  of  texture  as  to  look  like  the 
slough  of  a  snake,  and  embroidered  with 
flowers  of  scarlet,  purple,  blue,  and  fine 
linen.  It  was  about  four  fingers  broad, 
and  was  wrapped  several  times  round  the 
priest's  body,  the  ends  hanging  down  to 
the  feet.  The  "  curious  girdle  "  (Ex.  xxviii. 
8)  was  made  of  the  same  materials  and 
colors  as  the  ephod,  that  is,  of  "  gold,  blue, 
and  purple,  and  scarlet,  and  fine  twined 
linen."  Josephus  describes  it  as  sewn  to 
tlie  breastplate.    After  passing  once  round 


it  was  tied  in  front  upon  the  seam,  the  ends 
hanging  down. 

Gir'gashites,  The,  one  of  the  nations 
who  were  in  possession  of  Canaan  before 
the  entrance  thither  of  the  children  of  Is- 
rael (Gen.  X.  16,  xv.  21;  Deut.  vii.  1; 
Josh.  iii.  10,  xxiv.  11;  1  Chr.  i.  14;  Neh. 
ix.  8). 

Gir'gasite,  The  (Gen.  x.  16).  See 
the  foregoing. 

Gis'pa,  one  of  the  overseers  of  the 
Nethinim,  in  "  the  Ophel,"  after  the  return 
from  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  21). 

Git'tah-hepher,  Josh.  xix.  13.  [Gath- 

HEPHER.] 

Gittaim.    [Gittites.] 

Git'tites,  the  600  men  who  followed 
David  from  Gath,  under  Ittai  the  Gittite  (2 
Sam.  XV.  18,  19),  and  who  probably  acted 
as  a  kind  of  body-guard.  Obed-edom  "  the 
Gittite  "  may  have  been  so  named  from  the 
town  of  Gittaim  in  Benjamin  (2  Sam.  iv.  3 ; 
Neh.  xi.  33),  or  from  Gath-rimmon. 

Gittith,  a  musical  instrument,  by  some 
supposed  to  have  been  used  by  the  people 
of  Gath ;  and  by  others  to  have  been  em- 
ployed at  the  festivities  of  the  vintage  (Ps. 
viii.,  Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv.). 

Gi'zonite,  The.  "The  sons  of  Hashem 
the  Gizonite  "  are  named  amongst  the  war- 
riors of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi.  34). 
Kennicott  concludes  that  the  name  should 
be  GouNi. 

Glass.  The  Heb.  word  occurs  only  in 
Job  xxviii.  17,  where  in  A.  V.  it  is  rendered 
"  crystal."  In  spite  of  the  absence  of  spe- 
cific allusion  to  glass  in  the  sacred  writings, 
the  Hebrews  must  have  been  aware  of  the 
invention.  From  paintings  representing 
the  process  of  glass-blowing  which  have 
been  discovered  at  Beni-hassan,  and  in 
tombs  at  other  places,  we  know  that  the  in- 
vention is  at  least  as  remote  as  the  age  of 
Osirtasen  the  first  (perhaps  a  contemporary 
of  Joseph),  3500  years  ago.  Fragments 
too  of  wine- vases  as  old  as  the  Exodus  have 
been  discovered  in  Egypt.  The  art  was 
also  known  to  the  ancient  Assyrians.  In 
the  N.  T.  glass  is  alluded  to  as  an  emblem 
of  brightness  (Rev.  iv.  6,  xv.  2,  xxi.  18). 

Gleaning.  The  gleaning  of  fruit  trees, 
as  well  as  of  corn-fields,  was  reserved  for 
the  poor.     [Corner.] 

Glede,  the  old  name  for  the  common 
kite  {milvus  aier)  occurs  only  in  Deut.  xiv. 
13  among  the  unclean  birds  of  prey. 

Gnat,  mentioned  only  in  the  proverbial 
expression  used  by  our  Saviour  in  Matt- 
xxiii.  24. 

Goad  (Judg.  iii.  31 ;  1  Sam.  xiii.  21). 
But  the  Hebrew  word  in  the  latter  passage 
probably  means  the  point  of  the  plough- 
share. The  former  word  does  pj  abably 
refer  to  the  goad,  the  long  handle  o  which 
might  be '  used  as  a  formidable  weapon. 
The  instrument,  as  still  used  in  the  couu* 


GOAT 


216 


GOD 


tries  of  Southern  Europe  and  Western  Asia, 
consists  of  a  rod  about  eight  feet  long, 
brought  to  a  sharp  point  and  sometimes 
cased  with  iron  at  the  head. 

Croat.  There  appear  to  be  two  or  three 
varieties  of  the  common  goat  {Ilircus  aega- 
grus)  at  present  bred  in  Palestine  and 
Syria,  but  whether  they  are  identical  with 
those  which  were  reared  by  the  ancient 
Hebrews  it  is  not  possible  to  say.  The 
most  marked  varieties  are  the  Syrian  goat 
{Capra  Mamhrica,  Linn.),  and  the  Angora 
goat  (^Capra  Angorensis,  Linn.),  with  fine 
long  hair.  As  to  the  "wild  goats"  (1  Sam. 
xxiv.  2 ;  Job  xxxix.  1,  and  Ps.  civ.  18)  it  is 
not  at  all  improbable  that  some  species  of 
ihex  is  denoted. 

Goat,  Scape.    [Atonement,  Day  of.] 

Go'ath.,  a  place  apparently  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Jerusalem,  and  named,  in  con- 
nection with  the  liill  Gareb,  only  in  Jer. 
xxxi.  39. 

Gob,  a  place  mentioned  only  in  2  Sam. 
xxi.  18,  19,  as  the  scene  of  two  encounters 
between  David's  warriors  and  the  Philis- 
tines. In  the  parallel  account  in  1  Chr. 
XX.  4,  the  name  is  given  as  Gezer. 

Goblet,  a  circular  vessel  for  wine  or 
other  liquid. 

Grod.  Throughout  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures two  chief  names  are  used  for  the  one 
true  divine  Being  —  Elohim,  commonly 
translated  God  in  our  Version,  and  Jeho- 
vah, translated  Lord.  Elohim  is  the  plu- 
ral of  Eloah  (in  Arabic  Allah),  a  form 
which  occurs  only  in  poetry  and  a  few  pas- 
sages of  later  Hebrew  (Neh.  be.  17 ;  2  Chr. 
xxxii.  15).  It  is  also  formed  with  the  pro- 
nominal suffixes,  as  Eloi,  my  God,  with  the 
dependent  genitive,  and  with  an  epithet,  in 
which  case  it  is  often  used  in  the  short 
form  El  (a  word  signifying  strength'),  as  in 
El-Shaddai,  God  Almighty,  the  name  by 
which  God  was  specially  known  to  the  pa- 
triarchs (Gen.  xvii.  1,  xxviii.  3;  Ex.  vi.  3). 
The  etymology  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  the  primary  idea  is  that 
of  strength,  power  to  effect;  and  that  it 
properly  describes  God  in  that  character  in 
which  He  is  exhibited  to  all  men  in  His 
works,  as  the  creator,  sustainer,  and  su- 
preme governor  of  the  world.  Hence  it  is 
used  to  denote  any  being  believed  in  and 
worshipped  as  God ;  but  in  the  sense  of  a 
heathen  deity,  or  a  divine  being  spoken  of 
indefinitely,  the  singular  is  most  often  used, 
and  the  plural  is  employed,  with  the  strict 
idea  of  number,  for  the  collective  objects 
of  polytheistic  worship,  the  gods,  the  gods 
of  the  heathen.  It  is  also  used  for  any 
being  that  strikes  an  observer  as  god-like 
(1  Sam.  xxviii.  13),  and  for  kings,  judges, 
and  others  endowed  with  authority  from 
God  (Psalm  L3cxxii.  1,  6,  viii.  6,  xcvii.  7, 
&c. ;  Ex.  xxi.  6,  xxii.  7,  8).  The  short 
form  El  is  used  for  a  kero,  or  mighty  man. 


as  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezek.  xxxi.  11),  a 
sense  derived  at  once  from  the  meaning  of 
strength.  The  plural  form  of  Elohim  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion.  The  fanci- 
ful idea,  that  it  referred  to  the  Trinity  of 
Persons  in  the  Godhead,  hardly  finds  now 
a  supporter  among  scholars.  It  is  cither 
what  grammarians  call  the  plural  of  ma- 
jesty, or  it  denotes  the  fulness  of  divine 
strength,  the  sum  of  the  powers  displayed 
by  God.  Jehovah  denotes  specifically  the 
one  true  God,  whose  people  the  Jews  were, 
and  who  made  them  the  guardians  of  His 
truth.  The  name  is  never  applied  to  a 
false  god,  nor  to  any  other  being,  except 
One,  the  Angel-Jehovah,  who  is  thereby 
marked  as  one  with  God,  and  who  appears 
again  in  the  New  Covenant  as  "  God  mani- 
fested in  the  flesh."  Thus  much  is  clear; 
but  all  else  is  beset  with  difficulties.  At  a 
time  too  early  to  be  traced,  the  Jews  ab- 
stained from  pronouncing  the  name,  for 
fear  of  its  irreverent  use.  The  custom  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  on  a  strained 
interpretation  of  Lev.  xxiv.  16;  and  the 
phrase  there  used,  "The  Name"  (Shema), 
is  substituted  by  the  Rabbis  for  the  unutter- 
able word.  They  also  call  it  "  the  name 
of  four  letters  "  (niiT^).  "  the  great  and 
terrible  name,"  "the  peculiar  name,"  "  the 
separate  name."  In  reading  the  Scriptures, 
they  substituted  for  it  the  word  Adonai 
(^Lord),  from  the  translation  of  which  by 
KvQiui  in  the  LXX.,  followed  by  the  Vul- 
gate, which  uses  Dominus,  we  have  got 
the  Lord  of  our  Version.  Our  translators 
have,  however,  used  Jehovah  in  four  pas- 
sages (Ex.  vi.  3 ;  Psalm  Ixxxiii.  18 ;  Is. 
xii.  2,  xxvi.  4),'  and  in  the  compounds,  Je- 
havah-Jireh,  Jehovah- Nissi,  and  Jehovah- 
Shalom,  (^Jehovah  shall  see,  Jehovah  is  my 
Banner,  Jehovah  is  Peace,  Gen.  xxii.  14; 
Ex.  xvii.  15 ;  Judges  vi.  24) ;  while  the 
similar  phrases  Jehovah- Tsidkenu  and  Je- 
hovah-Shammah  Ave  tTiLnslsited,  "  the  Lord 
our  righteousness,"  and  "the  Lord  is  there  " 
(Jer.  xxiii.  6,  xxxiii.  16 ;  Ezek.  xlviii.  35). 
In  one  passage  the  abbreviated  form  Jah  is 
retained  (Psalm  Ixviii.  4).  The  substitu- 
tion of  the  word  Lord  is  most  unhappy ; 
for,  while  it  in  no  way  represents  the  mean- 
ing of  the  sacred  name,  the  mind  has  con- 
stantly to  guard  against  a  confusion  with 
its  lower  uses,  and  above  all,  the  direct  per- 
sonal bearing  of  the  name  on  the  revelation 
of  God  through  the  whole  course  of  Jewish 
history  is  kept  injuriously  out  of  sight.  The 
key  to  the  meaning  of  the  name  is  unques- 
tionably given  in  God's  revelation  of  Himself 
to  Moses  by  the  phrase  "  I  am  that  I  am," 
in  connection  with  the  statement,  that  He 
was  now  first  revealed  by  his  name  Jeho- 
vah (Ex.  iii.  14,  vi.  3).  Without  entering 
here  upon  questions  of  Hebrew  philology, 
we  must  be  content  to  take  as  established 
the  etymological  connection  of  the  namo 


GOG 


217 


GOMER 


Jehovah  with  the  Hebrew  substantive  verb, 
with  the  inference  tliat  it  expresses  the 
essential,  eternal,  unchangeable  Being 
of  Jehovah.  But  more,  it  is  not  the  ex- 
pression only,  or  chiefly,  of  an  absolute 
truth :  it  is  a  practical  revelation  of  God, 
in  His  essential,  unchangeable  relation  to 
His  chosen  people,  the  basis  of  His  Cove- 
nant.  This  is  both  implied  in  the  occasion 
on  which  it  is  revealed  to  Moses,  and  in  the 
fifUenth  verse  of  Ex.  iii.  And  here  we 
find  the  solution  of  a  difficulty  raised  by 
Ex.  vi.  3,  as  if  it  meant  that  the  name  Je- 
hovah had  not  been  known  to  the  patri- 
archs. There  is  abundant  evidence  to  the 
contrary.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Seth, 
"  men  began  to  call  on  the  name  of  Jeho- 
vah" (Gen.  iv.  25).  The  name  is  used  by 
the  patriarchs  themselves  (Gen.  xviii.  14 ; 
xxiv.  40;  xxvi.  28;  xxviii.  21).  It  is  the 
basis  of  titles,  like  Jehovah-Jireh,  and  of 
proper  names,  like  Moriah  and  Jochebed. 
Indeed,  the  same  reasoning  would  prove 
that  the  prtriarchs  did  not  know  God  as 
Elohim,  but  exclusively  as  M-Shaddai. 
But,  in  fact,  the  word  name  is  used  here, 
as  elsewhere,  for  the  attributes  of  God. 
He  was  about,  for  the  first  time,  fully  to  re- 
veal that  aspect  of  His  character  which  the 
name  implied.  [Jehovah.] 

Gog.  I.  A  Reubenite  (1  Chr.  v.  4), 
son  of  Sheraaiah.     2.  [Magog.] 

Go'lan,  a  city  of  Bashan  (Deut.  iv. 
43),  allotted  out  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  to  the  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  27),  and  one 
of  the  three  cities  of  refuge  east  of  the 
Jordan  (xx.  8).  Its  very  site  is  now  un- 
known. It  gave  its  name  to  the  province 
of  Gaulanitis,  which  is  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Josephus.  It  lay  east  of  Galilee, 
and  north  of  Gadaritis.  [Gadara.]  The 
Jordan  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  its  foun- 
tains at  Dan  arid  Caesarea-Philippi,  formed 
its  western  boundary.  It  corresponds  to 
the  modern  province  of  Jaulan  (which  is 
the  Arabic  form  of  the  Hebrew  Golan). 
The  greater  part  of  Gaulanitis  is  a  flat  and 
fertile  table-land,  well  watered,  and  clothed 
with  luxuriant  grass. 

Gold,  the  most  valuable  of  metals, 
from  its  color,  lustre,  weight,  ductility,  and 
other  useful  properties.  Hence  it  is  used 
as  an  emblem  of  purity  (Job  xxiii.  10)  and 
nobility  (Lara.  iv.  1).  Gold  was  known 
from  the  very  earliest  times  (Gen.  ii.  11). 
It  was  at  first  chiefly  used  for  ornaments, 
&c.  (Gen.  xxiv.  22).  Coined  money  was 
not  known  to  the  ancients  till  a  compara- 
tively late  period;  and  on  the  Egyptian 
tombs  gold  is  represented  as  being  weighed 
in  rings  for  commercial  purposes.  (Comp. 
Gen.  xliii.  21).  Gold  was  extremely  abun- 
dant in  ancient  times  (1  Chr.  xxii.  14;  2 
Chr.  i.  15,  ix.  9 ;  Nab.  ii.  9 ;  Dan.  iii.  1)  ; 
but  this  did  not  depreciate  its  value,  be- 
cause of  the  enormous  quantities  consumed 


by  the  wealthy  in  furniture,  &c.  (1  K.  vi. 
22,  X.  passim ;  Cant.  iii.  9,  10 ;  Esth.  i.  6 ; 
Jer.  X.  9).  The  chief  countries  mentioned 
as  producing  gold  are  Arabia,  Sheba,  and 
Ophir  (1  K.  ix.  28,  x.  1;  Job  xxviii.  16). 
Other  gold-bearing  countries  were  Uphaz 
(Jer.  X.  9 ;  Dan.  x.  5)  and  Pai-vaim  (2 
Chr.  iii.  6).  Metallurgic  processes  are 
mentioned  in  Ps.  Ixvi.  10;  Prov.  xvii.  3, 
xxvii.  21 ;  and  in  Is.  xlvi.  6,  the  trade  of 
goldsmith  (cf.  Judg.  xvii.  4)  is  alluded  to 
in  connection  with  the  overlaying  of  idols 
with  gold-leaf. 

Gol'gotha,  the  Hebrew  name  of  the 
spot  at  which  our  Lord  was  crucified  (Matt, 
xxvii.  33;  Mark  xv.  22;  John  xix.  17). 
By  these  three  Evangelists  it  is  interpreted 
to  mean  the  "  place  of  a  skull."  St. 
Luke's  words  are  really  as  follows  —  "the 
place  which  is  called  "a  skull'  "  —  not,  as 
in  the  other  Gospels,  "  of  a  skull,"  thus 
employing  the  Greek  term  exactly  as  they 
do  the  Hebrew  one.  Two  explanations  of 
the  name  are  given  :  (1)  that  it  was  a  spot 
where  executions  ordinarily  took  place, 
and  therefore  abounded  in  skulls.  Or  (2) 
it  may  come  from  the  look  or  form  of  the 
spot  itself,  bald,  round,  and  skull-like,  and 
therefore  a  mound  or  hillock,  in  accordance 
with  the  common  phrase  —  for  which  there 
is  no  direct  authority  —  "Mount  Calvary." 
Whichever  of  these  is  the  correct  explana- 
tion, Golgotha  seems  to  have  been  a  known 
spot. 

Groli'ath,  a  famous  giant  of  Gath,  who 
"  morning  and  evening  for  forty  days  "  de- 
fied the  armies  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  xvii.). 
He  was  possibly  descended  from  the  old 
Rephaim  [Giants],  of  whom  a  scattered 
remnant  took  refuge  with  the  Philistinea 
after  their  dispersion  by  the  Ammonites 
(Deut.  ii.  20,  21;  2  Sam.  xxi.  22).  His 
height  was  "  six  cubits  and  a  span,"  which, 
taking  the  cubit  at  21  inches,  would  make 
him  IQk  feet  high.  But  the  LXX.  and  Jo- 
sephus read  "four  cubits  and  a  span." 
The  scene  of  his  combat  with  David  was 
the  Valley  of  the  Terebinth,  between 
Shochoh  and  Azekah,  probably  among  the 
western  passes  of  Benjamin,  although  a 
confused  modern  tradition  has  given  the 
name  of  Ain  Jahlood  (spring  of  Goliath) 
to  the  spring  of  Harod  (Judg.  vii.  1).  In 
2  Sam.  xxi.  19,  we  find  that  another  Goli- 
ath of  Gath  was  slain  by  Elhanan,  also  a 
Bethlehemite. 

Go'mer.  1.  The  eldest  son  of  Japheth, 
and  the  father  of  Ashkenaz,  Riphath,  and 
Togarmah  (Gen.  x.  2,  3).  His  name  is 
subsequently  noticed  but  once  (Ez.  xxxviii. 
6)  as  an  ally  or  subject  of  the  Scythian 
king  Gog.  He  is  generally  recognized  as 
the  progenitor  of  the  early  Cimmerians,  of 
the  later  Cimbri  and  the  other  branches  of 
the  Celtic  family,  and  of  the  modern  Gael 
and  Cymry,  the  latter  preserving  with  very 


GOMORRAH 


218 


GOSPELS 


Blight  deviation  the  original  name.  2.  The 
daughter  of  Diblaim,  and  concubine  of 
Hosea  (i.  3\ 

Gomor  rah,  in  the  N.  T.  written  Go- 
mor'rha,  one  of  the  five  "  cities  of  the 
plain,"  or  "  vale  of  Siddim,"  that  under 
their  respective  kings  joined  battle  there 
with  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  2-8)  and  his 
allies,  by  whom  they  were  discomfited  till 
Abraham  came  to  the  rescue.  Four  out  of 
the  five  were  afterwards  destroyed  by  the 
Lord  with  fire  from  heaven  (Gen.  xix.  23- 
29).  One  of  them  only,  Zoar  or  Bela, 
which  was  its  original  name,  was  spared  at 
the  request  of  Lot,  in  order  that  he  might 
take  refuge  there.  Of  these  Gomorrah 
seems  to  have  been  only  second  to  Sodom 
in  importance,  as  well  as  in  the  wickedness 
that  led  to  their  overthrow.  What  that 
atrocity  was  may  be  gathered  from  Gen. 
xix.  4-8.  Their  geographical  position  is 
discussed  under  Sodom. 

Gopher  Wood.  Only  once  in  Gen. 
vi.  14.  Two  principal  conjectures  have 
been  proposed  :  —  1.  That  the  "  trees  of 
Gopher "  are  any  trees  of  the  resinous 
kind,  such  as  pine,  fir,  &c.  2  That  Gopher 
is  cypress. 

Go'shen,  the  name  of  a  part  of  Egypt 
where  the  Israelites  dwelt  for  the  whole 
period  of  their  sojourn  in  that  country.  It 
is  usually  called  the  "  land  of  Goshen,"  but 
also  Goshen  simply.  It  appears  to  have 
borne  another  name,  "  the  land  of  Rameses  " 
(Gen.  xlvii.  II),  unless  this  be  the  name  of 
a  district  of  Goshen.  It  was  between  Jo- 
seph's residence  at  the  time  and  the  frontier 
of  Palestine,  and  apparently  the  extreme 
province  towards  that  frontier  (Gen.  xlvi. 
29).  The  results  of  an  examination  of 
Biblical  evidence  are  that  the  land  of  Go- 
shen lay  between  the  eastern  part  of  the 
ancient  Delta  and  the  western  border  of 
Palestine,  that  it  was  scarcely  a  part  of 
Egypt  Proper,  was  inhabited  by  other  for- 
eigners besides  the  Israelites  ;  that  it  was 
a  pasture  land,  especially  suited  to  a  shep- 
herd-people, and  sufficient  for  the  Israelites, 
who  there  prospered,  and  were  separate 
from  the  main  body  of  the  Egyptians.  These 
indications  seem  to  indicate  the  Wddi-t- 
Tumeyldt,  the  valley  along  which  anciently 
flowed  the  canal  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Gospels.  The  name  Gospel  (from  god 
and  spell,  Angl.  Sax.  good  message  or  news, 
which  is  a  translation  of  theGreek  tvixyyiXiov^ 
is  applied  to  the  four  inspired  histories  of 
the  life  and  teaching  of  Christ  contained  in 
the  New  Testament,  of  which  separate  ac- 
counts are  given  in  their  place.  They  were 
all  composed  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
first  century :  those  of  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark  some  years  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem ;  that  of  St.  Luke  probably  about 
X.  D.  64 ;  and  that  of  St.  John  towards  the 
close  of  the  century.    Before  the  end  of  the 


second  century,  there  is  abundant  evidence 
that  the  four  Gospels,  as  one  collection, 
were  generally  used  and  accepted.  A«i  a 
matter  of  literary  history,  nothing  can  be 
better  established  than  the  genuineness  of 
the  Gospels.  On  comparing  these  four 
books  one  with  another,  a  peculiar  difficulty 
claims  attention,  which  has  had  much  to  do 
with  the  controversy  as  to  their  genuine- 
ness. In  the  fourth  Gospel  the  narrative 
coincides  with  that  of  the  other  tliree  in  a 
few  passages  only.  Putting  aside  the  ac- 
count of  the  Passion,  there  are  only  three 
facts  which  John  relates  in  common  with 
the  other  Evangelists.  Two  of  these  are, 
the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand,  and  the 
storm  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (ch.  vi.).  The 
third  is  tho  anointing  of  His  feet  by  Mary. 
Whilst  the  others  present  the  life  of  Jesus 
in  Galilee,  John  follows  him  into  Judaea ; 
nor  should  we  know,  but  for  him,  that  our 
Lord  had  journeyed  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
prescribed  feasts.  The  received  explanation 
is  the  only  satisfactory  one,  namely,  that 
John,  writing  last,  at  the  close  of  the  first 
century,  had  seen  the  other  Gospels,  and 
purposely  abstained  from  writing  anew 
what  they  had  sufficiently  recorded.  —  In 
the  other  three  Gospels  there  is  a  great 
amount  of  agreement.  If  we  suppose  the 
history  that  they  contain  to  be  divided  into 
sections,  in  42  of  these  all  the  three  narra- 
tives coincide,  12  more  are  given  by  Mat- 
thew and  Mark  only,  5  by  Mark  and  Luke 
only,  and  14  by  Matthew  and  Luke.  To 
these  must  be  added  5  peculiar  to  Matthew, 
2  to  Mark,  and  9  to  Luke ;  and  the  enumera- 
tion is  complete.  But  tiiis  applies  only  to 
general  coincidence  as  to  the  facts  narrated : 
the  amount  of  verbal  coincidence,  that  is,  the 
passages  either  verbally  the  same,  or  coin- 
ciding in  the  use  of  many  of  the  same 
words,  is  much  smaller.  Various  theories 
have  been  proposed  to  account  for  this  phe- 
nomenon. (1.)  The  first  and  most  obvious 
suggestion  would  be,  that  the  narrators  made 
use  of  each  other's  work.  Accordingly 
many  have  endeavored  to  ascertain  which 
Gospel  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  first ;  which 
is  copied  from  the  first ;  and  which  is  the 
last,  and  copied  from  the  other  two.  But 
the  theory  in  its  crude  form  is  in  itself  most 
improbable ;  and  the  wonder  is  tliat  so  much 
time  and  learning  have  been  devoted  to  it. 
It  assumes  that  an  Evangelist  has  taken  up 
the  work  of  his  predecessor,  and,  without 
substantial  alteration,  has  made  a  few 
changes  in  form,  a  few  additions  and  re- 
trenchments, and  then  has  allowed  the 
whole  to  go  forth  under  his  name.  (2.) 
The  supposition  of  a  common  original  from 
which  the  three  Gospels  were  drawn,  each 
with  more  or  less  modification,  would  nat- 
urally occur  to  those  who  rejected  the  no- 
tion that  the  Evangelists  had  copied  from 
each  other.    But  if  all  the  Evangelists  had 


GOURD 


219 


GOVERNOR 


agreed  to  draw  from  a  common  original,  it 
must  have  been  widely  if  not  universally 
accepted  in  tlie  Church ;  and  yet  there  is 
no  record  of  its  existence.  If  the  work 
was  of  high  authority,  it  would  have  been 
preserved,  or  at  least  mentioned ;  if  of  low- 
er authority,  it  could  not  have  become  the 
basis  of  three  canonical  Gospels.  (3.) 
There  is  another  supposition  to  account  for 
these  facts.  It  is  probable  that  none  of  the 
Gospels  was  written  until  many  years  after 
the  day  of  Pentecost  on  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  descended  on  the  assembled  disci- 
ples. From  that  day  commenced  at  Jeru- 
salem the  work  of  preaching  the  Gospel 
and  converting  the  world.  Now  their 
preaching  must  have  been,  from  the  nature 
of  the  case,  in  great  part  historical ;  it  must 
have  been  based  upon  an  account  of  the 
life  and  acts  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Nor  is 
there  anything  unnatural  in  the  supposition 
that  the  Apostles  intentionally  uttered  their 
witness  in  the  same  order,  and  even,  for 
the  most  part,  in  the  same  form  of  words. 
It  is  supposed,  then,  that  the  portions  of 
the  three  Gospels  which  harmonize  most 
exactly  owe  their  agreement  to  the  fact 
that  the  apostolic  preaching  had  already 
clothed  itself  in  a  settled  or  usual  form  of 
words,  to  which  the  writers  inclined  to  con- 
form without  feeling  bound  to  do  so ;  and 
the  difierences  which  occur,  often  in  the 
closest  proximity  to  the  harmonies,  arise 
from  the  feeling  of  independence  with 
which  each  wrote  what  he  had  seen  and 
heard,  or,  in  the  case  of  Mark  and  Luke, 
what  apostolic  witnesses  had  told  him. 

Gourd.     1.  KikAydn  only  in  Jon.  iv. 
6-10.    The  plant  which  is  intended  by  this 


C«itori>a  Plant. 


word,  and  which  afforded  shade  to  the 
prophet  Jonah  before  Nineveh,  is  the  Ri- 
cinus  communis,  or  castor-oil  plant,  which, 
formerly  a  native  of  Asia,  is  now  natural- 
ized in  America,  Africa,  and  the  south  of 
Europe.  This  plant  varies  considerably  in 
size,  being  in  India  a  tree,  but  in  England 
seldom  attaining  a  greater  height  than  three 
or  four  feet.  The  leaves  are  large  and 
palmate,  with  serrated  lobes,  and  would 
form  an  excellent  shelter  for  the  sun-strick- 
en prophet.  The  seeds  contain  the  oil  so 
well  known  under  the  name  of  "  castor-oil," 
which  has  for  ages  been  in  high  repute  as  a 
medicine.  2.  With  regard  to  the  "  wild 
gourds  "  (jpakku'dtK)  of  2  K.  iv.  39,  which 
one  of  "  the  sons  of  the  prophets  "  gath- 
ered ignorantly,  supposing  tliem  to  be  good 
for  food,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  a 
species  of  the  gourd  tribe  (Cucurbitaceae), 
which  contains  some  plants  of  a  very  bitter 
and  dangerous  character.  As  several  kinds 
of  Cucurbitaceae,  such  as  melons,  pump- 
kins, &c.,  are  favorite  articles  of  refreshing 
food  amongst  the  Orientals,  we  can  easily 
understand  the  cause  of  the  mistake. 

Governor.  In  the  Auth.  Ver.  this  one 
English  word  is  the  representative  of  no 
less  than  ten  Hebrew  and  four  Greek  words. 
1.  The  chief  of  a  tribe  or  family.  2.  A 
ruler  in  his  capacity  of  lawgiver  and  dis- 
penser of  justice.  3.  A  ruler  considered 
especially  as  having  ^o«;cr  over  the  proper- 
ty and  persons  of  his  subjects  (Josh.  xii. 
2;  Ps.  cv.  20;  Gen.xxiv.  2).  The  "  gov- 
ernors of  the  people,"  in  2  Chr.  xxiii.  20, 
appear  to  have  been  the  king's  body-guard 
(cf.  2  K.  xi.  19).  4.  A  prominent  person- 
age, whatever  his  capacity.  It  is  applied 
to  a  king  as  the  military  and  civil  chief  of 
his  people  (2  Sam.  v.  2,  vi.  21;  1  Chr. 
xxix.  22),  to  the  general  of  an  army  (2 
Chr.  xxxii.  21),  and  to  the  head  of  a  tribe 
(2  Chr.  xix.  11).  It  denotes  an  officer  of 
high  rank  in  the  palace,  the  lord  high 
chamberlain  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  7).  It  is  ap- 
plied in  1  K.  X.  15  to  the  petty  chieftains 
who  were  tributary  to  Solomon  (2  Chr.  is. 
14) ;  to  the  military  commander  of  the 
Syrians  (1  K.  xx.  24),  the  Assyrians  (2  K. 
xviii.  24,  xxiii.  6),  the  Chaldeans  (Jer.  li. 
23),  and  the  Medes  (Jer.  li.  38).  Under 
the  Persian  viceroys,  during  the  Babyloni- 
an captivity,  the  land  of  the  Hebrews  ap- 
pears to  have  been  portioned  out  among 
"  governors  "  (pachdth)  inferior  in  rank  to 
the  satraps  (Ezr.  viii.  36),  like  the  other 
provinces  which  were  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Persian  king  (Neh.  ii.  7,  9).  It  ia 
impossible  to  determine  the  precise  limits 
of  their  authority,  or  the  functions  which 
they  had  to  perform.  It  appears  from  Ezr. 
vi.  8  that  these  governors  were  intrusted 
with  the  collection  of  the  kirig's  taxes ;  and 
from  Neh.  v.  18,  xii.  26,  that  they  were  sup- 
ported by  a  contribution  levied  upoii  the 


GOZAN 


220 


GROVE 


people,  which  was  technically  termed  "  the 
bread  of  the  governor  "  (comp.  Ezr.  iv.  14). 
They  were  probably  assisted  in  discharging 
their  official  duties  by  a  council  (Ezr.  iv.  7, 
vi.  6).  The  "  governor  "  beyond  the  river 
had  a  judgment-seat  at  Jerusalem,  from 
which  probably  lie  administered  justice 
when  making  a  progress  through  his  prov- 
ince (Nell.  iii.  7). 

Go'zan  seems  in  the  A.  V.  of  1  Chr.  v. 
26,  to  be  the  name  of  a  river ;  but  in  Kings 
(2  K.  xvii.  6,  and  xviii.  11)  it  is  evidently 
applied  not  to  a  river  but  a  count-y.  .Gozan 
was  the  tract  to  which  the  Israelites  were 
carried  away  captive  by  Pul,  Tiglath-Pile- 
ser,  and  Shalmaneser,  or  possibly  Sargon. 
It  is  probably  identical  with  tlie  Gauzanitis 
of  Ptolemy,  and  may  be  regarded  as  repre- 
sented by  the  Mygdonia  of  other  writers. 
It  was  the  tract  watered  by  the  Habor,  the 
modern  Khabour,  the  great  Mesopotamian 
affluent  of  the  Euphrates. 

Grape.     [Vine.] 

Grass.  This  is  the  ordinary  rendering 
of  tlie  Hebrew  word  ch&tslr  (I  K.  xviii.  5 ; 
Job  xl.  5;  Ps.  civ.  14;  Is.  xv.  6).  As  the 
herbage  rapidly  fades  under  the  parching 
heat  of  tlie  sun  of  Palestine,  it  has  afforded 
to  the  sacred  writers  an  image  of  the  fleet- 
ing nature  of  human  fortunes  (Job  viii.  12 ; 
Ps.  xxxvii.  2),  and  also  of  the  brevity  of 
human  life  (Is.  xl.  6,  7 ;  Ps.  xc.  5). 

Grasshopper.     [Locust.] 

Grave.     [Bukial.] 

Greaves  (mitsch&K).  This  word  oc- 
curs in  the  A.  V.  only  in  1  Sam.  xvii.  6. 
Its  ordinary  meaning  is  a  piece  of  defen- 
sive armor  which  reached  from  the  foot  to 
the  knee,  and  tlius  protected  the  shin  of 
the  wearer.  But  the  mitschdh  of  the  above 
passage  can  hardly  liave  been  armor  of  this 
nature.  It  was  not  worn  on  tlie  legs,  but 
on  the  feet  of  Goliath,  and  would  therefore 
appear  to  have  been  a  kind  of  shoe  or 
boot. 

Greece,  Greeks,  Grecians.  The 
histories  of  Greece  and  Palestine  are  little 
connected  with  each  other.  In  Gen.  x.  2- 
5  Moses  mentions  the  descendants  of  Javan 
as  peopling  the  isles  of  the  Gentiles ;  and 
when  the  Hebrews  came  into  contact  with 
the  lonians  of  Asia  Minor,  and  recognized 
them  as  the  long-lost  islanders  of  the  west- 
ern migration,  it  was  natural  that  they 
should  mark  the  similarity  of  sound  be- 
tween Javan  and  lones.  Accordingly  the 
O.  T.  word  which  is  Grecia,  in  A.  V. 
Greece,  Greeks,  &c.,  is  in  Hebrew  Javan 
(Joel  iii.  6;  Dan.  viii.  21):  the  Hebrew, 
however,  is  sometimes  retained  (Is.  Ixvi. 
19;  Ez.  xxvii.  13).  The  Greeks  and  He- 
brews met  for  the  first  time  in  the  slave- 
market.  The  medium  of  communication 
seems  to  have  been  the  Tyrian  slave-mer- 
chants. About  B.  c.  800  Joel  speaks  of 
the  Tyriaus  as  selling   the    children    of 


Judah  to  the  Grecians  (Joel  iii.  6) ;  and  in 
Ez.  xxvii.  13  the  Greeks  are  mentione  J  an 
bartering  their  brazen  vessels  for  slaves. 
Prophetical  notice  of  Greece  occurs  in 
Dan.  viii.  21,  &c.,  where  the  history  of 
Alexander  and  his  successors  is  rajjidly 
sketched.  Zechariah  (ix.  13)  foretells  the 
triumphs  of  the  Maccabees  against  the 
Graeco-Syrian  empire,  while  Isaiah  looks 
forward  to  the  conversion  of  the  Greeks 
amongst  other  Gentiles,  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  Jewish  missionaries  (IxvL 
19).  In  1  Mace.  xii.  5-23  we  have  an  ac- 
count of  an  embassy  and  letter  sent  by  the 
Lacedaemonians  to  the  Jews.  The  most 
remarkable  feature  in  the  transaction  is  the 
claim  which  the  Lacedaemonians  prefer  to 
kindred  with  the  Jews,  and  which  Areus 
professes  to  establish  by  reference  to  a 
book.  The  name  of  the  country,  Greece, 
occurs  once  in  N.  T.  (Acts  xx.  2),  as  op- 
posed to  Macedonia.     [Gentiles.] 

Greyhound.  The  translation  in  the 
text  of  the  A.  V.  (Prov.  xxx.  31)  of  the 
Hebrew  word  zarzir mothnayin,  i.  e.  "one 
girt  about  the  loins."  Various  are  the 
opinions  as  to  what  animal  "  comely  in 
going  "  is  here  intended.  Some  think  "  a 
leopard,"  others  "  an  eagle,"  or  "  a  man 
girt  with  armor,"  or  "  a  zebra,"  or  "  a  war- 
horse  girt  with  trappings."  But  perhaps 
the  word  means  "a  wrestler,"  when  girt 
about  the  loins  for  a  contest. 

Grinding.     [Mill.] 

Grove.  A  word  used  in  the  A.  V.,  with 
two  exceptions,  to  translate  the  mysterious 
Hebrew  term  Asherah,  which  is  not  a  grove, 
but  probably  an  idol  or  image  of  some  kind. 
[Asherah.]  It  is  also  probable  that  there 
was  a  connection  between  this  symbol  or 
image,  whatever  it  was,  and  the  sacred 
symbolic  tree,  the  representation  of  which 
occurs  so  frequently  on  Assyrian  sculp- 
tures, and  is  figured  below.  2.  The  two 
exceptions  noticed  above  are  Gen.  xxi.  33, 


Sacred  Symbolic  Tre«  of  the  AMjriani. 

and  1  Sam.  xxii.  6  (margin).  In  the  re- 
ligions of  the  ancient  heathen  world  groves 
play  a  prominent  part.     In  the  old  times 


GUDGODAH 


221 


HAD  AD 


altars  only  were  erected  to  the  gods.  It 
was  thought  wrong  to  shut  up  the  gods 
within  walls,  and  hence  trees  were  the  first 
temples ;  and  from  the  earliest  times  groves 
are  mentioned  in  connection  with  religious 
worship  (Gen.  xii.  6,  7,  xiii.  18 ;  Deut.  xi. 
SO;  A.  V.  "plain").  The  groves  were 
generally  found  connected  with  temples, 
and  often  had  the  right  of  affording  an  asy- 
lum. Some  have  supposed  that  even  the 
Jewish  Temple  had  an  enclosure  planted 
with  palm  and  cedar  (Ps.  xcii.  12,  13)  and 
olive  (Ps.  lii.  8),  as  the  mosque  which 
stands  on  its  site  now  has.  This  is  more 
than  doubtful;  but  we  know  that  a  cele- 
brated oak  stood  by  the  sanctuary  at  She- 
chem  (Josh.  xxiv.  26 ;  Judg.  ix.  6).  There 
are  in  Scripture  many  memorable  trees  : 
e.  g.  Allon-bachuth  (Gen.  xxxv.  8),  the  tam- 
arisk in  Gibeah  (1  Sam.  xxii.  6),  the  tere- 
binth in  Shechem  (Josh.  xxiv.  26)  under 
which  the  law  was  set  up,  the  palm-tree  of 
Deborah  (Judg.  iv.  5),  the  terebinth  of  en- 
chantments (Judg.  ix.  37),  the  terebinth  of 
wanderers  (Judg.  iv.  11),  and  others  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  2,  x.  8,  sometimes  "  plain "  in 
A.  v.).  This  observation  of  particular 
trees  was  among  the  heathen  extended  to 
a  regular  worship  of  them. 
Gud'godah,  Deut.  x.  7.    [Hob  Hagid- 

GAD.] 

Guest.     [Hospitality.] 

Gu'ni.  1.  A  son  of  Naphtali  (Gen. 
xlvi.  24;  1  Chr.  vii.  13),  the  founder  of  the 
family  of  the  Gunites  (Num.  xxvi.  48).  2. 
A  descendant  of  Gad  (1  Chr.  v.  15). 

Gu'nites,  The,  descendants  of  Guni, 
son  of  Naphtali  (Num.  xxvi.  48). 

Gut,  The  going  up  to,  an  ascent  or 
rising  ground,  at  which  Ahaziah  received 
liis  death-blow  while  flying  from  Jehu  after 
the  slaughter  of  Jorara  (2  K.  ix.  27). 

Gut  Baal,  a  place  or  district  in  which 
dwelt  Arabians,  as  recorded  in  2  Chr.  xxvi. 
7.  It  appears  from  the  context  to  have 
been  in  the  country  lying  between  Palestine 
and  the  Arabian  peninsula;  but  this,  al- 
though probable,  cannot  be  proved. 


H. 


Saahash'tari,  a  man,  or  a  family,  im- 
mediately descended  from  Ashur,  "  father 
of  Tekoa "  by  his  second  wife  Naarah  (1 
Chr.  iv.  6). 

Habai'ah.  Bene-Habaiah  were  among 
tlie  sons  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  61 ;  Neh. 
vii.  63). 

Hab'akkuk,  the  eighth  in  order  of  the 
minor  prophets.  Of  tlie  focts  of  the 
prophet's  life  we  have  no  certain  informa- 
tion. He  probably  delivered  his  prophecy 
about  the  12th  or  13th  year  of  Josiah  (b.  c. 


630  or  629).  The  prophet  commences  by 
announcing  his  office  and  important  mis- 
sion (i.  1).  He  bewails  the  corruption  and 
social  disorganization  by  which  he  is  sur- 
rounded, and  cries  to  Jehovah  for  help 
(i.  2-4).  Next  follows  the  reply  of  the 
Deity,  threatening  swift  vengeance  (i.  6- 
11).  The  prophet,  transferring  himself  to 
the  near  future  foreshadowed  in  the  divine 
threatenings,  sees  the  rapacity  and  boastful 
impiety  of  the  Chaldean  hosts,  but,  confi- 
dent that  God  has  only  employed  them  as  the 
instruments  of  correction,  assumes  (ii.  1) 
an  attitude  of  hopeful  expectancy,  and  waits 
to  see  the  issue.  He  receives  the  divine 
command  to  write  in  an  enduring  form  the 
vision  of  God's  retributive  justice,  as  re- 
vealed to  his  prophetic  eye  (ii.  2,  3).  The 
doom  of  the  Chaldeans  is  first  foretold  in 
general  terms  (ii.  4-6),  and  the  announce- 
ment is  followed  by  a  series  of  denuncia- 
tions pronounced  upon  them  by  the  nations 
who  had  suffered  from  their  oppression 
(ii.  6-20).  The  strophical  arrangement  of 
these  "  woes  "  is  a  remarkable  feature  of 
the  prophecy.  The  whole  concludes  with 
the  magnificent  Psalm  in  chap,  iii.,  a  com- 
position unrivalled  for  boldness  of  concep- 
tion, sublimity  of  thought,  and  majesty  of 
diction. 

Habazini'ah,  apparently  the  head  of 
one  of  the  families  of  the  Kechabixes  ( Jer. 
xxxv.  3). 

Habergeon,  a  coat  of  mail  covering 
the  neck  and  breast.     [Arms.] 

Ha'bor,  the  "river  of  Gozan"  (2  K. 
xvii.  6,  and  xviii.  11),  is  identified  beyond 
all  reasonable  doubt  with  the  famous  af- 
fluent of  the  Euphrates,  which  is  called 
Aborrhas  and  Chaboras  by  ancient  writers, 
and  now  Khahour. 

Hachali'ah,  the  father  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  i.  1,  x.  1). 

Hach'ilah,  The  Hill,  a  hill  apparent- 
ly situated  in  a  wood  in  the  wilderness  or 
waste  land  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ziph ;  in 
the  fastnesses,  or  passes,  of  wliich  David 
and  his  six  hundred  followers  were  lurking 
when  the  Ziphites  informed  Saul  of  his 
whereabouts  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  ID ;  comp.  14, 
15,  18).  No  trace  of  the  name  Hachilah 
has  yet  been  discovered. 

Hach'moni,  Son  of,  and  The  Hach'- 
monite  (l  Chr.  xxvii.  32,  xi.  11). 
Hachmon  or  Hachmoni  was  no  doubt  the 
founder  of  a  family  to  wliich  these  men  be- 
longed :  the  actual  father  of  Jashobeam  was 
Zabdiel  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  2),  .and  he  is  also 
said  to  have  belonged  to  the  Korhites  (1 
Chr.  xii.  6),  possibly  the  Levites  descended 
from  Korah. 

Ha'dad,  originally  the  indigenous  ap- 
pellation of  the  Sun  among  the  Syrians,  and 
thence  transferred  to  the  king,  as  the  high- 
est of  earthly  authorities.  The  title  appears 
to  have  been  an  official  one,  like  Pharaoh. 


HADADEZER 


222 


HAGAR 


It  is  found  occasionally  in  the  altered  form 
Hadar  (Gen.  xxv.  15,  xxxvi.  89,  compared 
•vrith  1  Chr.  i.  30,  50).  1.  Son  of  Ishmael 
(Gen.  xxv.  15;  1  Chr.  i.  80).  2.  A  king 
of  Edom  who  gained  an  important  victory 
over  the  Midianites  on  the  "field  of  Moab 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  35;  1  Chr.  i.  46).  3.  Also  a 
king*  of  Edom,  with  Pau  for  his  capital 
(1  Chr.  i.  50).  4.  A  member  of  the  royal 
house  of  Edom  (IK.  xi.  14,  flf.).  In  his 
childhood  he  escaped  the  massacre  under 
Joab,  in  which  his  father  appears  to  have 
perished,  and  fled  with  a  band  of  followers 
into  Egypt.  Pharaoh,  the  predecessor  of 
Solomon's  father-in-law,  treated  him  kind- 
ly, and  gave  him  his  sister-in-law  in  mar- 
riage. After  David's  death  Hadad  resolved 
to  attempt  the  recovery  of  his  dominion : 
Pharaoh  in  vain  discouraged  him,  and  upon 
this  he  left  Egypt  and  returned  to  his  own 
country. 

Hadade'zer  (2  Sam.  viii.  3-12 ;  1  K. 
xi.  23).     [Hadarezeh.] 

Ha'dad-rim'mon  is,  according  to  the 
ordinary  interpretation  of  Zech.  xii.  11,  a 
place  in  the  valley  of  Megiddo,  named  after 
two  Syrian  idols,  where  a  national  lamen- 
tation was  held  for  the  death  of  king 
Josiah. 

Ha'dar.     [Hadad.] 

Hadare'zer,  son  of  Rehob  (2  Sam.  viii. 
3),  the  king  of  the  Aramite  state  of  Zobah, 
who  was  pursued  by  David,  and  defeated 
with  great  loss  both  of  chariots,  horses,  and 
men  (1  Chr.  xviii.  3,  4).  After  the  first 
repulse  of  the  Ammonites  and  their  Syrian 
allies  by  Joab,  Hadarezer  sent  his  army  to 
the  assistance  of  his  kindred  the  people  of 
Maachah,  Rehob,  and  Ishtob  (1  Chr.  xix. 
16;  2  Sam.  x.  15,  comp.  ^i.  Under  the 
command  of  Shophach,  orShobach,  the 
captain  of  the  host,  they  crossed  the  Eu- 
phrates, joined  the  other  Syrians,  and 
encamped  at  a  place  called  Helam.  David 
himself  came  from  Jerusalem  to  take  the 
command  of  the  Israelite  army.  As  on  the 
former  occasion,  the  rout  wa*  complete. 

Had'ashah,  one  of  the  towns  of  Judah, 
iu  the  maritime  low  country  (Josh.  xv.  37 
only),  probably  the  Adas  a  of  the  Macca- 
baean  history. 

Hadas'sah,  probably  the  earlier  name 
of  Esther  (Esth.  ii.  7). 

Hadat'tah,  According  to  the  A.  V. 
one  of  the  towns  of  Judah  in  the  extreme 
south  (Josh.  XV.  25). 

Ha' did,  a  place  named,  with  Lod  (Lyd- 
da)  and  Ono,  only  in  the  later  books  of  the 
history  (Ezr.  ii.  33;  Neh.  vii.  37,  xi.  34). 
In  the  time  of  Eusebius  a  town  called 
Aditha,  or  Adatha,  existed  to  the  east  of 
Diospolis  (Lydda).  This  was  probably 
Hadid. 

Had'lai,  a  man  of  Ephraim  (2  Chr. 
xxviii.  12). 

Hado'ram.  1.  The  fifth  son  of  Joktan 


(Gen.  X.  27 ;  1  Chr.  i.  21).  His  settlements, 
unlike  those  of  many  of  Jocktan's  sons,  have 
not  been  identified.  2.  Son  of  Tou  or  Toi 
king  of  Hamath ;  his  father's  ambassador 
to  congratulate  David  on  his  victory  over 
Haderezer  king  of  Zobah  (1  Chr.  xviii.  10). 
3.  The  form  assumed  in  Chronicles  by  the 
name  of  the  intendant  of  taxes  under  David, 
Solomon,  and  Rehoboam  (2  Chr.  x.  18).  In 
Kings  the  name  is  given  in  the  longer  form 
of  Adoniram,  but  in  Samuel  (2  Sam.  xx. 
24)as  Adoram. 

Ha'drach,  a  country  of  Syria,  men- 
tioned once  only,  by  the  prophet  Zechariah 
(ix.  1,  2).  The  position  of  the  district, 
with  its  borders,  is  here  generally  stated; 
but  the  name  itself  seems  to  have  wholly 
disappeared.     It  still  remains  unknown. 

Ma'gab.  Bene-Hagab  were  among  the 
Nethinim  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  46). 

Hag'aba.  Bene-Hagaba  were  among 
the  Nethinim  who  came  back  from  captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii.  48).  The  name 
is  slightly  different  in  form  from 

Hag'abah.,  under  which  it  is  found  in 
the  parallel  list  of  Ezr.  ii.  45). 

Ha/gar,  an  Egyptian  woman,  the  hand- 
maid, or  slave,  of  Sarah  (Gen.  xvi.  1), 
whom  the  latter  gave  as  a  concubine  to 
Abraham,  after  he  had  dwelt  ten  years  in 
the  land  of  Canaan  and  had  no  children  by 
Sarah  (xvi.  2  and  3).  That  she  was  a  bond- 
woman is  stated  both  in  the  O.  T.  and  in 
the  N.  T.,  in  the  latter  as  part  of  her  typical 
character.  It  is  recorded  that  "  when  she 
saw  that  she  had  conceived,  her  mistress  was 
despised  in  her  eyes  "  (4),  and  Sarah,  with 
the  anger,  we  may  suppose,  of  a  free  woman, 
rather  than  of  a  wife,  reproached  Abraham 
for  the  results  of  her  own  act.  Hagar  fled, 
turning  her  steps  towards  her  native  land 
through  the  great  wilderness  traversed  by 
the  Egyptian  road.  By  the  fountain  in  the 
way  to  Shur,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  found 
her,  charged  her  to  return  and  submit  her- 
self under  the  hands  of  her  mistress,  and 
delivered  the  remarkable  prophecy  respect- 
ing her  unborn  child  recorded  in  ver.  10- 
12.  On  her  return,  she  gave  birth  to 
Ishmael,  and  Abraham  was  then  eighty-six 
years  old.  Mention  is  not  again  made  of 
Hagar  in  the  history  of  Abraham  until  the 
feast  at  the  weaning  of  Isaac,  when  "  Sarah 
saw  the  son  of  Hagar  the  Egyptian,  which 
she  had  borne  unto  Abraham,  mocking ;  " 
and  in  exact  sequence  with  the  first  flight 
of  Hagar,  we  now  read  of  her  expulsion. 
The  verisimilitude,  oriental  exactness,  and 
simple  beauty  of  this  story  are  internal  evi- 
dences attesting  its  truth,  apart  from  all 
other  evidence.  The  name  of  Hagar  occurs 
elsewhere  only  when  she  takes  a  wife  to 
Ishmael  (xxi.  21) ;  and  in  the  genealogy 
(xxv.  12).  St.  Paul  refers  to  her  as  the 
type  of  the  old  covenant,  likening  her  to 


HAGARENES 


223 


HAIR 


Mount  Sinai,  the  Mount  of  the  Law  (Gal.  iv. 
22  seqq.)- 

Hagarenes',  Ha'garites,  a  people 
dwelling  to  the  east  of  Palestine,  with  whom 
the  tribe  of  Reuben  made  war  in  the  time 
of  Saul  (1  Chr.  v.  10,  18-20).  The  same 
people,  as  confederate  against  Israel,  are 
mentioned  in  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  6.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  they  were  named  after  Hagar, 
and  that  the  important  town  and  dictrict  of 
Hejer,  on  the  borders  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
represent  them. 

Ha'gerite,  The.  Jaziz  the  Hagerite, 
t.  e.  the  descendant  of  Hagar,  had  the 
charge  of  David's  sheep  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  31). 

Ha^'gai,  the  tenth  in  order  of  the  Mi- 
nor Prophets,  and  first  of  those  who  proph- 
esied after  the  Captivity.  With  regard  to 
his  tribe  and  parentage  both  history  and 
tradition  are  alike  silent;  but  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  he  was  one  of  the  exiles 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua. 
The  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  which  was 
commenced  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus  (b.  c. 
535),  was  suspended  during  the  reigns  of 
his  successors,  Cambyses  and  Pseudo-Smer- 
dis,  in  consequence  of  the  determined  hos- 
tility of  the  Samaritans.  On  the  accession 
of  Darius  Hystaspis  (b.  c.  521),  the  proph- 
ets Haggai  and  Zechariah  urged  the  renewal 
of  the  undertaking,  and  obtained  the  per- 
mission and  assistance  of  the  king  (Ezr.  v. 
1,  vi.  14).  According  to  tradition,  Haggai 
was  born  in  Babylon,  was  a  young  man 
when  he  came  to  Jerusalem,  and  was  bu- 
ried with  honor  near  the  sepulchres  of  the 
priests.  The  names  of  Haggai  and  Zecha- 
riah are  associated  in  the  LXX.  in  the  titles 
of  Ps.  137,  145-148 ;  in  the  Vulgate  in  those 
of  Ps.  Ill,  145;  and  in  the  Peshito  Syriac 
in  those  of  Ps.  125,  126,  145,  146,  147,  148. 
It  may  be  that  tradition  assigned  to  these 
prophets  the  arrangement  of  the  above-men- 
tioned psalms  for  use  in  the  temple  service. 
The  style  of  Haggai  is  generally  tame  and 
prosaic,  though  at  times  it  rises  to  the  dig- 
nity of  severe  invective,  when  the  prophet 
rebukes  his  countrymen  for  their  selfish  in- 
dolence and  neglect  of  God's  house.  But 
the  brevity  of  the  prophecies  is  so  great, 
and  the  poverty  of  expression  which  char- 
acterizes them  so  striking,  as  to  give  rise  to 
a  conjecture,  not  without  reason,  that  in 
their  present  form  they  are  but  the  outline 
or  summary  of  the  original  discourses. 
They  were  delivered  in  the  second  year  of 
Darius  Hystaspis  (b.  c.  520),  at  intervals 
from  the  1st  day  of  the  6th  month  to  the 
24th  day  of  the  9th  month  in  the  same 
year. 

Hag'geri.  "  Mibhar  son  of  Haggeri" 
was  one  of  the  mighty  men  of  David's 
guard,  according  to  1  Chr.  xi.  38.  The 
parallel  passage  —  2  Sam.  xxiii.  36  —  has 
"  Bani  the  Gadite,"  wliich  is  probably  the 
correct  reading. 


Hag'gi,  second  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  xlri 
16;  Num.  xxvi.  15). 

Haggi'ah,  a  Merarite  Levite  (1  Chr.  vi. 
30). 

Hag'gites,  The,  a  Gadite  family  sprung 
from  Haggi  (Num.  xxvi.  15). 

Hag'gith,  one  of  David's  wives,  the 
mother  of  Adonijah  (2  Sam.  iii.  4;  1  K.  i. 
5,  11,  ii.  13;  1  Chr.  iii.  2). 

Sad.  The  form  in  which  the  well-known 
place  Ai  appears  in  the  A.  V.  on  its  first  in- 
troduction (Gen.  xii.  8,  xiii.  3). 

Hair.  The  Hebrews  were  fully  alive  to 
the  importance  of  the  hair  as  an  element 
of  personal  beauty,  whether  as  seen  in  the 
"  curled  locks,  black  as  a  raven,"  of  youth 
(Cant.  V.  11),  or  in  the  "crown  of  glory" 
that  encircled  the  head  of  old  age  (Prov. 
xvi.  31).  Long  hair  was  admired  in  the 
case  of  young  men;  it  is  especially  noticed 
in  the  description  of  Absalom's  person  (2 
Sam.  xiv.  26).  The  care  requisite  to  keep 
the  hair  in  order  in  such  cases  must  have 
been  very  great,  and  hence  the  practice  of 
wearing  long  hair  was  unusual,  and  only 
resorted  to  as  an  act  of  religious  obser- 
vance. In  times  of  affliction  the  hair  was 
altogether  cut  off  (Is.  iii.  17,  24,  xv.  2 ;  Jer. 
vii.  29).  Tearing  the  hair  (Ezr.  ix.  3)  and 
letting  it  go  dishevelled  were  similar  tokens 
of  grief.  The  usual  and  favorite  color  of 
the  hair  was  black  (Cant.  v.  11),  as  is  indi- 
cated in  the  comparisons  to  a  "flock  of 
goats  "  and  the  "  tents  of  Kedar  "  (Cant.  iv. 
1,  i.  5)  :  a  similar  hue  is  probably  intended 
by  the  purple  of  Cant.  vii.  5.  The  ap- 
proach of  age  was  marked  by  a  sprinkling 
(Hos.  vii.  9)  of  gray  hairs,  which  soon 
overspread  the  whole  head  (Gen.  xlii.  38, 
xliv.  29;  IK.  ii.  6,  9;  Prov.  xvi.  31,  xx. 
29).  Pure  white  hair  was  deemed  charac- 
teristic of  the  Divine  Majesty  (Dan.  vii.  9; 
Rev.  i.  14).    The  chief  beauty  of  the  hair 


EfTptiKii  Wigi.    (Wilkinson.) 

consisted  in  curls,  whether  of  a  natural  or 
artificial  character.  With  regard  to  the 
mode  of  dressing  the  hair,  we  have  no  very 
precise  information ;  the  terms  used  are  of 


HAKKATAN 


224 


HAMATH 


a  general  character,  as  of  Jezebel  (2  K.  ix. 
80),  of  Judith  (x.  3).  The  terms  used  in 
the  N.  T.  (1  Tim.  ii.  9;  1  Pet.  iii.  3)  are 
also  of  a  general  character.  The  arrange- 
ment of  Samson's  hair  into  seven  locks,  or 
more  properly  braids  (Judg.  xvi.  13,  19) 
involves  the  practice  of  plaiting,  which  was 
also  familiar  to  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks. 
The  locks  were  probably  kept  in  their  place 
by  a  fillet,  as  in  Egypt.  The  Hebrews,  like 
other  nations  of  antiquity,  anointed  the 
hair  profusely  with  ointments,  which  were 
generally  compounded  of  various  aromatic 
ingredients  (Ruth  iii.  3;  2  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Ps. 
xxiii.  5,  xlv.  7,  xcii.  10;  Eccl.  ix.  8;  Is.  iii. 
24)  ;  more  especially  on  occasion  of  fes- 
tivities or  hospitality  (Matt.  vi.  17,  xxvi. 
7;  Luke  vii.  46).  It  appears  to  have  been 
the  custom  of  the  Jews  in  our  Saviour's 
time  to  swear  by  the  hair  (Matt.  v.  36), 
much  as  the  Egyptian  women  still  swear 
by  tlie  side-lock,  and  the  men  by  their 
beards. 

Hak'katan.  Johanan,  son  of  Hakka- 
tan  was  the  chief  of  the  Bene-Azgad  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezr. 
viii.  12). 

Hak'koz,  a  priest,  the  chief  the  seventh 
course  in  the  service  of  the  sanctuary,  as 
appointed  by  David  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  10).  In 
Ezr.  ii.  61  and  Neh.  iii.  4,  21,  the  name 
occurs  again  as  Koz  in  the  A.  V. 

Haku'pha.  Bene-Hakupha  were  among 
the  Nethinim  who  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  51 ;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Ha'lah  is  probably  a  different  place 
from  the  Calah  of  Gen.  x.  11.  It  may  be 
identified  with  the  Chalcitis  of  Ptolemy. 

Ha'lak,  The  Mount,  a  mountain 
twice,  and  twice  only,  named  as  the  south- 
ern limit  of  Joshua's  conquests  (Josh.  xi. 
17,  xii.  7),  but  which  has  not  yet  been  iden- 
tified. 

Hal'hul,  a  town  of  Judah  in  the  moun- 
tain district  (Josh.  xv.  58).  The  name 
still  remains  unaltered,  attached  to  a  con- 
spicuous hill  a  mile  to  the  left  of  the  road 
from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron,  between  3  and 
4  miles  from  the  latter. 

Ha'li,  a  town  on  the  boundary  of  Asher, 
named  between  Helkath  and  Beten  (Josh, 
xix.  25). 

Hall,  used  of  the  court  of  the  high- 
priest's  house  (Luke  xxii.  55).  In  Matt, 
xxvii.  27,  and  Mark  xv.  16,  "  hall "  is  sy- 
nonymous with  "  praetorium,"  which  in 
John  xviii.  28  is  in  A.  V.  "judgment- 
hall." 

Hallelujall.     [Alleluia.] 

HaUo'hesh,  one  of  the  chief  of  the 
people  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  x.  24). 

Halo'hesh.  Shallum,  son  of  Hal-lo- 
hesh,  was  "  ruler  of  the  half  part  of 
Jerusalem  "  at  the  time  of  the  repair  of  the 
wall  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  12). 


Ham.  1.  The  name  of  one  of  the 
three  sons  of  Noah,  apparently  the  second 
in  age.  It  probably  signifies  "warm  "or 
"  hot."  This,  meaning  is  confirmed  by  that 
of  the  Egyptian  word  Kem  (Egypt),  the 
Egyptian  equivalent  of  Ham,  which  sig- 
nifies "  black,"  probably  implying  warmth 
as  well  as  blackness.  Of  the  history  of 
Ham  nothing  is  related  except  his  irrever- 
ence to  his  father,  and  the  curse  which  that 
patriarch  pronounced.  The  sons  of  Ham 
are  stated  to  have  been  "  Gush  and  Miz- 
raim  and  Phut  and  Canaan"  (Gen.  x.  6; 
comp.  1  Chr.  i.  8).  The  name  of  Ham 
alone,  of  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  is  known 
to  have  been  given  to  a  country,  Egypt 
is  recognized  as  the  "  land  of  Ham"  in  the 
Bible  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  51,  cv.  23,  cvi.  22).  The 
other  settlements  of  the  sons  of  Ham  are 
discussed  under  their  respective  names. 
An  inquiry  into  the  history  of  the  Hamite 
nations  presents  considerable  difiiculties, 
since  it  cannot  be  determined  in  the  cases 
of  the  most  important  of  those  commonly 
held  to  be  Hamite  that  they  were  purely 
of  that  stock.  It  is  certain  that  the  three 
most  illustrious  Hamite  nations  —  the  Cush- 
ites,  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Egyptians 

—  were  greatly  mixed  with  foreign  peoples. 
There  are  some  common  characteristics, 
however,  which  appear  to  connect  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  Hamite  family,  and 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  children  of 
Japheth  and  Shem.  Their  architecture  has 
a  solid  grandeur  that  we  look  for  in  vain 
elsewhere.  2.  According  to  the  present 
text  (Gen.  xiv.  5),  Chedorlaomer  and  his 
allies  smote  the  Zuzim  in  a  place  called 
Ham.  If,  as  seems  likely,  the  Zuzim  be 
the  same  as  the  Zamzummim,  Ham  must 
be  placed  in  what  was  afterwards  the  Am- 
monite territory.  Hence  it  has  been  con- 
jectured, that  Ham  is  but  anotlier  form  of 
the  name  of  the  chief  stronghold  of  the 
children  of  .^rnmon,  Kabbah,  now  Am- 
man. 

Ha'man,  the  chief  minister  or  vizier  of 
king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  iii.  1).  After  the 
failure  of  his  attempt  to  cut  off  all  the 
Jews  in  the  Persian  empire,  he  was  hanged 
on  the  gallows  which  he  had  erected  for 
Mordecai.  The  Targum  and  Josephus  in- 
terpret the  description  of  him  —  the  Agagite 

—  as  signifying  tliat  he  was  of  Amalekitish 
descent.  • 

Ha'math,  the  principal  city  of  Upper 
Syria,  was  situated  in  the  valley  of  .  the 
Orontes,  which  it  commanded  from  the  low 
screen  of  hills  which  forms  tlie  water- 
shed between  the  Orontes  and  the  Lii&ny 

—  the  "  entrance  of  Hamath,"  as  it  is 
called  in  Scripture  (Num.  xxxiv.  8 ;  Josh, 
xiii.  5,  &c.)  — to  the  defile  of  Daphne  be- 
low Antioeh.  The  Hamathites  were  a 
Hamitic  race,  and  are  included  among  the 
descendants  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  18).     We 


HAMATH-ZOBAH 


225 


HANANI 


must  regard  them  as  closely  akin  to  the 
Hittites  on  whom  they  bordered,  and  with 
whom  they  were  generally  in  alliance. 
Nothing  appears  of  the  power  of  Haniath 
until  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  10). 
Hamath  seems  clearly  to  have  been  in- 
cluded in  the  dominions  of  Solomon  (1  K. 
iv.  21-24).  The  "  store-cities,"  which  Sol- 
omon '*  built  in  Hamath  "  (2  Chr.  viii.  4), 
were  perhaps  staples  for  trade.  In  the  As- 
syrian inscriptions  of  the  time  of  Ahab 
(b.  c.  900)  Hamath  appears  as  a  separate 
power,  in  alliance  with  the  Syrians  of  Da- 
mascus, the  Hittites,  and  the  Phoenicians. 
About  three  quarters  of  a  century  later 
Jeroboam  the  Second  "  recovered  Hamath" 
(2  K.  xiv.  28).  Soon  afterwards  the  As- 
syrians took  it  (2  K.  xviii.  34,  xix.  13, 
&c.),  and  from  this  time  it  ceased  to  be 
a  place  of  much  importance.  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  changed  its  name  to  Epiphaneia. 
The  natives,  however,  called  it  Hamath, 
even  in  St.  Jerome's  time,  and  its  present 
name,  Hamah,  is  but  slightly  altered  from 
the  ancient  form. 

Ha'math-zo'bah  (2  Chr.  viii.  3)  has 
been  conjectured  to  be  the  same  as  Hamath. 
But  the  name  Hamath-zobah  would  seem 
rather  suited  to  another  Hamath  which  was 
distinguished  from  the  "  Great  Hamath  "  by 
the  suffix  "  Zobah." 

Hanx'athite,  The,  one  of  the  families 
descended  from  Canaan,  named  last  in  the 
list  (Gen.  x.  18;  1  Chr.  i.  16). 

Hara'math,  one  of  the  fortified  cities 
in  the  territory  allotted  to  Naphtali  (Josh. 
xix.  35).  It  was  near  Tiberias,  one  mile 
distant,  and  had  its  name,  Charamath,  "  hot 
baths,"  because  it  contained  those  of  Ti- 
berias. In  the  list  of  Levitical  cities  given 
out  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xxi.  32)  the  name  of 
this  place  seems  to  be  given  as  Hammoth- 

DOR. 

Hammed' atha,  father  of  the  infamous 
Haman  (Esth.  iii.  1,  10,  viii.  6,  ix.  24). 

Ham.'melech,  lit.  "  the  king,"  unne- 
cesarily  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  as  a  proper 
name  (Jer,  xxxvi.  26,  xxxviii.  6). 

Ham.moreketh,  a  daughter  of  Machir 
and  sister  of  Gilead  (1  Chr.  vii.  17,  18). 
•  Ham'mon.  1.  A  city  in  Asher  (Josh, 
xix.  28),  apparently  not  far  from  Zidon- 
ral)bah.  2.  A  city  allotted  out  of  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali  to  the.  Levites  (1  Chr.  vi.  76), 
and  answering  to  the  somewhat  similar 
names  Hammath  and  Hammath-Dob  in 
Joshua. 

Ham'jnoth-dor.     [Hammath.] 

Ham'onah.  the  name  of  a  city  men- 
tioned in  Ezekiel  (xxxix.  16). 

Ha'mon-gog,  The  Valley  of,  the 
name  to  be  bestowed  on  a  ravine  or  glen, 
previously  known  as  "the  ravine  of  the 
passengers  on  the  east  of  the  sea,"  after 
the  burial  there  of  ♦'  Gog  and  all  his  multi- 
tude "  (Ez.  xxxix.  11,  15). 

15 


Ha'mor,  a  Ilivite,  who  at  the  time  of 
the  entrance  of  Jacob  on  Palestine  was 
prince  of  the  land  and  city  of  Shechera 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  19,  xxxiv.  2,  4,  6,  8,  13,  18, 
20,  24,  26).     [Dinah.] 

Hamu'el,  a  man  of  Simeon ;  son  of 
Mishma,  of  the  family  of  Shaul  (1  Chr.  iv. 
26). 

Ha'mill,  the  younger  son  of  Pliarez, 
Judah's  son  by  Tamar  (Gen.  xlvi.  12 ;  1 
Chr.  ii.  5). 

Ha'mulites,  The,  the  family  of  the 
preceding  (Num.  xxvi.  21). 

Hamu'tal,  daughter  of  Jeremiah  of 
Libnah ;  one  of  the  wives  of  king  Josiah 
(2  K.  xxiii.  31,  xxiv.  18;  Jer.  Iii.  1). 

Hanam.'eel,  son  of  Shallum,  and  cous- 
in of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxii.  7,  8,  9,  12 ;  and 
comp.  44). 

Ha'nail.  1.  One  of  the  chief  people 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  viii.  23). 

2.  The  last  of  the  six  sons  of  Azel,  a  de- 
scendant of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  38,  ix.  44). 

3.  "  Son  of  Maachah,"  i.  e.  possibly  a 
Syrian  of  Aram-Maacah,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi.43).  4.  The 
sons  of  Hanan  were  among  the  Nethinim 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubba- 
bel  (Ezr.  ii.  46;  Neh.  vii.  49).  5.  One  of 
the  Levites  who  assisted  Ezra  in  his  public 
exposition  of  the  law  (Neh.  viii.  7).  The 
same  person  is  probably  mentioned  in  x. 
10.  6.  One  of  the  "  heads  "  of  the  "  peo- 
ple," who  also  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  22). 
7.  Another  of  the  chief  laymen  on  the 
same  occasion  (x.  26).  8.  Son  of  Zaccur, 
son  of  Mattaniah,  whom  Nehemiah  made 
one  of  the  storekeepers  of  the  provisions 
collected  as  tithes  (Neh.  xiii.  13).  9.  Son 
of  Igdaliah  (Jer.  xxxv.  4). 

Hanan'eel,  The  Tower  of,  a  tower 
which  formed  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalemi 
(Neh.  iii.  1,  xii.  39).  From  these  two  pas- 
sages, particularly  from  the  former,  it: 
might  almost  be  inferred  that  Hananeel  was: 
but  another  name  for  the  Tower  of  Meah  :- 
at  any  rate  they  were  close  together,  andi 
stood  between  the  sheep-gate  and  the  fish- 
gate.  This  tower  is  further  mentioned  in 
Jer.  xxxi.  38.  The  remaining  passage  in- 
which  it  is  named  (Zech.  xiv.  10)  also  con- 
nects this  tower  with  the  "  corner-gate, "^ 
which  lay  on  the  other  side  of  the  sheep- 
gate. 

Hana'ni.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Hemair, 
and  head  of  the  18th  course  of  the  service 
(1  Chr.  XXV.  4,  25).  2.  A  seer  who  re- 
buked (b.  c.  941)  Asa,  king  of  Judah  (2 
Chr.  xvi.  7).  For  this  he  was  imprisoned 
(10).  He  (or  another  Hanani)  was  the 
father  of  Jehu  the  seer,  who  testified  against 
Baasha  (1  K.  xvi.  1,  7)  and  Juhoshaphat 
(2  Chr.  xix.  2,  xx.  34).  3.  One  of  the 
priests  who  in  the  time  of  Ezra  had  taken 
strange  wives  (Ezr.  x.  20).  4.  A  brother 
of  Nehemiah   (Neh.  i.  2)  was  afterward* 


HANANIAH 


226 


HANDICRAFT 


made  governor  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehe- 
miah  (\u.  2).  5.  A  priest  mentioned  in 
Neh.  xii.  36. 

Hanani'ah.  1.  One  of  the  14  sons  of 
Ileman,  and  chief  of  the  16th  course  of 
singers  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4,  5,  23).  2.  A  gen- 
eral in  the  army  of  king  Uzziah  (2  Chr. 
xxvi.  11).  3.  Father  of  Zedekiah  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim.  4.  Son  of  Azur,  a 
Benjamite  of  Gibeon  and  a  false  prophet  in 
the  reign  of  Zedekiah  king  of  Judah.  In 
the  4th  year  of  his  reign,  b.  c.  595,  Hana- 
niah  withstood  Jeremiah  the  prophet,  and 
publicly  prophesied  in  the  temple  that  with- 
in two  years  Jeconiah  and  all  his  fellow- 
captives,  with  the  vessels  of  the  Lord's 
house  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  taken 
away  to  Babylon,  should  be  brought  back 
to  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxviii.) ;  an  indication 
that  treacherous  negotiations  were  already 
Becretly  opened  with  Pharaoh-Hophra. 
Hananiah  corroborated  his  prophecy  by  tak- 
ing from  off  the  neck  of  Jeremiah  the  yoke 
which  he  wore  by  Divine  command  (Jer. 
xxvii.)  in  token  of  the  subjection  of  Judaea 
and  the  neighboring  countries  to  the  Babylo- 
nian empire,  and  breaking  it.  But  Jeremiah 
was  bid  to  go  and  tell  Hananiah  that  for 
the  wooden  yokes  which  he  had  broken  he 
should  make  yokes  of  iron,  so  firm  was  the 
dominion  of  Babylon  destined  to  be  for 
seventy  years.  The  prophet  Jeremiah  add- 
ed this  rebuke  and  prediction  of  Hanani- 
ah's  death,  the  fulfilment  of  which  closes 
the  history  of  this  false  prophet.  5.  Grand- 
father of  Irijah,  the  captain  of  the  ward  at 
the  gate  of  Benjamin,  who  arrested  Jere- 
miah, on  the  charge  of  deserting  to  the 
Chaldeans  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13).  6.  Head  of 
a  Benjamite  house  (1  Chr.  viii.  24).  7. 
The  Hebrew  name  of  Shadrach.  He  was 
of  the  house  of  David,  according  to  Jew- 
ish tradition  (Dan.  i.  3,  6,  7,  11,  19;  ii.  17). 
8.  Son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chr.  iii.  19),  from 
whom  Christ  derived  his  descent.  He  is 
the  same  person  who  is  by  St.  Luke  called 
Joanna.  The  identity  of  the  two  names 
Hananiah  and  Joanna  is  apparent  immedi- 
ately we  compare  them  in  Hebrew.  9. 
One  of  the  sons  of  Bebai,  who  returned 
with  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezr.  x.  28).  10. 
A  priest,  one  of  the  makers  of  the  sacred 
ointments  and  incense,  who  built  a  portion 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  8).  11.  Head  of  the 
priestly  course  of  Jeremiah  in  the  days  of 
Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  12).  12.  Ruler  of  the 
palace  at  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah.  The 
arrangements  for  guarding  the  gates  of 
Jerusalem  were  intrusted  to  him  with 
Hanani,  the  Tirshatha's  brother  (Neh.  vii. 
2,  3).     13.  An  Israelite  (Neh.  x.  23). 

Handicraft.  (Acts  xviii.  3,  xix.  25 ; 
Rev.  xviii.  22).  In  the  present  article  brief 
notices  only  can  be  given  of  such  handicraft 
trades  as  are  mentioned  in  Scripture.     1. 


The  preparation  of  iron  for  use  either  in 
war,  in  agriculture,  or  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, was  doubtless  one  of  the  earliest  ap- 
plications of  labor ;  and  together  with  iron, 
working  in  l^ass,  or  rather  copper  alloyed 
with  tin,  bronze,  is  mentioned  in  the  same 
passage  as  practised  in  antediluvian  times 
(Gen.  iv.  22).  In  the  construction  of  the 
Tabernacle,  copper,  but  no  iron,  appears 
to  have  been  used,  though  the  use  of  iron 
was  at  the  same  period  well  known  to  the 
Jews,  both  from  their  own  use  of  it  and 
from  their  Egyi)tian  education,  whilst  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants  of  Palestine  and 
Syria  were  in  full  possession  of  its  use 
both  for  warlike  and  domestic  purposes 
(Ex.  XX.  25,  xxv.  3,  xxvii.  19 ;  Num.  xxxv. 
16;  Deut.  iii.  11,  iv.  20,  viii.  9;  Josh.  viii. 
31,  xvii.  16,  18).  After  the  establishment 
of  the  Jews  in  Canaan,  the  occupation  of 
a  smith  became  recognized  as  a  distinct 
employment  (1  Sam.  xiii.  19).  The  smith's 
work  and  its  results  are  often  mentioned  in 
Scripture  (2  Sam.  xii.  31 ;  1  K.  vi.  7 ;  2 
Chr.  xxvi.  14;  Is.  xliv.  12,  Uv.  16).  The 
worker  in  gold  and  silver  must  have  found 
employment  both  among  the  Hebrews  and 
the  neighboring  nations  in  very  early  times, 
as  appears  from  the  ornaments  sent  by 
Abraham  to  Rebekah  (Gen.  xxiv.  22,  53, 
xxxv.  4,  xxxviii.  18;  Deut.  vii.  23).  But 
whatever  skill  the  Hebrews  possessed,  it-is 
quite  clear  that  they  must  have  learned 
much  from  Egypt  and  its  "  iron  furnaces," 
both  in  metal-work  and  in  the  arts  of  set- 
ting and  polishing  precious  stones.  Vari- 
ous processes  of  the  goldsmith's  work  are 
illustrated  by  Egyptian  monuments.  After 
the  conquest  frequent  notices  are  found 
both  of  moulded  and  wrought  metal,  iii- 
cluding  soldering,  which  last  had  long  been 
known  in  Egypt ;  but  the  Phoenicians  ap- 
pear to  have  possessed  greater  skill  than 
the  Jews  in  these  arts,  at  least  in  Solomon'i 


Egyptian  Blow-pipe,  >nd  imall  Fireplace  with  Cheekf  !• 
coDfiue  and  reflect  the  heat.    (Wilkineon.) 

time  (Judg.  viii.  24,  27,  xvii.  4 ;  1  K.  vii. 
13,  45,  46;  Is.  xii.  7;  Wisd.  xv.  4;  Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  28;  Bar.  vi.  50,  55,  57).  2.  The 
work  of  the  carpenter  is  often  mentioned 
in  Scripture  (Gen.  vi.  14 ;  Ex.  xxxvii. ;  Is. 
xliv.  13).     In  the  palace  built  by  David  for 


HANDICRAFT 


227 


HANES 


himself  the  workmen  employed  were  chiefly 
Phoenicians  sent  by  Hiram  (2  Sam.  v.  11 ;  1 
Chr.  xiv.  1),  as  most  probably  were  those, 
or  at  least  the  principal  of  those,  who  were 
employed  by  Solomon  in  his  works  (1  K.  v. 
6).  But  in  the  repairs  of  the  Temple,  ex- 
ecuted under  Joash  king  of  Judah,  and 
also  in  the  rebuilding  under  Zerubbabel, 
no  mention  is  made  of  foreign  workmen, 


Carpenters.    (Wilkimon.) 

r,  drilli  a  hole  in  the  leat  of  a  chair,  «.        tt,  \eiia  of  chair, 
square.       to,  man  plauing  or  polishing  the  leg 

though  in  the  latter  case  the  timber  is  ex- 
pressly said  to  have  been  brought  by  sea  to 
Joppa  by  Zidonians  (2  K.  xii.  11;  2  Chr. 
xxiv.  12;  Ezra  iii.  7).  That  the  Jewish 
carpenters  must  have  been  able  to  carve 
with  some  skill  is  evident  from  Is.  xli.  7, 
xliv.  13.  In  the  N.  T.  the  occupation  of  a 
carpenter  is  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Joseph  the  husband  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
an-l  ascribed  to  our  Lord  himself  by  way 
of  reproach  (Mark  vi.  3;  Matt.  xiii.  55). 
3.  The  masons  employed  by  David  and 
Solomon,  at  least  the  chief  of  them,  were 
Phoenicians  (1  K.  v.  18;  Ez.  xxvii.  9). 
The  large  stones  used  in  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple are  said  by  Josephus  to  have  been  fitted 
together  exactly  without  either  mortar  or 
cramps,  but  the  foundation  stones  to  have 
been  fastened  with  lead.  For  ordinary 
building,  mortar  was  used;  sometimes, 
perhaps,  bitumen,  as  was  the  case  at  Baby- 
lon (Gen.  xi.  3).  The  lime,  clay,  and 
straw  of  which  mortar  is  generally  com- 
posed in  the  East,  require  to  be  very  care- 
fully mixed  and  united  so  as  to  resist  wet. 
The  wall  "  daubed  with  untempered  mor- 
tar "  of  Ezekiel  (xiii.  10)  was  perhaps  a 
sort  of  cob-wall  of  mud  or  clay  without 
lime,  which  would  give  way  under  heavy 
rain.  The  use  of  whitewash  on  tombs  is 
remarked  by  our  Lord  (Matt,  xxiii.  27). 
Houses  infected  with  leprosy  were  required 
by  the  Law  to  be  re-plastered  (Lev.  xiv. 
40-45).  4.  Akin  to  the  craft  of  the  carpen- 
ter is  tliat  of  ship  and  boat-building,  which 
must  have  been  exercised  to  some  extent 
for  the  fishing-vessels  on  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret  (Matt.  viii.  23,  ix.  1 ;  John  xxi.  3, 
8).  Salomon  built,  at  Ezion-Geber,  ships 
for  his  foreign  trade,  which  were  manned 
by  Phoenician  crews,  an  experiment  which 
Jehoshaphat  endeavored  in  vain  to  renew 
(1 K.  ix.  26,  27,  xxii.  48 ;  2  Chr.  xx.  36,  37). 


u  u,  adzes, 
of  a  chair. 


5.  The  perfumes  used  in  the  religious  ser- 
vices, and  in  later  times  in  the  funeral 
rites  of  monarchs.  imply  knowledge  and 
practice  in  the  art  of  the  "apothecaries," 
who  appear  to  have  formed  a  guild  or 
association  (Ex.  xxx.  ,25,  35 ;  Neh.  iii.  8 ; 
2  Chr.  xvi.  14;  Eccl.  vii.  1,  x.  1;  Ec- 
clus.  xxxviii.  8).  6.  The  arts  of  spinning 
and  weaving  both  wool  and  linen  were 
carried  on  in  early  times, 
as  they  are  still  usually 
among  the  Bedouins,  by 
women.  One  of  the  ex- 
cellences attributed  to  the 
good  housewife  is  her 
skill  and  industry  in  these 
arts  (Ex.  xxxv.  25,  26; 
Lev.  xix.  19 ;  Deut.  xxii. 
11 ;  2  K.  xxiii.  7 ;  Ez.  xvi. 
16;  Prov.  xxxi.  13,  24). 
The  loom  with  its  beam 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  7),  pin 
(Judg.  xvi.  14),  and  shut- 
tle (Job  vii.  6),  was  perhaps  introduced  later, 
but  as  early  as  David's  time  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7). 
Together  with  weaving  we  read  also  of  em- 
broidery, in  which  gold  and  silver  threads 
were  intenvoven  with  the  body  of  the  stuif, 
sometimes  in  figure  patterns,  or  with  pre- 
cious stones  set  in  the  needle-work  (Ex. 
xxvi.  1,  xxviii.  4,  xxxix.  6-13).  7.  Besides 
these  arts,  those  of  dyeing  and  of  dressing 
cloth  were  practised  in  Palestine,  and  those 
also  of  tanning  and  dressing  leather  (Josh.  ii. 
15-18 ;  2  K.  i.  8 ;  Matt.  iii.  4 ;  Acts  ix.  43). 
Shoemakers,  barbers,  and  tailors  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Mishna  {Fesach,  iv.  6) ;  the 
barber,  or  his  occupation,  by  Ezekiel  (v.  1 : 
Lev.  xiv.  8 ;  Num.  vi.  5),  and  the  tailor, 
plasterers,  glaziers,  and  glass  vessels,  paint- 
ers, and  goldworkers  are  mentioned  in  the 
Mishna  (Chel.  viii.  9,  xxix.  3,  4,  xxx.  1). 
Tent-makers  are  noticed  in  the  Acts  (xviii. 
3),  and  frequent  allusion  is  made  to  the 
trade  of  the  potters.  8.  Bakers  are  noticed 
in  Scripture  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21 ;  Hos.  vii.  4) ; 
and  the  well-known  valley  Tyropoeon  prob- 
ably derived  its  name  from  the  occupation 
of  the  cheese-makers,  its  inhabitants.  Butch- 
ers, not  Jewish,  are  spoken  of  1  Cor.  x.  25. 
Handkerchief,  Napkin,  Apron. 
The  two  former  of  these  terms,  as  used  in 
the  A.  V.  =  aovduQibv,  the  latter  =  aiuixlv- 
6ior.  The  sudarium  is  noticed  in  the  N. 
T.  as  a  wrapper  to  fold  up  money  (Luke 
xix.  20)  —  as  a  cloth  bound  about  the  head 
of  a  corpse  (John  xi.  44,  xx.  7)  —  and  last- 
ly as  an  article  of  dress  that  could  be  easily 
removed  (Acts  xix.  12),  probably  a  hand- 
kerchief worn  on  the  head  like  the  keffieh 
of  the  Bedouins. 

Ha'nes,  a  place  in  Egypt  only  men- 
tioned in  Is.  xxx.  4.  We  think  that  the 
Chald.  Paraphr.  is  right  in  identifying  it 
with  Tahpanhes,  a  fortified  town  on  the 
eastern  frontier. 


HANGING 


228 


HARIM 


Hanging,  Hangings.  (1.)  The  "hang- 
ing "  was  a  curtain  or  "  covering  "  to  close 
an  entrance ;  one  was  placed  before  the 
door  of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  36,  37, 
xxxix.  38).  (2.)  The  "hangings"  were 
used  for  covering  the  walls  of  the  court  of 
the  Tabernacle,  just  as  tapestry  was  in 
modern  times  (Ex.  xxvii.  9,  xxxv.  17, 
xxxviii.  9 ;  Num.  iii.  26,  iv.  26). 

Han'iel,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ulla  of  the 
tribe  of  Asher(l  Chr.  vii.  39). 

Han'nah.,  one  of  the  wives  of  Elkanah, 
and  mother  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  i.  ii.).  A 
hymn  of  thanksgiving  for  the  birth  of  her 
son  is  in  the  highest  order  of  prophetic 
poetry ;  its  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  (comp.  1  Sam.  ii.  1-10  with  Luke 
i.  46-55 ;  see  also  Ps.  cxiii.)  has  been  no- 
ticed by  the  commentators.  More  recent 
critics  have,  however,  assigned  its  author- 
ship to  David. 

Han'nathon,  one  of  the  cities  of  Zeb- 
ulun  (Josh.  xix.  14). 

Han'niel,  son  of  Ephod,  and  prince  of 
Manasseh  (Num.  xxxiv.  23). 

Ha'noch.  1.  The  third  in  order  of  the 
childrenof  Midian  (Gen.  xxT.  4).  2.  Eld- 
est son  of  Reuben  (Gen.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ex.  vi. 
14 ;  Num.  xxvi.  5 ;  1  Chr.  v.  3),  and  found- 
er of  the  family  of  the  Hanochites  (Num. 
xxvi.  5). 

Ha'ntm.  1.  Son  of  Nahash  (2  Sam.  x. 
1,  2 ;  1  Chr.  xix.  1,  2),  king  of  Amnion, 
who  dishonored  the  ambassadors  of  David 
(2  Sam.  X.  4),  and  involved  the  Ammon- 
ites in  a  disastrous  war  (2  Sara.  xii.  31 ;  1 
Chr.  xix.  6).  2.  A  man  who,  with  the 
people  of  Zanoah,  repaired  the  ravine-gate 
in  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  13).  3. 
The  6th  son  of  Zalaph,  who  also  assisted 
in  the  repair  of  the  wall,  apparently  on  the 
east  side  (Neh.  iii.  30). 

Haphra'im,  a  city  of  Issachar,  men- 
tioned next  to  Shunem  (Josh.  xix.  19). 
About  6  miles  north-east  of  Lejjun,  and  2 
miles  west  of  Solum  (the  ancient  Shunem), 
stands  the  village  of  el-^Afileh,  which  may 
possibly  be  the  representative  of  Haphraim. 

Ha'ra  (l  Chr.  v.  26,  only)  is  either  a 
place  utterly  unknown,  or  it  must  be  re- 
garded as  identical  with  Haran  or  Charran. 

Har'adall,  a  desert  station  of  the  Isra- 
elites (Num.  xxxiii.  24,  25)  ;  its  position  is 
uncertain. 

Ha'ran.  1.  The  third  son  of  Terah,  and 
therefore  youngest  brother  of  Abram  (Gen. 
xi.  26).  Three  children  are  ascribed  to  him 
—  Lot  (27,  31),  and  two  daughters,  viz.,  Mil- 
cah,  who  married  her  uncle  Nahor  (29),  and 
Iscah  (29).  Haran  was  born  inUr  of  the 
Chaldees,  and  he  died  there  while  his  father 
was  still  living  (28).  2.  A  Gershonite  Le- 
rite  in  the  time  of  David,  one  of  the  family 
of  Shimei  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  9).  3.  A  son  of 
the  great  Caleb  by  his  concubine  Ephah 
(I  Chr.  ii.  46).    4.    Uakak  or  Chakkan 


(Acts  vii.  2,  4),  name  of  the  place  whither 
Abraham  migrated  with  his  family  from  Ur 
of  the  Chaldees,  and  where  the  descend- 
ants of  his  brother  Nahor  established  them- 
selves (comp.  Gen.  xxiv.  10  with  xxvii. 
43).  It  is  said  to  be  in  Mesopotamia  (Gen. 
xxiv.  10),  or  more  definitely,  in  Padan- 
Aram  (xxv.  20),  the  cultivated  district  at 
the  foot  of  the  hills,  a  name  well  applying 
^o  the  beautiful  stretch  of  country  which 
lies  below  Mount  Masius  between  the  Kha- 
bour  and  the  Euphrates.  Here,  about  mid- 
way in  this  district,  is  a  small  village  still 
called  HarrAn.  It  was  celebrated  among 
the  Romans  under  the  name  of  Charrae,  as 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Crassus. 

Ha'rarite,  The.  The  designation  of 
three  of  David's  guard.  1.  Agee,  a  Ha- 
rarite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11).  2.  Shammah  the 
Hararite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  33).  3.  Shakab 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  33)  or  Sacar  (1  Chr.  xi.  35) 
the  Hararite,  was  the  father  of  Ahiam, 
another  member  of  the  guard. 

Har'bona,  the  third  of  the  seven  cham- 
berlains, or  eunuchs,  who  served  king 
Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10), 

Har'bonah  (Esth.  vii.  9),  the  same  aa 
the  preceding. 

Hare  (Heb.  ameleth)  occurs  only  in 
Lev.  xi.  6  and  Deut.  xiv.  7,  amongst  the 
animals  disallowed  as  food  by  the  Mosaic 
law.  Tlie  hare  is  at  this  day  called  arneb 
by  the  Arabs  in  Palestine  and  Syria.  It 
was  erroneously  thought  by  the  ancient 
Jews  to  have  chewed  the  cud.  They  were 
no  doubt  misled,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
shdphdn  (^Hyrax\  by  the  habit  these  ani- 
mals have  of  moving  the  jaw  about. 

Harem.     [House.] 

Ha'reph.,  a  name  occurring  in  the  gen- 
ealogies of  Judah,  as  a  son  of  Caleb,  and 
as  "  father  of  Beth-gader "  (1  Chr.  ii.  61, 
only). 

Ha'reth,  Tlie  Forest  of,  in  which  Da- 
vid took  refuge,  after,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  prophet  Gad,  he  had  quitted  the  "  hold" 
or  fastness  of  the  cave  of  AduUam  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  5). 

Harhaii'ah,  father  of  Uzziel  —  (Neh. 
iii.  8). 

Harlias,  an  ancestor  of  Shallum  the 
husband  of  Huldah  (2  K.  xxii.  14). 

Har'hur.  The  sons  of  Harhur  were 
among  the  Nethinim  wlio  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  51 ;  Neh. 
vii.  53). _ 

Ha'rim.  1.  A  priest  who  had  charge 
of  the  third  division  in  the  house  of  God 
(1  Chr.  xxiv.  8).  2.  Bene-Harim,  prob- 
ably descendants  of  the  above,  to  the  num- 
ber of  1017,  came  up  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  39;  Neh.  vii.  42).  3. 
It  further  occurs  in  a  list  of  the  families  of 
priests  "  who  went  up  with  Zerubbabel  and 
Jeshua,"  and  of  those  who  were  their  de- 
scendants ixt  the  next  generation  (Neh.  xii 


HAEIPH 


229 


HASHABIAH 


15).  4.  Another  family  of  Bene-Harirn, 
three  hundred  and  twenty  in  number,  came 
from  the  captivity  in  the  same  caravan  (Ezr. 
ii.  32 ;  Nell.  vii.  35).  They  also  appear 
among  those  who  had  married  foreign  wives 
(Ezr.  X.  31),  as  well  as  those  who  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  27). 

Ha'riph.  A  hundred  and  twelve  of  the 
Bene-Hariph  returned  from  the  captivity 
with  Zerubbabcl  (Neh.  vii.  24).  The  name 
occurs  again  among  the  "  heads  of  the  peo- 
ple "  who  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  19). 

Harlot.  That  this  class  of  persons 
existed  in  the  earliest  states  of  society  is 
clear  from  Gen.  xxxviii.  15.  Rahab  (Josh. 
ii.  1)  is  said  by  the  Chaldee  paraph.,  to 
have  been  an  innkeeper,  but  if  there  were 
such  persons,  considering  what  we  know 
of  Canaanitish  morals  (Lev.  xviii.  27),  we 
may  conclude  that  they  would,  if  women, 
have  been  of  this  class.  The  "harlots" 
are  classed  with  "  publicans,"  as  those  who 
lay  under  the  ban  of  society  in  the  N.  T. 
(Matt.  xxi.  32). 

Har'nepher,  one  of  the  sons  of  Zophah, 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  36). 

Ha'rod,  The  Well  of,  a  spring  by 
which  Gideon  and  his  great  army  encamped 
on  the  morning  of  the  day  which  ended  in 
the  rout  of  the  Midianites  (Judg.  vii.  1), 
and  where  the  trial  of  the  people  by  their 
mode  of  drinking  apparently  took  place. 
The  Ain  Jalild  is  very  suitable  to  the  cir- 
cumstances, as  being  at  present  the  largest 
spring  in  the  neighborhood. 

Ha'rodite,  The,  the  designation  of 
two  of  the  thirty-seven  warriors  of  David's 
guard,  Shammah  and  Elika  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
25),  doubtless  derived  from  a  place  named 
Harod. 

Har'oeh,  a  name  occurring  in  the  gen- 
ealogical lists  of  Judah  as  one  of  the  sons 
of  "  Shobal,  father  of  Karjath-jearim "  (1 
Chr.  ii.  52). 

Ha'rorite,  The,  the  title  given  to  Sham- 
moth,  one  of  the  Warriors  of  David's  guard 
(1  Chr.  xi.  27). 

Har'osheth  "  of  the  Gentiles,"  so 
called  from  the  mixed  races  that  inhabited 
it,  a  city  in  the  north  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
supposed  to  have  stood  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  lake  Merom,  from  which  the  Jordan 
issues  forth  in  one  unbroken  stream.  It 
was  the  residence  of  Sisera,  captain  of  Ja- 
bin,  king  of  Canaan  (Judg.  iv.  2),  and  it  was 
the  point  to  which  the  victorious  Israelites 
under  Barak  pursued  the  discomfited  host 
and  chariots  of  the  second  potentate  of  that 
name  (Judg.  iv.  16). 

Harp  (Heb.  kinndr).  The  kinn6r-w&s 
the  national  instrument  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  was  well  known  throughout  Asia. 
Moses  assigns  its  invention  to  the  antedilu- 
vian period  (Gen.  iv.  21).  Josephus  re- 
cords that  the  kinndr  had  ten  strings,  and 
that  it  was  played  on  with  the  plectrum ; 


but  this  is  in  contradiction  to  what  is  set 
forth  in  the  1st  book  of  Samuel  (xvi.  23, 
xviii.  10),  that  David  played  on  the  kinnur 
with  his  hand.  Probably  there  was  a 
smaller  and  a  larger  kinndr,  and  these  may 
have  been  played  in  different  ways  (1  Sam. 
X.  5). 

Harrow.  The  word  so  rendered  (2 
Sam.  xii.  31)  1  Chr.  xx.  3,  is  probably  a 
threshing-machine.  The  verb  rendered  "  to 
harrow "  (Is.  xxviii.  24 ;  Job  xxxix.  10 ; 
Hos.  X.  11)  expresses  apparently  the  break- 
ing of  the  clods,  and  is  so  far  analogous  to 
our  harrowing,  but  whether  done  by  any 
such  machine  as  we  call  a  "harrow,"  is 
very  doubtful. 

Har'sha.  Bene-Harsha  were  among 
the  families  of  Nethinim  who  came  back 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  52 ; 
Neh.  vii.  54). 

Hart.  The  hart  is  reckoned  among  the 
clean  animals  (Deut.  xii.  15,  xiv.  5,  xv.  22), 
and  seems,  from  the  passages  quoted,  as  well 
as  from  1  K.  iv.  23,  to  have  been  commonly 
killed  for  food.  The  Heb.  masc.  noun 
ayy&l  denotes,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  some 
species  of  Cervidae  (deer  tribe),  either  the 
Dama  vulgaris,  fallow-deer,  or  the  Cervus 
Barbarus,  the  Barbary  deer. 

Ha'rum.  Father  of  Aharhel,  in  one  of 
the  most  obscure  genealogies  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  iv.  8). 

Haru'maph,  father  or  ancestor  of  Jed- 
aiah  (Neh.  iii.  10). 

Haru'phite,  The,  the  designation  of 
Shephatiah,  one  of  the  Korhites  who  re- 
paired to  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  5). 

Ha'ruz,  a  man  of  Jotbah,  father  of 
MeshuUemeth,  queen  of  Manasseh  (2  K. 
xxi.  19). 

Harvest.     [Agriculture.] 

Hasadi'ah,  one  of  a  group  of  five  per- 
sons among  the  descendants  of  the  royal 
line  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iii.  20),  apparently 
sons  of  Zerubbabel. 

Haseuu'ah,  a  Benjamite,  of  one  of  the 
chief  families  in  the  tribe  (1  Chr.  ix.  7). 

Hashabi'ah.  1.  A  Merarite  Levite  (1 
Chr.  vi.  45;  Heb.  30).  2.  Another  Mera- 
rite Levite  (I  Chr.  ix.  14).  3.  The  fourth 
of  the  six  sons  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chr.  xxv. 
3),  who  had  charge  of  the  twelfth  course 
(19).  4.  One  of  the  descendants  of  He- 
bron the  son  of  Kohath  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  30). 
5.  The  son  of  Kemuel,  who  was  prince  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi  in  the  time  of  David  (1 
Chr.  xxvii.  17).  6.  A  Levite,  one  of  the 
"  chiefs "  of  his  tribe,  who  oflSciated  for 
king  Josiah  at  his  great  passover-feast  (2 
Chr.  XXXV.  9).  7.  A  Merarite  Levite  who 
accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezr.  viii. 
19).  8.  One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  priests 
who  formed  part  of  the  same  caravan  (Ezr. 
viii.  24).  9.  Ruler  of  half  the  circuit  or 
environs  of  Keilah ;  he  repaired  a  portion 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah 


HASHABNAH 


230 


HAWK 


(Neh.  iii.  17).  10.  One  of  the  Levites 
who  sealed  the  covenant  of  reformation 
after  the  return  from  the  captivity  (Neh. 
X.  11,  xii.  24;  comp.  26).  11.  Another 
Levite,  son  of  Bunni  (Neh.  xi.  15).  12. 
A  Levite,  son  of  Mattaniah  (Neh.  xi.  22). 
13.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Hilkiah  in 
the  days  of  Joiakim  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh. 
xii.  21). 

Hashab'uali,  one  of  the  chief  of  the 
"people"  who  sealed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  25). 

Hashabni'ah.  1.  Father  of  Hattush 
(Neh.  iii.  10).  2.  A  Levite  who  was  among 
those  wlio  officiated  at  the  great  fast  under 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  when  the  covenant  was 
sealed  (Neh.  ix.  5). 

Hashbad'ana,  one  of  the  men  (prob- 
ably Levites)  who  stood  on  Ezra's  left 
hand  while  he  read  the  law  to  tlie  people 
in  Jerusalem  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Ha'shem.  The  sons  of  Hashem  the 
Gizonite  are  named  amongst  the  members 
of  David's  guard  in  1  Chr.  xi.  34. 

Hashmo'nah,  a  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites, mentioned  Num.  xxxiii.  29,  as  next 
before  Moserotli. 

Ha'shub.  1.  A  son  of  Pahath-Moab, 
who  assisted  in  the  repair  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  11).  2.  Another  who 
assisted  in  the  same  work  (Neh.  iii.  23). 
3.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  people  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
X.  23).    4.  A  Merarite  Levite  (Neh.  xi.  15). 

Hashu'bah,  the  first  of  a  group  of  five 
men,  apparently  the  latter  half  of  the  fami- 
ly of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chr.  iii.  20). 

Ha'shura.  1.  Bene-Hashum,  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-three  in  number,  came 
back  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
ii.  19;  Neh.  vii.  22;  Ezr.  x.  33).  The 
chief  man  of  the  family  was  among  those 
who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  X.  18).  2.  One  of  the  priests  or 
Levites  who  stood  on  Ezra's  left  hand  while 
he  read  the  law  to  the  congregation  (Neh. 
viii.  4). 

Hashu'pha,  one  of  the  families  of 
Nethinim  who  returned  from  captivity  in 
the  first  caravan  (Neh.  vii.  46). 

Has'rah,  the  form  in  which  the  name 
Harhas  is  given  in  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  22  (comp. 
2  K.  xxii.  14). 

Hassena'ah.  The  Bene-has-senaah  re- 
built the  fish-gate  in  the  repair  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  3). 

Has'shub,  a  Merarite  Levite  (1  Chr. 
Ix.  14),  mentioned  again  Neh.  xi.  15. 

Hasu'pha.  Bene-Hasupha  were  among 
the  Nethinim  who  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  43). 

Ha'tach.,  one  of  tlie  eunuchs  in  the 
court  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  iv.  6,  6,  9,  10). 

Ha'thath,  one  of  the  sons  of  Othniel 
the  Kenazite  (1  Chr.  iv.  13). 

Hafipha.  Bene-Hatipha  were  among 


the  Netlienim  who  returned  from  Babylop 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  54 ;  Neh.  vii.  50). 

Hat'ita.  Bene-Hatita  were  among  the 
"  porters  "  (i.  e.  the  gate-keepers)  who  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezr.  ii.  42 ;  Neh.  vii.  45). 

Hat'til.  Bene-Hattil  were  among  the 
"  children  of  Solomon's  slaves  "  who  came 
back  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
ii.  57 ;  Neh.  vii.  59). 

Hat'tush.  1.  A  descendant  of  the 
kings  of  Judah,  apparently  one  of  the  sons 
of  Shechaniah  (1  Chr.  iii.  22),  in  the  fourth 
or  fifth  generation  from  Zerubbabel.  A 
person  of  the  same  name  accompanied 
Ezra  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  (Ezr.  viii. 
2).  In  anotlier  statement  Hattush  is  said 
to  have  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh. 
xii.  2).  2.  Son  of  Hashabniah;  one  of 
those  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  the  repair 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  10). 

Hau'ran,  a  province  of  Palestine  twice 
mentioned  by  Ezekiel  (xlvii.  16,  18).  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  identical  with 
the  well-known  Greek  province  of  Aura- 
nitis  and  the  modern  Haur&n. 

Hav'ilah.  1.  A  son  of  Cush  (Gen.  x. 
7)  ;  and,  2.  A  son  of  Joktan  (x.  29).  Va- 
rious theories  have  been  advanced  respect- 
ing these  obscure  peoples.  It  appears  to 
be  most  probable  that  both  stocks  settled 
in  the  same  country,  and  there  intermar- 
ried ;  thus  receiving  one  name,  and  forming 
one  race,  with  a  common  descent.  The 
Cushite  people  of  this  name  formed  the 
westernmost  colony  of  Cush  along  the  south 
of  Arabia. 

Hav'ilah  (Gen.  ii.  11).     [Eden.] 

Havoth-ja'ir,  certain  villages  on  the 
east  of  Jordan,  in  Gilead  or  Bashan,  which 
were  taken  by  Jair  the  son  of  Manasseh, 
and  called  after  his  name  (Num.  xxxii.  41 ; 
Deut.  iii.  14).  In  the  records  of  Manas- 
seh in  Josh.  xiii.  30,  and  1  Chr.  ii.  23,  the 
Havoth-jair  are  reckoned  with  other  dis- 
tricts as  making  up  sixty  "  cities  "  (comp. 
1  K.  iv.  13).  There  is  apparently  some 
confusion  in  these  different  statements  as  to 
what  the  sixty  cities  really  consisted  of. 
No  less  doubtful  is  the  number  of  the  Ha- 
voth-jair. In  1  Chr.  ii.  22  they  are  speci- 
fied as  twenty-three,  but  in  Judg.  x.  4,  a3 
thirty. 

Hawk,  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
nets  (Lev.  xi.  16 ;  Deut.  xiv.  15 ;  Job 
xxxix.  26).  The  word  is  doubtless  generic, 
as  appears  from  the  expression  in  Deut. 
and  Lev.  "  after  his  kind,"  and  includes  vari- 
ous species  of  the  Falconidae.  With  respect 
to  the  passage  in  Job  (I.  c),  which  appears 
to  allude  to  the  migratory  habits  of  hawks, 
it  is  curious  to  observe  that  of  the  ten  or 
twelve  lesser  raptors  of  Palestine,  nearly 
all  are  summer  migrants.  The  kestrel  re- 
mains all  the  year,  but  the  others  are  all 
migrants  from  the  south. 


HAY 


231 


HAZOR 


Hay  (Ilcb.  chdtstr),  the  rendering  of 
the  A.  V.  in  Prov.  xxvii.  25,  and  Is.  xv.  6, 
of  the  above-named  Heb.  term,  which  oc- 
curs frequently  in  the  O.  T.,  and  denotes 
"grass"  of  any  kind.  Harmer,  quoting 
from  a  MS.  paper  of  Sir  J.  Chardin,  states 
that  hay  is  not  made  anywhere  in  the  East, 
and  that  the  "hay"  of  the  A.  V.  is  there- 
fore an  error  of  translation.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  the  modern  Orientals  do  not 
make  hay  in  our  sense  of  the  term ;  but  it 
is  certain  that  the  ancients  did  mow  their 
grass,  and  probably  made  use  of  the  dry 
material.  See  Ps.  xxxvii.  2.  We  may  re- 
mark that  there  is  an  express  Hebrew  term 
for  "dry  grass"  or  "  hay,"  viz.  chashash, 
which,  in  the  only  two  places  where  the 
word  occurs  (Is.  v.  24,  xxxiii.  11)  is  ren- 
dered "  chaff"  in  the  A.  V. 

Haz'ael,  a  king  of  Damascus,  who 
reigned  from  about  b.  c.  886  to  b.  c.  840. 
He  appears  to  have  been  previously  a  per- 
son in  a  high  position  at  the  court  of  Ben- 
hadad,  and  was  sent  by  his  master  to  Elisha, 
to  inquire  if  he  would  recover  from  the 
malady  under  which  he  was  suffering. 
Elisha's  answer  led  to  the  murder  of  Ben- 
hadad  by  his  ambitious  servant,  who  forth- 
with mounted  the  throne  (2  K.  viii.  7-15). 
He  was  soon  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
Ahaziah  king  of  Jndah,  and  Jehoram  king 
of  Israel,  for  the  possession  of  the  city  of 
Eamoth-Gilead  (ibid.  viii.  28).  Towards 
the  close  of  the  reign  of  Jehu,  Hazael  led 
the  Syrians  against  the  Israelites  (about 
B.  c.  860),  whom  he  "  smote  in  all  their 
coasts "  (2  K.  X.  32),  thus  accomplishing 
the  prophecy  of  Elisha  (ibid.  viii.  12).  At 
the  close  of  his  life,  having  taken  Gath 
(ibid,  xii  17;  comp.  Am.  vi.  2),  he  pro- 
ceeded to  attack  Jerusalem  (2  Chr.  xxiv. 
24),  and  was  about  to  assault  the  city,  when 
Joash  bribed  him  to  retire  (2  K.  xii.  18). 
Hazael  appears  to  have  died  about  the  year 
B.  c.  840  (ibid.  xiii.  24),  having  reigned  46 
years. 

Hazai^ah,  a  man  of  Judah  of  the  fam- 
ily of  the  Shilonites,  or  descendants  of 
SuELAH  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

H^'zar-ad'dar,  &c.    [Hazer.] 

Hazarma'veth,  the  third,  in  order,  of 
the  sons  of  Joktan  (Gen.  x.  26).  The 
name  is  preserved  in  the  Arabic  Iladra- 
mOwi  and  Hadrumdwt,  the  appellation  of 
a  province  and  an  ancient  people  of  South- 
ern Arabia.  Its  capital  is  Satham,  a  very 
ancient  city,  and  its  chief  ports  are  Mirbat, 
ZafAri,  and  Kisheem,  from  whence  a  great 
trade  was  carried  on,  in  ancient  times,  with 
India  and  Africa. 

Hazel.  The  Hebrew  term  Hz  occurs 
only  in  Gen.  xxx.  37.  Authorities  are  di- 
vided between  the  hazel  and  the  almond 
tree,  as  representing  the  Uz.  The  latter  is 
most  probably  correct. 

Hazelelpo'ni,  the  sister  of  the  sons  of 


Etam  in  the  genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chr. 
iv.  3). 

Ha'zer,  topographically,  seems  gener- 
ally employed  for  the  "villages  "  of  people 
in  a  roving  and  unsettled  life,  the  semi-per- 
manent collections  of  dwellings  which  are 
described  by  travellers  among  the  mod- 
ern Arabs  to  consist  of  rough  stone  walls 
covered  with  the  tent  cloths.  As  a  proper 
name  it  appears  in  the  A.  V. :  1.  In  the 
plural,  Hazekim,  and  Hazeroth,  for  which 
see  below.  2.  In  the  slightly  different  form 
of  Hazor.  3.  In  composition  with  other 
words.  1.  Hazar-addar,  a  place  named  as 
one  of  the  landmarks  on  the  southern  boun- 
dary of  the  land  promised  to  Israel  (Num, 
xxxiv.  4;  Adar,  Josh.  xv.  3).  2.  Hazar- 
ENAN,  the  place  at  which  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  land  promised  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  was  to  terminate  (Num. 
xxxiv.  9,  10;  comp.  Ez.  xlvii.  17,  xlviii.  1). 

3.  Hazar-gaddah,  one  of  the  towns  in  the 
southern  district  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  27), 
named  between   Moladah   and    Heshmon. 

4.  Hazar-shual,  a  town  in  the  southern 
district  of  Judah,  lying  between  Hazar- 
gaddah  and  Beersheba  (Josh.  xv.  28,  xix. 
3;  1  Chr.  iv.  28).  5-  Hazar-susah,  one 
of  the  "  cities  "  allotted  to  Simeon  in  the 
extreme  south  of  the  territory  of  Judah 
(Josh.  xix.  5), 

Haze'rim.  The  Avims,  or  more  accu- 
rately the  Avvim,  are  said  to  have  lived  "  in 
the  villages  (A.  V.  '  Hazerim ')  as  far  as 
Gaza  "  (Deut.  ii.  23)  before  their  expulsion 
by  the  Caphtorim. 

Haze  roth  (Num.  xi.  35,  xii.  16,  xxxiii. 
17;  Deut.  i.  1),  a  station  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  desert,  and  perhaps  reco^izable  in 
the  Arabic  Hudhera. 

Haz'ezon-ta'mar,  and  Haz'azon- 
ta'mar,  the  ancient  name  of  Engedi  (Gen, 
xiv.  7).  The  name  occurs  in  the  records 
of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xx.  2). 

Ha'ziel,  a  Levite  in  the  time  of  David, 
of   the    family   of    Shimei  or   Shimi,    thf- 
younger  branch  of  the  Gershonites  (1  Chi 
xxiii.  9). 

Ha'zo,  a  son  of  Nahor,  by  Milcah  his 
wife  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 

Ha'zor.  1.  A  fortified  city,  which  on 
the  occupation  of  the  country  was  allotted 
to  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  36).  Its  position 
was  apparently  between  Ramah  and  Kedesh 
(ibid.  xii.  19),  on  the  liigh  ground  over- 
looking the  Lake  of  Merom.  There  is  no 
reason  for  supposing  it  a  different  place 
from  that  of  which  Jabin  was  king  v^Josh. 
xi.  1;  Judg.  iv.  2,  17;  1  Sam.  xii.  9).  It 
was  the  principal  city  of  the  whoh  of  North 
Palestine  (Josh.  xi.  10).  It  was  fortified 
by  Solomon  (1  K.  iv.  15),  and  its  inhabit- 
ants were  carried  captive  by  Tiglath-Pile- 
ser  (2  K.  xv.  29).  The  most  probable  site 
of  Hazor  is  Tell  Khuraibeh.  2.  One  of 
the  "  cities  "  of  Judah  in  the  extreme  soatb 


HEAD-DEESS 


232 


HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO 


named  next  in  order  to  Kedesh  (Josh.  xv.  ] 
23).  3  Hazor-Hadattah  =  "  new  Hazor," 
another  of  the  southern  towns  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  25).  4.  A  place  in  which  the 
Benjamites  resided  after  their  return  from 
the  captivity  (Nch.  xi.  33). 

Head-dress.  Tlie  Hebrews  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  regarded  a  covering  for  the 
head  as  an  essential  article  of  dress.  The 
earliest  notice  we  have  of  such  a  thing  is 
in  connection  with  the  sacerdotal  vest- 
ments (Ex.  xxviii.  40).  We  may  infer  that 
it  was  not  ordinarily  worn  in  the  mosaic 
age.  Even  in  after  times  it  seems  to  have 
been  reserved  especially  for  purposes  of 
ornament ;  thus  the  Tsdniph  is  noticed  as 
being  worn  by  nobles  (Job  xxix.  14),  ladies 
(Is.  iii.  23),  and  kings  (Is.  Ixii.  3),  while 
the  PeSr  was  an  article  of  holiday  dress 
(Is.  Ixi.  3,' A.  V.  "  beauty;  "  Ez.  xxiv.  17, 
23),  and  was  worn  at  weddings  (Is.  Ixi. 
10).  The  ordinary  head-dress  of  the  Bed- 
ouin consists  of  the  kejieh,  a  square  hand- 
kerchief, generally  of  red  and  yellow  cotton, 
or  cotton  and  silk,  folded  so  that  three  of 
the  corners  hang  down  over  the  back  and 
shoulders,  leaving  the  face  exposed,  and 
bound  round  the  head  by  a  cord.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  a  similar  covering  was  used 
by  the  Hebrews  on  certain  occasions.  The 
Assyrian  head-dress  is  described  in  Ez. 
xxiii.  15,  under  tlie  terms  "  exceeding  in 
dyed  attire."  The  word  rendered  "  hats  " 
in  Dan.  iii.  21,  properly  applies  to  a  cloak. 

Hearth.  One  way  of  baking  much 
practised  in  the  East  is  to  place  the  dough 
on  an  iron  plate,  either  laid  on,  or  support- 
ed on  legs  above  the  vessel  sunk  in  the 
ground,  which  forms  the  oven.  The  cakes 
baked  "  on  the  hearth  "  (Gen.  xviii.  6)  were 
probably  baked  in"  the  existing  Bedouin 
manner,  on  hot  stones  covered  with  ashes. 
The  "  hearth  "  of  king  Jehoiakim's  winter 
palace  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23)  was  possibly  a  pan 
or  brazier  of  charcoal. 

Heath..  There  seems  no  reason  to 
doubt  Celsius'  conclusion  that  the  'ar'dr 
(Jer.  xvii.  G),  was  some  species  of  juniper, 
probably  the  savin. 

Heathen.     [Gentiles.] 

Heaven.  There  are  four  Hebrew  words 
thus  rendered  in  the  O.  T.,  which  we  may 
briefly  notice.  1.  Rdkt'a  (A.  V.  firma- 
ment). [Firmament.]  2.  Sh&mayim. 
This  is  the  word  used  in  the  expression 
"  the  heaven  and  the  earth,"  or  *'  the  upper 
and  lower  regions  "  (Gen.  i.  1).  3.  MdrSm, 
used  for  heaven  in  Ps.  xviii.  16 ;  Jer.  xxv. 
30;  Is.  xxiv.  18.  Properly  speaking  it 
means  a  mountain,  as  in  Ps.  cii.  19 ;  Ez. 
xvii.  23.  4.  Shechdklm,  "  expanses,"  with 
reference  to  the  eodent  of  heaven  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  2G;  Job  xxxv.  5).  St.  Paul's  ex- 
pression "  third  heaven  "  (2  Cor.  xii.  2)  has 
led  to  much  conjecture.  Grotius  said  that 
tlie  Jews  divided  the  heaven  into  three 


parts,  viz.,  1.  the  air  or  atmosphere,  where 
clouds  gather;  2.  the  firmament,  in  which 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  are  fixed;  3.  the 
upper  heaven,  the  abode  of  God  and  his 
angels. 

He'ber.  1.  Grandson  of  the  patriarch 
Asher  (Gen.  xlvi.  17 ;  1  Chr.  vii.  31 ;  Num. 
xxvi.  45),  from  whom  came  the  Heberitcs 
(Num.  xxvi.  45).  2.  The  patriarch  Eber 
(Luke  iii.  35).     [Eber.] 

He'brew.  This  word  first  occurs  as 
given  to  Abram  by  the  Canaanites  (Gen. 
xiv.  13)  because  he  had  crossed  the  Eu- 
phrates. The  name  is  also  derived  from 
'ther,  "beyond,  on  the  other  side,"  but  this 
is  essentially  the  same  with  the  preceding 
explanation,  since  both  imply  that  Abraham 
and  his  posterity  were  called  Hebrews  in 
order  to  express  a  distinction  between  the 
races  E.  and  W.  of  the  Euphrates.  It 
would  therefore  appear  that  Hebrew  was  a 
cis-Euphratian  word  applied  to  trans-Eu- 
phratian  immigrants.  The  term  Israelite 
was  used  by  the  Jews  of  themselves  among 
themselves,  the  term  Hebrew  was  the  name 
by  which  they  were  known  to  foreigners. 
The  latter  was  accepted  by  the  Jews  in 
their  external  relations ;  and  after  the  gen- 
eral substitution  of  the  word  Jew,  it  still 
found  a  place  in  that  marked  and  special 
feature  of  national  contradistinction,  the 
language.  All  the  Books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament are  written  in  the  Hebrew  language, 
with  the*  exception  of  the  following  pas- 
sages —  Dan.  ii.  4-vii. ;  Ez.  iv.  8-vi.  18,  and 
vii.  12-26;  Jer.  x.  11  — which  are  in  Chal- 
dee.  Both  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  are  sister 
dialects  of  a  great  family  of  languages,  to 
which  the  name  of  Semitic  is  usually  given, 
from  the  real  or  supposed  descent  of  the 
people  speaking  them  from  the  patri- 
arch Shem.  The  dialects  of  this  Semitic 
family  may  be  divided  into  three  main 
branches  :  1.  The  NoTthern  or  Aramaean, 
to  which  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  belong. 
2.  The  Southern,  of  which  the  Arabic  is 
the  most  important,  and  which  also  includes 
the  Etliiopic.  3.  The  Central,  whicli  com- 
prises the  Hebrew  and  the  dialects  spoken 
by  the  other  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  such 
as  the  Canaanites  and  Phoenicians. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the.  There 
has  been  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  re- 
specting the  authorship  of  this  Epistle.  The 
superscription,  the  ordinary  source  of  in- 
formation, is  wanting;  but  there  is  no  rea- 
son to  doubt  that  at  first,  everywlicre,  ex- 
cept in  North  Africa,  St.  Paul  was  regarded 
as  the  author.  Clement  of  Alexandria  as- 
scribed  to  St.  Luke  the  translation  of  the 
Epistle  into  Greek  from  a  Hebrew  original 
of  St.  Paul.  Origen  believed  that  the 
thoughts  were  St.  Paul's,  the  language  and 
composition  St.  Luke's  or  Clement's  of 
Rome.  Tertullian  names  Barnabas  as  the 
reputed    author    according    to   the  North 


HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO 


233 


HEBRON 


African  tradition.  Luther's  conjecture  that 
Apolios  was  the  author  has  been  adopted 
by  many.  The  Epistle  was  probably  ad- 
dressed to  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem  and  Pales- 
tine. The  argument  of  the  Epistle  is  such 
as  could  be  used  with  most  effect  to  a  church 
consisting  exclusively  of  Jews  by  birth, 
personally  familiar  with  and  attached  to  the 
Temple-service.  It  was  evidently  written 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  a.  v>. 
70.  The  whole  argument,  and  specially 
the  passages  viii.  4  and  sq.,  ix.  6  and  sq., 
and  xiii.  10  and  sq.,  imply  that  the  Temple 
was  srtanding,  and  that  its  usual  course  of 
Divine  service  was  carried  on  without  in- 
terruption. The  date  which  best  agrees 
with  the  traditionary  account  of  the  author- 
ship and  destination  of  the  Epistle  is  a.  d. 
63,  about  the  end  of  St.  Paul's  imprison- 
ment at  Rome,  or  a  year  after  Albinus  suc- 
ceeded Festus  as  Procurator.  —  We  have 
already  seen  that  Clement  of  Alexandria 
stated  that  the  Epistle  was  written  by  St. 
Paul  in  Hebrew,  and  translated  by  St.  Luke 
into  Greek.  But  nothing  is  said  to  lead  us 
to  regard  it  as  a  tradition,  rather  than  a 
conjecture  suggested  by  the  style  of  the 
Epistle.  In  favor  of  a  Greek  original  we 
may  observe  (1.)  the  purity  and  easy  flow 
of  the  Greek ;  (2.)  the  use  of  Greek  words 
which  could  not  be  adequately  expressed  in 
Hebrew  without  long  periphrase ;  (3.)  the 
use  of  paronomasia;  and  (4.)  the  use  of 
the  Septuagint  in  quotations  and'  refer- 
ences. —  With  respect  to  the  scope  of  the 
Epistle,  it  should  be  recollected  tliat,  while 
the  numerous  Christian  churches  scattered 
throughout  Judaea  (Acta  ix.  31 ;  Gal.  i.  22) 
were  continually  exposed  to  persecution 
from  the  Jews  (1  Thess.  ii.  14),  there  was 
in  Jerusalem  one  additional  weapon  in  the 
hands  of  the  predominant  oppressors  of  the 
Christians.  The  magnificent  national  Tem- 
ple might  be  shut  against  the  Hebrew 
Christian ;  and  even  if  this  aflliction  were 
not  often  laid  upon  him,  yet  there  was 
a  secret  burden  which  he  bore  within  him, 
the  knowledge  that  the  end  of  all  the  beauty 
and  awfulness  of  Zion  was  rapidly  approach- 
ing. What  could  take  the  place  of  the 
Temple,  and  that  which  was  behind  the  veil, 
and  the  Levitical  sacrifices,  and  the  Holy 
City,  when  they  should  cease  to  exist? 
What  compensation  could  Christianity  offer 
him  for  the  loss  which  was  pressing  the 
Hebrew  Christian  more  and  more?  The 
writer  of  this  Epistle  meets  the  Hebrew 
Christians  on  their  own  ground.  His  an- 
swer is  —  "  Your  newfiaith  gives  you  Christ, 
and,  in  Christ,  all  you  seek,  al  1  your  fathers 
sought.  In  Christ  the  Son  of  God  you  have 
an  all-suflicient  Mediator,  nearer  than 
angels  to  the  Father,  eminent  above  Moses 
as  a  benefactor,  more  sympathizing  and 
more  prevailing  than  the  High-priest  as  an 
intercessor :     His   sabbath  awaits  you  iu 


heaven:  to  His  covenant  the  old  was  in- 
tended to  be  subservient ;  His  atonement  is 
the  eternal  reality  of  which  sacrifices  are 
but  the  passing  shadow ;  His  city  heavenly, 
not  made  with  hands.  Having  Him,  be- 
lieve in  Him  with  all  your  heart,  with  a 
faith  in  the  unseen  future,  strong  as  that  of 
the  saints  of  old,  patient  under  present,  and 
prepared  for  coming  woe,  full  of  energy, 
and  hope,  and  holiness,  and  love."  Such 
was  the  teaching  of  tlie  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews. 

He'bron.  1.  The  third  son  of  Kohath, 
who  was  the  second  son  of  Levi  ;  the 
younger  brother  of  Amram,  father  of  Moses 
and  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  18 ;  Num.  iii.  19 ;  1 
Chr.  vi.  2,  18,  xxiii.  12).  The  immediate 
children  of  Hebron  are  not  mentioned  by 
name  (comp.  Ex.  vi.  21,  22),  but  he  was 
the  founder  of  a  family  of  Hebronites  (Num. 
iii.  27,  xxvi.  68;  1  Chr.  xxvi.  23,  30,  31)  or 
Bene-Hebron  (1  Chr.  xv.  9,  xxiii.  19).  2. 
A  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  54) ;  situated 
among  the  mountains  (Josh.  xx.  7),  20 
Roman  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
same  distance  north  of  Beersheba.  Hebron 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  the 
world  still  existing ;  and  in  this  respect  it  is 
the  rival  of  Damascus.  It  was  built,  says 
a  sacred  writer,  "  seven  years  before  Zoan 
in  Egypt"  (Num.  xiii.  22)  ;  and  was  a  well- 
known  town  when  Abraham  entered  Canaan 
3780  years  ago  (Gen.  xiii.  18).  Its  original 
name  was  Kirjath-Arba  (Judg.  i.  10),  "the 
city  of  Arba ;  "  so  called  from  Arba,  the 
father  of  Anak,  and  progenitor  of  the  giant 
Anakim  (Josh.  xxi.  14,  xv.  13,  14).  The 
chief  interest  of  this  city  arises  from  its 
having  been  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most 
striking  events  in  the  lives  of  the  patriarchs. 
Sarah  died  at  Hebron ;  and  Abraham  then 
bought  from  Ephron  the  Hittite  the  field 
and  cave  of  Machpelah,  to  serve  as  a  family 
tomb  (Gen.  xxiii.  2-20).  The  cave  is  still 
there;  and  the  massive  walls  of  the  Ilaratn, 
or  mosque,  within  which  it  lies,  form  the 
most  remarkable  object  in  the  whole  city. 
Abraham  is  called  by  Mohammedans  el- 
Khvlil,  "  the  Friend,"  i.  e.  of  God,  and 
this  is  the  modern  name  of  Hebron.  He- 
bron now  contains  about  5000  inhabitants, 
of  whom  some  50  families  are  Jews.  It  is 
picturesquely  situated  in  a  narrow  valley, 
surrounded  by  rocky  hills.  The  valley 
runs  from  north  to  south ;  and  the  main 
quarter  of  the  town,  surmounted  by  the 
lofty  walls  of  the  venerable  Haram,  lies 
partly  on  the  eastern  slope  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
14;  comp.  xxiii.  19).  About  a  mile  from  the 
town,  up  the  valley,  is  one  of  the  largest 
oak-trees  in  Palestine.  This,  say  some, 
is  the  very  tree  beneath  which  Abraham 
pitched  his  tent,  and  it  still  bears  the  name 
of  the  patriarch.  3.  One  of  the  towns  in 
the  territory  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28),  on 
the  boundary  of  the  tribe.    It  is  not  cer- 


HEBRONITES 


234 


HELL 


tain  whether  the  name  should  not  rather  be 
Ebdon  or  Abdon,  since  that  form  is  found 
in  many  MSS. 

Heb'ronites,  The.  A  family  of  Ko- 
hathite  Lcvites,  descendants  of  Hebron  the 
son  of  Kohath  (Num.  iii.  27,  xxtI.  68 ;  1 
Clir.  xxvi.  23). 

Hedge.  The  Heb.  words  thus  ren- 
dered denote  simply  that  which  surrounds 
or  encloses,  whether  it  be  a  stone  wall 
(^geder,  Prov.  xxiv.  31 ;  Ez.  xlii.  10)  or  a 
fence  of  other  materials.  The  stone  walls 
which  surround  the  sheepfolds  of  modern 
Palestine  are  frequently  crowned  with  sharp 
thorns. 

Hega'i,  one  of  the  eunuchs  (A.  V. 
"  chamberlains  ")  of  the  court  of  Ahasuerus 
(Esth.  ii.  8,  15). 

He'ge,  another  form  of  the  preceding 
(Esth.  ii.  3). 

Heifer.  The  Hebrew  language  has  no 
expression  that  exactly  corresponds  to 
our  heifer ;  for  both  eglah  and  parah  are 
applied  to  cows  that  have  calved  (1  Sam. 
Ti.  7-12;  Job  xxi.  10;  Is.  vii.  21).  The 
heifer  or  young  cow  was  not  commonly 
used  for  ploughing,  but  only  for  treading 
out  the  corn  (Hos.  x.  11 ;  but  see  Judg.  xiv. 
18),  when  it  ran  about  without  any  head- 
stall (Deut.  XXV.  4)  ;  hence  the  expression 
an  "  unbroken  heifer  "  (Hos.  iv.  16 ;  A.  V. 
"backsliding"),  to  which  Israel  is  com- 
pared. 

Heir.  The  Hebrew  institutions  relative 
to  inheritance  were  of  a  very  simple  char- 
acter. Under  the  Patriarchal  system  tlie 
property  was  divided  among  the  sons  of 
the  legitimate  wives  (Gen.  xxi.  10,  xxiv. 
36,  XXV.  5),  a  larger  portion  being  assigned 
to  one,  generally  the  eldest,  on  whom  de- 
volved the  duty  of  maintaining  the  females 
of  the  family.  The  sons  of  concubines 
were  portioned  off  with  presents  (Gen.  xxv. 
6).  At  a  later  period  the  exclusion  of  the 
sons  of  concubines  was  rigidly  enforced 
(Judg.  xi.  1,  ff.).  Daughters  had  no  share 
in  the  patrimony  (Gen.  xxi.  14),  but  re- 
ceived a  marriage  portion.  The  Mosaic 
law  regulated  the  succession  to  real  prop- 
erty thus  :  it  was  to  be  divided  among  the 
sons,  the  eldest  receiving  a  double  portion 
(Deut.  xxi.  17),  the  others  equal  shares; 
if  there  were  no  sons,  it  went  to  the  daugh- 
ters (Num.  xxvii.  8),  on  the  condition  that 
they  did  not  marry  out  of  their  own  tribe 
(Num.  xxxvi.  6,  ff. ;  Tob.  vi.  12,  vii.  13), 
otherwise  the  patrimony  was  forfeited.  If 
tnere  were  no  daughters,  it  went  to  the 
brother  of  the  deceased ;  if  no  brother,  to 
the  paternal  uncle ;  and,  failing  these,  to  the 
next  of  kin  (Num.  xxvii.  9-11). 

He'lah,  one  of  the  two  wives  of  Ashur, 
father  of  Tekoa  (1  Chr.  iv.  5). 

He'latn,  a  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  but 
west  of  the  Euphrates,  at  which  the  Syrians 
were  collected  by  Iladarezer,  and  at  which 


David  met  and  defeated  them  (2  Sam.  x. 

16,  17). 

Hel'bah,  a  town  of  Asher,  probably  on 
the  plain  of  Phoenicia,  not  far  from  Sidon 
(Judg.  i.  31). 

Hel'bon,  a  place  mentioned  only  in 
Ezekiel  xxvii.  Geographers  have  hitherto 
represented  Helbon  as  identical  with  the 
city  of  Aleppo,  called  Haleh  by  the  Arabs ; 
but  there  are  strong  reasons  against  this,  and 
the  ancient  city  must  be  identified  with  a 
village  within  a  few  miles  of  Damascus, 
etill  bearing  the  ancient  name  Ilelbon,  and 
still  celebrated  as  producing  the  finest 
grapes  in  the  country. 

Hel'dai,  1.  The  twelfth  captain  of  the 
monthly  courses  for  the  temple  service  (1 
Chr.  xxvii.  15).  2.  An  Israelite  who  seems 
to  have  returned  from  the  Captivity  (Zech. 
vi.  10). 

He'leb,  son  of  Baanah,  the  Netophath- 
ite,  one  of  the  heroes  of  king  David's  guard 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  29).  In  the  parallel  list 
the  name  is  given  as 

He'led,  l  Chr.  xi.  30.     [Heleb.] 

He'lek,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Ma- 
nasseh,  and  second  son  of  Gilead  (Num. 
xxvi.  30). 

He'lekites,  The,  the  family  descended 
from  the  foregoing  (Num.  xxvi.  30). 

He'lem.  1.  A  descendant  of  Asher  (1 
Chr.  vii.  35).  2.  A  man  mentioned  only 
in  Zech.  vi.  14.  Apparently  the  same  as 
Heldai. 

He'leph,  the  place  from  which  the 
boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  started 
(Josh.  xix.  33). 

He'lez.  1.  One  of  "  the  thirty"  of  Da- 
vid's guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26 ;  1  Chr.  xi. 
27),  an  Ephraimite,  and  captain  of  the  sev- 
enth monthly  course  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  10.  2. 
A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Azariah  (1  Chr. 
u.  39).  ^ 

He'li,  the  father  of  Joseph,  the  husband 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke  iii.  23) ;  main- 
tained by  Lord  A.  Hervey,  the  latest  inves- 
tigator of  the  genealogy  of  Christ,  to  have 
been  the  real  brother  of  Jacob,  the  father 
of  the  Virgin  herself. 

Hel'kath,  the  town  named  as  the  start- 
ing-point for  the  boundary  of  the  tribe  of 
Aslier  (Josh.  xix.  25),  and  allotted  with  its 
"  suburbs  "  to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi. 
31).     Its  site  has  not  been  recovered. 

Hel'kath  Haz'zurim,  a  smooth  piece 
of  ground,  apparently  close  io  the  pool  of 
Gibeon,  where  the  combat  took  place  be- 
tween the  two  parties  of  Joiib's  men  and 
Abner's  men,  which  ended  in  the  death  of 
the  whole  of  the  combatants,  and  brought 
on  a  general  battle  (2  Sam.  ii.  16). 

Hell.  This  is  the  word  generally  and 
unfortunately  used  by  our  translators  to 
render  the  Hebrew  Sheol.  It  would  per- 
haps have  been  better  to  retain  the  Hebrew 
word  Sheol,  or  else  render  it  always  by 


HELLENIST 


235 


HENADAD 


"  the  grave  "  or  "  the  pit."  It  is  deep  (Job 
xi.  8)  and  dark  (Job  xi.  21,  22)  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  earth  (Num.  xvi.  30 ;  Deut.  xxxii. 
22),  having  within  it  deptiis  on  depths 
(Prov.  ix.  18),  and  fastened  with  gates  (Is. 
xxxviii.  10)  and  bars  (Job  xvii.  16).  In 
this  cavernous  realm  are  the  souls  of  dead 
men,  the  Rephaim  and  ill  spirits  (Ps.  Ixxxvi. 
13,  Ixxxix.  48 ;  Prov.  xxiii.  14 ;  Ez.  xxxi. 
17,  xxxii.  21).  It  is  clear  that  in  many 
passages  of  the  O.  T.  Sheol  can  only  mean 
"the  grave,"  and  is  so  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  (see,  for  example.  Gen.  xxxvii.  35, 
xlii.  38;  1  Sam.  ii.  6;  Job  xiv.  13).  In 
other  passages,  however,  it  seems  to  involve 
a  notion  oi  punishment,  and  is  therefore 
rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  the  word  "Hell." 
But  in  many  cases  this  translation  misleads 
the  reader.  It  is  obvious,  for  instance, 
that  Job  xi.  8 ;  Ps.  cxxxix.  8 ;  Am.  ix.  2 
(where  "hell"  is  used  as  the  antithesis  of 
"heaven"),  merely  illustrate  the  Jewish 
notions  of  the  locality  of  Sheol  in  the  bow- 
els of  the  earth.  In  the  N.  T.  the  word 
Hades,  like  Sheol,  sometimes  means  merely 
"the  grave"  (Rev.  xx.  13;  Acts  ii.  31;  1 
Cor.  XV.  55),  or  in  general  "the  unseen 
w^orld."  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  creeds 
say  of  our  Lord,  "  He  went  down  into  hell," 
meaning  the  state  of  the  dead  in  general, 
without  any  restriction  of  happiness  or  mis- 
ery, a  doctrine  certainly,  though  only  vir- 
tually, expressed  in  Scripture  (Eph.  iv.  9 ; 
Acts  ii.  25-31).  Elsewhere  in  the  N.  T. 
Hades  is  used  of  a  place  of  torment  (Luke 
xvi.  23 ;  2  Pet.  ii.  4 ;  Matt.  xi.  23,  &c.  Con- 
aequently  it  has  been  the  prevalent,  almost 
the  universal,  notion  that  Hades  is  an  inter- 
mediate state  between  death  and  resurrec- 
tion, divided  into  two  parts,  one  the  abode 
of  the  blessed,  and  the  other  of  the  lost. 
In  holding  this  view,  main  reliance  is  placed 
on  the  parable  of  Dives  and  Lazarus ;  but 
it  is  impossible  to  ground  the  proof  of  an 
important  theological  doctrine  on  a  passage 
which  confessedly  abounds  in  Jewish  meta- 
phors. The  word  most  frequently  used  in 
the  N.  T.  for  the  place  of  future  punish- 
ment is  Gehenna  or  Gehenna  of  fire.  [Ge- 
henna and  HiNNOJi.] 

Hellenist.  In  one  of  the  earliest  no- 
tices of  the  first  Christian  Church  at  Jeru- 
salem (Acts  vi.  1),  two  distinct  parties 
are  recognized  among  its  piembers,  "  He- 
brews "  and  "  Hellenists  "  (Grecians),  who 
appear  to  stand  towards  one  another  in 
some  degree  in  a  relation  of  jealous  rivalry 
(comp.  Acts  ix.  29).  The  name,  accord- 
ing to  its  derivation,  marks  a  class  distin- 
guished by  peculiar  habits,  and  not  by 
descent.  Thus  the  Hellenists  as  a  body 
included  not  only  the  proselytes  of  Greek 
Qor  foreign)  parentage,  but  also  those  Jews 
who,  by  settling  in  foreign  countries,  had 
adopted  the  prevalent  form  of  the  current 


Greek  civilization,  and  with  it  the  use  of 
the  common  Greek  dialect. 

Helmet.    [Arms.] 

He'lon,  father  of  Eliab,  of  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun  (Num.  i.  9,  ii.  7,  vii.  24,  29,  x.  16). 

Hem  of  Garm.ent.  The  importance 
which  the  later  Jews,  especially  the  Phar- 
isees (Matt,  xxiii.  5),  attached  to  the  hem 
or  fringe  of  their  garments  was  founded 
upon  the  regulation  in  Num.  xv.  38,  39, 
which  gave  a  symbolical  meaning  to  it. 

He'm.am.  Hori  and  Hemam  were  sons 
of  Lotan,  the  eldest  son  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
22). 

He'man.  1.  Son  of  Zerah  (1  Chr.  ii. 
6;  IK.  iv.  31).  2.  Son  of  Joel,  and  grand- 
son of  Samuel  the  prophet,  a  Kohathite. 
He  is  called  "the  singer,"  rather  the  musi- 
cian (1  Chr.  vi.  33),  and  was  the  first  of 
the  three  Levites  to  whom  was  committed 
the  vocal  and  instrumental  music  of  the 
temple-service  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr. 
XV.  16-22),  Asaph  and  Ethan,  or  rather 
according  to  xxv.  1,  3,  Jeduthan,  being  his 
colleagues.  A  further  account  of  Heman 
is  given  1  Chr.  xxv.,  where  he  is  called 
(ver.  5)  "  the  king's  seer  in  the  matters  of 
God."  Whether  or  no  this  Heman  is  the 
person  to  whom  the  88th  Psalm  is  ascribed 
is  doubtful.  He  is  there  called  "  the  Ez- 
rahite ;  "  and  the  89th  Psalm  is  ascribed  to 
"  Ethan  the  Ezrahite." 

He'martll,  a  person,  or  place,  named  in 
the  genealogical  lists  of  Judah,  as  the  origin 
of  the  Kenites,  and  the  "father"  of  the 
house  of  Rechab  (1  Chr.  ii.  55). 

Hem.'dail,  the  eldest  son  of  Dishon, 
sonofAnah  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26). 
[Amram  2.] 

Hemlock.  The  Hebrew  r6sh  is  ren- 
dered "  hemlock  "  in  two  passages  (Hos.  x. 
4;  Am.  vi.  12),  but  elsewhere  "gall." 
[Gall.] 

Hen.  According  to  the  A.  V.  of  Zech. 
vi.  14,  Hen  is  a  son  of  Zephaniah,  and  ap- 
parently the  same  who  is  called  Josiah  in 
ver.  10.  But  by  the  LXX.  and  others,  the 
words  are  taken  to  mean  "  for  the  favor  of 
the  son  of  Zephaniah." 

Hen.  The  hen  is  nowhere  noticed  in 
the  Bible  except  in  Matt,  xxiii.  37 ;  Luke 
xiii.  34.  That  a  bird  so  common  in  Pales- 
tine should  receive  such  slight  notice,  is 
certainly  singular. 

He'na  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  a  monarchical  state  which  the 
Assyrian  kings  had  reduced  shortly  before 
the  time  of  Sennacherib  (2  K.  xix.  13 ;  Is. 
xxxvii.  13).  At  no  great  distance  from 
Sippara  (now  Mosaib),  is  an  ancient  town 
called  Ana  or  Anah,  which  may  be  the 
same  as  Hena. 

Hen'adad,  the  head  of  a  family  of  the 
Levites  who  took  a  prominent  pari  in  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  (Ezr.  iii.  9). 


HENOCH 


236 


HERMONITES 


He'noch.  1.  Enoch  2  (1  Chr.  i.  3). 
2.  Hanoch  1  (1  Chr.  i.  33). 

He'pher.  1.  The  youngest  of  the  sons 
of  Gilead  (Num.  xxvi.  32),  and  head  of  the 
family  of  the  Hepherites.  2.  Son  of 
Ashur,  the  "  father  of  Tekoa  "  (1  Chr.  iv. 
6).  3.  The  Mecherathite,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi.  3G). 

He'pher,  a  place  in  ancient  Canaan, 
which  occurs  in  the  list  of  conquered  kings 
(Josh.  xii.  17).  It  was  on  the  west  of  Jor- 
dan (comp.  7  and  1  K.  iv.  10.) 

He'plierites,  The,  the  family  of  He- 
pher  the  son  of  Gilead  (Num.  xxvi.  32). 

Heph'zi-bah.  1.  A  name  signifying 
"  My  delight  in  her,"  which  is  to  be  borne 
by  the  restored  Jerusalem  (Is.  Ixii.  4).  2. 
The  queen  of  king  Hezekiah,  and  the 
mother  of  Manasseh  (2  K.  xxi.  1). 

Herald.  The  only  notice  of  this  oflBcer 
in  the  O.  T.  occurs  in  Dan.  iii.  4.  The 
term  "  herald,"  might  be  substituted  for 
"  preacher  "  in  1  Tim.  ii.  7 ;  2  Tim.  i.  11 ;  2 
Pet.  ii.  5. 

Herd,  Herdsman.  The  herd  was 
greatly  regarded  both  in  the  patriarchal  and 
Mosaic  period.  The  ox  was  the  most 
precious  stock  next  to  horse  and  mule. 
The  herd  yielded  the  most  esteemed  sacri- 
fice (Num.  vii.  3 ;  Ps.  Ixix.  31 ;  Is.  Ixvi.  3)  ; 
also  flesh  meat,  and  milk,  chiefly  converted, 
probably,  into  butter  and  cheese  (Deut. 
XXX.  ii.  14;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  The  full- 
grown  ox  is  hardly  ever  slaughtered  in 
Syria;  but,  botii  for  sacrificial  and  convivial 
purposes,  the  young  animal  was  preferred 
(Ex.  xxix.  1).  The  agricultural  and  general 
usefulness  of  tlie  ox,  in  ploughing,  threshing, 
and  as  a  beast  of  burden  (1  Chr.  xii.  40;  Is. 
xlvi.  1),  made  such  a  slaughtering  seem 
wasteful.  Herdsmen,  &c.,  in  Egypt  were 
a  low,  perhaps  the  lowest  caste ;  but  of  the 
abundance  of  cattle  in  Egypt,  and  of  the 
care  there  bestowed  on  them,  there  is  no 
doubt  (Gen.  xlvii.  6,  17 ;  Ex.  ix.  4,  20).  So 
the  plague  of  hail  was  sent  to  smite  espe- 
cially the  cattle  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  48),  the  first- 
born of  which  also  were  smitten  (Ex.  xii.  29). 
The  Israelites  departing  stipulated  for  (Ex. 
X.  26)  and  took  "  much  cattle  "  with  them 
(xii.  38).  Cattle  formed  thus  one  of  the 
traditions  of  the  Israelitish  nation  in  its 
greatest  period,  and  became  almost  a  part 
of  that  greatness.  The  occupation  of  herds- 
man was  honorable  in  early  times  (Gen. 
xlvii.  6;  1  Sam.  xi.  5;  1  Chr.  xxvii.  29, 
xxviii.  1).  Saul  himself  resumed  it  in  the 
interval  of  his  cares  as  king ;  also  Doeg  was 
certainly  high  in  his  confidence  (1  Sam. 
xxi.  7).  Pharaoh  made  some  of  Joseph's 
brethren  "  rulers  over  his  cattle."  David's 
herd-masters  were  among  his  chief  officers 
of  state.  The  prophet  Amos  at  first  fol- 
lowed this  occupation  (Am.  i.  1,  vii.  14). 

He'resh,  a  Levite  attached  to  the  taber- 
nacle (1  Chr.  ix.  15). 


Her'mas,  the  name  of  a  Christian  resi- 
dent at  Rome  to  whom  St.  Paul  sends  greet- 
ing in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (xvi.  14). 
Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  and  Origen  agree  in 
attributing  to  him  the  work  called  the 
Shepherd :  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
written  in  the  pontificate  of  Clement  I. ; 
while  others  affirm  it  to  have  been  the  work 
of  a  namesake  in  the  following  age.  It  ex- 
isted for  a  long  time  only  in  a  Latin  ver- 
sion, but  the  first  part  in  Greek  is  to  be 
found  at  the  end  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus. 
It  was  never  received  into  the  canon ;  but 
yet  was  generally  cited  with  respect  only 
second  to  that  which  was  paid  t(^he  author- 
itative books  of  the  N.  T. 

Her'mes,  a  Christian  mentioned  in 
Rom.  xvi.  14.  According  to  tradition  he 
was  one  of  the  Seventy  disciples,  and  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Dalmatia. 

Hermog'enes,  a  person  mentioned  by 
St.  Paul  in  the  latest  of  all  his  Epistles 
(2  Tim.  i.  15)  when  all  in  Asia  had  turned 
away  from  him,  and  among  their  number 
"  Phygellus  and  Hermogenes." 

Her'mon,  a  mountain  on  the  north- 
eastern border  of  Palestine  (Deut.  iii.  8; 
Josh.  xii.  1),  over  against  Lebanon  (Josh. 
xi.  17),  adjoining  the  plateau  of  Bashan 
(1  Chr.  v.  23).  It  stands  at  the  southern 
end,  and  is  the  culminating  point  of  the 
anti-Libanus  range ;  it  towers  high  above 
the  ancient  border  city  of  Dan  and  the  foun- 
tains of  the  Jordan,  and  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  beautiful  mountain  in  Pales- 
tine or  Syria.  The  name  Ilermon  was 
doubtless  suggested  by  its  appearance  — 
"  a  lofty  prominent  peak,"  visible  from  afar. 
The  Sidonians  called  it  Sirion,  and  the 
Amorites  Shenir.  It  was  also  named  Sion, 
"the  elevated"  (Deut.  iv.  48).  So  now, 
at  the  present  day,  it  is  called  Jebel  esh- 
Sheikh,  "the  chief  mountain ;  "  and  Jebel 
eth-Thelj,  "snowy  mountain."  When  the 
whole  country  is  parched  with  the  summer 
sun,  white  lines  of  snow  streak  the  head  of 
Hermon.  This  mountain  was  the  great 
landmark  of  the  Israelites.  It  was  associ- 
ated with  their  northern  border  almost  as 
intimately  as  the  sea  was  with  the  western. 
Hermon  has  three  summits,  situated  like 
the  angles  of  a  triangle,  and  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  each  other.  This  may  ac- 
count for  the  expression  in  Ps.  xlii.  7  (fi), 
"I  will  remember  thee  from  the  land  of 
the  Jordan  and  the  Hermons."  In  two  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  this  mountain  is  called 
£aal-hermon  (Judg.  iii.  3;  1  Chr.  v.  23), 
possibly  because  Baal  was  there  worshipped. 
The  height  of  Hermon  has  never  been 
measured,  though  it  has  often  been  estimat- 
ed. It  may  safely  be  reckoned  at  10,000 
feet. 

Her'monites,  The.  Properly  "the 
Hermons,"  with  reference  to  the  three  sum- 
mits of  Mount  Hermon  (Ps.  xlii.  6  [7]  ). 


HEROD 


237 


HEROD 


Her  od.  This  family,  though  of  Idu- 
maean  origin,  and  thus  aliens  by  race,  were 
Jews  in  faith.  I.  Herod  the  Great  was 
the  second  son  of  Antipater,  an  Idumaean, 
who  was  appointed  Procurator  of  Judaea 
by  Julius  Caesar,  b.  c.  47,  and  Cypros,  an 
Arabian  of  noble  descent.  At  the  time  of 
his  father's  elevation,  though  only  fifteen 
years  old,  he  received  the  government  of 
Galilee,  and  shortly  afterwards  that  of 
Coele-Syria.  When  Antony  came  to  Syria, 
B.  c.  41,  he  appointed  Herod  and  his  elder 
brother  Phasael  tetrarchs  of  Judaea.  Her- 
od was  forced  to  abandon  Judaea  next  year 
by  an  invasion  of  the  Parthians,  who  sup- 
iwrted  the  claims  of  Antigonus,  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  Asmonaean  dynasty, 
and  fled  to  Rome  (b.  c.  40).  At  Rome  he 
was  well  received  by  Antony  and  Octavian, 
and  was  appointed  by  the  senate  king  of 
Judaea  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Hasmonean 
line.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years,  by  the 
help  of  the  Romans,  he  took  Jerusalem 
(b.  c.  37),  and  completely  established  his 
authority  throughout  his  dominions.  After 
the  battle  of  Actium  he  visited  Octavian  at 
Rhodes,  and  his  noble  bearing  won  for  him 
the  favor  of  the  conqueror,  who  confirmed 
him  in  the  possession  of  the  kingdom,  b.  c. 
31,  and  in  the  next  year  increased  it  by  the 
addition  of  several  important  cities,  and 
afteiTvards  gave  him  the  province  of  Trach- 
onitis  and  the  district  of  Paneas.  The 
remainder  of  the  reign  of  Herod  was  un- 
disturbed by  external  troubles,  but  his  do- 
mestic life  was  embittered  by  an  almost 
uninterrupted  series  of  injuries  and  cruel 
acts  of  vengeance.  The  terrible  acts  of 
bloodshed  which  Herod  perpetrated  in  his 
own  family  were  accompanied  by  others 
among  his  subjects  equally  terrible,  from 
the  number  who  fell  victims  to  them.  Ac- 
cording to  the  well-known  story,  he  or- 
dered the  nobles  whom  he  had  called  to 
him  in  his  last  moments  to  be  executed 
immediately  after  his  decease,  that  so  at 
least  his  death  might  be  attended  by  uni- 
versal mourning.  It  was  at  the  time  of 
his  fatal  illness  that  he  must  have  caused 
the  slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem 
(Matt.  ii.  16-18),  and  from  the  comparative 
insignificance  of  the  murder  of  a  few  young 
children  in  an  unimportant  village  when 
contrasted  with  the  deeds  which  he  carried 
out  or  designed,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
Josephus  has  passed  it  over  in  silence.  In 
dealing  with  the  religious  feelings  or  pre- 
judices of  the  Jews,  Herod  showed  as 
great  contempt  for  public  opinion  as  in  the 
execution  of  his  personal  vengeance.  But 
while  he  alienated  in  this  manner  the  affec- 
tions of  the  Jews  by  his  cruelty  and  disre- 
gard for  the  Law,  he  adorned  Jerusalem 
with  many  splendid  monuments  of  iiis  taste 
and  magnificen'-e.  The  Temple,  which  he 
rebuilt  with  scrupulous  care,  was  the  great- 


est of  those  works.  The  restoration  was 
begun  b.  c.  20,  and  the  Temple  itself  was 
completed  in  a  year  and  a  half.  But  fresh 
additions  were  constantly  made  in  succeed- 
ing years,  so  that  it  was  said  that  the  Tem- 
ple was  "built  in  forty  and  six  years" 
(John  ii.  20),  a  phrase  wliicli  expresses  the 
whole  period  from  the  commencement  of 
Herod's  work  to  the  completion  of  the 
latest  addition  then  made.  II.  Herod  An- 
TiPAS  was  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by 
Malthace,  a  Samaritan.  His  father  had 
originally  destined  him  as  his  successor  ia 
the  kingdom,  but  by  the  last  change  of  his 
will  appointed  him  "  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and 
Peraea"  (Matt.  xiv.  1;  Luke  iii.  19,  ix.  7; 
Acts  xiii.  1.  Cf.  Luke  iii.  1).  He  first  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Aretas,  "  king  of  Ara- 
bia Petraea,"  but  after  some  time  he  made 
overtures  of  marriage  to  Herodias,  the 
wife  of  his  half-brother  Herod  Philip,  which 
she  received  favorably.  Aretas,  indignant 
at  the  insult  off'ered  to  his  daughter,  found 
a  pretext  for  invading  the  territory  of 
Herod,  and  defeated  him  with  great  loss. 
This  defeat,  according  to  the  famous  pas- 
sage in  Josephus,  was  attributed  by  many 
to  the  murder  of  John  the  Baptist,  which 
had  been  committed  by  Antipas  shortly  be- 
fore, under  the  influence  of  Herodias  (Matt, 
xiv.  4,  ff. ;  Mark  vi.  17,  ft\ ;  Luke  iii.  19). 
At  a  later  time  the  ambition  of  Herodias 
proved  the  cause  of  her  husband's  ruin. 
She  urged  him  to  go  to  Rome  to  gain 
the  title  of  king  (cf.  Mark  vi.  14)  ;  but 
he  was  opposed  at  the  court  of  Caligula 
by  the  emissaries  of  Agrippa,  and  con- 
demned to  perpetual  banishment  at  Lug- 
dunum,  a.  d.  39.  Herodias  voluntarily 
shared  his  punishment,  and  he  died  in  ex- 
ile. Pilate  took  occasion  from  our  Lord's 
residence  in  Galilee  to  send  Him  for  exam- 
ination (Luke  xxiii.  6,  ff".)  to  Herod  Antipas, 
who  came  up  to  Jerusalem  to  celebrate  the 
Passover.  The  city  of  Tiberias,  which  An- 
tipas founded  and  named  in  honor  of  the  em- 
peror, was  the  most  conspicuous  monument 
of  his  long  reign.  III.  Herod  Philip  I. 
(Philip,  Mark  vi.  17)  was  the  son  of  Herod 
the  Great  and  Mariamne,  and  must  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  the  tetrarch 
Philip.  He  married  Herodias,  the  sister 
of  Agrippa  I.,  by  whom  he  had  a  daughter 
Salome.  Herodias,  however,  left  him,  and 
made  an  infamous  marri.age  with  his  half- 
brother  Herod  Antipas  (Matt.  xiv.  3 ;  Mark 
vi.  17;  Luke  iii.  19).  He  was  excluded 
from  all  share  in  his  father's  possessions  in 
consequence  of  his  mother's  treachery,  and 
lived  afterwards  in  a  private  station.  IV. 
Herod  Philip  II.  was  tlie  son  of  Herod  the 
Great  and  Cleopatra.  Like  his  half-brothers 
Antipas  and  Archelaus,  he  was  brought  up 
at  home.  He  received  as  his  own  govern- 
ment Batanea,  Trachonitis,  Auranitis  (Gau- 
louitis)  and  some  parts  about  Jamnia,  with 


HEROD 


238 


HESED 


the  title  of  tetrarch  (Luke  iii.  1).  He 
built  a  new  city  on  the  site  of  Paneas,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  which  he  called 
Caesarea  (Matt.  xvi.  13;  Mark  viii.  27), 
and  raised  Bethsaida  to  the  rank  of  a  city 
under  the  title  of  Julias,  and  died  there 
A.  D.  34.  He  married  Salome,  the  daughter 
of  Herod  Philip  I.  and  Herodias.  V. 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  was  the  son  of  Aristo- 
bulus  and  Berenice,  and  grandson  of  Her- 
od the  Great.  He  was  brought  up  at 
Rome  with  Claudius  and  Drusus,  and  afler 
a  life  of  various  vicissitudes,  was  thrown 
into  prison  by  Tiberius,  where  he  remained 
till  the  accession  of  Caius  (Caligula)  a.  d. 
37.  The  new  emperor  gave  him  the  gov- 
ernments formerly  held  by  the  tetrarchs 
Philip  and  Lysanias,  and  bestowed  on  him 
the  ensigns  of  royalty  and  other  marks  of 
favor  (Acts  xii.  1).  On  the  banishment 
of  Antipas,  his  dominions  were  added  to 
those  already  held  by  Agrippa,  After- 
wards Agrippa  rendered  important  ser- 
vices to  Claudius,  and  received  from  him 
in  return  (a.  d.  41)  the  government  of 
Judaea  and  Samaria.  Unlike  his  prede- 
cessors, Agrippa  was  a  strict  observer  of 
the  Law,  and  he  sought  with  success  the 
favor  of  the  Jews.  It  is  probable  that  it 
was  with  tliis  view  he  put  to  death  James 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  further  imprisoned 
Peter  (Acts  xii.  1,  flf.).  But  his  sudden 
death  interrupted  his  ambitious  projects. 
la  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  over  the 
whole  of  Judaea  (a.  d.  44)  Agrippa  attend- 
ed some  games  at  Caesarea,  held  in  honor 
of  the  Emperor.  When  he  appeared  in  the 
theatre  (Acts  xii.  21)  his  flatterers  saluted 
him  as  a  god ;  and  suddenly  he  was  seized 
with  terrible  pains,  and  being  carried  from 
the  theatre  to  the  palace  died  after  five 
days'  agony.  VI.  Herod  Agrippa  II. 
was  the  son  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  and 
Cypres,  a  grand-niece  of  Herod  the  Great. 
At  the  time  of  the  death  of  his  father  a.  d. 
44,  he  was  at  Rome.  Not  long  afterwards, 
however,  the  Emperor  gave  him  (about 
A.  D.  50)  the  kingdom  of  Chalcis,  which  had 
belonged  to  his  uncle ;  and  then  transferred 
him  (a.  d.  52)  to  the  tetrarchies  formerly 
held  by  Philip  and  Lysanias,  with  the  title 
of  king  (Acts  xxv.  13).  The  relation  in 
which  he  stood  to  his  sister  Berenice  (Acts 
xxv.  13)  was  the  cause  of  grave  suspicion. 
In  the  last  Roman  war  Agrippa  took  part 
with  the  Romans,  and  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusale.m  retired  with  Berenice  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  the  third  year  of  Trajan 
(a.  d.  100).  The  appearance  of  St.  Paul 
before  Agrippa  (a.  d.  60)  offers  several 
characteristic  traits.  The  "  pomp  "  with 
which  the  king  came  into  the  audience 
chamber  (Acts  xxv.  23)  was  accordant 
with  his  general  bearing;  and  the  cold 
irony  with  which  he  met  the  impassioned 
words  of  the  Apostle  (Acts  xxvi.  27,  28) 


suits  the  temper  of  one  who  was  contented 
to  take  part  in  the  destruction  of  his  na- 
tion. 

Hero'dians.  In  the  account  which  is 
given  by  St.  Matthew  (xxii.  15,  ff".)  and 
St.  Mark  (xii.  13,  ff.)  of  the  last  efforts 
made  by  different  sections  of  the  Jews  to 
obtain  from  our  Lord  Himself  the  mate- 
rials for  His  accusation,  a  party  under  the 
name  of  Herodians  is  represented  as  act- 
ing in  concert  with  the  Pharisees  (Matt. 
xxii.  16;  Mark  xii.  13;  comp.  also  iii.  6, 
viii.  15).  There  were  probably  many  who 
saw  in  the  power  of  the  Herodian  family 
the  pledge  of  the  preservation  of  their  na- 
tional existence  in  the  face  of  Roman  am- 
bition. Two  distinct  classes  might  thus 
unite  in  supporting  what  was  a  domestic 
tyranny  as  contrasted  with  absolute  depen- 
dence on  Rome :  those  who  saw  in  the 
Herods  a  protection  against  direct  heathen 
rule,  and  those  who  were  inclined  to  look 
with  satisfaction  upon  such  a  compromise 
between  the  ancient  faith  and  heathen  civ- 
ilization, as  Herod  the  Great  and  bis  suc- 
cessors had  endeavored  to  realize,  as  the 
true  and  highest  consummation  of  Jewish 
hopes. 

Hero'dias,  daughter  of  Aristobulus,  one 
of  the  sons  of  Mariamne  and  Herod  the 
Great,  and  consequently  sister  of  Agrippa 
I.  She  first  married  Herod  Philip  I. ;  then 
she  eloped  from  him  to  marry  Herod  Anti- 
pas,  her  step-uncle,  who  had  been  long 
married  to,  and  was  still  living  with,  the 
daughter  of  Aeneas  or  Aretas,  king  of 
Arabia.  The  consequences  both  of  the 
crime,  and  of  the  reproof  which  it  in- 
curred, are  well  known.  Aretas  made 
war  upon  Herod  for  the  injury  done  to 
his  daughter,  and  routed  him  with  the  loss 
of  his  whole  army.  The  head  of  John  the 
Baptist  was  granted  to  the  request  of  He- 
rodias (Matt.  xiv.  8-11 ;  Mark  vi.  24-28). 
According  to  Josephus  the  execution  took 
place  in  a  fortress  called  Machaerus,  look- 
ing down  upon  the  Dead  Sea  from  the 
south.  She  accompanied  Antipas  into  ex- 
ile to  Lugdunum. 

Hero'dion,  a  relative  of  St.  Paul,  to 
whom  he  sends  his  salutation  amongst  the 
Christians  of  the  Roman  Church  (Rom. 
xvi.  11). 

Heron.  The  Hebrew  andphah  appears 
as  the  name  of  an  unclean  bird  in  Lev.  xi. 
19,  Deut.  xiv.  18.  It  was  probably  a  ge- 
neric name  for  a  well-known  class  of  birds. 
The  only  point  on  which  any  two  commen- 
tators seem  to  agree  is,  that  it  is  not  the 
heron.  On  etymological  grounds,  Geseniu? 
considers  the  name  applicable  to  some  irri- 
table bird,  perhaps  the  goose. 

He'sed,  the  son  of  Hesed,  or  Ben- 
Chesed,  was  commissary  for  Solomon  in 
the  district  of  "  the  Arubboth,  Socoh,  and 
all  the  land  of  Hepher  "  (1  K.  iv.  10). 


HESHBON 


239 


HEZEKIAH 


Hesh'bon,  the  capital  city  of  Sihon 
king  of  the  Amorites  (Num.  xxi.  26).  It 
stood  on  the  western  border  of  the  high 
plain  (3Iishor,  Josh.  xiii.  17),  and  on  the 
boundary-line  between  the  tribes  of  Reuben 
and  Gad.  The  ruins  of  Ilesbdn,  20  miles 
east  of  the  Jordan,  on  the  parallel  of  the 
northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  mark  the 
site,  as  they  bear  the  name,  of  the  ancient 
Heshbon.  There  are  many  cisterns  among 
the  ruins  (corap.  Cant.  vii.  i). 

Hesli'mon,  a  place  named,  with  others, 
as  lying  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27). 

Hes'ron.  Hezron,  the  son  of  Reuben 
(Num.  xxvi.  6),  and  ancestor  of  the  Hez- 
ron ites. 

Heth,  the  forefather  of  the  nation  of  the 
HiTTiTES.  In  the  genealogical  tables  of 
Gen.  X.  and  1  Chr.  i.,  Heth  is  a  son  of 
Canaan.  The  Hittites  were  therefore  a 
Hamite  race,  neither  of  the  "  country  "  nor 
the  "kindred"  of  Abraham  and  Isaac 
(Gen.  xxiv.  3,  4,  xxviii.  1,  2). 

Hetll'loil,  the  name  of  a  place  on  the 
northern  border  of  Palestine  (Ez.  xlvii.  15, 
xlviil.  1).  In  all  probability  the  "  way  of 
Hethlon  "  is  the  pass  at  the  northern  end 
of  Lebanon,  and  is  thus  identical  with  "  the 
entrance  of  Hamath  "  in  Num.  xxxiv.  8,  &c. 

Hez'eki,  a  Benjaminite,  one  of  the 
Bene-Elpaal,  a  descendant  of  Shaaraim 
(1  Chr.  viii.  17). 

Hezeki'ah.  1.  Twelfth  king  of  Judah, 
son  of  the  apostate  Ahaz  and  Abi  (or  Abijah), 
ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  25,  b.  c. 
726.  Hezekiah  was  one  of  the  three  most 
perfect  kings  of  Judah  (2K.  xviii.  5 ;  Ecclus. 
xlix.  4).  His  first  act  was  to  purge,  and 
repair,  and  reopen  with  splendid  sacrifices 
and  perfect  ceremonial,  the  Temple,  which 
had  been  despoiled  and  neglected  during 
the  careless  and  idolatrous  reign  of  his  fa- 
ther. This  consecration  was  accompanied 
by  a  revival  of  the  theocratic  spirit,  so 
strict  as  not  even  to  spare  "  the  high 
places,"  which,  although  tolerated  by  many 
well-intentioned  kings,  had  naturally  been 
profaned  by  the  worship  of  images  and 
Asherahs  (2  K.  xviii.  4).  A  still  more  de- 
cisive act  was  the  destruction  of  a  brazen 
serpent,  said  to  have  been  the  one  used  by 
Moses  in  the  miraculous  healing  of  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  9),  which  had  become 
an  object  of  adoration.  When  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  had  fallen,  Hezekiah  extended  his 
pious  endeavors  to  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh  ;  and  by  inviting  the  scattered  inhabit- 
ants to  a  peculiar  Passover,  kindled  their  j 
indignation  also  against  the  idolatrous  prac- 
tices which  still  continued  among  them. 
This  Passover  was,  from  the  necessities  of 
the  case,  celebrated  at  an  unusual,  though 
not  illegal  (Num  ix.  10,  11)  time;  and  by 
an  excess  of  Levitical  zeal  it  was  continued  ' 
for  the   unprecedented  period  of  foui-teen  j 


days  (2  Chr.  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi.).  At  the 
head  of  a  repentant  and  imited  people, 
Hezekiah  ventured  to  assume  the  aggres- 
sive against  the  Philistines ;  and  in  a  series 
of  victories  not  only  rewon  the  cities  which 
his  father  had  lost  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  18),  but 
even  dispossessed  them  of  their  own  cities, 
except  Gaza  (2  K.  xviii.  8)  and  Gath.  It 
was  perhaps  to  the  purposes  of  this  war  that 
he  applied  the  money  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  used  to  pay  the  tribute  ex- 
acted by  Shalmaneser,  according  to  the 
agreement  of  Ahaz  with  his  predecessor, 
Tiglath-Pileser.  When,  after  the  capture 
of  Samaria,  the  king  of  Assyria  applied  for 
this  impost,  Hezekiah  refused  it,  and  in 
open  rebellion  omitted  to  send  even  the 
usual  presents  (2  K.  xviii.  7).  Instant  war 
was  averted  by  the  heroic  and  long-con- 
tinued resistance  of  the  Tyrians  under  their 
king  Eluloeus.  This  must  have  been  a 
critical  and  intensely  anxious  period  for 
Jerusalem ;  and  Hezekiah  used  every  avail- 
able means  to  strengthen  his  position,  and 
render  his  capital  impregnable  (2  K.  xx. 
20;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  3-5,  30;  Is.  xxii.  8-11, 
xxxiii.  18).  According  to  a  scheme  of 
chronology  proposed  by  Dr.  Hincks,  Heze- 
kiah's  dangerous  illness  (2  K.  xx. ;  Is. 
xxxviii. ;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  24)  nearly  synchro- 
nized with  Sargon's  futile  invasion,  in  the 
fourteenth  year  of  Hczekiah's  reign,  eleven 
years  before  Sennachey'ib's  invasion.  That 
it  must  have  preceded  the  attack  of  Sen- 
nacherib is  nearly  obvious  from  the  promise 
in  2  K.  XX.  6,  as  well  as  from  modern  dis- 
coveries. Hezekiah,  whose  kingdom  was 
in  a  dangerous  crisis,  and  who  had  at  that 
time  no  heir  (for  Manasseh  was  not  born 
till  long  afterwards,  2  K.  xxi.  1),  "  turned 
his  face  to  the  wall  and  wept  sore  "  at  the 
threatened  approach  of  dissolution.  God 
had  compassion  on  his  anguish,  and  heard 
his  prayer.  Isaiah  had  hardly  left  the 
palace  when  he  was  ordered  to  promise  the 
king  immediate  recovery,  and  a  fresh  lease 
of  life,  ratifying  the  promise  by  a  sign,  and 
curing  the  boil  by  a  plaster  of  figs.  Various 
ambassadors  caraewith  letters  and  gifts  to 
congratulate  Hezekiah  on  his  recovery  (2 
Chr.  xxxii.  23),  and  among  them  an  em- 
bassy from  Merodach-Baladan  (or  Bero- 
dach,  2  K.  xx.  12),  tlie  viceroy  of  Babylon. 
The  ostensible  object  of  this  mission  was  to 
compliment  Hezekiah  on  his  convalescence 
(2  K.  XX.  12;  Is.  xxxix.  1);  but  its  real 
purpose  was  to  discover  how  far  an  alliance 
between  the  two  powers  was  possible  or 
desirable,  for  Merodach-Baladan,  no  less 
than  Hezekiah,  was  in  apprehension  of  the 
Assyrians.  Community  of  interest  made 
Hezekiah  receive  the  overtures  of  Babylon 
with  unconcealed  gratification ;  and,  per- 
haps, to  enhance  the  opinion  of  his  own  im- 
portance as  an  ally,  he  displayed  to  the  mes- 
sengers the  princely  treasures  which  he  and 


HEZEKIAH 


240 


HIDDEKEL 


his  prcdeonssors  had  accumulated.  If  osten- 
tation were  his  motive  it  received  a  terrible 
rebuke,  and  he  was  informed  by  Isaiah 
that  from  the  then  tottering  and  subor- 
dinate province  of  Babylon,  and  not  from 
the  mighty  Assyria,  would  come  the  ruin 
and  captivity  of  Judah  (Is.  xxxix.  6).  Sar- 
gon  was  succeeded  (b.  c.  702)  by  his 
son  Sennacherib,  whose  two  invasions  oc- 
cupy the  greater  part  of  the  Scripture  rec- 
ords concerning  the  reign  of  Hezekiah. 
The  first  of  these  took  place  in  the  third 
year  of  Sennacherib  (b.  c.  702),  and  occu- 
pies only  three  verses  (2  K.  xviii.  13-16), 
though  the  route  of  the  advancing  Assyri- 
ans may  be  traced  in  Is.  x.  6,  xi.  The 
main  hope  of  the  political  faction  was  the 
alliance  with  Egypt,  and  they  seem  to  have 
Bought  it  by  presents  and  private  entreaties 
(Is.  XXX.  6).  The  account  given  of  this 
first  invasion  in  the  Annals  of  Sennacherib 
is,  that  he  attacked  Hezekiah  because  the 
Ekronites  had  sent  their  king  Padiya  (or 
"Haddiya")  as  a  prisoner  to  Jerusalem 
(cf.  2  K.  xviii.  8) ;  that  he  took  forty-six 
cities  ("  all  the  fenced  cities  "  in  2  K.  xviii. 
13  is  apparently  a  general  expression,  cf. 
xix.  8)  and  200,000  prisoners ;  that  he  be- 
sieged Jerusalem  with  mounds  (cf.  2  K. 
xix.  32)  ;  and  although  Hezekiah  promised 
to  pay  800  talents  of  silver  (of  which  per- 
haps 300  only  were  ever  paid)  and  30  of 
gold  (2  K.  xviii.  14),  yet  not  content  with 
this  he  mulcted  him  of  a  part  of  his  domin- 
ions, and  gave  them  to  the  kings  of  Ekron, 
Ashdod,  and  Gaza.  In  almost  every  par- 
ticular this  account  agrees  with  the  notice 
in  Scripture.  Hezekiah's  bribe  (or  fine) 
brotight  a  temporary  release,  for  the  As- 
syrians marched  into  Egypt,  where,  if  He- 
rodotus and  Josephus  are  to  be  trusted, 
they  advanced  without  resistance  to  Pelusi- 
uiii.  In  spite  of  this  advantage,  Sennache- 
rib was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Pelu- 
sium  by  tlie  advance  of  Tirhakah  or  Tara- 
kos.  Returning  from  his  futile  expedition, 
Sennacherib  "  dealt  treacherously  "  with 
Hezekiah  (Is.  xxxiii.  1)  by  attacking  the 
stronghold  of  Lachish.  This  was  the  com- 
mencement of  that  second  invasion  respect- 
ing which  we  have  such  full  details  in  2  K. 
xviii.  17,  sq. ;  2Chr.  xxxii.  9,  sq. ;  Is.  xxxvi. 
From  Lachish  Sennacherib  sent  against  Je- 
rusalem an  army  under  two  officers  and  his 
cupbearer  the  orator  Rabshakeh,  with  a 
blasphemous  and  insulting  summons  to  sur- 
render. Hezekiah's  ministers  were  thrown 
into  anguish  and  dismay,  but  the  undaunted 
Isaiah  hurled  back  threatening  for  threat- 
ening with  unrivalled  eloquence  and  force. 
Meanwhile  Sennacherib,  having  taken  La- 
chi'h,  was  besieging  Libnah,  when,  alarmed 
by  a  "rumor"  of  Tirhsikah's  advance,  he 
was  forced  to  relinquish  once  more  his 
immediate  designs,  and  content  himself 
with   a  defiant  letter  to  Hezekiah.     The 


next  event  of  the  campaign,  about  which 
we  are  informed,  is,  that  the  Jewish  king, 
with  simple  piety,  prayed  to  God,  with 
Sennacherib's  letter  outspread  before  him, 
and  received  a  prophecy  of  immediate  de- 
liverance. Accordingly  "  that  night  the 
Angel  of  the  Lord  went  out  and  smote  in 
the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  185,000  men." 
There  is  no  doubt  that  some  secondary 
cause  was  employed  in  the  accomplishment 
of  this  event.  We  are  certainly  "  not  to 
suppose,"  as  Dr.  Johnson  observed,  "  that 
the  angel  went  about  with  a  sword  in  his 
hand  stabbing  them  one  by  one,  but  that 
some  powerful  natural  agent  was  employed." 
Josephus,  followed  by  an  immense  major- 
ity of  ancient  and  modern  commentators, 
attributes  it  to  the  Pestilence.  Hezekiah 
only  lived  to  enjoy  for  about  one  year  more 
his  well-earned  peace  and  glory.  He  slept 
with  his  fathers  after  a  reign  of  twenty- 
nine  years,  in  the  56th  year  of  his  age  (b. 
c.  697).  2.  Son  of  Neariah,  one  of  the 
descendants  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah 
(1  Chr.  iii.  23).  3.  The  same  name,  though 
rendered  in  the  A.  V.  Hizkiah,  is  found 
in  Zeph.  i.  1.  4.  Ater-of-Hezekiah. 
[Ater.] 

He'zion,  a  king  of  Aram  (Syria),  father 
of  Tabrimon,  and  grandfather  of  Benhadad 
I.  He  and  his  father  are  mentioned  only 
in  1  K.  XV.  18.  He  is  probably  identical 
with  Rezon,  the  contemporary  of  Solomon, 
in  1  K.  xi.  23 ;  the  two  names  being  very 
similar  in  Hebrew,  and  still  more  so  in  the 
versions. 

He'zir.  1.  A  priest  in  the  time  of 
David,  leader  of  the  17th  montlily  course 
in  the  service  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  15).  2.  One 
of  the  heads  of  the  people  (laymen)  who 
sealed  the  solemn  covenant  witli  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  X.  20). 

Hez'rai,  one  of  the  thirty  heroes  of 
David's  guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  35).  In  the 
parallel  list  the  name  appears  as 

Hez'ro,  in  l  Chr.  xi.  37. 

Hez'ron.  1.  A  son  of  Reuben  (Gen. 
xlvi.  9;  Ex.  vi.  14).  2.  A  son  of  Pharez 
(Gen.  xlvi.  12;  Ruth  iv.  18). 

Hez'ronites,  The.  1.  Descendants 
of  Hezron  the  son  of  Reuben  (Num.  xxvi. 
6).  2.  A  branch  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
descendants  of  Hezron,  the  son  of  Pharez 
(Num.  xxvi.  31). 

Hid'dai,  one  of  the  thirty-seven  heroes 
of  David's  guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  30). 

Hid'dekel,  one  of  the  rivers  of  Eden, 
the  river  which  "  goeth  eastward  to  As- 
syria "  (Gen.  ii.  14),  and  which  Daniel  calls 
"the  Great  river"  (Dan.x.  4),  seems  to 
have  been  rightly  identified  by  the  LXX. 
with  the  Tigris.  Bekcl  is  clearly  an  equiv- 
alent of  Digla  or  Diglath,  a  name  borne 
by  the  Tigris  in  all  ages.  The  name  now 
in  use  among  the  inhabitants  of  Mesopota- 
mia is  Dijleh. 


HIEL 


241 


HIGII-PRIEST 


Hi'el,  a  native  of  Bethel,  who  rebuilt 
Jericho  in  the  reign  of  Aliab  (IK.  xvi. 
34) ;  and  in  whom  was  fulfilled  the  curse 
pronounced  by  Joshua  (Josh.  v.  i.  2G). 

Hierap'olis.  This  place  is  mentioned 
only  once  in  Scripture  (Col.  iv.  13),  with 
CoLossAE  and  Laodicea.  Such  associa- 
tion is  just  what  we  should  expect ;  for  the 
three  towns  were  all  in  the  basin  of  the 
Maeander,  and  within  a  few  mUes  of  one 
anotlier. 

Higgai'on,  a  word  which  occurs  three 
times  in  the  book  of  Psalms  (ix.  17,  xix. 
15,  xcii.  4).  Tlie  word  has  two  meanings, 
one  of  a  general  character,  im\}\y'mg  thought, 
reflection,  and  another,  in  Ps.  ix.  17,  and 
Ps.  xcii.  4,  of  a  teclmical  nature,  the  pre- 
cise meaning  of  which  cannot  at  this  dis- 
tance of  time  be  determined. 

High  Places.  Prom  the  earliest  times 
it  was  the  custom  among  all  nations  to  erect 
altars  and  places  of  worship  on  lofty  and 
conspicuous  spots.  To  this  general  cus- 
tom we  find  constant  allusion  in  the  Bible 
(Is.  Ixv.  7 ;  Jer.  iii.  6 ;  Ez.  vi.  13,  xviii.  6 ; 
Hos.  iv.  13),  and  it  is  especially  attributed 
to  the  Moabites  (Is.  xv.  2,  xvi.  12;  Jer. 
xlviii.  35).  Even  Abraham  built  an  altar 
to  the  Lord  on  a  mountain  near  Bethel  (xii. 
7,  8;  cf.  xxii.  2-4,  xxxi.  54),  which  shows 
that  the  practice  was  then  as  innocent  as  it 
was  natural ;  and  although  it  afterwards 
became  mingled  with  idolatrous  obser- 
van3es  (Num.  xxiii.  3),  it  was  in  itself  far 
less  likelj"^  to  be  abused  than  the  consecra- 
tion of  groves  (Hos.  iv.  13).  It  is,  how- 
ever, quite  obvious  that  if  every  grove  and 
eminence  had  been  suffered  to  become  a 
place  for  legitimate  worship,  especially  in  a 
country  where  they  had  already  been  de- 
filed with  the  sins  of  polytheism,  the  ut- 
most danger  would  have  resulted  to  the 
pure  worship  of  the  one  true  God.  It  was 
therefore  implicitly  forbidden  by  the  law 
of  Moses  (Deut.  xii.  11-14),  which  also 
gave  the  strictest  injunction  to  destroy 
these  monuments  of  Canaanitish  idolatry 
(Lev.  xxvi.  30;  Num.  xxxiii.  52;  Deut. 
xxxiii.  29).  The  command  was  a,  prospec- 
tive one,  and  was  not  to  come  into  force  un- 
til sucli  tirte  as  tiie  tribes  were  settled  in 
the  promised  land.  Thus  we  find  that  both 
Gideon  and  Manoah  built  altars  on  high 
places  by  Divine  command  (Judg.  vi.  25, 
26,  xiii.  16-23),  and  it  is  quite  clear,  from 
the  tone  of  the  book  of  Judges  tliat  the 
law  on  the  subject  was  either  totally  forgot- 
ten or  practically  obsolete.  It  is  more 
surprising  to  find  this  law  absolutely  ig- 
nored at  a  much  later  period,  when  there 
was  no  intelligible  reason  for  its  violation 
—  as  by  Samuel  at  Mizpeh  (1  Sam.  vii.  10) 
and  at  Bethlehem  (xvi.  5) ;  by  Saul  at  Gil- 
gal  (xiii.  9)  and  at  Ajalon  (  ?  xiv.  35)  ;  by 
David  (1  Chr.  xxi.  26)  ;  byElijah  on  Mount 
Carmel  (1  K.  xviii.  30);  and  by  other 
16 


prophets  (1  Sam.  x.  5).  The  explanations 
which  are  given  are  sufllciently  unsatisfac- 
tory ;  but  it  is  at  any  rate  certain  that  the 
worship  in  high  places  was  organized  and 
all  but  universal  throughout  Judea,  not 
only  during  (1  K.  iii.  2-4),  but  even  after 
the  time  of  Solomon.  The  convenience  of 
them  was  obvious,  because,  as  local  centres 
of  religious  worship,  they  obviated  the  un- 
pleasant and  dangerous  necessity  of  visit- 
ing Jerusalem  for  the  celebration  of  the 
yearly  feasts  (2  K.  xxiii.  9).  Many  of  the 
pious  kings  of  Judah  were  either  too  weak 
or  too  ill-informed  to  repress  the  worship  of 
Jehovah  at  these  local  sanctuaries,  while 
they  of  course  endeavored  to  prevent  it 
from  being  contaminated  with  polytheism. 
At  last  Hezckiah  set  himself  in  good  ear- 
nest to  the  suppression  of  this  prevalent  cor- 
ruption (2  K.  xviii.  4,  22),  both  in  Judah  and 
Israel  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  1),  although,  so  rapid 
was  the  growth  of  tiie  evil,  that  even  his 
sweeping  reformation  required  to  be  finally 
consummated  by  Josiah  (2  K.  xxiii.),  and 
that  too  in  Jerusalem  and  its  immediate 
neighborhood  (2  Chr.  xxiv.  3).  After  the 
time  of  Josiah  we  find  no  further  mention 
of  these  Jehovistic  high  places. 

High-priest.  I.  Legally.  The  first 
distinct  separation  of  Aaron  to  the  oflSce  of 
the  priesthood,  which  previously  belonged  to 
the  first-born,  was  that  recorded  Ex.  xxviii. 
We  find  from  the  very  first  the  following 
characteristic  attributes  of  Aaron  and  the 
high-priests  his  successors,  as  distinguished 
from  the  other  priests:  (1.)  Aaron  alone 
was  anointed  (Lev.  viii.  12),  whence  one 
of  the  distinctive  epithets  of  the  high- 
priest  was  "the  anointed  priest"  (Lev.  iv. 
3,  5,  16,  xxi.  10;  see  Num.  xxxv.  25).  This 
appears  also  from  Ex.  xxix.  29,  30.  The 
anointing  of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  i.  e.  the 
common  priests,  seems  to  have  been  con- 
fined to  sprinkling  their  garments  with  the 
anointing  oil  (Ex.  xxix.  21,  xxviii.  41,  &c.). 
The  anointing  of  the  high-priest  is  alluded  to 
in  Ps.  cxxxiii.  2.  (2.)  The  high-priest  had  a 
peculiar  dress,  which  passed  to  his  succes- 
sor at  his  death.  This  dress  consisted  of 
eight  parts,  as  the  Rabbins  constantly  note, 
the  breastplate,  the  ephod  with  its  curious 
girdle,  the  robe  of  the  ephod,  the  mitre,  the 
broidered  coat  or  diaper  tunic,  and  the  gir- 
dle, the  materials  being  gold,  blue,  red, 
crimson,  and  fine  (white)  linen  (Ex.  xxviii.). 
To  the  above  are  added,  in  ver.  42,  the 
breeches  or  drawers  (Lev.  xvi.  4)  of  linen ; 
and  to  make  up  the  number  8,  some  reckon 
the  high-priest's  mitre,  or  the  plate  sep- 
arately from  the  bonnet;  while  others 
reckon  the  curious  girdle  of  the  ephod  sep- 
arately from  the  ephod.  Of  these  8  arti- 
cles of  attire,  4  —  viz,  the  coat  or  tunic, 
the  girdle,  the  breeches,  and  the  bonnet  or 
turban  (migbA'dh)  instead  of  the  mitre 
{mitsnepheth)  —  belonged  to  the  commen 


HIGH-PRIEST 


242 


HIGH-PRIEST 


pnests.  Taking  the  articles  of  the  high- 
priest's  dress  in  the  order  in  wliich  tliey  are 
enumerated  above,  we  liave  (a.)  tlie  breast- 
plate, or,  as  it  is  furtlier  named  (vers.  15, 
29,  30),  the  breastplate  of  judgment.  The 
breastplate  was  originally  2  spans  long,  and 
1  span  broad,  but  when  doubled  it  was 
square,  the  shape  in  which  it  was  worn.  On 
it  were  the  12  precious  stones,  set  in  4  rows, 
3  in  a  row,  thus  corresponding  to  the  12 
tribes,  and  divided  in  the  same  manner  as 
tlieir  camps  were ;  each  stone  having  the 
name  of  one  of  the  children  of  Israel  engraved 
upon  it.  According  to  the  LXX.  and  Jose- 
phus,  and  in  accordance  with  the  language 
of  Scripture,  it  was  these  stones  which  con- 
stituted the  Urim  and  Thummim.  [Urim 
andTnuMMiM.]  (6.)  The  ephod.  This 
consisted  of  two  parts,  of  which  one  covered 
the  back,  and  the  other  the  front,  i.  e.  the 
breast  and  upper  part  of  the  body.  These 
were  clasped  together  on  the  shoulder  with 
two  large  onyx  stones,  each  having  en- 
graved on  it  G  of  the  names  of  the  tribes  of 
Israel.  It  was  furtlier  united  by  a  "  curi- 
ous girdle  "  of  gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet, 
and  fine  twined  linen  round  the  waist  [Eph- 
od; Girdle],  (c.)  The  robe  of  the  ephod. 
This  was  of  inferior  material  to  the  ephod 
itself,  being  .all  of  blue  (ver.  31),  which  im- 
plied its  being  only  of  "  woven  work " 
(xxxix.  22).  It  was  worn  immediately  un- 
der the  ephod,  and  was  longer  than  it.  The 
blue  robe  had  no  sleeves,  but  only  slits  in 
the  sides  for  the  arms  to  come  through.  It 
had  a  hole  for  the  head  to  pass  through, 
with  a  border  round  it  of  woven  work,  to 
prevent  its  being  rent.  The  skirt  of  this 
robe  had  a  remarkable  trimming  of  pome- 
granates in  blue,  red,  and  crimson,  with  a 
bell  of  gold  between  each  pomegranate  al- 
ternately. The  bells  were  to  give  a  sound 
when  the  high-priest  went  in  and  came  out 
of  the  Holy  Place.  (cZ.)  The  mitre  or  up- 
per turban,  with  its  gold  plate,  engraved 
with  Holiness  to  the  Lord,  fastened  to  it 
by  a  ribbon  of  blue,  (e.)  The  broidered 
coat  was  a  tunic  or  long  skirt  of  linen  with 
a  tessellated  or  diaper  pattern,  like  the  set- 
ting of  a  stone.  The  girdle,  also  of  linen, 
was  wound  round  the  body  several  times 
from  the  breast  downwards,  and  the  ends 
hung  down  to  the  ankles.  The  breeches  or 
drawers,  of  linen,  covered  the  loins  and 
thighs ;  and  the  bonnet  was  a  turban  of  lin- 
en, partially  covering  the  head,  but  not  in 
the  form  of  a  cone  like  that  of  the  high- 
priest  when  the  mitre  was  added  to  it. 
These  four  last  were  common  to  all  priests. 
(3.)  Aaron  had  peculiar  functions.  To  him 
alone  it  appertained,  and  he  alone  was  per- 
mitted, to  enter  the  Holy  of  Holies,  which 
he  did  once  a  year,  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement,  when  he  sprinkled  the  blood  of 
the  sin-oflfering  on  the  mercy-seat,  and 
burnt  incense  within  the  veil  (Lev.  xvi.) 


(4.)  The  high-priest  had  a  peculiar  place 
in  the  law  of  the  manslayer,  and  his  taking 
sanctuary  in  the  cities  of  refuge.  The  man- 
slayer  might  not  leave  the  city  of  refuge 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  existing  high- 
priest  who  was  anointed  with  the  holy  oil 
(Num.  XXXV.  25,  28).  It  was  also  forbidden 
to  the  high-priest  to  follow  a  funeral,  or 
rend  his  clothes  for  the  dead,  according  to 
the  precedent  in  Lev.  x.  6.  Tlie  Rabbins 
speak  very  frequently  of  one  second  in  dig- 
nity to  the  high-priest,  whom  they  call  the 
Sagan,  and  who  often  acted  in  the  high- 
priest's  room.  He  is  the  same  who  in  the 
O.  T.  is  called  "the  second  priest"  (2  K. 
xxiii.  4,  XXV.  18).  Thus  too  it  is  explained 
of  Annas  and  Caiaphas  (Luke  iii.  2),  that 
Annas  was  Sagan.  Ananias  is  also  thought 
by  some  to  have  been  Sagan,  acting  for  the 
high-priest  (Acts  xxiii.  2).  —  It  does  not 
appear  by  whose  authority  the  high-priests 
were  appointed  to  their  ofHce  before  there 
were  kings  of  Israel.  But  as  we  find  it  in- 
variably dine  by  the  civil  power  in  later 
times,  it  is  probable  that,  in  the  times  pre- 
ceding the  monarchy,  it  was  by  the  elders, 
or  Sanhedrim.  It  should  be  added,  that 
the  usual  age  for  entering  upon  the  func- 
tions of  the  priesthood,  accoiding  to  2  Chr. 
xxxi.  17,  is  considered  to  have  been  20 
years,  though  a  priest  or  high-priest  was 
not  actually  incapacitated  if  he  had  attained 
to  puberty.  Again,  according  to  Lev.  xxi., 
no  one  that  had  a  blemish  could  ofiiciate  at 
the  altar.  II.  Theologically.  The  theo- 
logical view  of  the  high-priesthood  does 
not  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  work.  It 
must  suffice  therefore  to  indicate  that  such 
a  view  would  embrace  the  consideration  of 
the  office,  dress,  functions,  and  ministra- 
tions of  the  high-priest,  considered  as  typi- 
cal of  the  priesthood  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  as  setting  forth  under  shadows 
the  truths  which  are  openly  taught  under 
the  Gospel.  This  has  been  done  to  a  great 
extent  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  It 
would  also  embrace  all  the  moral  and  spir- 
itual teaching  supposed  to  be  intended  by 
such  symbols.  III.  Historically.  The 
history  of  the  high-priests  embraces  a  pe- 
riod of  about  1370  years,  and  a  succession 
of  about  80  high-priests,  beginning  with 
Aaron,  and  ending  with  Phannias.  They 
naturally  arrange  themselves  into  three 
gi'oups  —  (a.)  those  before  David;  (6.) 
those  from  David  to  the  captivity ;  (c.)  those 
from  the  return  of  the  Babylonish  captivity 
till  the  cessation  of  the  office  at  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  (a.)  The  high-priests 
of  the  first  group  who  are  distinctly  made 
known  to  us  as  such  are  —  1.  Aaron ;  2. 
Eleazar;  3.  Phinehas;  4.  Eli;  5.  Ahitub 
(1  Chr.  ix.  11 ;  Neh.  xi.  11 ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  3)  ; 
G.  Ahiah ;  7.  Abimelech.  Phinehas  the  son 
of  Eli,  and  father  of  Ahitub,  died  before  his 
father,  and  so  was  not  high-priest.     Of  tho 


HIGH-PRIEST 


243 


HIGH-PRIEST 


above,  the  three  first  succeeded  in  regular 
order,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Aaron's  eldest 
sons,  having  died  in  the  wilderness  (Lev. 
X.)-  But  Eli,  the  4th,  was  of  the  line  of 
Ithamar.  What  was  the  exact  interval  be- 
tween the  death  of  Phinehas  and  the  acces- 
sion of  Eli,  what  led  to  the  transference  of 
the  chief  priesthood  from  the  line  of  Elea- 
zar  to  that  of  Ithamar,  we  have  no  means 
of  determining  from  Scripture.  Josephus 
asserts  that  the  father  of  Bukki  —  whom  he 
calls  Joseph,  and  Abiezer,  i.  e.  Abishua  — 
was  the  last  high-priest  of  Phinehas's  line, 
before  Zadok.  If  Abishua  died,  leaving  a 
son  or  grandson  under  age,  Eli,  as  head  of 
the  line  of  Ithamar,  might  have  become 
high-priest  as  a  matter  of  course,  or  he 
might  have  been  appointed  by  the  elders. 
If  Ahiah  and  Ahimelech  are  not  variations 
of  the  name  of  the  same  person,  they  must 
have  been  brothers,  since  both  were  sons 
of  Ahitub.  The  high-priests  then  before 
David's  reign  may  be  set  down  as  eight  in 
number,  of  whom  seven  are  said  in  Scrip- 
ture to  have  been  high-priests,  and  one  by 
Josephus  alone.  (6.)  Passing  to  the  sec- 
ond group,  we  begin  with  the  unexjjlained 
circumstance  of  there  being  two  priests  in 
the  reign  of  David,  apparently  of  nearly 
equal  authority,  viz.  Zadok  and  Abiathar 
(1  Chr.  XV.  11 ;  2  Sam.  vii.  17).  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  after  the  death  of  Ahimelech 
and  the  secession  of  Abiathar  to  David, 
Saul  may  have  made  Zadok  priest,  and  that 
David  may  have  avoided  the  difficulty  of 
deciding  between  the  claims  of  his  faithful 
friend  Abiathar  and  his  new  and  important 
ally  Zadok  by  appointing  them  to  a  joint 
priesthood  :  the  first  place,  with  the  Ephod 
and  Urim  and  Thummim,  remaining  with 
Abiathar,  who  was  in  actual  possession  of 
them.  The  first  considerable  difficulty  that 
meets  us  in  the  historical  survey  of  the 
high-priests  of  the  second  group  is  to  as- 
certain who  was  high-priest  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  Solomon's  Temple.  Josephus  says 
that  Zadok  was,  and  the  Seder  01am  makes 
him  the  high-priest  in  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon ;  but  1  K.  iv.  2  distinctly  asserts  that 
Azariah  the  son  of  Zadok  was  priest  under 
Solomon,  and  1  Chr.  vi.  10  tells  us  of  Aza- 
riah, "  he  it  is  that  executed  the  priest's 
office  in  the  temple  that  Solomon  built  in 
Jerusalem,"  obviously  meaning  at  its  first 
completion.  We  can  hardly  therefore  be 
wrong  in  saying  that  Azariah  the  son  of 
Ahimaaz  was  the  first  high-priest  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple.  The  priests  of  this  series 
ended  with  Seraiah,  who  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  Nebuzar-adan,  and  slain  at  Riblah 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  together  with  Zepha- 
niah  the  second  priest  or  Sagan,  after  the 
burning  of  the  Temple  and  the  plunder  of 
all  the  sacred  vessels  (2  K.  xx.  18).  His 
Bon  Jehozadak  or  Josedecli  was  at  the  same 
time  carried  away  captive  (1  Chr.  vi.  15). 


The  time  occupied  by  these  high-priests 
was  about  454  years,  which  gives  an  aver- 
age of  something  more  than  twenty-five 
years  to  each  high-priest.  It  is  remarkable 
that  not  a  single  instance  is  recorded  after 
the  time  of  David  of  an  inquiry  by  Urira 
and  Thummim.  The  ministry  of  the  proph- 
ets seems  to  have  superseded  that  of  the 
high-priests  (see  e.  g.  2  Chr.  xv.,  xviii.,  xx. 
14,  15;  2  K.  xix.  1,  2,  xxii.  12-14;  Jer. 
xxi.  1,  2).  (c.)  An  interval  of  about  fifty- 
two  years  elapsed  between  the  high-priests 
of  the  second  and  third  group,  during  which 
there  were  neither  Temple,  nor  altar,  nor 
ark,  nor  priest.  Jehozadak,  or  Josedech,  as 
it  is  written  in  Haggai  (i.  1,  14,  &c.),  who 
should  have  succeeded  Seraiah,  lived  and 
died  a  captive  at  Babylon.  The  pontifical 
office  revived  in  his  son  Jeshua,  of  whom 
such  frequent  mention  is  made  in  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  1  Esdr. 
and  Ecclus. ;  and  he  therefore  stands  at 
the  head  of  this  third  and  last  series,  hon- 
orably distinguished  for  his  zealous  coop- 
eration with  Zerubbabel  in  rebuilding  the 
Temple,  and  restoring  the  dilapidated  com- 
monwealth of  Israel.  Under  the  Syrian 
domination  the  high-priesthood  was  brought 
to  the  lowest  degradation  by  the  apostasy 
and  crimes  of  the  last  Onias  or  Menelaus, 
the  son  of  Eleazar,  and  after  a  vacancy  of 
seven  years  by  the  brief  pontificate  of  Al- 
cimus,  his  no  less  infamous  successor.  A 
new  and  glorious  succession  of  high-priests 
arose  in  the  Asmonean  family,  who  united 
the  dignity  of  civil  rulers,  and  for  a  time 
of  indepeudent  sovereigns,  to  that  of  tlie 
high-priesthood.  The  Asmonean  family 
were  priests  of  the  course  of  Joiarib,  the 
first  of  the  twenty-four  courses  (1  Chr. 
xxiv.  7),  whose  return  from  captivity  is  re- 
corded 1  Chr.  ix.  10 ;  Neh,  xi.  10.  They 
were  probably  of  the  house  of  Eleazar, 
though  this  cannot  be  affirmed  with  cer- 
tainty. This  Asmonean  dynasty  lasted 
from  B.  c.  153,  till  the  family  was  damaged 
by  intestine  divisions,  and  then  destroyed 
by  Herod  the  Great.  Aristobulus,  the  last 
high-priest  of  his  line,  brother  of  Mariam- 
ne,  was  murdered  by  order  of  Herod,  his 
brother-in-law,  b.  c.  35.  There  were  no 
fewer  than  twenty-eight  high-priests  from 
the  reign  of  Herod  to  the  destruction  of 
tlie  Temple  by  Titus,  a  period  of  107  years. 
The  N.  T.  introduces  us  to  some  of  these 
later  and  oft-changing  high-priests,  viz. 
Annas,  Caiaphas,  and  Ananias.  Theophi- 
lus,  the  son  of  Ananus,  was  the  high-priest 
from  whom  Saul  received  letters  to  the 
synagogue  at  Damascus  (Acts  ix.  1,  14). 
Phannias,  the  last  high-priest,  was  ap- 
pointed by  lot  by  the  Zealots  from  the 
course  of  priests  called  by  Josephus  Eni- 
achim  (probably  a  corrupt  reading  for 
Jachim).  The  subjoined  table  shows  the 
succession  of  high-priests,  as  far  as  it  can 


HILEN 


244 


HILLS 


be  ascertained,  and  of  the  contemporary 
civil  rulers :  — 

CIVIL  BULSB.  BiaH-FKEEBT. 

Sloses Aaron. 

J'jshua Elcazar. 

Othiiicl  Phinehas. 

Abishua AInshua. 

Eli Eli. 

Samuel Altitub. 

Saul Ahijah. 

David Zadok  and  AbiathBT. 

Solomon Azariah. 

Abijah Johanan. 

Asa Azariah. 

Jehoshaphat Amariah. 

Jehorara Jeboiada. 

Ahaziah " 

Jchoa$h X>o.  and  Zedutriah. 

Amaziah ? 

Vzziah Azariah. 

Jotham ? 

Aiiaz Urijah. 

Ilezekiali Azariah. 

Manasseh Shallnm. 

Anion " 

Josiah Hilkiah. 

Jelioiakim Azariah? 

Zedekiah  Seraiah. 

Evil-Merodach Jehozadak. 

Zerubbabel    (Cyrus  and  Da-  Jeshua. 
rius). 

Mordecai  ?  (Xerxes) Joiakim. 

Ezra   and  Nehemiah    (Arta-  Eliashib. 
xerxes). 

Darius  Js'othus Joiada. 

Artaxerxes  Mnemon Johanan. 

Alexander  the  Great Jaddua. 

Onias  I.  (Ptolemy  Soter,  An-  Onias  I. 
tigouus). 

Piolemy  Soter Simon  the  Jiut. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus Eleazar. 

"  Manasseh. 

Ptolemy  Euergetes Onias  11. 

Ptolemy  Philupator Simon  II. 

Ptolemy  Epipkanes  and  An-  Onias  III. 
tiochus. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes (Joshua,  or)  Jason. 

"  Onias,  or  Menelaus. 

Demetrius  Jacimus,  or  Alcimus. 

Alexander Balas Jonathan,    brother   of  Judas 

Maccabeus  (Asraonean). 

Simon  (Asmonean) Simon  (Asmonean). 

John  Hyrcanus  (Asm.) John  Hyrcanus  (Do.). 

King  Aristobulus  (Asm.) Aristobulus  (Do.). 

King     Alexander     Jannaeus  Alexander  Jannaeus  (Do.). 

(Asmonean). 
Queen  Alexandra  (Asm).  Hyrcanus  II^JDo.). 

King  Aristobulus  II.  (Asm.)    Aristobulus  II.  (Do.). 
Pompey  the  Great  and  Ilyr-  Hyrcanus  II.  (Do.), 
canus,    or   rather,    towards 
the  end  of  his  pontificate, 
Antiputcr. 

Pacorua  the  Parthian Antigonns  (Do.). 

UerodK.  of  Judaea Ananelus. 

"  Aristobulus    (last  of   Asmo- 

neans),  murdered  by  Herod. 

"  Ananelus  restored. 

Herod  the  Great Jesus,  son  of  Fancns. 

"  Simon,  son  of  Boethus,  fethcr- 

in-law  to  Herod. 

"  Matthias,  son  of  Theophilus. 

"  Jozarus,  son  of  Simon. 

Archdans  K.  of  Judaea. Eleazar. 

"  Jesus,  Son  of  SiR 

"  Jozanis  (second  time). 

Cj'renius  governor  of  Syria,  Ananus. 

second  time. 
Valerius    Gratus,  procurator  Ishmael,  son  of  Phabi. 
of  Judca 

"  Eleazar,  son  of  Ananua. 

"  Simon,  son  of  Kamith. 

ViteUiai,  goyemor  of  Syria...  Caiaphas,  called  also  Joseph. 

"  Jonathan,  son  of  Ananus. 

"  Theophilus,  brother  of  Jona- 

than. 

Herod  Agrippa. Simon  Cantheras. 

"  • Matthias,  brother  of  Jonathan, 

son  of  Ananus. 

"  Elioneus,  son  of  Canthenu. 

Herod  king  of  Chalcis Joseph,  son  of  Camei. 

"  Ananias,  son  of  Nebedens. 

••  •• Jonathan. 

" Ismael,  son  of  Fabi. 

"  Joseph,  son  of  Simon. 

"  Ananus,   son  of  Ananus,  or 

Ananias. 

Appointed  by  the  people Jesus,  son  of  Gamaliel. 

Do  (Whiston  on  B.  J.  iv.  3,  Matthies,  son  of  Theophilus. 

§")• 
Chosen  by  lot. Fhannias,  son  of  Samuel. 

Hi'len,  the  name  of  a  city  of  Judah  allotted 
vitU  its  suburbs  to  the  priests  (1  Chr.  vi.  58). 


Hilki'ah.  1.  Father  of  Eliakim  (2  K. 
xviii.  37;  Is.  xxii.  20,  xxxvi.  22).  [Eli- 
akim.] 2.  High-priest  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (2  K.  xxii.  4,  sqq. ;  2  Clir.  xxxiv.  9, 
sqq. ;  1  Esdr.  i.  8).  According  to  the  gen- 
ealogy in  1  Chr.  vi.  13  he  was  son  of  Shal- 
lum,  and  from  Ezr.  vii.  1,  apparently  the 
ancestor  of  Ezra  the  scribe.  His  high- 
priesthood  was  rendered  particularly  illus- 
trious by  the  great  reformation  effected 
under  it  by  king  Josiah,  by  the  solemn 
Passover  kept  at  Jerusalem  in  the  18th 
year  of  that  king's  reign,  and  above  all  by 
the  discovery  which  he  made  of  the  book 
of  the  law  of  Moses  in  the  temple.  3.  A 
Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Amzi  (1  Chr.  vi. 
45;  hebr.  30).  4.  Another  Merarite  Le- 
vite, second  son  of  Hosah  (1  Chr.  xxvi. 
11).  5.  One  of  those  who  stood  on  the 
right  hand  of  Ezra  when  he  read  the  law 
to  the  people.  Doubtless  a  Levite,  and 
probably  a  priest  (Neh.  viii.  4).  6.  A 
priest  of  Anathoth,  father  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  i.  1).  7.  Father  of  Gema- 
riah,  who  was  one  of  Zedekiah's  envoys  to 
Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

Hil'lel,  a  native  of  Pirathon  in  Mount 
Ephraim,  father  of  Abdon,  one  of  the 
judges  of  Israel  (Judg.  xii.  13,  15). 

Hills.  The  structure  and  characteris- 
tics of  the  hills  of  Palestine  will  be  most 
conveniently  noticed  in  the  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  features  of  the  country.  But  it 
may  not  be  unprofitable  to  call  attention 
here  to  the  various  Hebrew  terms  for  which 
the  word  "hill"  has  been  employed  in  the 
Auth.  Version.  1.  Gibeah,  from  a  root 
which  seems  to  have  the  force  of  curvature 
or  humpishness.  A  word  involving  this 
idea  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  rounded 
hills  of  Palestine.  2.  But  our  translators 
have  also  employed  the  same  English  word 
for  the  very  diiFerent  term  har,  which  has 
a  much  more  extended  sense  than  gibeah, 
meaning  a  whole  district  rather  than  an  in- 
dividual eminence,  and  to  which  our  word 
"mountain"  answers  with  tolerable  accu- 
racy. For  instance,  in  Ex.  xxiv.  4,  the 
"hill"  is  the  same  which  is  elsewhere  in 
the  same  chapter  (12,  13,  18,  &c.)  and 
book  consistently  and  accurately  rendered 
"mount"  and  "mountain."  The  country 
of  the  hills,"  in  Deut.  i.  7;  Josh.  ix.  1,  x. 
40,  xi.  IG,  is  the  elevated  district  of  Judah, 
Benjamin  and  Ephraim,  which  is  coiTectly 
called  "  the  mountain  "  in  the  earliest  de- 
scriptions of  Palestine  (Num.  xiii.  29),  and 
in  many  subsequent  passages.  3.  On  one 
occasion  the  word  Ma'aleh,  better  "as- 
cent," is  rendered  "hill"  (1  Sam.  ix.  11). 
4.  In  the  N.  T.  the  word  "  hill "  is  em- 
ployed to  render  the  Greek  word  Bovrug  ; 
but  on  one  occasion  it  is  used  for  o^of ,  else- 
where "mountain,"  so  as  to  obscure  the 
connection  between  the  two  parts  of  the 
same  narrative  (Luke  ix.  37). 


HIN 


245 


HIVITES 


Hin.     [Measures.] 

Hind,  the  female  of  the  common  stag  or 
cervu^  elaphus.  It  is  frequently  noticed  in 
the  poetical  parts  of  Scripture  as  emblem- 
atic of  activity  (Gen.  xlix.  21 ;  2  Sam.  xxii. 
34;  Ps.  xviii.  33;  Hab.  iii.  19),  gentleness 
(Prov.  V.  19),  feminine  modesty  (Cant.  ii. 
7,  iii.  5),  earnest  longing  (Ps.  xlii.  1),  and 
maternal  affection  (Jer.  xiv.  5).  Its  shy- 
ness and  remoteness  from  the  haunts  of 
men  are  also  alluded  to  (Job*  xxxix.  1), 
and  its  timidity,  causing  it  to  cast  its 
young  at  the  sound  of  thunder  (Ps.  xxix. 

Hinge.  Both  ancient  Egyptian  and 
modern  Oriental  doors  were  and  are  hung 
by  means  of  pivots  turning  in  sockets  both 
on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  (IK.  vii.  50). 
In  Syria,  and  especially  the  HaurSn,  there 
are  many  ancient  doors  consisting  of  stone 
slabs  with  pivots  carved  out  of  the  same 
piece,  inserted  in  sockets  above  and  below, 
and  fixed  during  the  building  of  the  house. 
The  allusion  in  Prov.  xxvi.  14  is  thus  clear- 
ly explained. 

Hin'nom,  Valley  of,  otherwise  called 
"the  valley  of  the  son  "  or  "children  of 
Hinnora,"  a  deep  and  narrow  ravine,  with 
steep  rocky  sides  to  the  S.  and  W.  of  Je- 
rusalem, separating  Mount  Zion  to  the  N. 
from  the  "  Hill  of  Evil  Counsel,"  and  the 
sloping  rocky  plateau  of  the  "  plain  of  Re- 
phaim  "  to  the  S.  The  earliest  mention  of 
the  Valley  of  Hinnom  is  in  Josh.  xv.  8, 
xviii.  16,  where  the  boundary-line  between 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  is  de- 
scribed, as  passing  along  the  bed  of  the 
ravine.  On  the  southern  brow,  overlook- 
ing the  valley  at  its  eastern  extremity,  Sol- 
omon erected  high  places  for  Molech  (IK. 
xi.  7),  whose  horrid  rites  were  revived  from 
time  to  time  in  the  same  vicinity  by  the 
later  idolatrous  kings.  Ahaz  and  Manas- 
seh  made  their  children  "  pass  through  the 
Are"  in  this  valley  (2  K.  xvi.  3;  2  Chr. 
xxviii.  3,  xxxiii.  6),  and  the  fiendish  cus- 
tom of  infant  sacrifice  to  the  fire-gods 
seems  to  have  been  kept  up  in  Tophet,  at 
its  S.  E.  extremity,  for  a  considerable  peri- 
od (Jer.  vii.  31;  2  K.  xxx.  10).  To  put 
an  end  to  these  abominations  the  place  was 
polluted  by  Josiah,  who  rendered  it  cere- 
monially unclean  by  spreading  over  it  hu- 
man bones,  and  other  corruptions  (2  K. 
xxiii.  10,  13,  14;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  4,  5),  from 
which  time  it  appears  to  have  become  the 
common  cesspool  of  the  city,  into  wliich  its 
sewage  was  conducted,  to  be  carried  off  by 
the  waters  of  the  Kidron,  as  well  as  a  lay- 
stall, where  all  its  solid  filth  was  collected. 
From  its  ceremonial  defilement,  and  from 
the  detested  and  abominable  fire  of  Molech, 
if  not  from  the  supposed  ever-burning  fu- 
neral piles,  the  later  Jews  applied  the  name 
of  this  valley  Ge  Hinnom,  Gehenna,  to  de- 
note the  place  of  eternal  torment.     In  this 


sense  the  word  is  used  by  our  Lord  (Matt. 
V.  29,  X.  28,  xxiii.  15 ;  Mark  ix.  43 ;  Luke 
xii.  5). 

Hippopot'amus.     [Behemoth.] 

Hi'rah,  an  Adullamite,  the  friend  of 
Judah  (Gen.  xxxviii.  1,  12;  and  see  20). 

Hi'ram,  or  Hu'ram.  1.  The  king  of 
Tyre  who  sent  workmen  and  materials  to 
Jerusalem,  first  (2  Sam.  v.  11,  1  Chr.  xiv. 
1)  to  build  a  palace  for  David,  whom  he 
ever  loved  (1  K.  v.  1),  and  again  (1  K.  v. 
10,  vii.  13,  2  Chr.  14,  16)  to  build  tlie  Tem- 
ple for  Solomon,  with  whom  he  had  a  treaty 
of  peace  and  commerce  (1  K.  v.  11,  12). 
The  contempt  with  which  he  received  Solo- 
mon's present  of  Cabul  (1  K.  ix.  12)  does 
not  appear  to  have  caused  any  breach  be- 
tween the  two  kings.  He  admitted  Solo- 
mon's sliips,  issuing  from  Joppa,  to  a  share 
in  the  profitable  trade  of  the  Mediterranean 
(1  K.  X.  22) ;  and  Jewish  sailors,  under 
the  guidance  of  Tyrians,  were  taught  to 
bring  the  gold  of  India  (1  K.  ix.  26)  to 
Solomon's  two  harbors  on  the  Red  Sea. 
2.  Hiram  was  the  name  of  a  man  of  mixed 
race  (1  K.  vii.  13,  40),  the  principal  archi- 
tect and  engineer  sent  by  king  Hiram  to 
Solomon. 

Hit'tites,  The,  the  nation  descended 
from  Cheth  (A.  V.  "Heth"),  the  second 
son  of  Canaan.  Abraham  bought  from 
the  "  Children  of  Heth,"  the  field  and  the 
cave  of  Machpelah,  belonging  to  Ephron 
the  Hittite.  They  were  then  settled  at  the 
town  which  was  afterwards,  under  its  new 
name  of  Hebron,  to  become  one  of  the 
most  famous  cities  of  Palestine,  then  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Kirjath-arba  (Gen.  xxiii. 
19,  XXV.  9).  When  the  Israelites  entered 
the  Promised  Land,  we  find  the  Hittites 
taking  their  part  against  the  invader,  in 
equal  alliance  with  the  other  Canaanite 
tribes  (Josh.  ix.  1,  xi.  3,  &c.).  Hencefor- 
ward the  notices  of  the  Hittites  are  very 
few  and  faint.  We  meet  with  two  individ- 
uals, both  attached  to  the  person  of  David. 
(1.)  "Ahimelech  the  Hittite"  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  &)T  (2.)  "Uriah  the  Hittite,"  one 
of  "the  thirty"  of  David's  body-guard  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  39;  1  Chr.  xi.  41). 

Hivites,  The.  In  the  genealogical 
tables  of  Genesis,  "the  Hivite"  is  named 
as  one  of  the  descendants  —  the  sixth  in 
order  —  of  Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham  (Gen. 
X.  17;  1  Chr.  i.  15).  We  first  encounter 
the  actual  people  of  the  Hivites  at  the  time 
of  Jacob's  return  to  Canaan.  Shechem 
was  then  in  their  possession,  Hamor  the 
Hivite  being  the  "prince  of  the  land" 
(Gen.  xxxiv.  2).  We  next  meet  with  the 
Hivites  during  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
(Josh.  ix.  7,  xi.  19).  The  main  body  of 
the  Hivites  were  at  tliis  time  living  on  the 
northern  confines  of  western  Palestine  — 
"under  Hermon,  in  the  land  of  Mizpeh  " 
(Josh.  xi.  3)  —  "in  Mount  Lebanon,  from 


HIZKIAH 


246 


HOOK 


Mount  Baal-Hermon  to  the  entering  in 
of  Hamath "  (Judg.  iii.  3 ;  comp.  2  Sam. 
xxiv.  7). 

Sizki'ah.,  an  ancestor  of  Zephaniah  the 
prophet  (Zeph.  i.  1). 

Hizki'jah,  according  to  the  A.  V.  a 
man  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  x.  17).  But  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  name  should  be  taken  with  that 
preceding  it,  as  "  Ater-Hizkijah." 

BEo'bab.  This  name  is  found  in  two 
places  only  (Num.  x.  29;  Judg.  iv.  11), 
and  it  seems  doubtful  whetlier  it  denotes 
the  father-in-law  or  brother-in-law  of  Mo- 
ses. (1.)  In  favor  of  the  latter  is  the  ex- 
press statement  that  Hobab  was  "  the  son 
of  Raguel  "  (Num.  x.  29)  ;  Raguel  or  Euel 
—  the  Hebrew  word  in  both  cases  is  the 
same  —  being  identified  with  Jethro,  not 
only  in  Ex.  ii.  18  (comp.  iii.  1,  &c.),  but 
also  by  Josephus.  (2.)  In  favor  of  Ho- 
bab's  identity  with  Jethro  are  the  words. of 
Judg.  iv.  11,  and  the  Mahometan  traditions. 
But  whether  Hobab  was  the  father-in-law 
of  Moses  or  not,  the  notice  of  him  in  Num. 
X.  29-32,  though  brief,  is  full  of  point  and 
interest.  While  Jethro  is  preserved  to  us 
as  the  wise  and  practised  administrator, 
Hobab  appears  as  the  experienced  Bed- 
ouin sheikh,  to  whom  Moses  looked  for 
the  material  safety  of  his  cumbrous  cara- 
van in  the  new  and  difficult  ground  before 
them. 

Ho'bah.,  the  place  to  which  Abraham 
pui'sued  the  kings  who  had  pillaged  Sodom 
(Gen.  xiv.  15).  It  was  situated  "  to  the 
north  of  Damascus." 

Hod,  one  of  the  sons  of  Zophah,  among 
the  descendants  of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  37). 

Hodai'ah.,  son  of  Elioenai,  of  the  royal 
line  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iii.  24). 

Hodavi'ah.  1.  A  man  of  Manasseh, 
one  of  the  heads  of  the  half-tribe  on  the 
east  of  Jordan  (1  Chr.  v.  24).  2.  A  man 
of  Benjamin,  son  of  Has-senuah  (1  Chr.  ix. 
7).  3.  A  Levite,  who  seems  to  have  given 
his  name  to  an  important  family  in  the 
tribe  (Ezr.  ii.  40). 

Ho'desh,  a  woman  named  in  the  gene- 
alogies of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  viil.  9)  as  the 
wife  of  Shaharaim. 

Hode'vah,  Neh.  vii.  43.     [Hodaviah, 

Hodi'ah.,  one  of  the  two  wives  of  Ezra, 
a  man  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  19).  She  is 
doubtless  the  same  person  as  Jehudijah  in 
verse  18. 

Hodi'jah.  1.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Neh.  viii.  7;  and 
probable  also  ix.  5,  x.  10).  2.  Another 
Levite  at  the  same  time  (Neh.  x.  13).  3. 
A  layman;  one  of  the  "heads"  of  the 
people  at  the  same  time  (Neh.  x.  18). 

Hog'lah,  the  third  of  the  five  daughters 
of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33,  xxvii.  1, 
xxxyi.  11 ;  Josh.  xvii.   3. 


Ho'liam,  king  of  Hebron  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest  of  Canaan  (Josh.  x.  3). 

Holofer'nes,  or,  more  correctly,  Olo- 
FERNES,  was,  according  to  the  book  of 
Judith,  a  general  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king 
of  the  Assyrians  (Ju^l.  ii.  4),  who  was 
slain  by  the  Jewish  heroine  Judith  during 
the  siege  of  Bethulia. 

Ho'lon.  1.  A  town  in  the  mountains 
of  Judah ;  one  of  the  first  group,  of  which 
Debir  was  apparently  the  most  considerable 
(Josh.  XV.  51,  xxi.  15).  [Hilen.]  2.  A 
city  of  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii.  21,  only.)  No 
identification  of  it  has  yet  taken  place. 

Ho'main,  the  form  under  which,  in  1 
Chr.  i.  39,  an  Edomite  name  appears,  which 
in  Gen.  xxxvi.  is  given  Hemam. 

Homer.     [Measures.] 

Honey.  The  Hebrew  debash,  in  the 
first  place,  ajiplies  to  the  product  of  the 
bee,  to  which  we  exclusively  give  the  name 
of  honey.  All  travellers  agree  in  describing 
Palestine  as  a  land  "  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey "  (Ex.  iii.  8) ;  bees  being  abundant 
even  in  the  remote  parts  of  the  wilderness, 
where  they  deposit  their  honey  in  the  crevices 
of  the  rocks  or  in  hollow  trees.  In  some 
parts  of  northern  Arabia  the  hills  are  so  well 
stocked  with  bees,  that  no  sooner  are  hives 
placed  than  they  are  occupied.  In  the 
second  place  the  term  dSbash  applies  to  a 
decoction  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  which  is 
still  called  dibs,  and  which  forms  an  article 
of  commerce  in  the  East ;  it  was  this,  and 
not  ordinary  bee-honey,  wliich  Jacob  sent 
to  Joseph  (Gen.  xliii.  11  ),  and  which  the 
Tyrians  purchased  from  Palestine  (Ez. 
xxvii.  17).  A  third  kind  has  been  de- 
scribed by  some  writers  as  "  vegetable  " 
honey,  by  which  is  meant  the  exudations 
of  certain  trees  and  shrubs,  such  as  the 
Tamarix  mannifera,  foand  in  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai,  or  the  stunted  oaks  of  Luris- 
tan  and  Mesopotamia.  The  honey  which 
Jonathan  ate  in  the  wood  (1  Sam.  xiv.  25), 
and  the  "  wild  honey "  which  suppoited 
John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  iii.  4),  have  been 
referred  to  this  species.  But  it  was  prob- 
ably the  honey  of  the  wild  bees. 

Hook,  Hooks.  Various  kinds  of  hooks 
are  noticed  in  the  Bible,  of  wliich  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important :  1.  Fishing 
hooks  (Am.  iv.  2 ;  Job  xli.  2 ;  Is.  xix.  8 ; 
Hab.  i.  15).  2.  Properly  a  ring  (A.  V. 
"thorn"),  placed  through  the  mouth  of  a 
large  fish  and  attached  by  a  cord  to  a  stake 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  it  alive  in  the 
water  (Job  xli.  2) ;  the  word  meaning  the 
cord  is  rendered  "hook"  in  the  A.  V.  3. 
A  ring,  such  as  in  our  country  is  placed 
through  the  nose  of  a  bull,  and  similarly 
used  in  the  East  for  leading  about  lions 
(Ez.  xix.  4,  where  the  A.  V.  has  "  with 
chains"),  camels,  and  other  animals.  A 
similar  method  was  adopted  for  leading 
prisoners,  as  in  the  case  of  Manasseh,  who 


HOPHNI 


247 


HORN 


was  led  with  rings  (2  Chr.  xxxiii.  11 ;  A.  V. 
"  in  the  thorns  ").  An  illustration  of  this 
practice  is  found  in  a  bass-relief  discovered 
at  Khorsabad  (Layard,  ii.  37G).  4.  The 
hooks  of  the  pillars  of  the  Tabernacle. 
(Ex.  xxvi.  32.  37,  xxvii.  10,  AT.,  xxxviii.  13, 
ff.  5.  A  vine-dresser's  pruning-hook  (Is. 
ii.  4,  xviii.  5 ;  Mic.  iv.  3 ;  Joel  iii.  10).  6. 
A  flesh-hook  for  getting  up  the  joints  of 
meat  out  of  the  boiling-pot  (Ex.  xxvii.  3; 
1  Sam.  ii.  13,  14).  7.  Probably  "hooks" 
used  for  the  purpose  of  lianging  up  animals 
to  flay  tl  i-in  (Ez.  xl.  43). 

Hoplini  and  Phineas,  the  two  sons  of 
Eli,  who  fulfilled  their  hereditary  sacerdo- 
tal duties  at  Shiloh.  Their  brutal  rapacity 
and  lust,  which  seemed  to  acquire  fresh 
violence  with  their  father's  increasing  years 
(1  Sam.  ii.  22,  12-17),  filled  the  people  with 
disgust  and  indignation,  and  provoked  the 
curse  which  was  denounced  against  their 
father's  house,  first  by  an  unknown  prophet 
(27-36),  and  then  by  Samuel  (1  Sam.  iii. 
11-14).  They  were  both  cut  off"  in  one 
day  in  the  flower  of  their  age,  and  the  ark 
which  they  had  accompanied  to  battle 
against  tlie  Pliilistines  was  lost  on  the  same 
occasion  (1  Sam.  iv.  10,  11). 

Hor,  Mount.  1.  The  mountain  on 
which  Aai-on  died  (Num.  xx.  25,  27).  The 
word  Hor  is  probably  an  archaic  form  of 
liar,  the  usual  Hebrew  term  for  "moun- 
tain." It  was  "  on  the  boundary  line " 
(Num.  XX.  23)  or  "at  the  edge"  (xxxiii. 
87)  of  the  land  of  Edom.  It  was  the  halt- 
ing-place of  the  people  next  after  Kadesh 
(xx.  22,  xxxiii.  37),  and  they  quitted  it  for 
Zalmonah  (xxxiii.  41)  in  the  road  to  the  Red 
Sea  (xxi.  4).  It  was  during  the  encamp- 
ment at  Kadesh  that  Aaron  was  gathered 
to  his  fathers.  It  is  situated  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  great  valley  of  the  Arabah,  the 
highest  and  most  conspicuous  of  the  whole 
range  of  the  sandstone  mountains  of  Edom, 
having  close  beneath  it  on  its  eastern  side 
the  mysterious  city  of  Petra.  The  tradition 
has  existed  from  the  earliest  date.  It  is 
now  the  Jebel  Nebi-I/arAn,  "the  mountain 
of  the  Prophet  Aaron."  Its  height  is  4800 
feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  that  is  to  say, 
about  1700  feet  above  the  town  of  Petra, 
4000  above  the  level  of  the  Arabah,  and 
more  than  6000  above  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
mountain  is  marked  far  and  near  by  its 
double  top,  which  rises  like  a  huge  ciistel- 
lated  building  from  a  lower  base,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  circular  dome  of  the  tomb 
of  Aaron,  a  distinct  white  spot  on  the  dark 
red  surfiice  of  the  mountain.  The  chief 
interest  of  Mount  Hor  consists  in  the  pros- 
pect from  its  summit  —  the  last  view  of 
Aaron  —  that  view  which  was  to  him  what 
Pisgah  was  to  his  brother.  2.  A  mountain, 
entirely  distinct  from  the  preceding,  named 
in  Num.  xxxiv.  7, 8,  only,  as  one  of  the  marks 
of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  land  which 


the  children  of  Israel  were  about  to  conquer. 
This  "  Mount  Hor"  is  the  great  chain  of 
Lebanon  itself. 

Ho'ram,  king  of  Gezer  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  of  the  south-western  part  of 
Palestine  (Josh.  x.  33). 

Ho'reb.     [Sinai.] 

Ho'rem,  one  of  the  fortified  places  in 
the  territory  of  Naphtali ;  named  with  Iron 
and  Migdal-el  (Josh.  xix.  38).  Vande  Velde 
suggests  Ilurah  as  the  site  of  Horem. 

Hor  Hagid'gad,  the  name  of  the  desert 
station  where  the  Israelites  encamped  (Num. 
xxxiii.  32),  probably  the  same  asGudgodah 
(Deut.  X.  7). 

Ho'ri.  1.  A  Horite,  son  of  Lotan,  the 
son  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi.  22;  1  Chr.  i.  39). 
2.  In  Gen.  xxxvi.  30,  the  name  has  in  the 
original  the  definite  article  prefixed,  "  the 
Horite ;  "  and  is  in  fact  precisely  the  same 
word  with  that  which  in  the  preceding  verse, 
and  also  in  21,  is  rendered  in  the  A.  V. 
"the  Horites."  3.  A  man  of  Simeon; 
father  of  Shaphat  (Num.  xiii.  5). 

Ho'rites  and  Ho'rims,  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  Mount  Seir  (Gen.  xiv.  6), 
and  probably  allied  to  the  Eraims  and 
Rephairas.  The  name  Horite  appears  to 
have  been  derived  from  their  habits  as 
"cave-dwellers."  Their  excavated  dwell- 
ings are  still  found  in  hundreds  in  the 
sandstone  cliffs  and  mountains  of  Edom, 
and  especially  in  Petra. 

Hor'mah,  or  Zepliath  (Judg.  i.  17),  was 
the  chief  town  of  a  king  of  a  CanaanitisU 
tribe  on  the  south  of  Palestine,  whicli  was 
reduced  by  Joshua,  and  became  a  city  of 
the  territory  of  Judah  (xv.  30;  1  Sam. 
XXX.  30),  but  apparently  belonged  to  Sim- 
eon (1  Chr.  iv.  30). 

Horn.  The  word  "  horn"  is  often  used 
metaphorically  to  signify  strength  and  hon- 
or. Of  strength  the  horn  of  the  unicorn 
was  the  most  frequent  representative  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  17,  &c.),  but  not  always;  comp.  I 


Ueada  of  Modern  Aaiatics  ornamented  with  Horna. 

K.  xxii.  11,  where  probably  horns  of  iron, 
worn   defiantly  and  symbolically    on  tha 


HORNET 


248 


HOSEA 


head,  are  intended.  Among  the  Druses 
upon  Mount  Lebanon  the  married  women 
wear  silver  horns  on  their  heads.  In  the 
sense  of  honor,  the  word  horn  stands  for 
the  abstract  {my  horn,  Job  xvi.  15  ;  all  the 
horns  of  Israel,  Lam.  ii.  3),  and  so  for  the 
supreme  authority.  It  also  stands  for  the 
concrete,  whence  it  comes  to  mean  kingr, 
kingdom  (Dan.  viii.  2,  &c. ;  Zech.  i.  18). 
Out  of  either  or  both  of  these  two  last  met- 
aphors sprang  the  idea  of  representing  gods 
with  horns. 

Hornet.  In  Scripture  the  hornet  is  re- 
ferred to  only  as  the  means  which  Jehovah 
employed  for  the  extirpation  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  (Ex.  xxiii.  28 ;  Deut.  vii.  20 ;  Josh, 
xxiv.  12;  Wisd.  xii.  8).  Some  commenta- 
tors regard  the  word  as  used  in  its  literal 
sense,  but  it  more  probably  expresses  un- 
der a  vivid  image  the  consternation  with 
which  Jehovah  would  inspire  the  enemies 
of  the  Israelites,  as  declared  in  Deut.  ii. 
25,  Josh.  ii.  11. 

Horona'im,  a  town  of  Moab,  possibly 
a  sanctuary,  named  with  Zoar  and  Luhith 
(Is.  XV.  5;  Jer.  xlviii.  3,  5,  34r). 

Hor'onite,  The,  the  designation  of 
Sanballat  (Neh.  ii.  10,  19;  xiii.  28).  It  is 
derived  by  Gesenius  from  Iloronaim. 

Horse.  The  most  striking  feature  in 
the  Biblical  notices  of  the  horse  is  the  ex- 
clusive application  of  it  to  warlike  opera- 
tions ;  in  no  instance  is  that  useful  animal 
employed  for  the  purposes  of  ordinary  loco- 
motion or  agriculture,  if  we  except  Is. 
xxviii.  28,  where  we  learn  that  horses  (A. 
V.  "  horsemen")  were  employed  in  thresh- 
ing, not,  however,  in  that  case  put  in  the 
gears,  but  simply  driven  about  wildly  over 
the  strewed  grain.  The  animated  descrip- 
tion of  the  horse  in  Job  xxxix.  19-25  ap- 
plies solely  to  the  war-horse.  The  Hebrews 
in  the  patriarchal  age,  as  a  pastoral  race, 
did  not  stand  in  need  of  the  services  of  the 
horse,  and  for  a  long  period  after  their  set- 
tlement in  Canaan  they  dispensed  with  it, 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  billy  nature 
of  the  country,  which  only  admitted  of  the 
use  of  chariots  in  certain  localities  (Judg. 
i.  19),  and  partly  in  consequence  of  the  pro- 
hibition in  Deut.  xvii.  IG,  which  would  be 
held  to  apply  at  all  periods.  David  first 
established  a  force  of  cavalry  and  chariots 
after  the  defeat  of  Hadadezer  (2  Sam.  viii. 
4).  But  the  great  supply  of  horses  was 
subsequently  effected  by  Solomon  through 
his  connection  with  Egypt  (1  K.  iv.  26). 
Solomon  also  established  a  very  active  trade 
in  horses,  which  were  brought  by  dealers 
out  of  Egypt  and  resold  at  a  profit  to  the 
Hittites,  wlio  lived  between  Palestine  and 
the  Euphrates  (1  K.  x.  28,  29).  In  the 
countries  adjacent  to  Palestine,  the  use  of 
the  horse  was  much  more  frequent.  It 
was  introduced  into  Egypt  probably  by  the 
Hyksos,  as  it  is  not  represented  on  the 


monuments  before  the  18th  dynasty.  The 
Jewish  kings  sought  the  assistance  of  the 
Egyptians  against  the  Assyrians  in  this  re- 
spect (Is.  xxxi.  1,  xxxvi.  8;  Ez.  xvii.  15). 
But  the  cavalry  of  the  Assyrians  and  other 
eastern  nations  was  regarded  as  most  formi- 
dable;  the  horses  themselves  were  highly 
bred,  as  the  Assyrian  sculptures  still  testify, 
and  fully  merited  the  praise  bestowed  on 
them  by  Habakkuk  (i.  8) .  With  regard  to 
the  trappings  and  management  of  the  horse 
we  have  little  information;  the  bridle  was 
placed  ovei^  the  hoi-se's  nose  (Is^  xxx.  28), 
and  a  bit  or  curb  is  also  mentioned  (2  K. 
xix.  28;  Ps.  xxxii.  9;  Prov.  xxvi.  3;  Is. 
xxxvii.  29  ;-in  the  A.  V.  it  is  incorrectly 
given  "  bridle,"  with  the  exception  of  Ps. 
xxxii.).  The  harness  of  the  Assyrian  horses 
was  profusely  decorated,  the  bits  being 
gilt  (1  Esdr.  iii.  6),  and  the  bridles  adorned 
with  tassels  ;  on  the  neck  was  a  collar  ter- 
minating in  a  bell,  as  described  by  Zecha- 
riah  (xiv.  20).  Saddles  were  not  used  un- 
til a  late  period.  The  horses  were  not  shod, 
and  therefore  hoofs  as  hard  "  as  flint"  (Is. 
V.  28)  were  regarded  as  a  great  merit.  The 
chariot-horses  were  covered  with  embroid- 
ered trappings  (Ez.  xxvii.  20).  Horses  and 
chariots  were  used  also  in  idolatrous  pro- 
cessions, as  noticed  in  regard  to  the  sun  (2 
K.  xxiii.  11). 

Horse-leech.  (Heb.  '  alAkAh')  occurs 
once  only,  viz.  Prov.  xxx.  15.  There  is  lit- 
tle doubt  that '  dlukdh  denotes  some  species 
of  leech,  or  rather  is  the  generic  term  for 
any  bloodsucking  annelid. 

Ho'sah,  a  city  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  29), 
the  next  landmark  on  the  boundary  to  Tyre. 

Ho'sah,  a  Merarite  Levite  (1  Chr.  xxvi. 
10),  chosen  by  David  to  be  one  of  the  first 
doorkeepers  to  the  ark  after  its  arrival  in 
Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  38). 

Hosan'na  (  "  Save,  we  pray"  ),  the  cry 
of  the  multitudes  as  they  thronged  in  our 
Lord's  triumphal  procession  into  Jerusalem 
(Matt.  xxi.  9,  15;  Mark  xi.  9,  10;  John  xii. 
13).  The  Psalm  from  which  it  was  taken, 
the  118th,  was  one  with  which  they  were 
familiar  from  being  accustomed  to  recite 
the  25th  and  26th  verses  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles.  On  that  occasion  the  Ilallel, 
consisting  of  Psalms  cxiii.-cxviii.,  was 
chanted  by  one  of  the  priests,  and  at  certain 
intervals  the  multitudes  joined  in  the  re- 
sponses, waving  their  branches  of  willow 
and  palm,  and  shouting  as  tiiey  waved  them. 
Hallelujah,  or  Hosanna,  or  "  O  Lord,  I 
beseech  thee,  send  now  prosperity"  (Pa. 
cxviii.  25). 

Hose'a,  son  of  Beeri,  and  first  of  the 
Minor  Prophets.  The  title  of  the  book 
gives  for  the  beginning  of  Hosea's  miristry 
the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah  but 
limits  this  vague  definition  by  referenoe  to 
Jeroboam  II.,  king  of  Israel ;  it  therefore 
yields  a  date  not  later  than  b.  c.  783.     The 


HOSHATAH 


249 


HOSPITALITY 


pictures  of  social  and  political  life  which 
Hosea  draws  so  forcibly  are  rather  appUca- 
ble  to  the  interregnum  which  followed  the 
death  of  Jeroboam  (782-772),  and  to  the 
reign  of  the  suc:;eeding  kings.  It  seems 
almost  certain  that  very  few  of  his  prophe- 
cies were  written  until  after  the  death  of 
Jeroboam  (783),  and  probably  the  life,  or 
rather  the  prophetic  career,  of  Hosea  ex- 
tended from  784  to  725,  a  period  of  fifty- 
nine  years.  The  prophecies  of  Hosea  were 
delivered  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  It  is 
easy  to  recognize  two  great  divisions  in  the 
book:  (1)  chap.  i.  to  iii. ;  (2)  iv.  to  end. 
The  subdivision  of  these  several  parts  is  a 
work  of  greater  difficulty.  (1.)  The  first 
division  should  probably  be  subdivided  into 
three  separate  poems,  each  originating  in  a 
distinct  aim,  and  each  after  its  own  fasliion 
attempting  to  express  the  idolatry  of  Israel 
by  imagery  borrowed  from  the  matrimonial 
relation.  The  first,  and  therefore  the  least 
elaborate  of  these,  is  contained  in  chap,  iii., 
the  second  in  i.  2-11,  the  third  in  i.  2-d,  and 
ii.  1-23.  These  three  are  progressively 
elaborate  developments  of  the  same  reiter- 
ated idea.  Chap.  i.  2-9  is  common  to  the 
second  and  third  poems,  but  not  repeated 
with  each  severally.  (2.)  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  suMivide  the  second  part  of  the 
book.  These  divisions  are  made  either  ac- 
cording to  reigns  of  contemporary  kings,  or 
according  to  tlie  subject  matter  of  the  poem. 
The  prophecies  were  probably  collected  by 
Hosea  himself  towards  the  end  of  his  career. 
Hosea  is  referred  to  in  the  following  pas- 
sages of  the  N.  T. :  Matt.  ix.  13,  xii.  7,  Hos. 
vi.  6 ;  Luke  xxiii.  30,  Rev.  vi.  16,  Hos.  x. 
8;  Matt.  ii.  15,  Hos.xi.  1 ;  Rom.  ix.  25,  26, 
1  Pet.  ii.  10,  Hos.  i.  10,  ii.  23 ;  1  Cor.  xv. 
4,  Hos.  vi.  2 ;  Heb.  xiii.  15,  Hos.  xiv.  2. 

Hosliai'ah..  1.  A  man  who  assisted  in 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
after  it  had  boon  rebuilt  by  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
xii.  32).  2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jeza- 
niah,  or  Azariah,  who  was  a  man  of  note 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Neb- 
uchadnezzar (Jer.  xlii.  1,  xliii.  2). 

Hosh.'aina,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jeconiah, 
or  Jehoiachin,  the  last  king  of  Judah  but 
one  (1  Chr.  iii.  18). 

Hoshe'a,  the  nineteenth,  last,  and  best 
king  of  Israel.  He  succeeded  Pekah,  whom 
he  slew  in  a  successful  conspiracy,  thereby 
fulfilling  a  prophecy  of  Isaiah  (Is.  vii.  16). 
It  took  place  b.  c.  737,  in  the  20th  year  of 
Jotham  (2  K.  xv.  30),  t.  e.  "in  the  20th 
year  after  Jotham  became  sole  king,"  for  he 
only  reigned  16  years  (2  K.  xv.  33).  But 
there  must  have  been  an  interregnum  of  at 
least  eight  years  before  Hoshea  came  to  the 
throne,  which  was  not  till  b.  c.  729,  in  the 
12th  year  of  Aliaz  (2  K.  xvii.  1).  It  is  ex- 
^  pressly  stated  (2  K.  xvii.  2)  that  Hoshea 
was  not  so  sinful  as  his  predecessors.  In 
tbe  third  year  of  his  reign  (b.  c.  726)  Shal- 


manescr  cruelly  stormed  the  strong  caves 
of  Beth-arbel(Hos.  viii.  14),  and  made  Israel 
tributary  (2  K.  xvii.  3)  for  three  years.  At 
the  end  of  this  period,  encouraged  perhaps 
by  the  revolt  of  Hezekiah,  Hoshea  entered 
into  a  secret  alliance  with  So,  king  of  Egypt, 
to  throw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke.  The  alli- 
ance did  him  no  good ;  it  was  revealed  to 
the  court  of  Nineveh  by  the  Assyrian  party 
in  Ephraim,  and  Hoshea  was  immediately 
seized  as  a  rebellious  vassal,  shut  up  in 
prison,  and  apparently  treated  with  the 
utmost  indignity  (Mic.  v.  1).  Of  the  sub- 
sequent fortunes  of  Hoshea  we  know  noth- 
ing. 

Hoshe'a.  1.  The  son  of  Nun,  i.  e. 
Joshua  (Deut.  xxxii.  44 ;  and  also  in  Num. 
xiii.  8,  though  there  the  A.  V.  has  Osiiea). 

2.  Son  of  Azaziah  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  20);  like 
his  great  namesake,  a  man  of  Ephraim, 
ruler  of  his  tribe  in  the  time  of  king  David. 

3.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  people  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
X.  23). 

Hospitality.  Hospitality  was  regard- 
ed by  most  nations  of  the  ancient  world  as 
one  of  the  chief  virtues.  Among  the  Arabs 
we  find  the  best  illustrations  of  the  old 
Bible  narratives,  and  among  them  see  traits 
that  might  beseem  their  ancestor  Abraham. 
The  laws  respecting  strangers  (Lev.  xix. 
33,  34)  and  the  poor  (Lev.  xxv.  14,  seq. ; 
Deut.  XV.  7),  and  concerning  redemption 
(Lev.  xxv.  23,  seqq.),  &c.,  are  framed  in 
accordance  with  the  spirit  of  hospitality; 
and  the  strength  of  the  national  feeling  re- 
garding it  is  shown  in  the  incidental  men- 
tions of  its  practice.  In  the  Law,  compas- 
sion to  strangers  is  constantly  enforced  by 
the  words  "for  ye  were  strangers  in  the 
land  of  Egypt"  (Lev.  xix.  34).  And  before 
the  Law,  Abraham's  entertainment  of  the 
angels  (Gen.  xviii.  1,  seqq.)  and  Lot's  (xix. 
1),  are  in  exact  agreement  with  its  pre- 
cepts, and  with  modern  usage  (comp.  Ex.  ii. 
20;  Judg.  xiii.  15,  xix.  17,  20,  21).  In  the 
N.  T.  hospitality  is  yet  more  markedly  en- 
joined ;  and  in  the  more  civilized  state  of 
society  which  then  prevailed,  its  exercise 
became  more  a  social  virtue  than  a  neces- 
sity of  patriarchal  life.  The  good  Samar- 
itan stands  for  all  ages  as  an  example  of 
Christian  hospitality,  embodying  the  com- 
mand to  love  one's  neighbor  as  himself. 
The  neglect  of  Christ  is  symbolized  by  ivi- 
hospitalit}'  to  our  neighbors  (Matt.  xxv.  43). 
The  Apostles  urged  the  Church  to  "  follow 
after  hospitality  "  (Rom.  xii.  13  ;  cf.  1  Tim. 
v.  10) ;  to  remember  Abraham's  example 
(Heb.  xiii.  2)  ;  to  "  use  hospitality  one  to 
another  without  grudging  "  (1  Pet.  iv.  9)  ; 
while  a  bishop  must  be  a  "  lover  of  hospital- 
ity "  (Tit.  i.  8,  cf.  1  Tim.  iii.  2).  The  prac- 
tice of  the  early  Christians  was  in  accord 
with  these  precepts.  They  had  all  things 
in  common,  and  their  liospitality  was  a 


HOTHAM 


250 


HOUSE 


characteristic  of  their  belief.  Such  having 
been  the  usage  of  Biblical  times,  it  is  in  the 
next  place  important  to  remark  how  hos- 
pitality was  shown.  In  the  patriarchal 
ages  we  may  take  Abraham's  example  as 
the  most  fitting,  as  we  have  of  it  the  fullest 
account.  "  The  account,"  says  Mr.  Lane, 
"  of  Abraham's  entertaining  the  three  an- 
gels, related  in  the  Bible,  presents  a  perfect 
picture  of  the  manner  in  which  a  modern 
Bedawee  sheykh  receives  travellers  arriv- 
ing at  his  encampment.  He  immediately 
orders  his  wife  or  women  to  make  bread, 
slaughters  a  sheep  or  some  other  animal, 
and  dresses  it  in  haste,  and  bringing  milk 
and  any  other  provisions  that  he  may  have 
ready  at  hand,  with  the  bread  and  the  meat 
which  he  has  dressed,  sets  them  before  his 
guests.  If  these  be  persons  of  high  rank, 
he  stands  by  them  while  they  eat,  as  Abra- 
ham did  in  the  case  above  alluded  to.  Most 
Bedawees  will  suffer  almost  any  injury  to 
themselves  or  their  families  rather  than 
allow  their  guests  to  be  ill-treated  while 
under  their  protection."  The  Oriental  re- 
epect  for  the  covenant  of  bread  and  salt,  or 
salt  alone,  certainly  sprang  from  the  liigh 
regard  in  which  hospitality  was  held. 

Ho'tham,  a  man  of  A  slier,  son  of 
Heber,  of  the  family  of  Beriah  (1  Chr.  vii. 
32). 

Ho'than,  a  man  of  Aroer,  father  of 
Sham  a  and  Jehiel  (1  Chr.  xi.  44). 

Ho'thir,  the  13th  son  of  Heman,  "  the 
king's  seer"  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4,  28),  and 
therefore  a  Kohathite  Levite. 

Hour.  The  ancient  Hebrews  were  prob- 
ably unacquainted  with  the  division  of  the 
natural  day  into  24  parts ;  but  they  after- 
wards parcelled  out  the  period  between 
sunrise  and  sunset  into  a  series  of  divisions 
distinguished  by  the  sun's  course.  The 
early  Jews  appear  to  have  divided  the  day 
into  four  parts  (Neh.  ix.  3),  and  the  night 
into  three  watches  (Judg.  vii.  19),  and 
even  in  the  N.  T.  we  find  a  trace  of  this 
division  in  Matt.  xx.  1-5.  The  Greeks 
adopted  the  division  of  the  day  into  12 
hours  from  the  Babylonians.  At  what 
period  the  Jews  became  first  acquainted 
with  this  way  of  reckoning  time  is  unknown, 
but  it  is  generally  supposed  that  they  too 
learnt  it  from  the  Babylonians  during  the 
captivity.  In  whatever  way  originated,  it 
was  known  to  the  Egyptians  at  a  very  early 
period.  They  had  12  hours  of  the  day  and 
of  the  night.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
hours,  viz.  (1.)  the  astronomical  or  equi- 
noctial hour,  i.  e.  the  24th  part  of  a  civil 
day,  and  (2.)  the  natural  hour,  i.  e.  the 
12th  part  of  the  natural  day,  or  of  the  time 
between  sunrise  and  sunset.  These  are 
the  hours  meant  in  the  N.  T.  (John  xi.  9, 
&c.),  and  it  mast  be  remembered  that  they 
perpetually  vary  in  length,  so  as  to  be  very 
different  at  different  times  of  the  year.    For 


the  purposes  of  praj'er  the  old  division  of 
the  day  into  4  portions  was  continued  in 
the  Temple  service,  as  we  see  from  Acts  ii. 
15,  iii.  1,  X.  9. 

House.  The  houses  of  the  rural  poor 
in  Egypt,  as  well  as  in  most  parts  of  Syria, 
Arabia,  and  Persia,  are  for  the  most  part 
mere  huts  of  mud,  or  sunburnt  bricks.  In 
some  parts  of  Palestine  and  Arabia  stone  is 
used,  and  in  certain  districts  caves  in  the 
rock  are  used  as  dwellings  (Amos  v.  11). 
The  houses  are  usually  of  one  story  only, 
viz.,  the  ground  floor,  and  often  contain 
only  one  apartment.  Sometimes  a  small 
court  for  the  cattle  is  attached;  and  in 
some  cases  the  cattle  are  housed  in  the 
same  building,  or  the  people  live  on  a  raised 
platform,  and  the  cattle  round  them  on  the 
ground  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  24).  The  windows 
are  small  apertures  high  up  in  the  walls, 
sometimes  grated  with  wood.  The  roofa 
are  commonly  but  not  always  flat,  and  are 
usually  formed  of  a  plaster  of  mud  and 
straw  laid  upon  boughs  or  rafters ;  and 
upon  the  flat  roofs,  tents  or  "booths"  of 
boughs  or  rushes  are  often  raised  to  be 
used  as  sleeping-places  in  summer.    The 


A  Nestorian  House,  with  gtapes  upon  the  roof  for 
sleeping.    (Laj  ard,  Hineveh,  i.  177.) 

difference  between  the  poorest  houses  and 
those  of  the  class  next  above  them  is 
greater  than  between  these  and  the  houses 
of  the  first  rank.  The  prevailing  plan  of 
Eastern  houses  of  this  class  presents,  as 
was  the  case  in  ancient  Egypt,  a  front  of 
wall,  whose  blank  and  mean  appearance  is 
usually  relieved  only  by  the  door  and  a  few 
latticed  and  projecting  windows.  Within 
this  is  a  court  or  courts  with  apartments 
opening  into  them.  Over  the  door  is  a  pro- 
jecting window  with  a  lattice  more  or  less 
elaborately  wrought,  which,  except  in  times 
of  public  celebrations,  is  usually  closed  (2E. 


HOUSE 


251 


HOUSE 


ix.  UO).  An  awning  is  sometimes  drawn 
over  the  court,  and  the  floor  strewed  with 
carpets  on  festive  occasions.  Tlie  stairs  to 
the  up2Jer  apartments  are  in  Syria  usually  in 
a  corner  of  the  court.  Around  part,  if  not 
the  whole,  of  the  court  is  a  veranda,  often 
nine  or  ten  feet  deep,  over  which,  when 
there  is  more  than  one  floor,  runs  a  second 
gallery  of  like  depth  with  a  balustrade. 


Inner  Court  of  House  in  Cairo.    (Lane,  Modem 
Egyptiant.) 

Bearing  in  mind  that  the  reception  room  is 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  court,  we  may, 
in  explaining  the  circumstances  of  the  mira- 
cle of  the  paralytic  (Mark  ii.  3;  Luke  v. 
18),  suppose,  1.  either^  that  our  Lord  was 
standing  under  the  veranda,  and  the  peo- 
ple in  front  in  the  court.  The  bearers  of 
the  sick  man  ascended  the  stairs  to  the 
roof  of  the  house,  and  taking  off  a  portion 
of  the  boarded  covering  of  the  veranda, 
or  removing  the  awning,  in  the  former  case 
let  down  the  bed  through  the  veranda 
roof,  or  in  the  latter,  down  by  way  of  the 
roof,  and  deposited  it  before  the  Saviour. 
2.  Another  explanation  presents  itself  in 
considering  the  room  where  the  company 
were  assembled  as  the  "  upper  room,"  and 
the  roof  opened  for  the  bed  to  be  the  true 
roof  of  the  house.  3.  And  one  still  more 
simple  is  found  in  regarding  the  house  as 
one  of  the  rude  dwellings  now  to  be  seen 
near  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  a  mere  room  10  or 
12  feet  high,  and  as  many  or  more  square, 
with  no  opening  except  the  door.  The 
roof,  used  as  a  sleeping-place,  is  reached 
by  a  ladder  from  the  outside,  and  the  bear- 
ers of  the  paralytic,  unable  to  approach  the 
door,  would  thus  have  ascended  the  roof, 
and  having  uncovered  it,  let  him  down  into 
the  room  where  our  Lord  was.  When 
there  is  no  second  floor,  but  more  than  one 


court,  the  women's  apartments,  hareem, 
harem,  or  haram,  are  usually  in  the  sec- 
ond court ;  otherwise  they  form  a  separate 
building  within  the  general  enclosure,  or 
are  above  on  the  first  floor.  When  there 
is  an  upper  story,  the  Ka'ah  forms  the  most 
important  apartment,  and  thus  probably 
answers  to  the  "  upper  room,"  which  was 
often  the  "guest-chamber"  (Luke  xxii.  12; 
Acts  i.  13,  ix.  37,  xx.  8).  The  windows  of 
the  upper  rooms  often  project  one  or  two 
feet,  and  form  a  kiosk  or  latticed  chamber. 
Such  may  have  been  "the  chamber  in  the 
wall"  (2  K.  iv.  10,  11).  The  "lattice," 
through  which  Ahaziah  fell,  perhaps  be- 
longed to  an  upper  chamber  of  this  kind  (2 
K.  i.  2),  as  also  the  "third  loft,"  from 
which  Eutychus  fell  (Acts  xx.  9;  comp. 
Jer.  xxii.  13).  There  are  usually  no  spe- 
cial bedrooms  in  Eastern  houses.  The 
outer  doors  are  closed  with  a  wooden  lock, 
but  in  some  cases  the  apartments  are  divid- 
ed from  each  other  by  curtains  only.  There 
are  no  chimneys,  but  fire  is  made  when  re- 
quired with  charcoal  in  a  chafing-dish ;  or 
a  fire  of  wood  might  be  kindled  in  the  open 
court  of  the  house  (Luke  xxii.  55).  Some 
houses  in  Cairo  have  an  apartment,  open 
in  front  to  the  court,  with  two  or  more 
arches,  and  a  railing ;  and  a  pillar  to  sup- 
port the  wall  above.  It  was  in  a  chamber 
of  this  kind,  probably  one  of  the  largest 
size  to  be  found  in  a  palace,  that  our  Lord 
was  being  arraigned  before  the  high-priest, 
at  the  time  when  the  denial  of  Him  by  St. 
Peter  took  place.  He  "  turned  and  looked  " 
on  Peter  as  he  stood  by  the  fire  in  the 


Interior  of  Uouse  (harem)  in  Damascus. 

court  (Luke  xxii.  56,  61 ;  John  xviii.  24), 
whilst  He  himself  was  in  the  "  hall  of 
judgment."  In  no  point  do  Oriental  do- 
mestic habits  differ  more  from  European 
than  in  the  use  of  the  roof.  Its  flat  sur- 
face is  made  useful  for  various  household 
purposes,  as  drying  corn,  hanging  up  linen, 
and  preparing  figs  and  raisins.  The  roofs 
are  used  as  places  of  recreation  in  the 
evening,  and  often  as  sleeping-places  at 
night  (2  Sam.  xi.  2,  xvi.  22;  Dan.  iv.  29  j 


HUKKOK 


252 


HUSHAI 


1  Sam.  ix.  25,  26;  Job  xxvii.  18;  Prov. 
xxi.  9).  They  were  also  used  as  places 
for  devotion,  and  even  idolatrous  worship 
(Jir.  xxxii.  29,  xix.  13;  2  K.  xxiii.  12; 
Zeph.  i.  5;  Acts  x.  9).  At  the  time  of 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  booths  were 
erected  by  the  Jews  on  the  tops  of  their 
houses.  Protection  of  the  roof  by  parapets 
was  enjoined  by  the  law  (Deut.  xxii.  8). 
Special  apartments  were  devoted  in  larger 
houses  to  winter  and  summer  uses  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  22;  Am.  iii.  15).  The  ivory  house 
of  Ahab  was  probably  a  palace  largely  or- 
namented with  inlaid  ivory.  The  circum- 
stance of  Samson's  pulling  down  the  house 
by  means  of  the  pillars,  may  be  explained 
by  the  fact  of  the  company  being  assembled 
on  tiers  of  balconies  above  each  other, 
supported  by  central  pillars  on  the  base- 
ment; when  these  were  pulled  down  the 
whole  of  the  upper  floors  would  fall  also 
(Judg.  xvi.  26). 

Huk'kok,  a  place  on  the  boundary  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  34)  named  next  to  Az- 
noth-Tabor.  It  has  been  recovered  in  Yakuk, 
a  village  in  the  mountains  of  Naphtali,  west 
of  the  upper  end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

£[u.'kok,  a  name  which  in  1  Chr.  vi.  75 
is  substituted  for  Helkath  in  Josh.  xxi. 

Hul,  the  second  son  of  Aram,  and 
grandson  of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  23).  The 
strongest  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the  district 
about  the  roots  of  Lebanon. 

Hul'dah,  a  prophetess,  whose  husband 
Shallum  was  keeper  of  the  wardrobe  in  the 
time  of  king  Josiah.  It  was  to  her  that  JOsiah 
had  recourse  when  Hilkiah  found  a  book  of 
the  law,  to  procure  an  authoritative  opinion 
on  it  (2  K.  xxii.  14;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  22). 

Sum'tah,  a  city  of  Judah,  one  of  those 
in  the  mountain-district,  the  next  to  He- 
bron (Josh.  XV.  54). 

Hvinting.  Hunting,  as  a  matter  of  ne- 
cessity, whether  for  the  extermination  of 
dangerous  beasts,  or  for  procuring  suste- 
nance, betokens  a  rude  and  semi-civilized 
state ;  as  an  amusement,  it  betokens  an  ad- 
vanced state.  The  Hebrews,  as  a  pastoral 
and  agricultural  people,  were  not  given  to 
the  sports  of  the  field;  the  density  of  the 
population,  the  earnestness  of  their  char- 
acter, and  the  tendency  of  their  ritual  reg- 
ulations, particularly  those  affecting  food, 
all  combined  to  discourage  the  practice  of 
hunting.  The  manner  of  catching  animals 
was  either  by  digging  a  pitfall,  or  secondly 
by  a  trap,  which  was  set  under  ground 
(Job  xviii.  10),  in  the  run  of  the  animal 
(Prov.  xxii.  5),  and  caught  it  by  the  leg 
(Job  xviii.  9)  ;  or  lastly  by  the  use  of  the 
net,  of  which  there  were  various  kinds,  as 
for  the  gazelle  (Is.  U.  20,  A.  V.  "  wild 
bull  ")  and  other  animals  of  that  class. 

Hu'ph.ain,  a  son  of  Benjamin,  founder 
of  the  family  of  the  Huphamites  (Num. 
xkvi.  39). 


Hu'phamites,  The,  descendants  of 
Hupham  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Num. 
xxvi.  39). 

Hup'pah,  a  priest  in  the  time  of  David 
(1  Chr.  xxiv.  13). 

Hup 'pirn,  head  of  a  Benjamite  family. 
According  to  the  text  of  the  LXX.  in  Gen., 
a  son  of  Bela,  but  1  Chr.  vii.  12,  tells  us 
that  he  was  a  son  of  Ir,  or  Iri. 

Hut.  1.  A  man  who  is  mentioned  with 
Moses  and  Aaron  on  the  occasion  of  tlie 
battle  with  Amalek  at  Rephidim  (Ex.  xvii. 
10),  when  with  Aaron  he  stayed  up  the 
hands  of  Moses  (12).  He  is  mentioned 
again  in  xxiv.  14,  as  being,  with  Aaron, 
left  in  charge  of  the  people  by  Moses  dur- 
ing his  ascent  of  Sinai.  The  Jewish  tra- 
dition is  that  he  was  the  husband  of  Mir- 
iam, and  that  he  was  identical  with,  2.  The 
grandfather  of  Bezaleel,  the  chief  artifi- 
cer of  the  tabernacle  —  "  son  of  Huri,  son 
of  Hur  —  of  the  tribe  of  Judah."  (Ex. 
xxxi.  2,  XXXV.  30,  xxxviii.  22).  In  the  lists 
of  the  descendants  of  Judah  in  1  Chr.  the 
pedigree  is  more  fully  preserved.  Hur 
there  appears  as  one  of  the  great  family  of 
Pharez.  He  was  the  son  of  Caleb  ben- 
Hezron,  by  a  second  wife,  Ephrath  (ii.  19, 
20;  comp.  5,  also  iv.  1),  the  first  fruit  of 
the  marriage  (ii.  50,  iv.  4),  and  the  father, 
besides  Uri  (ver.  20),  of  three  sons,  who 
founded  the  towns  of  Kirjath-jearim,  Beth- 
lehem, and  Beth-gader  (51).  3.  The 
fourth  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  who 
were  slain  with  Balaam  after  the  "  matter 
of  Peor  "  (Num.  xxxi.  8).  In  a  later  men- 
tion of  them  (Josh.  xiii.  21),  they  are  called 
princes  of  Midian  and  dukes.  4.  Father 
of  Rephaiah,  who  was  ruler  of  half  of  the 
environs  of  Jerusalem,  and  assisted  Nehe- 
miah  in  the  repair  of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  9). 
5.  The  "son  of  Hur  "  —  Ben-Hur  —  was 
commissariat  officer  for  Solomon  in  Mount 
Ephraim  (1  K.  iv.  8). 

Hu'rai,  one  of  David's  guard  —  Hurai 
of  the  torrents  of  Gash  —  according  to  the 
list  of  1  Chr.  xi.  32.     [Hiddai.] 

Hu'ram.  1.  A  Benjamite ;  son  of  Bela, 
the' first-born  of  the  patriarch  (1  Chr.  viii. 
5).  2.  The  form  in  which  the  name  of  the 
king  of  Tyre  in  alliance  with  David  and 
Solomon  —  and  elsewhere  given  as  Hiram 
—  appears  in  Chronicles  (1  Chr.  xiv.  1 ;  2  . 
Chr.  ii.  3,  11,  12;  viii.  2,  18;  ix.  10,  21). 
3.  The  same  change  occurs  in  Chronicles 
in  the  name  of  Hiram  the  artificer,  which 
is  given  as  Huram  in  the  following  places ; 
2  Chr.  ii.  13;  iv.  11,  16.     [Hikam.] 

Hu'ri,  a  Gadite;  father  of  Abihail  (1 
Chr.  v.  14). 

Husband.     [Marriage.] 

Hu'shah.,  a  name  which  occurs  in  the 
genealogies  qf  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chr. 
iv.  4)  —  "  Ezer,  father  of  Hushah."  It 
may  perhaps  be  the  name  of  a  place. 

Hu'shai,  an  Archite,  i.  e.,  possibly  an 


HUSHAM 


253 


HYSSOP 


inhabitant  of  a  place  called  Erec  (2  Sam. 
XV.  32,  ff.,  xvi.  IG,  ff.).  He  is  called  the 
"  friend  "  of  David  (2  Sam.  xv.  37  :  comp. 
1  Chr.  xxvii.  33).  To  him  David  confided 
the  delicate  and  dangerous  part  of  a  pre- 
tended adherence  to  the  cause  of  Absaloln. 
He  was  probably  the  father  of  Baana  (1 
K.  iv.  10). 

Hu'sham,  one  of  the  early  kings  of 
Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  34,  35 ;  1  Chr.  i.  45, 
40). 

Hu'shathite,  The,  the  designation 
of  two  of  the  heroes  of  David's  guard.  1. 
SiBBECHAi  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18 ;  1  Chr.  xi.  29, 
XX.  4,  xxvii.  11).  Joscphus,  however,  calls 
him  a  Hittite.  2.  Meblnnai  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
27),  a  mere  corruption  of  Sibbechai. 

Hu'shim.  1.  In  Gen.  xlvi.  23,  "  the 
children  of  Dan"  are  said  to  have  been 
Hushim.  The  name  is  plural,  as  if  of  a 
tribe  rather  than  an  individual.  In  Num. 
xxvi.  the  name  is  changed  to  Siiuham.  2. 
A  Bcnjamite  (1  Chr.  vii.  12) ;  and  here 
again  apparently  the  plural  nature  of  the 
name  is  recognized,  and  Hushim  is  stated 
to  be  "the  sons  of  Aher."  3.  One  of  the 
two  wives  of  Shaharaim  (1  Chr.  viii.  8). 

Husks.  The  word  rendered  in  the  A. 
V.  "husks  "  (Luke  xv.  16)  describes  real- 
ly the  fruit  of  a  particular  kind  of  tree, 
viz. :  the  carob  or  Ceratonia  siliqua  of  bot- 
anists. This  tree  is  very  commonly  met 
with  in  Syria  and  Egypt ;  it  produces  pods, 
sliapcd  like  a  horn,  varying  in  length  from 
G  to  10  inches,  and  about  a  finger's  breadth, 
or  rather  more. 

Huz,  the  eldest  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah 
(Gen.  xxii.  21). 

Huz'zab,  according  to  the  general  opin- 
ion of  the  Jews,  was  the  queen  of  Nineveh 
at  the  time  when  Nahum  delivered  his 
prophecy  (Nah.  ii.  7).  The  moderns  fol- 
low the  rendering  in  the  margin  of  our 
English  Bible  —  "  that  which  was  estab- 
lished." Still  it  is  not  improbable  that  after 
all  Huzzab  may  really  be  a  proper  name. 
Iluzzab  may  mean  "  the  Zab  country,"  or 
the  fertile  tract  east  of  the  Tigris,  watered 
by  the  upper  and  lower  Zab  rivers. 

Hyaena.  Authorities  are  at  variance 
as  to  whetiicr  the  term  tzdbiVa  in  Jer.  xii. 
9  means  a  "  hyaena,"  as  the  LXX.  has  it,  or 
a  "  speckled  bird,"  as  in  the  A.  V.  The 
only  other  instance  in  which  it  occurs  is  as 
a  proper  name,  Zeboim  (1  Sam.  xiii.,  "the 
valley  of  hyaenas,"  Aquila;  Neh.  xi.  34). 
The  hyaena  was  common  in  ancient  as  in 
modern  Egypt,  and  is  constantly  depicted 
upon  monuments ;  it  must  therefore  have 
been  well  known  to  the  Jews. 

Hymenae'us,  the  name  of  a  person 
occurring  twice  in  the  correspondence  be- 
tween St.  Paul  and  Timothy ;  the  first  time 
classed  with  Alexander  (1  Tim.  i.  20),  and 
the  second  time  classed  with  Philetus  (2 
Tim.  ii.  17,  18).  In  the  error  with  which  he 


was  charged  he  stands  as  one  of  the  earliest 
of  the  Gnostics.  As  regards  the  sentence 
passed  upon  him  —  it  has  been  asserted 
by  some  writers  of  eminence,  that  the  "  de- 
livering to  Satan  "  is  a  mere  synonyme  for 
ecclesiastical  excommunication.  Such  can 
hardly  be  the  case.  As  the  Apostles  healed 
all  manner  of  bodily  infirmities,  so  they 
seem  to  have  possessed  and  exercised  the 
same  power  in  inflicting  them  —  a  power 
far  too  perilous  to  be  continued  when  the 
manifold  exigencies  of  the  Apostolic  age 
had  passed  away  (Acts  v.  5,  10,  ix.  17,  40, 
xiii.  11).  Even  apart  from  actual  interven- 
tion by  the  Apostles,  bodily  visitations  are 
spoken  of  in  the  case  of  those  who  ap- 
proached the  Lord's  Supper  unworthily  (1 
Cor.  xi.  30). 

Hymn.  Among  the  later  Jews  the  word 
hymn  was  more  or  less  vague  in  its  appli- 
cation, and  capable  of  being  used  as  occasion 
sliould  arise.  To  Christians  the  Hymn  has 
always  been  something  different  from  the 
Psalm ;  a  different  conception  in  thought, 
a  different  type  in  composition.  There  is 
some  dispute  about  the  hymn  sung  by  our 
Lord  and  his  Apostles  on  the  occasion  of 
the  Last  Supper ;  but  even  supposing  it  to 
have  been  the  Hallel,  or  Paschal  Hymn,  con- 
sisting of  Pss.  cxiii.-cxviii.,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  word  hymn  is  in  this  case  applied  not 
to  an  individual  psalm,  but  to  a  number  of 
psalms  chanted  successively,  and  all  togeth- 
er forming  a  kind  of  devotional  exercise 
which  is  not  unaptly  called  a  hymn.  In 
the  jail  at  Philippi,  Paul  and  Silas  "  sang 
hymns  "  (A.  V.  "  praises  ")  unto  God,  and 
so  loud  was  their  song  that  their  fellow- 
prisoners  heard  them.  This  must  have 
been  what  we  mean  by  singing,  and  not 
merely  recitation.  It  was  in  fact  a  verita- 
ble singing  of  hymns.  And  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  noun  hymn  is  only  used  in  refer- 
ence to  the  services  of  the  Greeks,  and  in 
the  same  passages  is  clearly  distinguished 
from  the  psalm  (Eph.  v.  19,  Col.  iii.  IG), 
"  psalms,  and  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs." 

Hyssop.  (Heb.  6z6b.)  The  tz6b  was 
used  to  sprinkle  the  doorposts  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  Egypt  with  the  blood  of  the  paschal 
lamb  (Ex.  xii.  22)  ;  it  was  employed  in  the 
purification  of  lepers  and  leprous  houses 
(Lev.  xiv.  4,  61),  and  in  the  saci'ifice  of  the 
red  heifer  (Num.  xix.  6).  In  consequence 
of  its  detergent  qualities,  or  from  its  being 
associated  with  the  purificatory  services, 
the  Psalmist  makes  use  of  the  expression, 
"purge  me  with  ezdb"  (Ps.  Ii.  7).  It  is 
described  in  1  K.  iv.  33  as  growing  on  or 
near  walls.  Bochart  decides  in  favor  of 
marjoram,  or  some  plant  like  it,  and  to  this 
conclusion,  it  must  be  admitted,  all  ancient 
tradition  points.  But  Dr.  Royle,  after  a 
careful  investigation  of  the  subject,  arrives 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  hyssop  is  no  other 
than  the  caper-plant,  or  capparis  spinosa 


IBHAR 


254 


IDOLATRY 


of  Linnaeus.  The  Arabic  name  of  this 
plant,  asnf,  by  which  it  is  sometimes, 
though  not  commonly,  described,  bears 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  Hebrew. 


I. 


Ib'har,  one  of  •the  sons  of  David  (2 
Sam.  V.  15 ;  1  Chr.  iii.  6,  xiv.  5)  born  in 
Jerusalem. 

Ib'leam,  a  city  of  Manasseh,  with  vil- 
lages or  towns  dependent  on  it  (Judg.  i. 
27).  It  appears  to  have  been  situated  in 
the  territory  of  either  Issachar  or  Asher 
(Josh.  xvii.  II).  The  ascent  of  Gcr  was 
"at  Ibleam"  (2  K.  ix.  27),  somewhere 
near  the  present  Jenin,  probably  to  the 
north  of  it. 

Ibnei'ah,*  son  of  Jehoram,  a  Benjamite 
(1  Chr.  ix.  8). 

Ibni'jah,  a  Benjamite  (1  Chr.  ix.  8). 

Ib'ri,  a  Merarite  Levite  of  the  family  of 
Jaaziah  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  27),  in  the  time  of 
David. 

Ib'zan,  a  native  of  Bethlehem  of  Zebu- 
lun,  who  judged  Israel  for  seven  years 
after  Jephthah  (Judg.  xii.  8,  10). 

Ich'abod,  the  son  of  Phinehas,  and 
grandson  of  Eli  (1  Sam.  iv.  21). 

leo'nium,  the  modern  KonieJi,  was  the 
capital  of  Ltcaonia.  It  was  on  the  great 
lin?  of  communication  between  Ephesus 
and  the  western  coast  of  the  peninsula  on 
one  side,  and  Tarsus,  Antioch,  and  the 
Euphrates  on  the  other.  Iconium  was  a 
well  chosen  place  for  missionary  operations 
(Acts  xiv.  1,  3,  21,  22,  xvi.  1,  2,  xviii.  23). 
The  Apostle's  first  visit  was  on  his  first 
circuit,  in  company  with  Barnabas ;  and 
on  this  occasion  he  approached  it  from 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  which  lay  to  the  west. 

Id'alah,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  tribe 
of  Zebulun,  named  between  Shimron  and 
Bethlehem  (Josh.  xix.  15). 

Id'basll,  one  of  the  three  sons  of  Abi- 
Etam,  among  the  families  of  Judah  (1  Chr. 
iv.  3). 

Id'do.  1.  The  father  of  Abinadab  (1 
K.  iv.  14).  2.  A  descendant  of  Gershom, 
son  of  Levi  (I  Chr.  vi.  21).  3.  Son  of 
Zechariah,  ruler  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
east  of  Jordan  in  tlie  time  of  David  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  21).  4.  A  seer  whose  "visions" 
against  Jeroboam  incidentally  contained 
some  of  the  acts  of  Solomon  (2  Chr.  ix. 
29).  He  appears  to  have  written  a  chroni- 
cle or  story  relating  to  the  life  and  reign  of 
Abijah  (2  Chr.  xiii.  22),  and  also  a  book 
"  concerning  genealogies "  in  which  the 
acts  of  Re4mboara  were  recorded  (xii.  15). 
These  books  are  lost,  but  they  may  have 
formed  part  of  the  foundation  of  the  ex- 
isting books  of  Chronicles.  5.  The  grand- 
father of  the  prophet  Zechariah  (Zech.  i.  1, 


7),  although  in  other  places  Zechariah  is 
called  "  the  son  of  Iddo "  (Ezr.  v.  1 ;  vi. 
14).  Iddo  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  4).  6. 
The  chief  of  those  who  assembled  at  Ca- 
siphia,  at  the  time  of  the  second  caravan 
from  Babylon.  He  was  one  of  the  Nethi- 
nim  (Ezr.  viii.  17;  comp.  20). 

Idol,   Image.     No  less  than  twenty- 
one  different  Hebrew  words  have  been  ren- 
dered in  the  A.  V.  either  by  idol  or  image, 
including  a  class  of  abstract  terms,  which, 
with  a  deep  moral  significance,  express  the 
degradation   associated  with  it,  and  stand 
out  as  a  protest  of  the  language  against  the 
enormities  of  idolatry.    Such  are,  1.  Avert, 
rendered  elsewhere   "  nought,"    "  vanity," 
"  iniquity,"  "  wickedness,"  "  sorrow,"  &c., 
and   once   only   "idol"  (Is.  Ixvi.  3).     2. 
Mil  is  thought  by  some  to  have  a  sense 
akin  to  that  of  "  falsehood."    In   strong 
contrast  with  Jehovah  it  appears  in  Ps.  xc. 
5,  xcvii.  7.     3.  Emdh,  "horror,"  or  "  ter- 
ror," and  hence  an  object  of  horror  or  ter- 
ror (Jer.  1.  38),  in  reference  either  to  the 
hideousness   of  the   idols   or  to  the  gross 
character  of  their  worship.     4.   Bdsheth, 
"  shame,"   or  "  shameful   thing "    (A.    V. 
Jer.  xi.  13;  Hos.  ix.  10),  applied  to  Baal  or 
Baal-Peor,  as  characterizing  the  obscenity 
of  his  worship,  «Sbc.     Among  the   earliest 
objects  of  worship,  regarded  as  symbols  of 
deity,  were,  the  meteoric  stones  which  the 
ancients  believed  to  have  been  the  images 
of  the  gods  sent  down  from  heaven.    From 
these  they  transferred  their  regard  to  rough 
unhewn  blocks,  to  stone  columns  or  pillars 
of  wood,  in  which  the  divinity  worshipped 
was   supposed  to   dwell,   and  which   were 
consecrated,  like  the  sacred  stone  at  Delphi, 
by  being  anointed  with   oil,  and   crowned 
with  wool  on  solemn  days.     Such  customs 
are  remarkable  illustrations  of  the  solemn 
consecration  by  Jacob  of  the  stone  at  Beth- 
el, as  showing  the  religious  reverence  with 
which  these  memorials  were  regarded.    Of 
the  forms  assumed  by  the  idolatrous  images 
we   have   not  many  traces   in   the  Bible. 
Dagon,  the  fish-god  of  the  Phihstines,  was 
a  human  figure  terminating  in  a  fish ;  and 
that  the  Syrian  deities  were  represented  in 
later  times  in  a  symbolical  human  shape 
we  know  for  certainty.     The  Hebrews  im- 
itated their  neighbors  in  this  respect  as  in 
others  (Is.  xliv.  13;  Wisd.  xiii.  13).    When 
the  process  of  adorning  the  image  was  com- 
pleted, it  was  placed  in  a  temple  or  shrine 
appointed  for  it  (Epist.  Jer.  12,  19 ;  Wisd. 
xiii.    15;    1   Cor.   viii.    10).      From   these 
temples  the   idols  were   sometimes  carried 
in  procession  (Epist.  Jer.  4,  2G)  on  festival 
days.     Their  priests  were  maintained  from 
the  idol  treasury,   and  feasted  upon   the 
meats  which  were  appointed  for  the  idols' 
use  (Bel  and  the  Dragon,  3,  13). 

Idolatry,  strictly  speaking,  denotes  the 


IDOLATRY 


255 


IDOLATRY 


worship  of  deity  in  a  visible  form,  whether 
the  images  to  which  homage  is  paid  are 
symbolical  representations  of  the  true  God 
or  of  the  false  divinities  which  have  been 
made  the  objects  of  worship  in  His  stead. 
I.  History  of  Idolatrij  among  the  Jews.  — 
The  first  undoubted  allusion  to  idolatry  or 
idolatrous  customs  in  the  Bible  is  in  the 
account  of  Rachel's  stealing  her  father's 
teraphira  (Gen.  xxxi.  19),  a  relic  of  the 
worship  of  other  gods,  whom  the  ancestors 
of  the  Israelites  served  "  on  the  other  side 
of  the  river,  in  old  time"  (Josh.  xxiv.  2). 
These  he  consulted  as  oracles  (Gen.  xxx. 
27,  A.V.  "  learned  by  experience  "),  though 
without  entirely  losing  sight  of  the  God  of 
Abraham  and  the  God  of  Nahor,  to  whom 
he  appealed  when  occasion  offered  (Gen. 
xxxi.  53),  while  he  was  ready,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Jacob,  to  acknowledge  the  benefits 
conferred  upon  him  by  Jehovah  (Gen.  xxx. 
27).  Such,  indeed,  was  the  character  of 
most  of  tlie  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Israel- 
ites. Like  the  Cuthean  colonists  in  Sa- 
maria, who  "feared  Jehovah  and  served 
their  own  gods "  (2  K.  xvii.  33),  they 
blended  in  a  strange  manner  a  theoretical 
belief  in  the  true  God  with  the  external 
reverence  which  they  were  led  to  pay  to 
the  idols  of  the  nations  by  whom  they  were 
surrounded.  During  their  long  residence 
in  Egypt,  the  country  of  symbolism,  they 
defiled  themselves  with  the  idols  of  the 
land,  and  it  was  long  before  the  taint  was 
removed  (Josh.  xxiv.  14;  Ez.  xx.  7).  To 
these  gods  Moses,  as  the  lierald  of  Jehovah, 
flung  down  the  gauntlet  of  defiance,  and 
the  plagues  of  Egypt  smote  their  symbols 
(Num.  xxxiii.  4).  Yet,  with  the  memory 
of  their  deliverance  fresh  in  their  minds, 
their  leader  absent,  the  Israelites  clamored 
for  some  visible  shape  in  which  they  might 
worship  the  God  who  had  brought  them 
out  of  Egypt  (Ex.  xxxii.).  Aaron  lent 
himself  to  the  popular  cry,  and  chose  as 
the  symbol  of  deity  one  with  which  they 
had  long  been  familiar  —  the  calf —  em- 
bodiment of  Apis,  and  emblem  of  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  nature.  For  a  wliile  the 
erection  of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  worship  which  accompanied  it, 
satisfied  that  craving  for  an  outward  sign 
which  the  Israelites  constantly  exhibited; 
and  for  the  remainder  of  their  march  through 
the  desert,  with  the  dwelling-place  of  Jeho- 
vah in  their  midst,  they  did  not  again  de- 
generate into  open  apostasy.  But  it  was 
only  so  long  as  their  contact  with  the  na- 
tions was  of  a  hostile  character  that  this 
seeming  ortiiodoxy  was  maintained.  Dur- 
ing the  lives  of  Joshua  and  the  elders  who 
outlived  him,  they  kept  true  to  their  allegi- 
ance; but  the  generation  following,  who 
knew  not  Jehovah,  nor  the  works  he  had 
done  for  Israel,  swerved  from  the  plain  path 
of  their  fathers,  and  were  caught  in  the 


toils  of  the  foreigner  (Judg.  ii.).  From  this 
time  forth  their  history  becomes  little  more 
than  a  chronicle  of  the  inevital)le  sequence 
of  offence  and  punishment  (Judg.  ii.  12, 
14).  By  turns  each  conquering  nation 
strove  to  establish  the  worship  of  its  na- 
tional god.  Thus  far  idolatry  as  a  national 
sin.  The  episode  of  Micah,  in  Judg. 
xvii.,  xviii.,  sheds  a  lurid  light  on  the  secret 
practices  of  individuals,  who,  without  for- 
mally renouncing  Jehovah,  though  ceasing 
to  recognize  Him  as  the  theocratic  King 
(xvii.  6),  linked  with  His  worship  the  sym- 
bols of  ancient  idolatry.  In  later  times  the 
practice  of  secret  idolatry  was  carried  to 
greater  lengths.  Images  were  set  up  on 
the  corn-floors,  in  the  wine-vats,  and  be- 
hind the  doors  of  private  houses  (Is.  Ivii.  8 ; 
Hos.  ix.  1,  2) ;  and  to  check  this  tendency 
the  statute  in  Dout.  xxvii.  15  was  originally 
promulgated.  Under  Samuel's  administra- 
tion a  fast  was  held,  and  puriflcatory  rites 
performed,  to  mark  the  public  renunciation 
of  idolatry  (1  Sam.  vii.  3-6).  But  in  the 
reign  of  Solomon  all  this  was  forgotten. 
Each  of  his  many  foreign  wives  brought 
with  her  the  gods  of  her  own  nation ;  and 
the  god^  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Zidon 
wore  openly  worshipped.  Rehoboam,  the 
son  of  an  Ammonite  mother,  perpetuated 
the  worst  features  of  Solomon's  idolatry  (I 
K.  xiv.  22-24)  ;  and  in  his  reign  was  made 
the  great  schism  in  the  national  religion : 
when  Jeroboam,  fresh  from  his  recollec- 
tions of  the  Apis  worship  of  Egypt,  erected 
golden  calves  at  Bethel  and  at  Dan,  and  by 
this  crafty  state-policy  severed  forever  the 
kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  (1  K.  xii.  26- 
33).  The  successors  of  Jeroboam  followed 
in  his  steps,  till  Ahab,  who  married  a  Zido- 
nian  princess,  at  her  instigation  (1  K.  xxi. 
25)  built  a  temple  and  altar  to  Baal,  and 
revived  all  the  abominations  of  the  Araorites 
(1  K.  xxi.  26).  Compared  with  the  worship 
of  Baal,  the  worship  of  the  calves  was  a 
venial  offence,  probably  because  it  wa8 
morally  less  detestable  and  also  less  anti- 
national  (1  K.  xii.  28;  2  K.  x.  28-31). 
Henceforth  Baal-worship  became  so  com- 
pletely identified  with  the  northern  kingdom 
that  it  is  described  as  walking  in  the  way  or 
statutes  of  the  kings  of  Israel  (2  K.  xvi.  3, 
xvii.  8),  as  distinguished  from  the  sin  of 
Jeroboam.  The  conquest  of  the  ten  tribes 
by  Shalmaneser  was  for  them  the  last  scene 
of  the  drama  of  abominations  wliich  had 
been  enacted  uninterruptedly  for  upwards 
of  250  years.  Tlie  first  act  of  Hezekiah 
on  ascending  the  throne  was  the  restoration 
and  purification  of  the  temple,  which  had 
been  dismantled  and  closed  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  liis  father's  life  (2  Chr.  xxviii. 
24,  xxix.  3).  The  iconoclastic  spirit  was 
not  confined  to  Judah  and  Benjamin,  but 
spread  throughout  Ephraim  and  Manasseh 
(2  Chr.  xxxi.   1),  and  to  all  external  ap- 


IDOLATRY 


256 


IDOLATRY 


pearance  idolatry  was  extirpated.  But  the 
reform  extended  little  below  the  surface  (Is. 
xxix.  13).  With  the  death  of  Josiah  ended 
the  last  effort  to  revive  among  the  people  a 
purer  ritual,  if  not  a  purer  faith.  The  lamp 
of  David,  wliicli  had  long  shed  but  a  strug- 
gling ray,  flickered  for  a  while  and  then 
went  out  in  the  darkness  of  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity. But  foreign  exile  was  powerless  to 
eradicate  the  deep  inbred  tendency  to  idola- 
try. One  of  the  first  difBculties  with  which 
Ezra  had  to  contend  was  the  haste  with  which 
his  countrymen  took  them  foreign  wives  of 
the  people  of  the  land,  and  followed  them  in 
all  their  abominations  (Ezr.  ix.)  The  con- 
quests of  Alexander  in  Asia  caused  Greek 
influence  to  be  extensively  felt,  and  Greek 
idolatry  to  be  first  tolerated,  and  then 
practised,  by  the  Jews  (1  Mace.  i.  43-50, 
54).  The  attempt  of  Antiochus  to  establish 
this  form  of  worship  was  vigorously  re- 
sisted by  Mattathias  (1  Mace.  ii.  23-26). 
The  erection  of  synagogues  has  been  as- 
signed as  a  reason  for  the  comparative 
purity  of  the  Jewish  worship  after  the  cap- 
tivity, while  anotiier  cause  has  been  dis- 
covered in  the  hatred  for  images  acquired 
by  the  Jews  in  their  intercourse  with  the 
Persians.  II.  Objects  of  Idolatry.  —  In 
the  old  religion  of  the  Semitic  races  the 
deity,  following  human  analogy,  was  con- 
ceived of  as  male  and  female  :  the  one  rep- 
resenting the  active,  the  other  the  passive 
principle  of  nature ;  the  former  the  source 
of  spiritual,  the  latter  of  physical  life.  The 
sun  and  moon  were  early  selected  as  out- 
ward symbols  of  this  all-pervading  power, 
and  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
was  not  only  the  most  ancient  but  the 
most  prevalent  system  of  idolatry.  Tak- 
ing its  rise  in  the  plains  of  Chaldea,  it 
spread  through  Egypt,  Greece,  Scythia, 
and  even  Mexico  and  Ceylon  (comp. 
Deut.  iv.  19,  xvii.  3;  Job  xxxi.  26-28). 
It  is  probable  that  the  Israelites  learnt 
their  first  lessons  in  sun-worship  from 
the  Egyptians,  in  whose  religious  sys- 
tem that  luminary,  as  Osiris,  held  a  prom- 
inent place.  The  Phoenicians  worshipped 
him  under  the  title  of  "Lord  of  heaven." 
As  Molech  or  Milcom,  the  sun  was  wor- 
shipped by  the  Ammonites,  and  as  Che- 
mosh  by  the  Moabites.  The  Hadad  of 
the  Syrians  is  the  same  deity.  The  Assyr- 
ian Bel,  or  Belus,  is  another  form  of  Baal. 
By  the  later  kings  of  Judah,  sacred  horses 
and  chariots  were  dedicated  to  the  sun-god, 
as  by  the  Persians  (2  K.  xxiii.  11).  The 
moon,  worshipped  by  the  Phoenicians  under 
the  name  of  Astarte  or  Baaltis,  the  passive 
power  of  nature,  as  Baal  was  the  active, 
and  known  to  the  Hebrews  as  Ashtaroth  or 
Ashtoreth,  the  tutelary  goddess  of  the  Zido- 
nians,  appears  early  among  the  objects  of 
Israelitish  idolatry.  In  the  later  times  of 
the  monarchy,  the  planets,  or  the  zodiacal 


signs,  received,  next  to  the  sun  and  moon, 
their  share  of  popular  adoration  (2  K.  xxiii. 
6).  Beast-worship,  as  exemplified  in  the 
calves  of  Jeroboam,  has  already  been  al- 
luded to.  There  is  no  actual  proof  that 
the  Israelites  ever  joined  in  the  service 
of  Dagon,  the  fish-god  of  the  Philistines, 
though  Ahaziah  sent  stealthily  to  Baalze- 
bub,  the  fly-god  of  Ekron  (2  K.  i.),  and  in 
later  times  the  brazen  serpent  became  the 
object  of  idolatrous  homage  (2  K.  xviii.  4). 
Of  pure  hero-worship  among  the  Semitic 
races  we  find  no  trace.  The  singular  rever- 
ence with  which  trees  have  been  honored  is 
not  without  example  in  the  history  of  the 
Hebrews.  The  terebinth  at  Mamre,  be- 
neath which  Abraham  built  an  altar  (Gen. 
xii.  7,  xiii.  18),  and  the  memorial  grove 
planted  by  him  at  Beersheba  (Gen.  xxi.  33), 
were  intimately  connected  with  patriarchal 
worship.  Mountains  and  high  places  wore 
chosen  spots  for  offering  sacrifice  and  in- 
cense to  idols  (1  K.  xi.  7,  xiv.  23)  ;  and  the 
retirement  of  gardens  and  the  thick  shade 
of  woods  ofiered  great  attractions  to  their 
worshippers  (2  K.  xvi.  4 ;  Is.  i.  29 ;  Hos.  iv. 
13).  The  host  of  heaven  was  worshipped 
on  the  house-top  (2  K.  xxiii.  12 ;  Jer.  xix. 
3,  xxxii.  29;  Zeph.  i.  5).  III.  runisJiment 
of  Idolatry. — If  one  main  object  of  the 
Hebrew  polity  was  to  teach  the  unity  of  God, 
the  extermination  of  idolatry  was  but  a  sub- 
ordinate end.  Jehovah,  the  God  of  the  Is- 
raelites, was  the  civil  head  of  tiie  State. 
He  was  the  theocratic  king  of  the  people, 
who  had  delivered  them  from  bondage,  and 
to  whom  they  had  taken  a  willing  oath  of 
allegiance.  Idolatry,  therefore,  to  an  Is- 
raelite was  a  state  offence  (1  Sam.  xv.  23), 
a  political  crime  of  the  gravest  character, 
high  treason  against  the  majesty  of  his  king. 
But  it  was  much  more  than  all  this.  While 
the  idolatry  of  foreign  nations  is  stigma- 
tized merely  as  an  abomination  in  the  sight 
of  God,  which  called  for  his  vengeance,  the 
sin  of  the  Israelites  is  regarded  as  of  more 
glaring  enormity  and  greater  moral  guilt. 
In  the  figurative  language  of  the  propliets, 
the  relation  between  Jehovah  and  his  people 
is  represented  as  a  marriage  bond  (Is.  liv. 
5;  Jer.  iii.  14),  and  the  worship  of  false 
gods  with  all  its  accompaniments  (Lev.  xx. 
56)  becomes  then  the  greatest  of  social 
wrongs  (Hos.  ii. ;  Jer.  iii.,  &c.).  The  first 
and  second  commandments  arc  directed 
against  idolatry  of  every  form.  Individuals 
and  communities  were  equally  amenable  to 
the  rigorous  code.  The  individual  offender 
was  devoted  to  destruction  (Ex.  xxii.  20)  ; 
his  nearest  relatives  were  not  only  bound 
to  denounce  him  and  deliver  him  up  to 
punishment  (Deut.  xiii.  2-10),  but  their 
hands  were  to  strike  the  first  blow,  when,  on 
the  evidence  of  two  witnesses  at  least,  he 
was  stoned  (Deut. xvii.  2-5).  To  attempt 
to  seduce  others  to  false  worship  was  a 


IDUMEA 


257 


INCENSE 


crime   of  equal  enormity   (Deut.   xiii.   6- 
10). 

Idume'a.    [Edom.] 

I'gal.  1.  One  of  the  spies,  son  of  Joseph, 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Num.  xiii.  7).  2. 
One  of  the  heroes  of  David's  guard,  son  of 
Nathan  of  Zobah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  36) . 

Igdali'ah,  a  prophet  or  holy  man  — 
"  the  man  of  God  " —  named  once  only  (Jer. 
XXXV.  4),  as  the  father  of  Hanan. 

Ig'eal,  a  son  of  Shemaiah ;  a  descend- 
ant of  the  royal  house  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iii. 
22).  _ 

I'im.  1.  The  partial  or  contracted  form 
of  the  name  Ije-Abarim  (Num.  xxxiii.  45). 
2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  28). 

I'je-ab'arim,  one  of  the  later  halting- 
places  of  the  children  of  Israel  (Num.  xxi. 
11,  xxxiii.  44).  It  was  on  the  boundary  — 
the  S.  E.  boundary — of  the  territory  of 
Moab;  in  the  waste  uncultivated  "wilder- 
ness "  on  its  skirts  (xxi.  11). 

I'jon,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Palestine, 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  It  was 
taken  and  plundered  by  the  captains  of  Ben- 
hadad  (1  K.  xv.  20;  2  Chr.  xvi.  4),  and  a 
second  time  by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  K.  xv.  29). 
It  was  situated  a  few  miles  N.  W.  of  the 
site  of  Dan,  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful  little 
plain  called  Merj  'Ayitn. 

Ik'kesh,  the  father  of  Ira  the  Tekoite 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  26;  1  Chr.  xi.  28,  xxvii. 
9). 

I'lai,  an  Ahohite,  one  of  the  heroes  of 
David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi.  29). 

Illyr'icum,  an  extensive  district  lying 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  from 
the  boundary  of  Italy  on  the  north  to  Epirus 
on  the  south,  and  contiguous  toMoesiaand 
Macedonia  on  the  east  (Rom.  xv.  19). 

Image.     [Idol.] 

Im'la,  father  or  progenitor  of  Micaiah 
the  prophet  (2  Chr.  xviii.  7,  8).     The  form 

Im'lah  is  employed  in  the  parallel  nar- 
rative (1  K.  xxii.  8,  9). 

Imman'uel,  that  is,  God  with  us,  the 
symbolical  name  given  by  the  prophet 
Isaiah  to  the  child  who  was  announced  to 
Ahaz  and  the  people  of  Judah,  as  the  sign 
which  God  would  give  of  their  deliverance 
from  their  enemies  (Is.  vii.  14).  It  is  ap- 
pUed  by  the  Apostle  Matthew  to  the  Mes- 
siah, born  of  the  Virgin  (Matt.  i.  23).  It 
would  therefore  appear  that  the  immediate 
reference  of  the  prophet  was  to  some  con- 
temporary occurrence,  but  that  his  words 
received  tlieir  true  and  full  accomplishment 
in  the  birth  of  the  Messiah. 

Im'mer.  1.  The  founder  of  an  important 
fiimily  of  priests  (1  Chr.  ix.  12 ;  Neh.  xi. 
13).  This  family  had  charge  of,  and  gave 
its  name  to,  the  sixteenth  course  of  the  ser- 
vice (1  Chr.  xxiv.  14).  2.  Apparently  the 
name  of  a  place  in  Babylonia  (Ezr.  ii.  59 ; 
Neh.  vii.  61). 

17 


Im'na,  a  descendant  of  Ashor,  son  of 
Helem  (1  Chr.  vii.  35;  comp.  40). 

Irn'riah..  1.  The  first-born  of  Asher 
(1  Chr.  vii.  30).  2.  Kore  ben-Imnah,  the 
Levite,  assisted  in  the  reforms  of  Hezekiah 
(2  Chr.  xxxi.  14). 

Im'rah.,  a  descendant  of  Asher,  of  the 
family  of  Zophah  (1  Chr.  vii.  36). 

Im'ri.  1.  A  man  of  Judah,  of  the  great 
family  of  Pharez  (1  Chr.  ix.  4).  2.  Father 
or  progenitor  of  Zaccur  (Neh.  iii.  2). 

Incense.  The  incense  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  tabernacle  was  compounded 
of  the  perfumes  stacte,  onycha,  galbanum, 
and  pure  frankincense.  All  incense  which 
was  not  made  of  these  ingredients  was  for- 
bidden to  be  offered  (Ex.  xxx.  9).  Aaron, 
as  high-priest,  was  originally  appointed  to 
offer  incense,  but  in  the  daily  service  of 
the  second  temple  the  office  devolved  upon 
the  inferior  priests,  from  among  whom  one 
was  chosen  by  lot  (Luke  i.  9),  each  morn- 
ing and  evening.  I'he  times  of  offering 
incense  were  specified  in  the  instructions 
first  given  to  Moses  (Ex.  xxx.  7,  8).  The 
morning  incense  was  offered  when  the 
lamps  were  trimmed  in  the  Holy  place, 
and  before  the  sacrifice,  when  the  watch- 
man set  for  the  purpose  announced  the 
break  of  day.  When  the  lamps  were  light- 
ed "between  the  evenings,"  after  the  even- 
ing sacrifice  and  before  the  drink-offerings 
were  offered,  incense  was  again  burnt  on 
the  golden  altar,  which  "  belonged  to  the 
oracle  "  (1  K.  vi.  22),  and  stood  before  the 
veil  which  separated  the  Holy  place  from 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  throne  of  God  (Rev. 
viii.  4).  When  the  priest  entered  the  Holy 
place  with  the  incense,  all  the  people  were 
removed  from  the  temple,  and  from  be- 
tween the  porch  and  the  altar  (cf.  Luke  i. 
10).  Profound  silence  was  observed  among 
the  congregation  who  were  praying  with- 
out (cf.  Rev.  viii.  1),  and  at  a  signal  from 
the  prefect  the  priest  cast  the  incense  on 
the  fire,  and  bowing  reverently  towards  the 
Holy  of  Holies  retired  slowly  backwards, 
not  prolonging  his  prayer  that  he  might 
not  alarm  the  congregation,  or  cause  them 
to  fear  that  he  had  been  struck  dead  for 
offering  unworthily  (Lev.  xvi.  13 ;  Luke  i. 
21).  On  the  day  of  atonement  the  service 
was  different.  The  offering  of  incense  has 
formed  a  part  of  the  religious  ceremonies 
of  most  ancient  nations.  It  was  an  ele- 
ment in  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Is- 
raelites (Jer.  xi.  12,  17,  xlviii.  35 ;  2  Chr. 
xxxiv.  25).  Looking  upon  incense  in  con- 
nection with  the  other  ceremonial  obser- 
vances of  the  Mosaic  ritual,  it  would 
rather  seem  to  be  symbolical,  not  of  prayer 
itself,  but  of  that  which  makes  prayer  ac- 
ceptable, the  intercession  of  Christ.  In 
Rev.  viii.  3,  4,  the  incense  is  spoken  of  as 
something  distinct  from,  though  offered  with 
the  prayers  of  all  the  saints  (cf.  Luke  L 


INDIA 


258 


IRON 


10)  ;  and  in  Eev  v.  8  it  is  the  golden  vials, 
and  not  the  odors  or  incense,  which  are  said 
to  be  the  prayers  of  saints. 

India.  Tlie  name  of  India  does  not  oc- 
cur in  the  Bible  before  the  book  of  Esther, 
where  it  is  noticed  as  the  limit  of  the  terri- 
tories of  Ahasuerus  in  the  cast,  as  Ethiopia 
was  in  the  west  (i.  1;  viii.  9).  The  India 
of  the  book  of  Esther  is  not  the  peninsula 
of  Hindostan,  but  the  country  surrounding 
tlie  Indus,  the  Piinjdh,  and  perhaps  Scinde. 
In  1  Mace.  viii.  8,  India  is  reckoned  among 
the  countries  which  Eumenes,  king  of  Per- 
gamus,  received  out  of  the  former  posses- 
sions of  Antiochus  the  Great.  A  more 
authentic  notice  of  the  country  occurs  in  1 
Mace.  xi.  37.  But  though  the  name  of 
India  occurs  so  seldom,  the  people  and 
productions  of  that  country  must  have 
been  tolerably  well  known  to  the  Jews. 
There  is  undoubted  evidence  that  an  active 
trade  was  carried  on  between  India  and 
Western  Asia.  The  trade  opened  by  Solo- 
mon with  Ophir  through  the  Red  Sea  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  Indian  articles.  The  con- 
nection thus  established  with  India  led  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Indians  were  included  under 
the  ethnological  title  of  Cush  (Gen.  x.  6). 
Inheritance.  [Heir.] 
Ink,  Inkhorn.  [Writing.] 
Inn.  The  Hebrew  word  (mdUn)  thus 
rendered  literally  signifies  "  a  lodging-place 
for  the  night."  Inns,  in  our  sense  of  the 
term,  were,  as  they  still  are,  unknown  in 
the  East,  where  hospitality  is  religiously 
practised.  The  khans,  or  caravanserais, 
are  the  representatives  of  European  inns, 
and  these  were  established  but  gradually. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  any  allusion 
to  them  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  halt- 
ing-place of  a  caravan  was  selected  origi- 
nally on  account  of  its  proximity  to  water 
or  pasture,  by  which  the  travellers  pitched 
their  tents,  and  passed  the  night.  Such 
was  undoubtedly  the  "  inn  "  at  which  oc- 
curred the  incident  in  the  life  of  Moses, 
narrated  in  Ex.  iv.  24  (comp.  Gen.  xlii. 
27).  On  the  more  frequented  routes,  re- 
mote from  towns  (Jer.  ix.  2),  caravanserais 
were  in  course  of  time  erected,  often  at  the 
expense  of  the  wealthy.  The  following 
description  of  one  of  those  on  the  road 
from  Bagdad  to  Babylon  will  suffice  for 
all:  "It  is  a  large  and  substantial  square 
building,  in  the  distance  resembling  a  for- 
tress, being  surrounded  with  a  lofty  wall, 
and  flanked  by  round  towers  to  defend  the 
inmates  in  case  of  attack.  Passing  through 
a  strong  gateway,  the  guest  enters  a  large 
court,  the  sides  of  which  are  divided  into 
numerous  arched  compartments,  open  in 
front,  for  the  accommodation  of  separate 
parties,  and  for  the  reception  of  goods.  In 
the  centre  is  a  spacious  raised  platform, 
used  for  sleeping  upon  at  night,  or  for  the 
deTatians  of  the  fciithful  during  the  day. 


Between  the  outer  wall  and  the  compart- 
ments are  wide  vaulted  arcades,  extending 
round  the  entire  building,  where  the  beasts 
of  burden  are  placed.  Upon  the  roof  of 
the  arcades  is  an  excellent  terrace,  and 
over  the  gateway  an  elevated  tower  con- 
taining two  rooms  —  one  of  which  is  open 
at  the  sides,  permitting  the  occupants  to 
enjoy  every  breath  of  air  that  passes  across 
the  heated  plain.  The  terrace  is  tolerably 
clean ;  but  the  court  and  stabling  below  are 
ankle-deep  in  chopped  straw  and  filth." 
(Loftus,  Chaldea,  p.  13.) 

Instant,  Instantly,  in  the  A.  V., 
means  urgent,  urgently,  or  fervently,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  passages : 
Luke  vii.  4,  xxiii.  23 ;  Acts  jfxvi.  7 ;  Rom. 
xii.  12.  In  2  Tim.  iv.  2  we  find  "be  in- 
stant in  season  and  out  of  season."  The 
literal  sense  is  "  stand  ready  "  —  "be  alert" 
for  whatever  may  happen. 

Iphedei'ah,  a  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
one  of  the  Bene-Shashak  (1  Chr.  viii.  25). 

Ir,  1  Chr.  vii.  12.     [Iri.] 

I'ra.  1.  "The  Jairite,"  named  in  the 
catalogue  of  David's  great  officers  (2  Sam, 
XX.  26).  2.  One  of  the  heroes  of  David's 
guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  38;  1  Chr.  xi.  40). 
3.  Another  of  David's  guard,  a  Tekoite, 
son  of  Ikkesh  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26 ;  1  Chr.  xi. 
28). 

I'rad,  son  of  Enoch ;  grandson  of  Cain, 
and  father  of  Mehujael  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

I'raui,  a  leader  of  the  Edomites  (Gen; 
xxxvi.  48 ;  1  Chr.  i.  54),  i.  e.,  the  chief  of 
a  family  or  tribe.  No  identification  of  him 
has  been  found. 

I'ri,  or  Ir,  a  Benjamite,  son  of  Bela  (1 
Chr.  vii.  7,  12). 

Iri'jah,  son  of  Shelemiah,  a  captain 
of  the  ward,  who  met  Jeremiah  in  the  gate 
of  Jerusalem ,  called  the  "gate  of  Ben- 
jamin," accused  him  of  being  about  to  de- 
sert to  the  Chaldeans,  and  led  him  back  to 
the  princes  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13,  14). 

Ir'-nahash,  a  name  which,  like  many 
other  names  of  places,  occurs  in  the  gene- 
alogical lists  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  12). 

I'ron,  one  of  the  cities  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  xix.  38),  hitherto  totally  unknown. 

Iron  is  mentioned  with  brass  as  the 
earliest  of  known  metals  (Gen.  iv.  22).  As 
it  is  rarely  found  in  its  native  state,  but 
generally  in  combination  with  oxygen,  the 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  forging  iron,  which 
is  attributed  to  Tubal  Cain,  argues  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  difficulties  which  attend 
the  smelting  of  this  metal.  The  natural 
wealth  of  the  soil  of  Canaan  is  indicated  by 
describing  it  as  "a  land  whose  stones  are 
iron"  (Deut.  viii.  9).  The  book  of  Job 
contains  passages  which  indicate  that  iron 
was  a  metal  well  known.  Of  the  manner 
of  procuring  it,  we  learn  that  "iron  is 
taken  from  dust"  (xxviii.  2).  The  "fur- 
nace of  iron  "  (Deut.  iv.  28 ;  1  K.  viii.  51) 


IRPEEL 


259 


ISAAC 


is  a  figure  which  vividly  expresses  hard 
bondage,  as  represented  by  the  severe  labor 
which  attended  the  operation  of  smelting. 
Sheet-iron  was  used  for  cooking  utensils 
(Ez.  iv.  3;  cf.  Lev.  vii.  9).  That  it  was 
plentiful  in  the  time  of  David  appears  from 
1  Chr.  xxii.  3.  The  market  of  Tyre  was 
supplied  with  bright  or  polished  iron  by  tiie 
merchants  of  Dan  and  Javan  (Ez.  xxvii. 
19),  The  Chalybes  of  the  Pontus  were 
celebrated  as  workers  in  iron  in  very  an- 
cient times.  The  produce  of  their  labor  is 
supposed  to  be  alluded  to  in  Jer.  xv. 
12,  as  being  of  superior  quality.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  supposed  that  the  Egyp- 
tians were  ignorant  of  the  use  of  iron,  and 
that  the  allusions  in  the  Pentateuch  were 
anachronisms,  as  no  traces  of  it  have  been 
found  in  their  monuments ;  but  in  the  sep- 
ulchres at  Thebes  butchers  are  repre- 
sented as  sharpening  their  knives  on  a 
round  bar  of  metal  attached  to  their  aprons, 
which  from  its  blue  color  is  presumed  to  be 
steel.  One  iron  mine  only  has  been  dis- 
covered in  Egypt,  which  was  worked  by 
the  ancients.  It  is  at  Hammami,  between 
the  Nile  and  the  Eed  Sea ;  the  iron  found 
by  Mr.  Burton  was  in  the  form  of  specu- 
lar and  red  ore.  That  no  articles  of  iron 
should  have  been  found  is  readily  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  it  is  easily  destroyed  by 
moisture  and  exposure  to  the  air.  Speci- 
mens of  Assyrian  iron-work  overlaid  with 
bronze  were  discovered  by  Mr.  Layard,  and 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Iron 
weapons  of  various  kinds  were  found  at 
Nimroud,  but  fell  to  pieces  on  exposure 
to  the  air.  There  is  considerable  doubt 
whether  the  ancients  were  acquainted  with 
cast-iron.  The  rendering  given  by  the 
LXX.  of  Job  xl.  18  seems  to  imply  that 
some  method  nearly  like  that  of  casting 
was  known,  and  is  supported  by  a  passage 
in  Diodorus  (v.  13).  In  Ecclus.  xxxviii. 
28,  we  have  a  picture  of  the  interior  of  an 
iron-smith's  (Is.  xliv.  12)  workshop. 

Ir'peel,  one  of  the  cities  of  Benjamin 
(Josh,  xviii.  27).  No  trace  has  yet  been 
discovered  of  its  situation. 

Ir'-she'mesh,  a  city  of  the  Danites 
(Josh.  xix.  41),  probably  identical  with 
Beth-shemesh,  and,  if  not  identical,  at 
least  connected  with  Mount  Heres  (Judg. 
i.  35). 

I'm,  the  eldest  son  of  the  great  Caleb 
son  of  Jephunneh  (1  Chr.  iv.  15). 

I'saac,  the  son  whom  Sarah,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Divine  promise,  bore  to  Abra- 
ham, in  the  hundredth  year  of  Ixis  age,  at 
Gerar.  In  his  infoncy  he  became  the  ob- 
ject of  Ishmael's  jealousy ;  and  in  his  youth 
the  victim,  in  intention,  of  Abraham's  great 
sacrificial  act  of  faith.  When  forty  years 
old  he  married  Rebekah  his  cousin,  by 
whom,  when  he  was  sixty,  he  had  two  sons, 
Esau  and  Jacob.    In  his  seventy-fifth  year 


he  and  his  brother  Ishmacl  buried  their  fa? 
ther  Abraham  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah. 
From  this  abode  by  the  well  Lahai-roi,  in 
the  South  Country,  Isaac  was  driven  by  a 
famine  to  Gerar.  Here  Jehovah  appeared 
to  him  and  bade  him  dwell  there,  and  not 
go  over  into  Egypt,  and  renewed  to  him  the 
promises  made  to  Abraham.  Here  he  sub- 
jected himself,  like  Abraham  in  the  same 
place  and  under  like  circumstances  (Gen. 
XX.  2),  to  a  rebuke  from  Abimelech  the 
Philistine  king  for  an  equivocation.  Here 
he  acquired  great  wealth  by  his  flocks,  but 
was  repeatedly  dispossessed  by  the  Philis- 
tines of  the  wells  which  he  sank  at  con- 
venient stations.  At  Beersheba  Jehovah 
appeared  to  him  by  night  and  blessed  him, 
and  he  built  an  altar  there  :  there,  too,  like 
Abraham,  he  received  a  visit  from  the  Phi- 
listine king  Abimelech,  with  whom  he  made 
a  covenant  of  peace.  After  the  deceit  by 
which  Jacob  acquired  his  father's  blessing, 
Isaac  sent  his  son  to  seek  a  wife  in  Padan- 
aram  ;  and  all  that  we  know  of  him  during 
the  last  forty-three  years  of  his  life  is,  that 
he  saw  that  son,  with  a  large  and  prosper- 
ous family,  return  to  him  at  Hebron  (xxxv. 
27)  before  he  died  there  at  the  age  of  180 
years.  He  was  buried  by  his  two  sons  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah.  In  the  N.  T. 
reference  is  made  to  the  offering  of  Isaac 
(Heb.  xi.  17;  and  James  ii.  21)  and  to  his 
blessing  his  sons  (Heb.  xi.  20).  As  the 
child  of  the  promise,  and  as  the  progenitor 
of  the  children  of  the  promise,  he  is  con- 
trasted with  Ishmael  (Rom.  ix.  7,  10 ;  Gal. 
iv.  28;  Heb.  xi.  18).  In  our  Lord's  re- 
markable argument  with  the  Sadducees,  his 
history  is  carried  beyond  the  point  at  which 
it  is  left  in  the  O.  T.,  and  beyond  the  grave. 
Isaac,  of  whom  it  was  said  (Gen.  xxxv.  29) 
that  he  was  gathered  to  his  people,  is  rep- 
resented as  still  living  to  God  (Luke  xx. 
38,  &c.)  ;  and  by  the  same  Divine  author- 
ity he  is  proclaimed  as  an  acknowledged 
heir  of  future  glory  (Matt.  viii.  11,  &c.). 
It  has  been  asked  what  are  the  persecutions 
sustained  by  Isaac  from  Ishmael  to  which 
St.  Paul  refers  (Gal.  iv.  29).  Rashi  re- 
lates a  Jewish  tradition  of  Isaac  suffering 
personal  violence  from  Ishmael,  a  tradition 
which  some  think  was  adopted  liy  St.  Paul. 
In  reference  to  the  offering  up  of  Isaac  by 
Abraham,  the  primary  doctrines  taught  are 
those  of  sacrifice  and  substitution,  as  the 
means  appointed  by  God  for  taking  away 
sin;  and,  as  co-ordinate  with  these,  the 
need  of  the  obedience  of  faith,  on  the  part 
of  man,  to  receive  the  benefit  (Heb.  xi.  17). 
A  confusion  is  often  made  between  Isaac 
and  the  victim  actually  offered.  Isaac 
himself  is  generally  viewed  as  a  type  of 
the  Son  of  God,  offered  for  the  sins  of 
men ;  but  Isaac,  himself  one  of  the  sinful 
race  for  whom  atonement  was  to  be  made, 
—  Isaac,  who  did  not  actually  suffer  death, 


ISAIAH 


260 


ISAIAH 


—  was  no  fit  type  of  Him  who  "  was  slain, 
tlie  just  for  the  unjust."  But  the  animal, 
not  of  the  human  race,  which  God  provided 
and  Abraham  offered,  was  in  the  whole 
history  of  sacrifice  the  recognized  type 
of  "  the  Lamb  of  God,  that  taketh  away 
the  sins  of  the  world."  Isaac  is  the  type 
of  humanity  itself,  devoted  to  death  for 
sin,  and  submitting  to  the  sentence. 

Isa'iah.,  the  prophet,  son  of  Amoz.  The 
Hebrew  name,  our  shortened  form  of  which 
occurs  with  other  persons  [see  Jesaiah, 
Jeshaiah],  signifies  Salration  of  Jahu  (a 
shortened  form  of  Jehovah).  He  prophe- 
sied concerning  Judah  and  Jerusalem  in 
the  days  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah  (Is.  i.  1).  Isaiah 
must  have  been  an  old  man  at  the  close  of 
Hezekiah's  reign.  The  ordinary  chronol- 
ogy gives  758  b.  c.  for  the  date  of  Jotham's 
accession,  and  698  for  that  of  Hezekiah's 
death.  This  gives  us  a  period  of  sixty 
years.  And  since  his  ministry  commenced 
before  Uzziah's  death  (how  long  we  know 
not),  supposing  him  to  have  been  no  more 
than  twenty  years  old  when  he  began  to 
prophesy,  he  would  have  been  eighty  or 
ninety  at  Manasseh's  accession.  Eabbini- 
cal  tradition  says  that  Isaiah  was  sawn 
asunder  in  a  trunk  of  a  tree  by  order  of 
Manasseh,  to  which  it  is  supposed  that  ref- 
erence is  made  in  Hebrews  xi.  37.  I.  Chs. 
i.-v.  contain  Isaiah's  prophecies  in  the 
reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jotham.  Ch.  i.  is 
very  general  in  its  contents.  Chs.  ii.-iv. 
are  one  prophesying,  —  the  leading  thought 
of  which  is,  that  the  present  prosperity  of 
Judah  should  be  destroyed  for  her  sins,  to 
make  room  for  the  real  glory  of  piety  and 
virtue ;  while  ch.  v.  forms  a  distinct  dis- 
course, whose  main  purport  is  that  Israel, 
God's  vineyard,  shall  be  brought  to  desola- 
tion. Ch.  vi.  describes  an  ecstatic  vision 
that  fell  upon  the  prophet  in  the  year  of 
Uzziah's  death.  Ch.  vi.,  vii.,  delivered  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  he  was  threatened 
by  the  forces  of  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and 
Kezin,  king  of  Syria.  As  a  sign  that  Judah 
was  not  yet  to  perish,  he  announces  the 
birth  of  the  child  Iraraanuel,  who  should 
"  know  to  refuse  the  evil  and  choose  the 
good,"  before  the  land  of  the  two  hostile 
kings  should  be  left  desolate.  Ch.  viii.- 
ix.  7.  As  the  Assyrian  empire  began  more 
and  more  to  threaten  the  Hebrew  common- 
wealth with  utter  overthrow,  the  prediction 
of  the  Messiah,  the  Restorer  of  Israel,  be- 
comes more  positive  and  clear.  The  king 
was  bent  upon  an  alliance  with  Assyria. 
Tliis  Isaiah  steadfastly  opposes.  —  Ch.  ix. 
8-x.  4  is  a  prophecy  delivered  at  this  time 
against  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (ix.  8-x.  4). 
Ch.  X.  5-xii.  6  is  one  of  the  most  highly 
wrought  passages  in  the  whole  book,  and 
was  probably  one  single  prophecy.  It 
stands  wholly  disconnected  with  the  pre- 


ceding in  the  circumstances  which  it  pre- 
supposes ;  and  to  what  period  to  assign  it 
is  not  easy  to  determine.  Ch.  xiii.-xxiii 
contain  chiefly  a  collection  of  utterances, 
each  of  which  is  styled  a  "burden."  (a.) 
The  first  (xiii.  1-xiv.  27)  is  against  Baby- 
lon. The  ode  of  triumph  (xiv.  3-23)  in 
this  burden  is  among  the  most  poetical  pas- 
sages in  all  literature.  (6.)  The  short  and 
pregnant  "  burden  "  against  Philistia  (xiv. 
29-32),  in  the  year  that  Ahaz  died,  was  oc- 
casioned by  the  revolt  of  the  Philistines 
from  Judah,  and  their  successful  inroad 
recorded  in  2  Chr.  xxviii.  18.  (c.)  The 
"burden  of  Moab"  (xv.,  xvi.)  is  remark- 
able for  the  elegiac  strain  in  which  the 
prophet  bewails  the  disasters  of  Moab,  and 
for  the  dramatic  character  of  xvi.  1-6. 
(d.)  Ch.  xvii.,  xviii.  This  prophecy  is 
headed  "the  burden  of  Damascus;"  and 
yet  after  ver.  3  the  attention  is  withdrawn 
from  Damascus  and  turned  to  Israel,  and 
then  to  Ethiopia,  (c.)  In  the  "burden  of 
Egypt"  (xix.)  the  prophet  prophesies  the 
utter  helplessness  of  Egypt  under  God's 
judgments,  probably  to  counteract  the  ten- 
dency which  led  both  Judah  and  Israel  to 
look  towards  Egypt  for  succor  against  As- 
syria. (/.)  In  the  midst  of  these  "bur- 
dens "  stands  a  passage  which  presents  Isa- 
iah in  a  new  aspect,  an  aspect  in  which  he 
appears  in  this  instance  only.  The  more 
emphatically  to  enforce  the  warning  al- 
ready conveyed  in  the  "  burden  of  Egypt," 
Isaiah  was  commanded  to  appear  in  the 
streets  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  stripped 
of  his  sackcloth  mantle,  and  wearing  his 
vest  only,  with  his  feet  also  bare,  (g.)  In 
"the  burden  of  the  desert  of  the  sea,"  a 
poetical  designation  of  Babylonia  (xxi.  1- 
10),  the  images  in  which  the  fall  of  Baby- 
lon is  indicated  are  sketched  with  Aes-, 
chylean  grandeur,  (h.)  "The  burden  of 
Dumah,"  and  "of  Arabia"  (xxi.  11-17), 
relate  apparently  to  some  Assyrian  invasion. 
(i.)  In  "  the  burden  of  the  valley  of  vision  " 
(xxii.  1-14)  it  is  doubtless  Jerusalem  that 
is  thus  designated.  The  scene  presented 
is  that  of  Jerusalem  during  an  invasion. 
(k.)  The  passage  in  xxii.  15-25  is  singular 
in  Isaiah  as  a  prophesying  against  an  indi- 
vidual. Shebna  was  one  of  the  king's  high- 
est functionaries,  and  seems  to  have  been 
leader  of  a  p.irty  opposed  to  Jehovah  (ver. 
25).  (I.)  The  last  "burden"  is  against 
Tyre  (xxiii.).  Her  utter  destruction  is  not 
predicted  by  Isaiah  as  it  afterwards  was  by 
Ezekiel.  Ch.  xxiv.-xxvii.  form  one  proph- 
ecy, essentially  connected  ^vith  the  preced- 
ing ten  "burdens"  (xiii.-xxiii.),  of  which 
it  is  in  effect  a  general  summary.  In  xxv., 
after  commemorating  the  destruction  of 
all  oppressors,  the  prophet  gives  us  in 
vers.  6-9  a  most  glowing  description  of 
Messianic  blessings.  In  xxvi.,  vers.  12- 
18  describe  the  new,  happy  state  of  God's 


ISAIAH 


261 


ISH-BOSHETH 


people  as  God's  work  wholly.  In  xxvii.  1, 
"  Leviathan  the  fleeing  serpent,  and  Levia- 
than the  twisting  serpent,  and  the  dragon 
in  the  sea,"  are  perhaps  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon—  two  phases  of  the  same  Asshur  — 
and  Egypt  (corap.  ver.  13) ;  all,  however, 
symbolizing  adverse  powers  of  evil.  Ch. 
xxiii.-xxxv.  predicts  the  Assyrian  invasion. 
The  prophet  protests  against  the  policy  of 
courting  the  help  of  Egypt  against  Assyria 
(xxx.  1-17,  xxxi.  1-3.)  Ch.  xxxvii.-xxxix. 
At  length  the  season  so  often,  tliough  no 
doubt  obscurely  foretold,  arrived.  The 
Assyrian  was  near,  with  forces  apparently 
irresistible.  In  the  universal  consternation 
which  ensued,  all  the  hope  of  the  state 
centred  upon  Isaiah;  the  highest  func- 
tionaries of  the  state  —  Shebna  too  —  wait 
upon  him  in  the  name  of  their  sovereign. 
The  short  answer  which  Jehovah  gave 
through  him  was,  that  the  Assyrian  king 
should  hear  intelligence  which  should  send 
him  back  to  his  own  land,  there  to  perish. 
How  the  deliverance  was  to  be  effected, 
Isaiah  was  not  commissioned  to  tell ;  but 
the  very  next  night  (2  K.  xix.  35)  brought 
the  appalling  fulfilment.  II.  The  last  27 
chapters  form  a  separate  prophecy,  and  are 
supposed  by  many  critics  to  have  been 
written  in  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity, and  are  therefore  ascribed  to  a  "  later 
Isaiah."  It  is  evident  that  the  point  of 
time  and  situation  from  which  the  prophet 
here  speaks  is  that  of  the  captivity  in  Baby- 
lon (comp.  e.  g.  Ixiv.  10,  11)  ;  but  this  may 
be  adopted  on  a  principle  which  appears  to 
characterize  "  vision,"  viz.,  that  the  proph- 
et sees  the  future  as  if  present.  This  sec- 
ond part  falls  into  three  sections,  each,  as 
it  happens,  consisting  of  nine  chapters ; 
the  two  first  end  with  the  refrain,  "There 
is  no  peace,  saith  Jehovah  (or  "  my  God"), 
to  the  wicked ;  "  and  the  third  with  the 
same  thought  amplified.  (1.)  The  first 
section  (xl.-xlviii.)  has  for  its  main  topic 
the  comforting  assurance  of  the  deliver- 
ance from  Babylon  by  Koresh  (Cyrus)  who 
is  even  named  twice  (xli.  2,  3,  25,  xliv.  28, 
xlv.  1-4,  13,  xlvi.  11,  xlviii.  14,  15).  It  is 
characteristic  of  sacred  prophecy  in  gen- 
eral that  the  "  vision  "  of  a  great  deliver- 
ance leads  the  seer  to  glance  at  the  great 
deliverance  to  come  through  Jesus  Christ. 
This  principle  of  association  prevails  in 
the  second  part  taken  as  a  whole;  but  in 
the  first  section,  taken  apart,  it  appears  as 
yet  imperfectly.  (2.)  The  second  section 
(xlix.-lvii.)  is  distinguished  from  the  first 
by  several  features.  The  person  of  Cyrus 
as  well  as  his  name,  and  the  specification 
of  Babylon,  disappear  altogether.  Keturn 
from  exile  is  indeed  spoken  of  repeatedly 
and  at  length  (xlix.  9-26,  li.  9-lii.  12,  Iv. 
12,  13,  Ivii.  14)  ;  but  in  such  general  terms 
as  admit  of  being  applied  to  the  spiritual 
and  Messianic,  as  well  as  to  the  literal  res- 


toration. (3.)  In  the  third  section  (Iviii. 
-Ixvi.),  as  Cyrus  nowhere  appears,  so  nei- 
ther does  "  Jehovah's  servant "  occur  so 
frequently  to  view  as  in  the  second.  The 
only  delineation  of  the  latter  is  in  Ixi.  1-3 
and  in  Ixiii.  1-6,  9.  He  no  longer  appears 
as  suffering,  but  only  as  saving  and  aven- 
ging Zion.  The  section  is  mainly  occupied 
with  various  practical  exhortations  founded 
upon  the  views  of  the  future  already  set 
forth.  In  favor  of  the  authenticity  of  the 
last- 27  chapters  the  following  reasons  may 
be  advanced,  (a.)  The  unanimous  testi- 
mony of  Jewish  and  Christian  tradition 
(cbmp.  Ecclus.  xlviii.  24) ;  and  the  evi- 
dence of  the  N.T.  quotations  (Matt.  iii.  3; 
Luke  iv.  17  ;  Acts  viii.  28 ;  Rom.  x.  16,  20). 
(6.)  The  unity  of  design  which  connects 
these  last  27  chapters  with  the  preceding. 
The  oneness  of  diction  which  pervades  the 
whole  book.  The  peculiar  elevation  and 
grandeur  of  style,  which  characterize  the 
second  part  as  well  as  the  first.  The  ab- 
sence of  any  other  name  than  Isaiah's 
claiming  the  authorship.  Lastly,  the  Mes- 
sianic predictions  which  mark  its  inspira- 
tion, and  remove  the  chief  ground  of  ob- 
jection against  its  having  been  written  by 
Isaiah.  In  point  of  style  we  can  find  no 
difficulty  in  recognizing  in  the  second  part 
the  presence  of  the  same  plastic  genius  as 
we  discover  in  the  first. 

Is'call,  daughter  of  Haran  the  brother 
of  Abram,  and  sister  of  Milcah  and  of  Lot 
(Gen.  xi.  29).  In  the  Jewish  traditions 
she  is  identified  with  Saeai. 

Iscar'iot.     [Judas  Iscariot.] 

Ish'bah,  a  man  in  the  line  of  Judah, 
commemorated  as  the  "  father  of  Eshte- 
moa"  (1  Chr.  iv.  17). 

Ish'bak,  a  son  of  Abraham  and  Ketu- 
rah  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1  Chr.  i.  32),  and  the 
progenitor  of  a  tribe  of  northern  Arabia. 

Ish'bi-be'nob,  son  of  Kapha,  one  of 
the  race  of  Philistine  giants,  who  attacked 
David  in  battle,  but  Avas  slain  by  Abishai 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  16,  17). 

Ish-bo'sheth,  the  youngest  of  Saul's 
four  sons,  and  his  legitimate  successor. 
His  name  appears  (1  Chr.  viii.  33,  ix.  39) 
to  have  been  originally  Esh-haal,  *'  the 
man  of  Baal."  He  was  35  years  of  age  at 
the  time  of  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  but  for 
five  years  Abner  was  engaged  in  restoring 
the  dominion  of  the  house  of  Saul  over 
all  Israel.  Ishbosheth  was  then  "  40  years 
old  when  he  began  to  reign  over  Israel,  and 
reigned  two  years  "  (2  Sam.  iii.  10).  Dur- 
ing these  two  years  he  reigned  at  Maha- 
naim,  though  onlj'  in  name.  The  wars  and 
negotiations  with  David  were  entirely  car- 
ried on  by  Abner  (2  Sam.  ii.  12,  iii.  6,  12). 
The  death  of  Abner  deprived  the  house  of 
Saul  of  their  last  remaining  support.  When 
Ishbosheth  heard  of  it,  "  his  hands  were 
feeble,  and  all  the  Israelites  were  troubled  " 


ISHI 


262 


ISHMAEL 


('2  Sam.  It.  1).  In  this  extremity  of  weak- 
ness he  fell  a  victim,  probably,  to  revenge 
for  a  crime  of  his  father.  Two  Beerothites, 
Baana  and  Rechab,  in  remembrance,  it  has 
been  conjectured,  of  Saul's  slaughter  of 
their  kinsmen  the  Gibeonites,  determined 
to  take  advantage  of  the  helplessness  of 
Ibe  royal  house  to  destroy  the  only  repre- 
sentative that  was  left,  excepting  the  child 
Mephibosheth  (2  Sam.  iv.  4).  After  as- 
sassinating Ishbosheth,  they  took  his  head 
to  David  as  a  welcome  present.  They  met 
with  a  stern  reception.  David  rebuked 
them  for  the  cold-blooded  murder  of  an 
innocent  man,  and  ordered  them  to  be  ex- 
ecuted. The  head  of  Ishbosheth  was  care- 
liilly  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  great 
kinsman  Abner,  at  the  same  place  (2  Sam. 
•iv.  9-12). 

I'shi.  1.  A  man  of  the  descendants  of 
Judah,  son  of  Appaim  (1  Chr.  ii.  31)  ;  one 
of  the  great  house  of  Hezron.  2.  In  a 
subsequent  genealogy  of  Judah  we  find 
another  Ishi,  with  a  son  Zoheth  (1  Chr.  iv. 
20).  3.  Head  of  a  family  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv.  42).  4.  One  of  the 
heads  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  on  the  east 
of  Jordan  (1  Ciir.  v.  24). 

I'shi.  This  word  occurs  in  IIos.  ii.  16, 
and  signifies  "  my  man,"  "  my  husband." 
It  is  tlie  Israelite  term,  in  opposition  to 
Baali,  the  Canaanite  term,  with  the  same 
meaning,  though  with  a  significance  of  its 
own. 

Ishi'ah,  the  fifth  of  the  five  sons  of  Iz- 
rahiah ;  one  of  the  heads  of  the  tribe  of 
Issachar  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chr. 
vii.  3). 

Ishi'jah,  a  lay  Israelite  of  the  Bene- 
Harim,  wlio  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
(Ezr.  X.  31). 

Ish'nia,  a  name  in  the  genealogy  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  3). 

Ish'mael.  1.  The  son  of  Abraham  by 
ilagar  the  Egyptian,  his  concubine ;  born 
when  Abraham  was  fourscore  and  six  years 
old  (Gen.  xvi.  15,  16).  Ishmael  was  the 
first-born  of  his  father.  He  was  born  in 
Abraham's  house,  when  he  dwelt  in  the 
plain  of  Mamre ;  and  on  the  institution  of 
the  covenant  of  circumcision,  was  circum- 
cised, be  being  then  thirteen  years  old 
(xvii.  25).  "With  the  institution  of  the 
covenant,  God  renewed  his  promise  re- 
specting Ishmael.  He  does  not  again  ap- 
pear in  the  narrative  until  the  weaning  of 
Isaac.  The  latter  was  born  when  Abraham 
was  a  hundred  years  old  (xxi.  5),  and  as 
the  weaning,  according  to  Eastern  usage, 
probably  took  place  when  the  child  was 
between  two  and  three  years  old,  Ishmael 
himself  must  have  been  then  between  fif- 
teen and  sixteen  years  of  age.  At  the 
great  feast  made  in  celebration  of  the 
weaning,  "  Sarah  saw  the  son  of  Hagar  the 
Egyptian,  which  she  had  borne  unto  Abra-  j 


ham,  mocking,"  and  urged  Abraham  to 
cast  out  him  and  his  mother.  The  patri- 
arch, comforted  by  God's  renewed  promise 
that  of  Ishmael  He  would  make  a  nation, 
sent  them  both  away,  and  they  dcpai-ted 
and  wandered  in  the  wilderness  of  Beer- 
sheba.  It  is  doubtful  wliether  the  wander- 
ers halted  by  tlie  well,  or  at  once  continued 
their  way  to  the  "  wilderness  of  Paran," 
where,  we  are  told  in  the  next  verse  to  that 
just  quoted,  he  dwelt,  and  where  "  his  moth- 
er took  him  a  wife  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  " 
(Gen.  xxi.  9-21).  This  wife  of  Ishmael 
was  the  motiier  of  his  twelve  sons,  and 
daughter.  Of  the  later  life  of  Ishmael  we 
know  little.  He  was  present  with  Isaac 
at  the  burial  of  Abraham.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  137  years  (xxv.  17,  18).  The  sons  of 
Islimael  peopled  the  north  and  west  of  the 
Arabian  peninsula,  and  eventually  formed 
the  chief  element  of  tlie  Arab  nation. 
Their  language,  which  is  generally  acknowl- 
edged to  have  been  the  Arabic  commonly 
so  called,  has  been  adopted  with  insignifi- 
cant exceptions  throughout  Arabia.  The 
term  Ishmaelite  occurs  on  three  occasions  : 
Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  27,  28,  xxxix.  1 ;  Judg. 
viii.  24;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  6.  2.  One  of  tlie 
sons  of  Azel,  a  descendant  of  Saul  through 
Meribbaal,  or  Mephibosheth  (1  Chr.  viii. 
38,  ix.  44.)  3.  A  man  of  Judah,  father  of 
Zebadiah  (2  Chr.  xix.  11).  4.  Another 
man  of  Judah,  son  of  Jehohanan ;  one  of 
the  captains  of  hundreds  who  assisted 
Jelioiada  in  restoring  Joash  to  the  throne 
(2  Chr.  xxiii.  1).  5.  A  priest,  of  the  Bene- 
Pashur,  who  was  forced  by  Ezra  to  relin- 
quish Ills  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  22).  6. 
The  son  of  Nethaniah;  a  perfect  marvel 
of  craft  and  villany,  whose  treachery  forms 
one  of  the  chief  episodes  of  the  history  of 
the  period  immediately  succeeding  the  first 
fall  of  Jerusalem.  His  exploits  are  related 
in  Jer.  xl.  7-xli.  15,  with  a  short  summary 
in  2  Iv.  xxv.  23-25.  His  full  description 
is  "  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Nethaniah,  the  son 
of  Elishama,  of  the  seed  royal "  of  Judah 
(Jer.  xli.  1 ;  2  K.  xxv.  25).  During  the 
siege  of  the  city  he  had,  like  many  otliers 
of  his  countrymen  (Jer.  xl.  11),  fled 
across  the  Jordan,  where  he  found  a  refuge 
at  the  court  of  Baalis,  the  then  king  of  the 
Bene-Ammon.  After  the  departure  of  the 
Chaldeans,  Ishmael  made  no  secret  of  his 
intention  to  kill  the  superintendent  left  by 
the  king  of  Babylon,  and  usurp  his  posi- 
tion. Of  this  Gedaliah  was  warned  in  ex- 
press terms  by  Johanan  and  his  compan- 
ions. Thirty  days  after,  in  the  seventh 
month  (xli.  1),  on  the  third  day  of  the 
month,  Ishmael  again  appeared  at  Mizpah, 
this  time  accompanied  by  ten  men.  Gedaliah 
entertained  them  at  a  feast  (xli.  1).  Be- 
fore its  close  Ishmael  and  his  followers  had 
murdered  Gedaliah  and  all  his  attendants 
with  such  secrecy  that  no  alarm  was  given 


ISHMAELITE 


263 


ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OF 


ontside  the  room.  The  same  night  he 
killed  all  Gedaliah's  establishment,  includ- 
ing some  Chaldean  soldiers  who  were  there. 
For  two  days  the  massacre  remained  per- 
fectly unknown  to  the  people  of  the  town. 
On  the  second  day,  Jihmael  perceived  from 
his  elevated  position  a  large  party  coming 
southward  along  the  main  road  from  She- 
chem  and  Samaria.  He  went  out  to  meet 
them.  They  proved  to  be  eighty  devotees, 
who  with  rent  clothes,  and  with  shaven 
beards,  mutilated  bodies,  and  with  other 
marks  of  heathen  devotion,  and  weeping 
as  they  went,  were  bringing  incense  and 
offerings  to  the  ruins  of  the  Temple.  At 
his  invitation  tliey  turned  aside  to  the  resi- 
dence of  the  superintendent.  As  the  un- 
suspecting pilgrims  passed  into  the  court- 
yard he  closed  the  entrances  behind  them, 
and  there  he  and  liis  band  butchered  the 
whole  number :  ten  only  escaped  by  the 
offer  of  heavy  ransom  for  their  lives.  The 
seventy  corpses  were  then  thrown  into  the 
well  which,  as  at  Cawnpore,  was  within  the 
precincts  of  the  house,  and  which  was  com- 
pletely filled  with  the  bodies.  This  done 
he  descended  to  the  town,  surprised  and 
carried  off  the  daughters  of  king  Zedekiah, 
who  had  been  sent  there  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
for  safety,  with  their  eunuchs  and  their 
Chaldean  guard  (xli.  10,  16),  and  all  the 
people  of  the  town,  and  made  off  with  his 
prisoners  to  the  country  of  the  Ammonites. 
The  news  of  the  massacre  had  by  this  time 
got  abroad,  and  Ishmael  was  quickly  pur- 
sued by  Johanan  and  his  companions. 
He  was  attacked,  two  of  his  bravos  slain, 
the  whole  of  tlie  prey  recovered;  and  Ish- 
mael himself,  with  the  remaining  eight  of 
his  people,  escaped  to  the  Ammonites. 

Ishmaelite.     [Ishmael.] 

Ishma'iah,  son  of  Obadiah;  the  ruler 
of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  in  the  time  of 
king  David  (1  Clir.  xxvii.  19). 

Ish'meelite  '^l  Chr.  ii.  17)  and  Ish'- 
meelites  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  27,  28,  xxxix. 
1),  the  form  in  wliich  the  descendants  of 
Ishmael  are  given  in  a  few  places  in  the 
A.  V. 

Ish'merai,  a  Benjamite ;  one  of  the 
family  of  Elpaal  (1  Chr.  viii.  18). 

I'shod,  one  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
on  the  east  of  Jordan,  son  of  Hammoleketh 
(1  Chr.  vii.  18). 

Ish.'pan,  a  Benjamite,  one  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Sliashak  (1  Chr.  viii.  22). 

Ish'tob,  apparently  one  of  the  small 
kingdoms  or  states  which  formed  part  of 
the  general  country  of  Aram,  named  with 
Zobah,  Reliob,  and  Maacah  (2  Sam.  x.  6, 
8).  It  is  probable  that  the  real  signification 
is  "  the  men  of  Tob." 

Ish.'uah,  the  second  son  of  Asher  (Gen. 
xlvi.  17). 

Ish'uai,  the  third  son  of  Asher  (1  Chr. 
vii.  30),  founder  of  a  family  bearing  his 


name  (Num.  xxvi.  44  ;  A.  V.  "  Jesu- 
ites  "). 

Ish'ui,  the  second  son  of  Saul  by  his 
wife  Ahinoam  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49,  comp.  50). 

Isle.  The  radical  sense  of  the  Hebrew 
word  seems  to  be  "habitable  places,"  as 
opposed  to  water,  and  in  this  sense  it  ce- 
curs  in  Is.  xlii.  15.  Hence  it  means  secon- 
darily any  maritime  district,  whether  be- 
longing to  a  continent  or  to  an  island :  thus 
it  is  used  of  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean 
(Is.  XX.  6,  xxiii.  2,  6),  and  of  the  coasts  of 
Elishah  (Ez.  xxvii.  7),  i.  e.  of  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor. 

Ismaclli'ah,  a  Levite  who  was  one  of 
the  overseers  of  offerings  during  the  revi- 
val under  king  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  13). 

Ismai'ah,  a  Gibeonite,  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  those  warriors  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chr.  xii.  4). 

Is'pah,  a  Benjamite,  of  the  family  of 
Beriah ;  one  of  the  heads  of  his  tribe  (1 
Chr.  viii.  16). 

Is'rael.  1.  The  name  given  (Gen. 
xxxii.  28)  to  Jacob  after  his  wrestling  with 
the  Angel  (Hos.  xii.  4)  at  Peniel.  Gese- 
nius  interprets  Israel  "soldier  of  God." 
2.  It  became  the  national  name  of  the 
twelve  tribes  collectively.  They  are  so 
called  in  Ex.  iii.  16  and  afterwards.  3. 
It  is  used  in  a  narrower  sense,  excluding 
Judah,  in  1  Sam.  xi.  8 ;  2  Sam.  xx.  1 ;  1 
K.  xii.  16.  Thenceforth  it  was  assumed 
and  accepted  as  the  name  of  tlie  Northern 
Kingdom.  4.  After  the  Babylonian  captiv- 
ity, the  returned  exiles  resumed  the  name 
Israel  as  the  designation  of  their  nation. 
The  name  Israel  is  also  used  to  denote  lay- 
men, as  distinguished  from  Priests,  Levites, 
and  other  ministers  (Ezr.  vi.  16,  ix.  1,  x. 
25;  Neh.  xi.  3,  &c.). 

Israel,  Kingdom  of.  1.  The  prophet 
Ahijah  of  Shiloh,  who  was  commissioned 
in  the  latter  days  of  Solomon  to  announce 
the  division  of  the  kingdom,  left  one  tribe 
(Judah)  to  the  house  of  David,  and  assigned 
ten  to  Jeroboam  (1  K.  xi.  35,  31).  These 
were  probably  Joseph  (==  Ephraim  and  Ma- 
nasseli),  Issachar,  Zebulun,  Asher,  Naph- 
tali,  Benjamin,  Dan,  Simeon,  Gad,  and 
Reuben;  Levi  being  intentionally  omitted. 
Eventually  the  greater  part  of  Benjamin, 
and  probably  the  whole  of  Simeon  and  Dan, 
were  included  as  if  by  common  consent  in 
the  kingdom  of  Judah.  With  respect  to  the 
conquests  of  David,  Moab  appears  to  have 
been  attached  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (2 
K.  iii.  4)  ;  so  much  of  Syria  as  remained 
subject  to  Solomon  (see  1  K.  xi.  24)  would 
probably  be  claimed  by  his  successor  in  the 
northern  kingdom;  and  Amnion,  though 
connected  with  Rehoboam  as  his  mother's 
native  land  (2  Chr.  xii.  13),  and  though 
afterwards  tributary  to  Judah  (2  Chr.  xxvii. 
5),  was  at  one  time  allied  (2*  Chr.  xx.  1), 
we  know  not  how  closely  or  flow  early,  with 


ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OP 


264 


ISSACHAR 


Moab.  The  sea -coast  between  Accho  and 
Japho  remained  in  the  possession  of  Israel. 
2.  The  population  of  the  kingdom  is  not 
expressly  stated ;  and  in  drawing  any  infer- 
ence from  the  numbers  of  fighting  men,  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  the  numbers  in  the 
Hebrew  text  are  strongly  suspected  to  have 
been  subjected  to  extensive,  perhaps  sys- 
tematic, corruption.  Jeroboam  brought  into 
the  field  an  army  of  800,000  men  (2  Chr. 
xiii.  3).  If  in  b.  c.  957  there  were  actually 
under  arms  800,000  men  of  that  age  in  Is- 
rael, the  whole  population  m<iy  perhaps 
have  amounted  to  at  least  three  millions 
and  a  half.  3.  Shechem  was  the  first  cap- 
ital of  the  new  kingdom  (1  K.  xii.  25),  ven- 
erable for  its  traditions,  and  beautiful  in  its 
situation.  S ubsequently  Tirzah  became  the 
royal  residence,  if  not  the  capital,  of  Jero- 
boam (1  K.  xiv.  17)  and  of  his  successors 
(xv.  33,  xvi.  8,  17,  23).  Samaria,  uniting 
in  itself  the  qualities  of  beauty  and  fertility, 
and  a  commanding  position,  was  chosen  by 
Omri  (1  K.  xvi.  24),  and  remained  the  cap- 
ital of  the  kingdom  until  it  had  given  the 
last  proof  of  its  strength  by  sustaining  for 
three  years  the  onset  of  the  hosts  of  As- 
syria. Jezreel  was  probably  only  a  royal 
residence  of  some  of  the  Israelitish  kings. 
4.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  lasted  254  years, 
from  B.  c.  975  to  b.  c.  721,  about  two  thirds 
of  the  duration  of  its  more  compact  neigh- 
bor Judah.  The  detailed  history  of  the 
kingdom  will  be  found  under  the  names  of 
its  nineteen  kings.  A  summary  view  may 
be  taken  in  four  periods :  (a.)  b.  c.  975- 
929.  Jeroboam  had  not  suflicient  force  of 
character  in  himself  to  make  a  lasting  im- 
pression on  his  people.  A  king,  but  not  a 
founder  of  a  dynasty,  he  aimed  at  nothing 
beyond  securing  his  present  elevation.  The 
army  soon  learned  its  power  to  dictate  to 
the  isolated  monarch  and  disunited  peo- 
ple. Baasha,  in  the  midst  of  the  army  at 
Gibbethon,  slew  the  son  and  successor  of 
Jeroboam ;  Zimri,  a  captain  of  chariots, 
slew  the  son  and  successor  of  Baasha;  Om- 
ri, the  captain  of  the  host,  was  cliosen  to 
punish  Zimri ;  and  after  a  civil  war  of  four 
years  he  prevailed  over  Tibni,  the  choice 
of  half  the  people.  (&.)  b.  c.  929-884. 
For  forty-five  years  Israel  was  governed  by 
the  house  of  Omri.  That  sagacious  king 
pitched  on  the  strong  hill  of  Samaria  as  the 
site  of  his  capital.  The  princes  of  his  house 
cultivated  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Ju- 
dah, which  was  cemented  by  the  marriage 
of  Jehoram  and  Athaliah.  The  adoption 
of  Baal- worship  led  to  a  reaction  in  the  na- 
tion, to  the  moral  triumph  of  the  prophets 
in  the  person  of  Elijah,  and  to  the  extinction 
of  the  house  of  Ahab  in  obedience  to  the 
bidding  of  Elisha.  (c.)  b.  c.  884-772.  Un- 
paralleled triumphs,  but  deeper  humilia- 
tion, awaited  the  kingdom  of  Israel  under 
the  dynasity  of  Jehu,     ilazael,   the   ablest 


king  of  Damascus,  reduced  Jehoahaz  to  the 
condition  of  a  vassal,  and  triumphed  for  a 
time  over  both  the  disunited  Hebrew  king- 
doms. Almost  the  first  sign  of  the  restora- 
tion of  their  strength  was  a  war  between 
them ;  and  Jehoash,  the  grandson  of  Jehu, 
entered  Jerusalem  as  the  conqueror  of 
Amaziah.  Jehoash  also  turned  the  tide  of 
war  against  the  Syrians ;  and  Jeroboam 
II.,  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  kings  of  Is- 
rael, captured  Damascus,  and  recovered 
the  whole  ancient  frontier  from  Hamath  to 
the  Dead  Sea.  This  short-lived  greatness 
expired  with  the  last  king  of  Jehu's  line. 
(d.)  B.  c.  772-721.  Military  violence,  it 
would  seem,  broke  oiF  the  hereditary  suc- 
cession after  the  obscure  and  probably  con- 
vulsed reign  of  Zachariah.  An  unsuccess- 
ful usurper,  Shallum,  is  followed  by  the 
cruel  Menahem,  who,  being  unable  to  make 
head  against  the  first  attack  of  Assyria  un- 
der Pul,  became  the  agent  of  that  monarch 
for  the  oppressive  taxation  of  his  subjects. 
Yet  his  power  at  home  was  suflScient  to  in- 
sure for  his  son  and  successor  Pekahiah  a 
ten  years'  reign,  cut  short  by  a  bold  usurper, 
Pekah.  Abandoning  the  northern  and  trans- 
Jordanic  regions  to  the  encroaching  power 
of  Assyria  under  Tiglath-Pileser,  he  was 
very  near  subjugating  Judah,  with  the  help 
of  Damascus,  now  the  coequal  ally  of  Is- 
rael. But  Assyria  interposing  summarily 
put  an  end  to  the  independence  of  Damas- 
cus, and  perhaps  was  the  indirect  cause  of 
the  assassination  of  the  baffled  Pekah.  The 
irresolute  Hoshea,  the  next  and  last  usurp- 
er, became  tributary  to  his  invader,  Shal> 
maneser,  betrayed  the  Assyrian  to  the  rival 
monarchy  of  Egypt,  and  was  punished  by 
the  loss  of  his  liberty,  and  by  the  capture, 
after  a  three  years'  siege,  of  liis  strong  cap- 
ital, Samaria.  Some  gleanings  of  the  ten 
tribes  yet  remained  in  the  land  after  so 
many  years  of  religious  decline,  moral  de- 
basement, national  degradation,  anarchy, 
bloodshed,  and  deportation.  Even  these 
were  gathered  up  by  the  conqueror,  and 
carried  to  Assyria,  never  again,  as  a  dis- 
tinct people,  to  occupy  their  portion  of  that 
goodly  and  pleasant  land  which  their  fore- 
fathers won  under  Joshua  from  the  heathen. 

Is'raelite.  In  2  Sam.  xvii.  25,  Ithra, 
the  father  of  Amasa,  is  called  "  an  Israel- 
ite," while  in  1  Chr.  ii.  17  he  appears  as 
"  Jether  the  Ishmaelite."  The  latter  is  un- 
doubtedly the  true  reading. 

Is'sachar.  1.  The  nintli  son  of  Jacob  and 
the  fifth  of  Leah ;  the  first  born  to  Leah, 
after  the  interval  which  occurred  in  the 
births  of  her  children  (Gen.  xxx.  17  ;  comp. 
xxix.  35).  At  the  descent  into  Egypt  four 
sons  are  ascribed  to  him,  wlio  founded  the 
four  chief  families  of  the  tribe  (Gen.  xlvi. 
13;  Num.  xxvi.  23,  25;  1  Chr.  vii.  1).  The 
number  of  the  fighting  men  of  Issachar, 
when  taken  in  the  census  at  Sinai,  was  54,dO0w 


ISSHIAH 


265 


ITUEAEA 


During  the  journey  they  seem  to  have  stead- 
ily increased.  The  allotment  of  Issachar 
lay  above  that  of  Manasseh  (Josh.  xix.  17- 
23).  In  the  words  of  Josephus,  "it  extend- 
ed in  length  from  Carmel  to  the  Jordan, 
in  breadth  to  Mount  Tabor."  This  terri- 
tory was,  as  it  still  is,  among  the  richest 
land  in  Palestine.  Westward  was  the  fa- 
mous plain  which  derived  its  name  from  its 
fertility.  On  the  north  is  Tabor,  which 
even  under  the  burning  sun  of  that  climate 
is  said  to  retain  the  glades  and  dells  of  an 
English  wood.  On  the  east,  behind  Jez- 
reel,  is  the  opening  which  conducts  to  the 
plain  i)t'  the  Jordan  —  to  that  Beth-shean 
which  was  proverbially  among  the  Eabbis 
the  gate  of  Paradise  for  its  fruitfulness.  It 
is  this  aspect  of  the  territory  of  Issachar 
which  appears  to  be  alluded  to  in  the  Bless- 
ing of  Jacob.  2.  A  Korhite  Levite,  one 
of  the  doorkeepers  of  the  house  of  Jeho- 
vah, seventh  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chr. 
xxvi.  5). 

Isshi'ah.  1.  A  descendant  of  Moses 
by  his  younger  son  Eliezer  (1  Chr.  xxiv. 
21;  comp.  xxiii.  17,  xxvi.  25).  2.  A  Le- 
vite of  the  house  of  Kohath  and  family  of 
Uzziel  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  25). 

Issue,  Running.  (Lev.  xv.  2,  3, 
xxii.  4;  Num.  v.  2;  and  Sam.  iii.  29.)  In 
Lev.  XV.  3  a  distinction  is  introduced,  which 
merely  means  tliat  the  cessation  of  the 
actual  flux  does  not  constitute  ceremonial 
cleanness,  but  that  the  patient  must  bide 
the  legal  time,  seven  days  (ver.  13),  and 
perform  the  prescribed  purifications  and 
sacrifice  (ver.  14). 

Is'uah,  second  son  of  Asher  (1  Chr. 
vii.  30). 

Is'ui,  third  son  of  Asher  (Gen.  xlvi.  17), 
founder  of  a  family  called  after  him,  though 
in  the  A.  V.  appearing  as  the  Jesuites 
(Num.  xxvi.  44). 

Italian  Band.    [Army.] 

It'aly.  This  word  is  used  in  the  N.  T. 
(Acts  xviii.  2,  xxvii.  1 ;  Heb.  xiii.  24)  in 
the  usual  sense  ~t)f  the  period,  t.  e.  in  its 
true  geographical  sense,  as  denoting  the 
whole  natural  peninsula  between  the  Alps 
and  the  Straits  of  Messina. 

Ith'ai,  a  Bcnjamite,  son  of  Eibai  of 
Gibeah,  one  of  the  heroes  of  David's  guard 
(1  Chr.  xi.  31). 

Ith'amar,  the  youngest  son  of  Aaron 
(Ex.  vi.  23).  After  the  deaths  of  Nadab 
and  Abihu  (Lev.  x.  1),  Eleazar  and  Itha- 
mar  were  appointed  -to  succeed  to  their 
places  in  the  priestly  office  (Ex.  xxviii.  1,  ! 
40,  43;  Num.  iii.  3,  4;  1  Chr.  xxiv.  2).  In 
the  distribution  of  services  belonging  to  the 
Tabernacle,  and  its  transport  on  the  march 
of  the  Israelites,  the  Gershonites  and  tlie 
Merarites  were  placed  under  the  superin- 
teudence  of  Ithamar  (Ex.  xxxviii.  21  ;  Num. 
iv.  21-33).  The  high-priesthood  passed 
into  the  family  of  Ithamar  in  the  person 


of  Eli,  but  for  what  reason  we  are  not  in- 
formed. 

Ith'iel.  1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jesaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7).  2.  One  of  two  persons  — 
Ithiel  and  Ucal  —  to  whom  Agur  ben- Jakeh 
delivered  his  discourse  (Prov.  xxx.  1). 

Ith'mah,  a  Moabite,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi.  46). 

Ith.'nan,  one  of  the  towns  in  the  ex- 
treme south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  23).  No 
trace  of  its  existence  has  yet  been  discov- 
ered. 

Ith'ra,  an  Israelite  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25)  or 
Ishmaelite  (1  Chr.  ii.  17),  the  father  of 
Amasa  by  Abigail,  David's  sister. 

Ith'ran.  1.  A  son  of  Dishon,  a  Ho- 
rite  (Gen.  xxxi.  2G ;  1  Chr.  i.  41) ;  and 
probably  a  phylarch  of  a  tribe  of  the  Horim 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  30).  2.  A  descendant  of 
Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  30-40). 

Ith.'reani,  son  of  David,  born  to  him  in 
Hebron,  and  distinctly  specified  as  the  sixth, 
and  as  the  child  of  Eglah,  David's  wife  (2 
Sam.  iii.  5;  1  Chr.  iii.  3). 

Ith'rite,  The.  The  designation  of  two 
of  the  members  of  David's  guard,  Ira  and 
Gareb  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  38;  1  Chr.  xi.  40). 
They  may  have  come  from  Jattir,  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah. 

It'tah-ka'zin,  one  of  the  landmarks  of 
the  boundary  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  13). 
It  has  not  been  identified. 

It'tai.  1.  "  Ittai  the  Gittite,"  i.  e. 
the  native  of  Gath,  a  Philistine  in  the  army 
of  king  David.  He  appears  only  during 
the  revolution  of  Absalom.  We  first  dis- 
cern him  on  the  morning  of  David's  flight. 
Last  in  the  procession  came  the  600  heroes 
who  had  formed  David's  band  during  his 
wanderings  in  Judah,  and  had  been  with 
him  at  Gath  (2  Sam.  xv.  18 ;  comp.  1  Sam. 
xxiii.  13,  xxvii.  2,  xxx.  9,  10).  Amongst 
these,  apparently  commanding  them,  was 
Ittai  the  Gittite  (ver.  19).  He  caught  the 
eye  of  the  king,  who  at  once  addressed 
him  and  besouglit  him  not  to  attach  himself 
to  a  doubtful  cause,  but  to  return  "with  his 
brethren  "  and  abide  with  tlie  king  (19,  20.) 
But  Ittai  is  firm  :  he  is  the  king's  slave,  and 
wherever  his  master  goes  he  will  go.  Ac- 
cordingly he  is  allowed  by  David  to  pro- 
ceed. When  the  army  was  numbered  and 
organized  by  David  at  Mahanaim,  Ittai 
again  appears,  now  in  command  of  a  third 
part  of  the  force  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2,  5,  12). 
2.  Son  of  Ribai,  from  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
min ;  one  of  the  thirty  heroes  of  David's 
guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  29). 

Iturae'a,  a  small  province  on  the  north- 
western border  of  Palestine,  lying  along 
the  base  of  Mount  Hermon,  only  men- 
tioned in  Luke  iii.  1.  Jetdr  the  son  of 
Ishmael  gave  his  name,  like  the  rest  of  his 
brethren,  to  the  little  province  he  colonized 
(Gen.  XXV.  15,  16).  Ituraea,  with  the  ad- 
joining provinces,  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 


IVAH 


266 


JABAL 


chief  called  Zenodorus  ;  but  about  b.  c.  20, 
they  were  taken  from  him  by  the  Roman 
emperor,  and  given  to  Ilerod  the  Great, 
who  bequeathed  them  to  his  son  Philip 
(Luke  iii.  1).  It  adjoined  Trachonitis,  and 
lay  along  the  base  of  Libanus  between  Ti- 
berias and  Damascus.  At  the  place  indi- 
cated is  situated  the  modern  province  of 
Jedur,  which  is  just  the  Arabic  form  of  the 
Hebrew  Jetur. 

I'vah.,  or  A'va,  which  is  mentioned  in 
Scripture  twice  (2  K.  xviii.  34,  xix.  13; 
comp.  Is.  xxxvii.  13)  in  connection  with 
Hena  and  Sepharvaim,  and  once  (2  K.  xvii. 
24)  in  connection  with  Babylon  and  Cu- 
thah,  must  be  sought  in  Babylonia,  and  is 
probably  identical  with  the  modern  Hit,  on 
the  Euphrates. 

Ivory  (Heb.  shin  in  all  passages,  ex- 
cept 1  K.  X.  22,  and  2  Chr.  ix.  21,  where 
shenhabbim  is  so  rendered).  The  word 
shin  literally  signifies  the  "  tooth  "  of  any 
animal,  and  hence  more  especially  denotes 
the  substance  of  the  projecting  tusks  of 
elephants.  It  is  remarkable  that  no  word 
in  Biblical  Hebrew  denotes  an  elephant, 
unless  the  latter  portion  of  the  compound 
shenhabbim  be  supposed  to  have  this  mean- 
ing. Gesenius  derives  it  from  the  Sanscrit 
ibhas,  "  an  elephant."  The  skilled  work- 
men of  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  fasliioned  the 
great  ivory  throne  of  Solomon,  and  over- 
laid it  with  pure  gold  (1  K.  x.  18;  2  Chr. 
ix.  17).  The  ivory  thus  employed  was 
supplied  by  the  caravans  of  Dedan  (Is.  xxi. 
13;  Ez.  xxvii.  15),  or  was  brought  with 
apes  and  peacocks  by  tlie  navy  of  Tar- 
shish  (1  K.  X.  22).  The  "ivory  house" 
of  Ahab  (1  K.  xxii.  39)  was  probably  a  pal- 
ace, the  walls  of  which  were  panelled  with 
ivory,  like  the  palace  of  Menelaus,  de- 
scribed by  Homer  (Odys.  iv.  73).  Beds 
inlaid  or  veneered  with  ivory  were  in  use 
among  the  Hebrews  (Am.  vi.  4). 

Iz'ehar.  Tlie  form  in  which  the  name 
Izhar  is  given  in  the  A.  V.  of  Num.  iii.  19 
only. 

Iz'eharites,  The.  A  family  of  Ko- 
hathite  Levites,  descended  from  Izhar  the 
son  of  Kohath  (Num.  iii.  27)  ;  called  also 
"Izharites"  (1  Clir.  xxvi.  23,  29). 

Iz'Iiar,  son  of  Kohath,  grandson  of 
Levi,  uncle  of  Aaron  and  Moses,  and  father 
of  Korah  (Ex.  vi.  18,  21;  Num.  iii.  19,  xvi. 
1;  1  Chr.  vi.  2,  18).  Izhar  ifras  the  head 
of  the  family  of  the  Izharites  (1  Chr.  xxiv. 
22,  xxvi.  23,  30),  or  Izeiiarites  (Num.  iii. 
27;  1  Chr.  xxvi.  23,  29). 

Iz'rahite,  The,  the  designation  of 
Shamhuth  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  8).  Its  real  force 
is  probably  Zerahite,  that  is,  from  the  great 
Judaic  family  of  Zerah. 

Iz'ri,  a  Levite  leader  of  the  fourth 
course  or  ward  in  the  service  of  the  house 
of  God  (1  Chr.  xxv.  11).  In  ver.  3  he  is 
called  Zebi. 


J. 


Ja'akan,  the  same  as  Jakan,  the  forefa* 
ther  of  tlie  Bene-Jaakan  (Deut.  x.  G). 

Jaak'obah,  one  of  the  princes  of  the 
families  of  Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv.  36). 

Jaa'la.  Bene-Jaala  were  among  the 
descendants  of  "  Solomon's  slaves  "  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  vii.  58).     Tlie   name  also  occurs  as 

Jaa'lah,  Ezr.  ii.  56. 

Jaa'lam,  a  son  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  6, 
14,  18 ;  comp.  1  Chr.  i.  35),  and  a  phylarch 
(A.  V.  "  duke ")  or  head  of  a  tribe  of 
Edom. 

Ja'anai.  A  chief  man  in  the  tribe  of 
Gad  n  Chr.  v.  12). 

Ja'are-or'egim  (2  Sam.  xxi.  19),  a 
Betlilchemite,  and  the  father  of  Elhanan, 
who  slew  Goliath.  In  the  parallel  passage, 
1  Chr.  XX.  5,  Jair  is  found  instead  of  Jaare, 
and  Oregim  is  omitted.  The  conclusion 
of  Kennicott  appears  a  just  one  —  that  in 
the  latter  place  it  has  been  interpolated 
from  the  former,  and  that  Jair  or  Jaor  is 
the  correct  reading  instead  of  Jaare. 

Jaa'sau,  one  of  the  Bene-Bani  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife,  and  had  to  put  her 
awiiy  (Ezr.  x.  37). 

Jaa'siel,  son  of  the  great  Abner  (1  Chr 
xxvii.  21). 

Jaazani'ah.  1.  One  of  the  captains 
of  the  forces  who  accompanied  Johanan 
ben-Kareali  to  pay  his  respects  to  Gcda- 
liah  at  Mizpah  (2  K.  xxv.  23),  and  wlio  ap- 
pears afterwards  to  have  assisted  in  re- 
covering Islunael's  prey  from  his  clutches 
(comp.  Jer.  xli.  11;  xliii.  4,  5).  2.  Son  of 
Shaphan  (Ez.  viii.  11).  It  is  possible  that 
he  is  identical  with,  3.  Son  of  Azur;  one 
of  the  princes  of  the  people  against  whom 
Ezekiel  was  directed  to  prophesy  (Ez.  xi. 
1).  4.  A  Kechabite,  son  of  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
XXXV.  3). 

Jaa'zer,  or  Ja'zer,  a  town  on  the  east 
of  Jordan,  in  or  near  to  Gilead  (Num. 
xxxii.  1,  3;  1  Chr.  xxvi.  31).  We  first 
hear  of  it  in  possession  of  the  Amorites, 
and  as  taken  by  Israel  .after  Heshbon,  and 
on  their  way  from  thence  to  Bashan  (Num, 
xxi.  32).  It  seems  to  have  given  its  name 
to  a  district  of  dependent  or  "daughter" 
towns  (Num.  xxi.  32,  A.  V.  "villages;" 
1  Mace.  V.  8),  the  "  land  of  Jazer  "  (Num. 
xxxii.  1). 

Jaazi'ah.,  apparently  a  third  son,  or  a 
descendant,  of  Merari  the  Levite  (1  Chr. 
xxiv.  26,  27). 

Jaa'ziel,  one  of  the  Levites  of  the  sec- 
ond order  who  were  appointed  by  David  to 
perform  the  musical  service  before  the  ark 
(1  Chr.  XV.  18). 

Ja'bal,  the  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah 
(Gen.  ir.  20)  and  brother  of  Jubal.    He  is 


JABBOK 


267 


JACOB 


described  as  the  father  of  such  as  dwell  in 
tents  and  have  cattle. 

Jab'bok,  a  stream  which  intersects  the 
mountain-range  of  Gilead  (comp.  Josh.  xii. 
2  and  5),  and  falls  into  the  Jordan  about 
midway  between  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  was  anciently  the  border 
of  the  children  of  Ammon  (Num.  xxi.  24 ; 
Deut.  ii.  37,  iii.  16).  It  was  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Jabbok  the  interview  took 
place  between  Jacob  and  Esau  (Gen.  xxxii. 
22) ;  and  this  river  afterwards  became, 
towards  its  western  part,  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  kingdoms  of  Sihon  and  Og  (Josh, 
xii.  2,  5).  Its  modern  name  is  Wady 
Zurka. 

Ja'besh.  1.  Father  of  Shallum,  the 
loth  king  of  Israel  (2  K.  xv.  10,  13,  14). 
2.  Jabesh,  or  Jabcsh  Gilead,  or  Jabesh  in 
the  territory  of  Gilead.  In  its  widest  sense 
Gilead  included  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(1  Chr.  xxvii.  21)  as  well  as  the  tribes  of 
Gad  and  Reuben  (Nuui.  xxxii.  1-42)  east 
of  the  Jordan  —  and  of  the  cities  of  Gil- 
ead, Jabesli  was  tiie  chief.  It  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Judg.  xxi.  8-14.  Being  attacked 
subsequently  by  Naliash  the  Ammonite,  it 
gave  Saul  an  opportunity  of  displaying  his 
prowess  in  its  defence  (1  Sam.  xi.  1-15). 
Eusebius  places  it  beyond  the  Jordan,  6 
miles  from  Pella  on  the  mountain-road  to 
Gerasa ;  where  its  name  is  probably  pre- 
served in  the  Wady  Yabes. 

Ja'bez.  1.  Apparently  a  place  at  which 
tlie  families  of  the  scribes  resided,  who 
belonged  to  the  families  of  the  Kenites  (1 
Chr.  ii.  55).  2.  The  name  occurs  again  in 
the  genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  9,  10), 
in  a  passage  of  remarkable  detail  inserted 
in  a  genealogy  again  connected  with  Beth- 
lehem (ver.  4).  Jabez  was  "  more  honor- 
able than  his  brethren,"  though  who  fliey 
were  is  not  ascertainable. 

Ja'bin.  1.  King  of  Hazor,  who  organ- 
ized a  confederacy  of  the  northern  princes 
against  the  Israelites  (Josh.  xi.  1-3).  Josh- 
ua surprised  the  allied  forces  by  the  waters 
of  Merom  (ver.  7)  and  utterly  routed  them. 
During  the  ensuing  wars,  Joshua  again  at- 
tacked Jabin,  and  burnt  his  city  (xi.  1-14). 
2.  A  king  of  Hazor,  whose  general,  Sisera, 
was  defeated  by  Barak  (Judg.  iv.  3,  13). 

Jab'neel.  1.  One  of  the  points  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Judah,  not  quite  at 
the  sea,  though  near  it  (Josh.  xv.  11). 
There  is  no  sign,  however,  of  its  ever  hav- 
ing been  occupied  by  Judah.  Josephus 
attributes  it  to  the  Danites.  There  was  a 
constant  struggle  going  on  between  that 
tribe  and  the  Philistines  for  the  possession 
of  all  the  places  in  the  lowland  plains,  and 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  next  time  we 
meet  with  Jabneel  it  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  the  latter  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  6).  Uzziah 
dispossessed  them  of  it,  and  demolished 
its  fortifications.     Here  it  is  in  the  shorter 


form  of  Jabneh.  In  its  Greek  garb,  IaX'* 
NiA,  it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Mac- 
cabees (1  Mace.  iv.  15,  v.  58,  x.  69,  xv. 
40;  2  Mace.  xii.  9).  At  the  time  of  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  Jabneh  was  one  of  the 
most  populous  places  of  Judaea.  The 
modern  village  of  Yehna,  more  accurately 
Ibna,  stands  about  two  miles  from  the  sea, 
on  a  slight  eminence  just  south  of  the  Ndhr 
Rubin.  2.  One  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
boundary  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33)  in 
Upper  Galilee. 

Jab'neh,  2  Chr.  xxvi.  6.     [Jabneel.] 

Ja'chan,  one  of  seven  chief  men  of  the 
tribe  of  Gad  (1  Chr.  v.  13). 

Ja'chin.  1.  One  of  the  two  pillars 
which  were  set  up  "in  the  porch  "  (1  K. 
vii.  21)  or  before  the  temple  (2  Chr.  iii.  17) 
of  Solomon.  [Boaz.]  2.  Fourth  son  of 
Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10 ;  Ex.  vi.  15)  ;  founder 
of  the  family  of  the  Jachinites  (Num. 
xxvi.  12).  3.  Head  of  the  21st  course  of 
priests  in  the  time  of  David.  Some  of  the 
course  returned  from  Babylon  (1  Chr.  ix. 
10,  xxiv.  17;  Neh.  xi.  10). 

Jacinth,  a  precious  stone,  forming  one 
of  the  foundations  of  the  walls  of  the  new 
Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  20).  It  seems  to  be 
identical  with  the  Hebrew  lesJiem  (A.  V. 
"  ligure,"  Ex.  xxviii.  19).  The  jacinth  or 
hyacinth  is  a  red  variety  of  zircon,  which  is 
found  in  square  prisms,  of  a  white,  gray, 
red,  reddish-brown,  yellow,  or  pale-green 
color.  The  expression  in  Rev.  ix.  17,  "  of 
jacinth,"  applied  to  the  breastplate,  is  de- 
scriptive simply  of  a  hyacinthine,  i.  e. 
dark-purple  color. 

Ja'COb,  the  second  son  of  Isaac  and 
Rebekah.  He  was  born  with  Esau,  when 
Isaac  was  59  and  Abraham  159  years  old, 
probably  at  the  well  Lahai-roi.  His  history 
is  related  in  the  latter  half  of  the  book  of 
Genesis.  He  bought  the  birthright  from  his 
brother  Esau ;  and  afterwards,  at  his  moth- 
er's instigation,  acquired  the  blessing  in- 
tended for  Esau,  by  practising  a  well-known 
deceit  on  Isaac.  Hitherto  the  two  sons 
shared  the  wanderings  of  Isaac  in  the  South 
Country ;  but  now  Jacob,  in  his  78th  year, 
was  sent  from  the  family  home,  to  avoid  his 
brother,  and  to  seek  a  wife  among  his  kin- 
dred in  Padan-aram.  As  he  passed  through 
Bethel,  God  appeared  to  him.  After  the 
lapse  of  21  years  he  returned  from  Padan- 
aram  with  two  wives,  two  concubines,  eleven 
sons,  and  a  daughter,  and  large  property. 
He  escaped  from  the  angry  pursuit  of  La- 
ban,  from  a  meeting  with  Esau,  and  from 
the  vengeance  of  the  Canaanites  provoked 
by  the  murder  of  Sheehem  ;  and  in  each  of 
those  three  emergencies  he  was  aided  and 
strengthened  by  the  interposition  of  God, 
and  in  sign  of  the  grace  won  by  a  night  of 
wrestling  with  God  his  name  was  changed 
at  Jabbok  into  Israel.  Deborah  and  Rachel 
died  before  he  reached  Hebron ;  and  it  wa^ 


JADA 


268 


JAHAZ 


at  Hebron,  in  the  122d  year  of  his  age,  that 
he  and  Esau  buried  their  father  Isaac.  Jo- 
seph, the  favorite  son  of  Jacob,  was  sold 
into  Egypt  eleven  years  before  the  death  of 
Isaac;  and  Jacob  had  probably  exceeded 
his  130th  year  when  he  went  thither,  being 
encouraged  in  a  divine  vision  as  lie  passed 
for  the  last  time  through  Beersheba.  He 
was  presented  to  Pharaoh,  and  dwelt  for 
seventeen  years  in  Rameses  and  Goshen. 
After  giving  his  solemn  blessing  to  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  and  Ids  own  sons  one  by  one, 
and  charging  the  ten  to  complete  their  re- 
conciliation with  Joseph,  he  died  in  his  147th 
year.  His  body  was  embalmed,  carried 
with  great  care  and  pomp  into  the  land  of 
Canaan,  and  deposited  with  his  fathers,  and 
his  wife  Leah,  in  the  cave  of  Machpelali.  — 
The  example  of  Jacob  is  quoted  by  the  first 
and  the  last  of  the  minor  prophets.  Hosea, 
in  the  latter  days  of  the  kingdom,  seeks 
(xii.  3,  4,  12)  to  convert  the  descendants  of 
Jacob  from  their  state  of  alienation  from 
God,  by  recalling  to  their  memory  the  re- 
peated acts  of  God's  favor  shown  to  their 
ancestor.  And  Malachi  (i.  2)  strengthens 
the  desponding  hearts  of  the  returned  exiles 
by  assuring  them  that  the  love  which  God 
bestowed  upon  Jacob  was  not  withheld  from 
them.  Besides  the  frequent  mention  of  his 
name  in  conjunction  with  those  of  the  other 
two  patriarchs,  there  are  distinct  references 
to  events  in  the  life  of  Jacob  in  four  books 
of  the  N.  T.  In  Rom.  ix.  11-13,  St.  Paul 
adduces  the  history  of  Jacob's  birth  to  prove 
that  the  favor  of  God  is  independent  of  the 
order  of  natural  descent.  In  Heb.  xii.  16, 
and  xi.  21<the  transfer  of  the  birthright  and 
Jacob's  dying  benediction  are  referred  to. 
His  vision  at  Bethel,  and  his  possession  of 
land  at  Shechem  are  cited  in  St.  Jolin  i. 
51,  and  iv.  5,  12.  And  St.  Stephen,  in  his 
speech  (Acts  vii.  12,  16),  mentions  the 
famine  which  was  the  means  of  restoring 
Jacob  to  his  lost  son  in  Egypt,  and  the 
burial  of  the  patriarch  in  Shechem. 

Ja'da,  son  of  Onam,  and  brother  of 
Shamraai,  in  the  genealogy  of  the  sons  of 
Jerahmeel  by  his  wife  Atarah  (1  Chr.  ii. 
28,  32). 

Jada'u,  one  of  the  Bene-Nebo  who  had 
taken  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  43). 

Jaddu'a.  1.  Son  and  successor  in  the 
high-priesthood  of  Jonathan  or  Johanan. 
He  is  tlie  last  of  the  high-priests  mentioned 
in  the  O.  T.,  and  probably  altogether  the 
latest  name  in  the  canon  (Neh.  xii.  11,  22). 
2.  One  of  the  chief  of  the  people,  i.  e.  of  the 
laymen,  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  x.  21). 

Ja'don,  the  Mcronothite,  who  assisted 
to  repair  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iu.  7). 

Ja'el,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite.  In 
the  headilong  rout  which  followed  the  defeat 
ol  the  Canaanites  by  Barak,  Sisera,  aban- 


doning his  chariot  the  more  easily  to  avoid 
notice,  fled  unattended,  and  in  an  opposite 
direction  from  that  taken  by  his  army,  to 
the  tent  of  the  Kenite  chieftainess.  He  ac- 
cepted Jael's  invitation  to  enter,  and  she 
flung  a  mantle  over  liim  as  he  lay  wearily 
on  the  floor.  When  thirst  prevented  sleep, 
and  he  asked  for  water,  she  brought  him 
buttermilk  in  her  choicest  vessel,  thus  rati- 
fying with  the  seml)lance  of  officious  zeal 
the  sacred  bond  of  Eastern  hospitality.  At 
last,  with  a  feeling  of  perfect  security,  the 
weary  general  resigned  himself  to  the  deep 
sleep  of  misery  and  fatigue.  Then  it  was 
that  Jael  took  in  her  left  hand  one  of  the 
great  wooden  pins  which  fastened  down  the 
cords  of  the  tent,  and  in  her  right  hand  the 
mallet  used  to  drive  it  into  the  ground,  and 
with  one  terrible  blow  dashed  it  through 
Sisera's  temples  deep  into  the  earth  (Judg. 
v.  27).  She  then  waited  to  meet  the  pur- 
suing Barak,  and  led  him  into  her  tent  that 
she  might  in  his  presence  claim  the  glory 
of  the  deed !  Many  have  supposed  that  by 
this  act  she  fulfilled  the  saying  of  Deborah, 
that  God  would  sell  Sisera  into  the  hand  of 
a  woman  (Judg.  iv.  9)  ;  and  hence  they 
have  supposed  that  Jael  was  actuated  by 
some  divine  and  hidden  influence.  But  the 
Bible  gives  no  hint  of  such  an  inspiration. 

Ja'gTir,  a  town  of  Judah,  one  of  those 
farthest  to  the  south,  on  the  frontier  of 
Edom  (Josh.  xv.  21). 

Jah,  the  abbreviated  forjp  of  "  Jehovah," 
used  only  in  poetry.  It  occurs  frequently 
in  the  Hebrew,  but  with  a  single  exception 
(Ps.  Ixviii.  4)  is  rendered  "Lord"  in  the 
A.  V.  The  identity  of  Jah  and  Jehovah  is 
strongly  marked  in  two  passages  of  Isaiah 
(xii.  2,  xxvi.  4),  the  force  of  which  is  greatly 
weakened  by  the  English  rendering,  "  the 
Lord."  The  former  of  these  should  be 
translated  "  for  my  strength  and  song  is 
Jah  Jehovah  "  (comp.  Ex.  xv.  2) ;  and 
the  latter,  "  trust  ye  in  Jehovah  forever, 
for  in  Jah  Jehovah  is  the  rock  of  ages." 

Ja'hatll.  1.  Son  of  Libni,  the  son  of 
Gershom,  the  son  of  Levi  (1  Chr.  vi.  20). 

2.  Head  of  a  later  house  in  the  family  of 
Gershom,  being  the  eldest  son  of  Shimei, 
the  son  of  Laadan   (1   Chr.  xxiii.  10,   11). 

3.  A  man  in  the  genealogy  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  iv.  2),  son  of  Reaiah  ben-Shobal.  4. 
A  Levite,  son  of  Shelomoth  (1  Chr.  xxiv. 
22).  5.  A  Merarite  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxiv.  12). 

Ja'haz,  also  Jaha'za,  Jah.a'zah,  and 
Jah'zah.  Under  these  four  forms  are 
given  in  the  A.  V.  the  name  of  a  place 
which  in  the  Hebrew  appears  as  Yahats  and 
Yahtsah.  At  Jahaz  the  decisive  battle  was 
fought  between  the  children  of  Israel  and 
Sihon  king  of  the  Amorites  (Num.  xxi.  23; 
Dent.  ii.  32;  Judg.  xi.  20).  It  was  in  the 
allotment  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xiii.  18).  Like 
many  others  relating  to  the  places  east  of 


JAHAZA 


269 


JAMES 


the  Dead  Sea,  the  question  of  its  site  must 
await  further  research. 

Jaha'za,  Josh.  xiii.  18.     [Jahaz.] 

Jaha'zah,  Josh,  xxi,  36 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  21. 
[Jahaz.] 

Jahazi'ah.,  son  of  Tikvah,  apparently  a 
l)riest  (Ezr.  x.  15). 

Jaha'ziel.  1.  One  of  the  heroes  of 
Benjamin  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chr.  xii.  4).  2.  A  priest  in  the  reign  of 
David  (1  Chr.  xvi.  6).  3.  A  Kohathite 
Levite,  third  son  of  Hebron  (1  Chr.  xxiii. 
19;  xxiv.  23).  4.  Son  of  Zechariah,  a 
Levite  of  the  Bene-Asaph  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xx.  14).  5.  The  "son 
of  Jahaziel "  was  the  chief  of  the  Bene- 
Sheoaniah  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  5"*. 

Jahdai,  a  man  who  appears  to  be  thrust 
abruptly  into  the  genealogy  of  Caleb,  as  the 
father  of  six  sons  (1  Chr.  ii.  47). 

Jah'diel.  a  chieftain  of  Manasseh  on 
the  east  of  Jordan  (1  Chr.  v.  24). 

Jah'do,  a  Gadite  (1  Chr.  v.  14),  son  of 
Buz,  and  father  of  Jeshishai. 

Jah'leel,  the  third  of  the  three  sons 
of  Zcbulun  (Gen.  xlvi.  14 ;  Num.  xxvi.  2G), 
founder  of  the  family  of  the  Jahleelites. 

Jall'mai,  a  man  of  Issachar,  one  of  the 
heads  of  the  house  of  Tolah  (1  Chr.  vii.  2). 

Jah'zah,  l  Chr.  vi.  78.     [Jahaz.] 

Jah.'zeel,  the  first  of  the  four  sons  of 
Naphtali  (Gen.  xlvi.  24),  founder  of  the 
family  of  the  Jahzeelites  (Num.  xxvi. 
48). 

Jahze'rah,  a  priest  of  the  house  of  Im- 
mer  (1  Chr.  ix.  12).     ■ 

Jah'ziel,  the  same  as  Jahzeel  (1  Chr. 
vii.  13). 

Jair.  1.  A  man  who  on  his  father's 
side  was  descended  from  Judah,  and  on  his 
mother's  from  Manasseh.  During  the  con- 
quest he  took  the  whole  of  the  tract  of  Ar- 
GOB  (Deut.  iii.  14),  and  in  addition  pos- 
sessed himself  of  some  nomad  villages  in 
Gilead,  which  he  called  after  his  own  name 
Hav\-oth-Jair  (Num.  xxxii.  41 ;  1  Chr.  ii. 
23).  2.  "Jair  THE  GiLEADiTE,"  who  judged 
Israel  for  two-and-twenty  years  (Judg.  x. 
8-5).  He  had  thirty  sons  who  rode  thirty 
asses,  and  possessed  thirty  cities  in  the  land 
of  Gilead,  which,  like  those  of  their  name- 
sake, were  called  Havvoth-Jair.  3.  A 
Bcnjamite,  son  of  liish,  and  father  of  Mor- 
decai  (Esth.  ii.  5).  4.  The  father  of  El- 
hanan,  one  of  the  heroes  of  David's  army 
(1  Chr.  XX.  5). 

Ja'irite,  The.  Ira  the  Jairite  was  a 
priest  (A.  V.  "chief  ruler")  to  David  (2 
8am.  XX.  26). 

Ja'irus.  1.  A  ruler  of  a  synagogue, 
probably  in  some  town  near  the  western 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Matt.  ix.  18 ; 
Mark  v  22,  Luke  viii.  41).  2.  Esth.  xi. 
2.     [Jair,  3.] 

Ja'kan,  son  of  Ezer  the  Horite  (1  Chr. 


i.  42).  The  same  as  Jaakan.  And  see 
Akan. 

Ja'keh..     [Proverbs.] 

Ja'kim.  1.  Head  of  the  12th  course  of 
priests  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxiv. 
12).  2.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  the  Bene- 
Shimhi  (1  Chr.  viii.  19). 

Ja'lon,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ezra  (1  Chr. 
iv.  17), 

Jam'bres.    [Jannes  and  Jambres.] 

James.  1.  James  the  son  of  Zebb- 
dee,  one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.  We 
first  hear  of  him  in  a.  d.  27,  when  Zebe- 
dee,  a  fisherman  (Mark  i.  20),  was  out  on 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  with  his  two  sons,  James 
and  John,  and  some  boatmen.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  his  customary  occupation  of  fish- 
ing, and  near  him  was  another  boat  belong- 
ing to  Simon  and  Andrew,  with  whom  he 
and  his  sons  were  in  partnership.  Finding 
themselves  unsuccessful,  the  occupants  of 
both  boats  came  ashore,  and  began  to  wash 
their  nets.  At  this  time  the  new  Teacher 
appeared  upon  the  beach.  At  His  call 
they  left  all,  and  became,  once  and  for- 
ever. His  disciples,  hereafter  to  catch  men. 
For  a  full  year  we  lose  sight  of  St.  James. 
He  is  then,  in  the  spring  of  28,  called  to 
the  apostleship  with  his  eleven  brethren 
(Matt.  X.  2;  Mark  iii.  14;  Luke  vi.  13; 
Acts  i.  13).  In  the  list  of  the  Apostles 
given  us  by  St.  Mark,  and  in  the  book  of 
Acts,  his  name  occurs  next  to  that  of  Si- 
mon Peter :  in  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke  it  comes  third.  It  is  worthy 
of  notice  that  with  one  exception  (Luke  ix. 
28),  the  name  of  James  is  put  before  that 
of  John,  and  that  John  is  twice  described 
as  "  the  brother  of  James  "  (Mark  v.  37 ; 
Matt.  xvii.  1).  This  would  appear  to  im- 
ply that  at  this  time  James,  either  from  age 
or  character,  took  a  higher  position  than 
his  brother.  It  would  seem  to  have  been 
at  the  time  of  the  appointment  of  the 
twelve  Apostles  that  the  name  of  Boaner- 
ges was  given  to  the  sons  of  Zebedee.  — 
The  "  Sons  of  Thunder "  had  a  burning 
and  impetuous  spirit,  which  twice  exhibits 
itself  in  its  unchastcned  form  (Luke  ix.  54 ; 
Mark  x.  37).  The  first  occasion  on  which 
this  natural  character  manifests  itself  in 
St.  James  and  his  brother  is  at  the  com- 
mencement of  our  Lord's  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem  in  the  year  30.  He  was  passing 
through  Samaria,  and  "  sent  messengers 
before  his  face  "  into  a  certain  village,  "  to 
make  ready  for  him  "  (Luke  ix.  52),  i.  e. 
in  all  probability  to  announce  him  as  the 
Messiah.  The  Samaritans,  with  their  old 
jealousy  strong  upon  t!  em,  refused  to  re- 
ceive him ;  and  in  their  exasperation  James 
and  John  entreated  their  Master  to  follow 
the  example  of  Elijah,  and  call  down  fire 
to  consume  them.  At  the  end  of  the 
same  journey  a  similar  spirit  appears  again 
(Mark  x.  35).      On  the  night  before  th« 


JAMES  THE  LESS 


270 


JAMES,  EPISTLE  OF 


Crucifixion  he  was  present  at  the  Agony  in 
the  Garden.  On  the  day  of  the  Ascension 
he  is  mentioned  as  persevering  with  the 
rest  of  the  Apostles  and  disciples  in  prayer 
(Acts  i.  13).  Shortly  before  the  day  of 
the  Passover,  in  the  year  44,  he  was  put 
to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts  xii.  1, 
2).  2.  James  the  son  op  Alphaeus,  one 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles.  Matt.  x.  3 ;  Mark 
iii.  18 ;  Luke  vi.  15 ;  Acts  i.  13.     3.  James 

THE  BROTHER    OF    THE    LORD.        Matt.     xiii. 

55 ;  Mark  vi.  3 ;  Gal.  i.  19.  4.  James  the 
SON  OF  Mary.  Matt,  xxvii.  56 ;  Luke 
xxiv.  10.  Also  called  the  Less.  Mark 
XX.  40.  6.  James  the  brother  of  Jude. 
Jude  1.  6.  James  the  brother  (?)  of 
Jdde.  Luke  vi.  16;  Acts  i.  13.  7.  James. 
Acts  xii.  17,  XV.  13,  xxi.  18 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  7 ; 
Gal.  ii.  9,  12.  8.  James  the  servant  of 
God  and  of  ocr  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
James  i.  1.  St.  Paul  identifies  for  us 
Nos.  3.  and  7.  (see  Gal.  ii.  9  and  12  com- 
pared with  i.  19).  If  we  may  translate 
'loi'Su?  'JuxJjfiov,  Judas  the  brother,  rather 
than  the  son  of  James,  we  may  conclude 
that  5.  and  6.  are  identical.  We  may  iden- 
tify 5.  and  6.  with  3.,  because  we  know  that 
James  the  Lord's  brother  had  a  brother 
named  Jude.  We  may  identify  4.  with  3., 
because  we  know  James  the  son  of  Mary 
had  a  brother  named  Joses,  and  so  also  had 
James  the  Lord's  brother.  Thus  there  re- 
main two  only,  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus 
(2),  and  James  the  brother  of  the  Lord 
(3).  Can  we,  or  can  we  not,  identify 
them?  This  is  one  of  the  most  difflcult 
questions  in  the  Gospel  history  By  com- 
paring Matt,  xxvii.  56  and  Mark  xv.  40, 
with  John  xix.  25,  we  find  that  the  Virgin 
Mary  had  a  sister  named  like  herself, 
Mary,  who  was  the  wife  of  Clopas  or  Al- 
phaeus (varieties  of  the  same  name),  and 
who  had  two  sons,  James  the  Less  and 
Joses.  By  referring  to  Matt.  xiii.  55  and 
Mark  vi.  3,  we  find  that  a  James  and  a 
Joses,  with  two  other  brethren  called  Jude 
and  Simon,  and  at  least  three  sisters,  were 
living  with  the  Virgin  Mary  at  Nazareth. 
By  referring  to  Luke  vi.  16  and  Acts  i.  13, 
we  find  that  there  were  two  brethren  named 
James  and  Jude  among  the  Apostles.  It 
would  certainly  be  natural  to  think  that  we 
had  here  but  one  family  of  four  brothers 
and  three  or  more  sisters,  the  children  of 
Clopas  and  Mary,  nephews  and  nieces  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  There  are  difficulties, 
however,  in  the  way  of  this  conclusion  into 
which  we  cannot  here  enter ;  but  in  reply 
to  the  objection  that  the  four  brethren  in 
Matt.  xiii.  55  are  described  as  the  brothers 
of  Jesus,  not  as  His  cousins,  it  must  be 
recollected  that  aSeX(poi,  which  is  here  trans- 
lated "brethren,"  may  also  signify  cousins. 
James  the  Ijess,  son  of  Alphaeus  or 
Clopas,  and  brother  of  our  Lord  (see 
above),  was  called  to  the  Apostolate,  to- 


gether with  his  younger  brother  Jude,  ii 
the  spring  of  the  year  28.  It  is  not  likely 
(though  far  from  impossible)  that  James 
and  Jude  took  part  with  their  brothers  and 
sisters,  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  trying  "  to 
lay  hold  on  "  Jesus  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year  (Mark  iii.  21)  ;  and  it  is  likely, 
though  not  certain,  that  it  is  of  the  other 
brothers  and  sisters,  without  these  two,  that 
St.  John  says,  "Neither  did  His  brethren 
believe  on  Him"  (John  vii.  5),  in  the 
autumn  of  a.  d.  29.  We  hear  no  more  of 
James  till  after  the  Crucifixion  and  the 
Resurrection.  At  some  time  in  the  forty 
days  that  intervened  between  the  Resurrec- 
tion and  the  Ascension  the  Lord  appeared 
to  him.  This  is  not  related  by  the  Evangel- 
ists, but  it  is  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor. 
XV.  7).  Again  we  lose  sight  of  James  for 
ten  years,  and  when  he  appears  once  more 
it  is  in  a  far  higher  position  than  any  that 
he  has  yet  held.  In  the  year  37  occurred 
the  conversion  of  Saul.  Three  years  after 
his  conversion  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  Jeru- 
salem, but  the  Christians  recollected  what 
they  had  suffered  at  his  hands,  and  feared 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  Mm.  Barnabas, 
at  this  time  of  far  higher  reputation  than 
himself,  took  him  by  the  hand,  and  intro- 
duced him  to  Peter  and  James  (Acts  ix.  27 ; 
Gal.  i.  18,  19),  and  by  their  authority  he 
was  admitted  into  the  society  of  the  Chris- 
tians, and  allowed  to  associate  freely  with 
them  during  the  fifteen  days  of  his  stay. 
Here  we  find  James  on  a  level  with  Peter, 
and  with  him  deciding  on  the  admission  of 
St.  Paul  into  fellowship  with  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem ;  and  from  henceforth  we  always 
find  him  equal,  or  in  his  own  department 
superior,  to  the  very  chiefest  Apostles, 
Peter,  John,  and  Paul.  Por  by  this  time 
he  had  been  appointed  to  preside  over  the 
infant  Church  in  its  most  important  centre, 
in  a  position  equivalent  to  that  of  Bishop. 
This  pre-eminence  is  evident  throughout 
the  after  history  of  the  Apostles,  whether 
we  read  it  in  the  Acts,  in  the  Epistles,  or  in 
Ecclesiastical  writers  (Acts  xii.  17,  xv.  13, 
19,  xxi.  18;  Gal.  ii.  9).  According  to  tra- 
dition, James  was  thrown  down  from  the 
Temple  by  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees ;  he 
was  then  stoned  and  his  brains  dashed  out 
by  a  fuller's  club. 

James,  The  General  Epistle  of. 
The  author  of  this  Epistle  was  in  all  proba- 
bility James  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  and  our 
Lord's  brother.  It  was  written  from  Jeru- 
salem, which  St.  James  does  not  seem  to 
have  ever  left.  Its  main  object  is  not  to 
teach  doctruie,  but  to  improve  morality. 
St.  James  is  the  moral  teacher  of  the  N.  T. 
He  wrote  for  the  Jewish  Christians  wheth- 
er in  Jerusalem  or  abroad,  to  warn  them 
against  the  sins  to  which  as  Jews  they  were 
most  liable,  and  to  console  and  exhort  thera 
under  the  sufferings  to  which  as  Christiana 


JAMIN 


271 


JAEIB 


they  were  most  exposed.  It  has  been  main- 
tained that  the  passage  ii.  14-26  is  a  formal 
opposition  to  St.  Paul's  doctrine  of  Jus- 
tification by  Faith ;  but  if  we  consider  the 
meaning  of  the  two  Apostles,  we  see  at 
once  that  there  is  no  contradiction  either 
intended  or  possible.  St.  Paul  was  opposing 
the  Judaizing  party,  which  claimed  to  earn 
acceptance  by  good  works,  whether  the 
works  of  the  Mosaic  law,  or  works  of  piety 
done  by  themselves.  In  opposition  to  these, 
St.  Paul  lays  down  the  great  truth  that  ac- 
ceptance cannot  be  earned  by  man  at  all, 
but  is  the  free  gift  of  God  to  the  Christian 
man,  for  the  sake  of  the  merits  of  Jesus 
Christ,  appropriated  by  each  individual,  and 
made  his  own  by  the  instrumentality  of  faith. 
St.  James,  on  the  other  hand,  was  opposing 
the  old  Jewish  tenet  that  to  be  a  child  of 
Abraham  was  all  in  all ;  that  godliness  was 
not  necessary,  so  that  the  belief  was  cor- 
rect. 

Ja'min.  1.  Second  son  of  Simeon 
(Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.  15;  1  Chr.  iv.  24), 
founder  of  the  family  of  the  Jaminites 
(Num.  xxvi.  12).  2.  A  man  of  Judah, 
second  son  of  Ram  the  Jerahmeelite  (1  Chr. 
ii.  27).  3.  One  of  the  Levites  who  under 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  read  and  expounded 
the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  7). 

Jam'lech.,  one  of  the  chief  men  of  the 
tribe  of  Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv.  34). 

Jam'nia.    [Jabneel.] 

Jan'na,  son  of  Joseph,  and  father  of 
Melchi,  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ  (Luke 
iu.  24). 

Jan'nes  and  Jam'bres,  the  names  of 
two  Egyptian  magicians  who  opposed  Mo- 
ses. St.  Paul  alone  of  the  sacred  writers 
mentions  them  by  name,  and  says  no  more 
than  that  they  "  withstood  Moses,"  and  that 
their  folly  in  doing  so. became  manifest  (2 
Tim.  iii.  8,  9).  It  appears  from  the  Jewish 
commentators  that  these  names  were  held 
to  be  those  of  the  magicians  who  opposed 
Moses  and  Aaron,  spoken  of  in  Exodus. 
Whether  Jannes  and  Jambres  were  men- 
tioned in  some  long-lost  book  relating  to 
the  early  history  of  the  Israelites,  or  whether 
there  were  a  veritable  oral  tradition  respect- 
ing them,  cannot  now  be  determined. 

Jano'all,  a  place  apparently  in  the  north 
of  Galilee,  or  the  "land  of  Naphtali,"  — 
one  of  those  taken  by  Tiglath-Pileser  in  his 
first  incursion  into  Palestine  (2  K.  xv.  29). 
No  trace  of  it  appears  elsewhere. 

Jano'hah,  a  place  on  the  boundary  of 
Ephraim  (Josh.  xvi.  6,  7),  east  of  Neapolis. 
A  little  less  than  twelve  miles  from  Nablus, 
and  about  S.  E.  in  direction,  two  miles  from 
Akrabeh,  is  the  village  of  Yanun,  doubtless 
identical  with  the  ancient  Janohah. 

Ja'XLWn,  a  town  of  Judah  in  the  moun- 
tain district,  apparently  not  far  from  He- 
bron (Josh.  XV.  53). 

Ja'pheth,   one  of  the  three  sons  of 


Noah.  From  the  order  in  which  their 
names  invariably  occur  (Gen.  v.  32,  vi.  10) 
we  should  naturally  infer  that  Japheth  was 
the  youngest,  but  we  learn  from  ix.  24  that 
Ham  held  that  position.  It  has  been  gen- 
erally supposed  from  x.  21  that  Japheth 
was  the  eldest ;  but  the  word  "  elder"  in  that 
passage  is  better  connected  with  "brother." 
We  infer  therefore  that  Japheth  was  the 
second  son  of  Noah.  The  descendants  of 
Japheth  occupied  the  "isles  of  the  Gen- 
tiles "  (Gen.  X.  5),  i.  e.  the  coast-lands  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  Europe  and  Asia 
Minor,  whence  they  spread  nortliwards  over 
the  whole  continent  of  Europe  and  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  Asia. 

Japhi'a.  The  boundary  of  Zebulun 
ascended  from  Daberath  to  Japhia,  and 
thence  passed  to  Gath-hepher  (Josh.  xix. 
12).  Yafa,  2  miles  S.  of  Nazareth,  is  not 
unlikely  to  be  identical  with  Japhia. 

Japhi'a.  1.  King  of  Lachish  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Is- 
raelites (Josh.  X.  3).  2.  One  of  the  sons 
of  David  born  to  him  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
V.  15;  1  Chr.  iii.  7,  xiv.  G). 

JaDh'let,  a  descendant  of  Asher  through 
Beriah  (1  Chr.  vii.  32,  33). 

Japh'leti.  The  boundary  of  the  "  Japh- 
letite "  is  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
south  boundary-line  of  Ephraim  (Josh, 
xvi.  3). 

Ja'pho  (Josh.  xix.  46).  The  Heb.  form 
of  the  better  known  Joppa  (2  Chr.  ii.  16; 
Ezr.  iii.  7;  Jon.  i.  3).  In  its  modern  garb 
it  is  Ydfa. 

Ja'rabi,  a  descendant  of  Saul;  son  of 
Micah,  and  great-grandson  of  Mephibo- 
sheth  (1  Chr.  ix.  42,  comp.  40). 

Ja'reb  is  either  to  be  explained  as  the 
proper  name  of  a  country  or  person,  as  a 
noun  in  apposition,  or  as  a  verb  from  a 
root,  r&b,  "to  contend,  plead."  All  these 
senses  are  represented  in  the  A.  V.  and  the 
marginal  readings  (Hos.  v.  13,  x.  6),  and 
the  least  preferable  has  been  inserted  in 
the  text.  Jareb  is  most  probably  the  name 
of  some  city  of  Assyria,  or  another  name 
of  the  country  itself. 

Ja'red,  one  of  the  antediluvian  patri- 
archs, the  fifth  from  Adam ;  son  of  Mahala- 
leel,  and  father  of  Enoch  (Gen.  v.  15, 16, 18 
-20;  Luke  iii.  37).  In  the  lists  of  Chron- 
icles the  name  is  given  in  the  A.  V.  Jered. 

Jaresi'ah,  a  Benjamite,  one  of  the 
Bene-Jehoram  (1  Chr.  viii.  27). 

Jar'Iia,  the  Egyptian  servant  of  She- 
shan,  about  the  time  of  Eli,  to  whom  his 
master  gave  his  daughter  and  heir  in  mar- 
riage (1  Chr.  ii.  31). 

Ja'rib.     1.  Named  in  the  list  of  1  Chr.  ^ 

iv.  24  only,  as  a  son  of  Simeon.     Perhaps 
the  same  as  Jachin  (Gen.  xlvi.,  Ex.  vi.,        ^ 
and  Num.  xxvi.).     2.  One  of  the  "chief        ^^ 
men  "  who  accompanied  Ezra  on  his  journey 
from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  (Ezr.  viii.  16\  * 


JARIMOTH 


272 


JAVAN 


3.  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Jeshua  the  son 
of  Jozadak,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife, 
and  was  compelled  by  Ezra  to  put  her 
away  (Ezr.  x.  18).  4.  (1  Mace.  xiv.  29). 
A  contraction  or  corruption  of  tlie  name 
JoARin  (ii.  1). 

Jar'imoth,  1  Esd.  ix.  28.    [Jeremoth.] 

Jar'muth.  1.  A  towh  in  the  low  coun- 
try of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  35).  Its  king,  Pi- 
KAM,  was  one  of  the  five  who  conspired 
to  punish  Gibeon  for  having  made  alliance 
with  Israel  (Josh.  x.  3,  5),  and  who  were 
routed  at  Bethhoron  and  put  to  death  by 
Joshua  at  Makkedah  (23) .  Its  site  is  prob- 
ably the  modern  Yarmi'ik.  2.  A  city  'of 
Issachar,  allotted  with  its  suburbs  to  the 
Gershonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  29). 

Jaro'ah,  a  chief  man  of  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(1  Chr.  V.  14). 

Ja'shen.  Bene-Jashen  —  "  sons  of  Ja- 
shcn  "  —  are  named  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
heroes  of  David's  guard  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  32. 

Ja'sher,  Book  of,  or,  as  the  margin  of 
the  A.  V.  gives  it,  "the  book  of  the  up- 
right," a  record  alluded  to  in  two  passages 
only  of  the  O.  T.  (Josh.  x.  13,  and  2  Sam. 
i.  18),  and  consequently  the  subject  of 
much  dispute.  That  it  was  written  in 
verse  may  reasonably  be  inferred  from  the 
only  specimens  extant,  which  exhibit  un- 
mistakable signs  of  metrical  rhythm.  Ge- 
senius  conjectured  that  it  was  an  anthology 
of  ancient  songs,  whicli  acquired  its  name, 
"  the  book  of  the  just  or  upright,"  from 
being  written  in  praise  of  upright  men. 

Jasho'beain.  Possibly  one  and  the 
same  follower  of  David,  bearing  this  name, 
is  described  as  a  Hachmonite  (1  Chr.  xi. 
11),  a  Korhite  (1  Chr.  xii.  6),  and  son  of 
Zabdiel  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  2).  He  came  to 
David  at  Ziklag.  His  distinguishing  ex- 
ploit was  that  he  slew  300  (or  800,  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  8)  men  at  one  time.  He  is  named 
first  among  the  chief  of  the  mighty  men 
of  David  (1  Chr.  xi.  11). 

Ja'shub.  1.  The  third  son  of  Issachar, 
and  founder  of  the  family  of  the  Jashubites 
(Num.  xxvi.  24;  1  Chr.  vii.  1).  2.  One 
of  the  sons  of  Bani,  a  layman  in  the  time 
of  Ezra  who  had  to  put  away  his  foreign 
wife  (Ezr.  x.  29). 

Jash'ubi-le'hem,  a  person  or  a  place 
named  among  the  descendants  of  Shelah, 
the  son  of  Judah  by  Bath-shua  the  Canaan- 
itess  (1  Chr.  iv.  22). 

Ja'siel,  the  last  named  on  the  list  of 
David's  heroes  in  1  Chr.  xi.  47. 

Ja'son.  1.  Jason  the  son  of  Elea- 
ZER  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  by 
Judas  Maccabaeus  to  conclude  a  treaty  with 
the  Romans  b.  c.  161  (1  Mace.  viii.  17). 
2.  Jason  the  father  of  Antipater,  who 
was  an  envoy  to  Rome  at  a  later  period  (1 
Mace.  xii.  16,  xiv.  22),  is  probably  the 
same  person  as  No.  1.  3.  Jason  of  Cy- 
rene,  a  Jewish  historian  who  wrote  "in 


five  books  "  a  history  of  the  Jewish  war  of 
liberation,  which  supplied  tlie  chief  mate- 
rials for  the  second  book  of  the  Maccabees. 
[2  Maccabees.]  His  name  and  the  place 
of  his  residence  seem  to  mark  Jason  as  a 
Hellenistic  Jew,  but  nothing  more  is  known 
of  him  than  can  be  gathered  from  2  Mace, 
ii.  19-23.  4.  Jason  the  High-Priest, 
the  second  son  of  Simon  II.,  and  brother 
of  Onias  III.,  who  succeeded  in  obtaining 
the  high-priesthood  from  Antioclnis  Epiph- 
anes  (circa  175  b.  c.)  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  elder  brother  (2  Mace.  iv.  7-26).  He 
labored  in  every  way  to  introduce  Greek 
customs  among  the  people,  and  that  with 
great  success  (2  Mace.  iv.).  After  three 
years  (cir.  b.  c.  172)  he  was  in  turn  sup- 
planted in  the  king's  favor  by  his  own 
emissary  Menelaus,  and  was  forced  to  take 
refuge  among  the  Ammonites  (2  Mace.  ir. 
26).  On  a  report  of  the  death  of  Antio- 
ehus  (c.  170  B.  c.)  he  made  a  violent  at- 
tempt to  recover  his  power  (2  Mace.  v.  5- 
7),  but  was  repulsed,  and  again  fled  to  the 
Ammonites.  Afterwards  he  was  compelled 
to  retire  to  Egypt,  and  thence  to  Sparta  (2 
Mace.  V.  9),  and  there  "perished  in  a 
strange  land"  (2  Mace.  I.  c. ;  cf.  Dan.  xii. 
30,  fF.;  1  Mace.  i.  12,  ff.).  5.  Jason  the 
Thessalonian,  who  entertained  Paul  and 
Silas,  and  was  in  consequence  attacked  by 
the  Jewish  mob  (Acts  xvii.  o,  6,  7,  9).  He 
is  probably  the  same  as  the  Jason  men- 
tioned in  Rom.  xvi.  21  as  a  companion  of 
the  apostle,  and  one  of  his  kinsmen  or  fel- 
low-tribesmen. It  is  conjectured  that  Jason 
and  Secundus  (Acts  xx.  4)  were  the  same. 

Jasper,  a  precious  stone  frequently  no- 
ticed in  Scripture.  It  was  tlie  last  of  the 
twelve  inserted  in  the  high-priest's  breast- 
plate (Ex.  xxviii.  20,  xxxix.  13),  and  the 
first  of  the  twelve  used  in  the  foundations 
of  the  new  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19).  The 
characteristics  of  the  stone,  as  fixr  as  they 
are  specified  in  Scripture  (Rev.  xxi.  11), 
are,  that  it  was  "most  precious,"  and  "like 
crystal :  "  we  may  also  infer  from  Rev.  iv.  3, 
that  it  was  a  stone  of  brilliant  and  trans- 
parent light.  The  stone  wliich  Ave  name 
"jasper"  does  not  accord  with  this  de- 
scription. .There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
diamond  would  more  adequately  answer  to 
the  description  in  the  book  of  Revelation. 

Jath'niel,  a  Korhite  Levite,  the  fourth 
of  the  family  of  Meshelemiah  (1  Chr.  xxvi. 
2). 

Jat  tir,  a  town  of  Judah  in  the  moun- 
tain districts  (Josh.  xv.  48),  one  of  the  group 
containing  Socho,  Eshtemoa,  «Sbe.  (See 
also  Josh.  xxi.  14;  1  Sara.  xxx.  27;  1  Chr. 
vi.  57).  By  Robinson  it  is  identified  with 
'Attir,  6  miles  N.  of  Molada,  and  10  miles 
S.  of  Hebron. 

Ja'van.  1.  A  son  of  Japheth,  and  the 
fathpr  of  Elishah  and  Tarshish,  Kittim  and 
Dodanim  (Gen.  x.  2,  4).    The  name  ap« 


JAVELIN 


273 


JEDUTHUN 


pears  in  Is.  Ixvi.  19,  where  it  is  coupled 
with  Tarshish,  Pul,  and  Lud,  and  more 
particularly  with  Tubal  and  the  "  isles  aftir 
off,"  as  representatives  of  the  Gentile 
world :  again  in  Ez.  xxvii.  13,  where  it  is 
coupled  with  Tubal  and  Meshech,  as  car- 
ryinjj  on  considerable  commerce  with  the 
Tyrians,  who  imported  from  these  coun- 
tries slaves  and  brazen  vessels :  in  Dan. 
viii.  21,  X.  20,  xi.  2,  in  reference  to  the 
Macedonian  empire;  and  lastly  in  Zech. 
ix.  13,  in  reference  to  the  Graeco-Syrian 
empire.  From  a  comparison  of  these  vari- 
ous passages  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
Javan  was  regarded  as  the  representative 
of  the  Greek  race.  The  name  was  prob- 
ably introduced  into  Asia  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, to  whom  the  lonians  were  naturally 
better  known  than  any  other  of  the  Hel- 
lenic races,  on  account  of  their  commercial 
activity  and  the  high  prosperity  of  their 
towns  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
2.  A  town  in  the  soutliern  part  of  Arabia 
(Yemen),  whither  the  Phoenicians  traded 
(Ez.  xxvii.  19). 

Javelin.    [Arms.] 

Ja'zer.    [Jaazer.] 

Ja'ziz,  a  Hagarite  who  had  charge  of 
the  flocks,  the  sheep  and  goats  of  king 
David  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  31). 

Je'arim,  Mount,  a  place  named  in 
specifying  the  northern  boundary  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  10).  The  boundary  ran  from 
Mount  Scir  to  "the  shoulder  of  Mount 
Jearim,  which  is  Cesalon  "  —  that  is,  Cesa- 
lon  was  the  landmark  on  the  mountain. 
Kesla  stands,  7  miles  due  west  of  Jeru- 
salem, on  a  high  point  on  the  north  slope 
of  a  lofty  ridge,  which  is  probably  Mount 
Jearim. 

Jeat'erai,  a  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of 
Zerah  (1  Chr.  vi.  21). 

Jeberechi'ah,  father  of  a  certain 
Zechariali,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  mentioned 
Is.  viii.  2.  As  this  form  occurs  nowhere 
else,  and  both  the  LXX.  and  Vulgate  have 
JBerechiah,  it  is  probably  only  an  accidental 
corruption. 

Je'bus,  one  of  the  names  of  Jerusalem, 
the  city  of  the  Jebusites,  also  called  Jebusi. 
(Josh.  XV.  8,  xviii.  16,  28 ;  Judg.  xix.  10, 
11 ;  1  Chr.  xi.  4,  5).     [Jerusalem.] 

Jebu'si,  the  name  employed  for  the  city 
of  Jebus  (.Tosh.  XV.  8,  xviii.  16,  28). 

Jeb'usites,  The,  were  descended  from 
the  third  son  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  16 ;  1 
Chr.  i.  14).  The  actual  people  first  ap- 
pear in  the  invaluable  report  of  the  spies 
(Num.  xiii.  29).  When  Jabin  organized 
his  rising  against  Joshua  he  sent  amongst 
others  "  to  the  Amorite,  the  Hittite,  the 
Perizzite,  and  the  Jebusite  in  the  moun- 
tain "  (Josh.  xi.  3).  A  mountain-tribe  they 
were,  and  a  mountain-tribe  they  remained. 
"  Jebus,  which  is  Jerusalem,"  lost  its  king 
in  the  slaughter  of  Bethhoron  (Josh.  x.  1,  5, 
13 


26;  comp.  xii.  10),  was  sacked  and  burned 
by  the  men  of  Judah  (Judg.  i.  21),  and  its 
citadel  finally  scaled  and  occupied  by  Da- 
vid (2  Sam.  v.  6).  After  this  they  emerge 
from  the  darkness  but  once,  in  the  person 
of  Araunah  the  Jebusite,  "  Araunsih  the 
king,"  who  appears  before  us  in  true  kingly 
dignity  in  his  well-known  transaction  with 
David  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  23 ;  1  Chr.  xix.  23). 

Jecami'all,  one  of  seven,  including 
Salathiel  and  Pedaiah,  who  were  intro- 
duced into  the  royal  line,  on  the  failure  of 
it  in  the  person  of  Jehoiachin  (1  Chr.  iii. 
18). 

JechoU'ah,  wife  of  Amaziah  king  of 
Judah,  and  mother  of  Azariah  or  Uzziah 
his  successor  (2  K.  xv.  2). 

Jechoni'as,  the  Greek  form  of  the 
name  of  king  Jechoniah,  an  altered  form 
of  Jehoiachin.     [Jehoiachin.] 

Jecholi'ah.  The  same  as  Jecoliah  (2 
Chr.  XX vi.  3). 

Jeconi'ah,  an  altered  form  of  the 
name  of  Jehoiachin  (1  Chr.  iii.  16,  17; 
Jer.  xxiv.  1,  xxvii.  20,  xxviii.  4,  xxix.  1; 
Esth.  ii.  6). 

Jeda'iah.  1.  Head  of  the  second 
course  oi  priests,  as  they  were  divided  in 
the  time  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  7).  Some 
of  them  survived  to  return  to  Jerusalem 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity,  as  appears 
from  Ezr.  ii.  36;  Neh.  vii.  39.  2.  A  priest 
in  the  time  of  Jeshua  the  liigb-priest 
(Zech.  vi.  10,  14). 

Jeda'iall.  1.  A  Simeonite,  forefather 
of  Ziza  (1  Chr.  iv.  37).  2.  Son  of  Ha- 
rumaph ;  a  man  who  did  his  part  in  the  re- 
building of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii. 
10). 

Jedi'ael.  1.  A  chief  patriarch  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  vii.  6,  11).  It 
is  usually  assumed  that  Jediael  is  the  same 
as  Ashbel  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  38 ; 
1  Chr.  viii.).  But  this  is  not  certain.  2_ 
Second  son  of  Meshelemiah,  a  Levite  (ll 
Chr.-  xxvi.  1,  2).  3.  Son  of  Shimri;  one- 
of  the  heroes  of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi.. 
45).  4.  One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  thousands 
of  Manasseh  who  joined  David  on  his- 
march  to  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  20;  comp,  1 
Sam.  xxix.,  xxx.). 

Jed'idah,  queen  of  Amon,  and  mothet 
of  the  good  king  Josiah  (2  K.  xxii.  1). 

Jedidi'ah,  Jedid-Jah,  "darling  of  Je- 
hovah," the  name  bestowed,  through  Na- 
than the  prophet,  on  David's  son  Soloiuoni 
(2  Sam.  xii.  25). 

Jed'uthun,  a  Levite,  of  the  family  of 
Merari,  is  probably  the  same  as  Ethan, 
(comp.  1  Chr.  xv.  17,  19,  with  1  Chr.  xvi. 
41,  42,  XXV.  1,  3,  6;  2  Clir.  xxxv.  15). 
His  otfice  was  generally  to  preside  over  tho 
music  of  the  temple  service.  Jeduthun's 
name  stands  at  the  head  of  the  3»th,  62d, 
and  77th  Psalms,  indicating  probably  tliat 
they  were  to  be  sung  by  his  choir. 


jtjEZEiR 


274 


JEHOIIANAN 


Jee'zer,  the  form  assumed  in  the  list 
in  Numbers  (xxvi.  30)  by  the  name  of  a 
descendant  of  Manasseh,  and  founder  of 
the  family  of  the  Jeezerites.  In  parallel 
lists  the  name  is  given  as  Abi-ezer. 

Je'gar-sahadu'tha  ("  heap  of  testi- 
mony"), the  Aramaean  name  given  by 
Laban  the  Syrian  to  the  heap  of  stones 
which  he  erected  as  a  memorial  of  the 
compact  between  Jacob  and  himself,  while 
Jacob  commemorated  the  same  by  setting 
up  a  pillar  (Gen.  xxxi.  47),  as  was  liis  cus- 
tom on  several  other  occasions.  Galeed,  a 
"witness  heap,"  which  is  given  as  the 
Hebrew  equivalent,  does  not  exactly  repre- 
sent Jogar-sahadutha. 

Jehal'eleel.  Four  men  of  the  Bene- 
Jehaleleel  are  introduced  abruptly  into  the 
genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  16). 

Jehal'elel,  a  Merarite  Levite,  father 
of  Azariah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12). 

Jehdei'ah.  1.  The  representative  of 
the  Bene-Shubael,  in  the  time  of  David  (1 
Chr.  xxiv.  20).  2.  A  Meronothite  who  had 
charge  of  the  she-asses  of  David  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  3C). 

Jehez  ekel,  a  priest  to  whom  was  given 
by  David  the  charge  of  the  twentieth  of  the 
twenty-four  courses  in  the  service  of  the 
house  of  Jehovah  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  16). 

Jeh.i'all  and  Obed-edom  were  *'  door- 
keepers for  the  ark "  at  the  time  of  its 
establishment  in  Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  xr, 
24). 

Jelli'el.  1.  One  of  the  Levites  appoint- 
ed by  David  to  assist  in  the  service  of  the 
house  of  God  (1  Chr.  xv.  18,  20,  xvi.  4). 
2.  One  of  the  sons  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of 
Judah,  put  to  death  by  his  brother  Jehoram 
(2  Chr.  xxi.  2).  3.  One  of  the  rulers  of 
the  house  of  God  at  the  time  of  the  reforms 
of  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  8) .  4.  A  Gershon- 
ite  Levite,  head  of  the  Bene-Laadan  in 
the  time  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  8),  who 
had  charge  of  the  treasures  (xxix.  8).  5. 
Son  of  Hachmoni,  or  of  a  Hachmonite, 
named  in  the  list  of  David's  officers  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  32)  as  "  with  the  king's  sons,"  what- 
ever that  may  mean.  6.  A  Levite  of  the 
Bene-Heman,  who  took  part  in  the  restora- 
tions ofking  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  14). 
7.  Another  Levite  at  the  same  period  (2 
Chr.  xxxi.  13).  8.  Father  of  Obadiah,  of 
the  Bene-Joab  (Ezr.  viii.  9).  9.  One  of 
the  Bene-EIam,  father  of  Shechaniah  (Ezr. 
X.  2).  10.  A  member  of  the  same  family, 
who  had  himself  to  part  with  his  wife  (Ezr. 
X.  26).  11.  A  priest,  one  of  the  Bene- 
Harim,  who  also  had  to  put  away  his  for- 
eign wife  (Ezr.  x.  21). 

Jeh.i'el,  a  perfectly  distinct  name  from 
the  last.  1.  A  man  described  as  father  of 
Gibeon;  a  forefather  of  king  Saul  (1  Chr. 
ix.  35).  2.  One  of  the  sons  of  Hotham 
the  Aroerite ;  a  member  of  David's  guard 
(1  Chr.  xi.  44). 


JeM'eli,  according  to  the  A.  V.  a 
Gershonite  Levite  of  the  family  of  Laadan 
(1  Chr.  xxvi.  21,  22). 

Jehizki'ah,  son  of  Shallum,  one  of 
the  heads  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  in  the 
time  of  Ahaz  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  12 ;  comp.  8, 
13,  15). 

Jelio'adall,  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  36) ;  great-grandson  to 
Merib.aal,  t.  e.  Mephibosbeth. 

Jehoad'dan,  queen  to  king  Joash,  and 
mother  of  Amaziah  of  Judah  (2  K.  xiv.  2 ; 
2  Chr.  XXV.  1). 

Jeho'ahaz.  1.  The  son  and  successor 
of  Jehu,  reigned  17  years  b.  c.  856-840 
over  Israel  in  Samaria.  His  inglorious 
history  is  given  in  2  K.  xiii.  1-9.  Through- 
out his  reign  (ver.  22)  he  was  kept  in  sub- 
jection by  Hazael  king  of  Damascus. 
Jehoahaz  maintained  the  idolatry  of  Jero- 
boam ;  but  in  the  extremity  of  his  humili- 
ation he  besought  Jehovah,  and  Jehovah 
gave  Israel  a  deliverer  —  probably  either 
Jehoash  (vv.  23  and  25),  or  Jeroboam  II. 
(2  K.  xiv.  24,  25).  2.  Jehoahaz,  otherwise 
called  Shallum,  the  fourth  (ace.  to  1  Chr. 
iii.  15),  or  third,  if  Zedekiah's  age  be  cor- 
rectly stated  (2  Chr.  xxxvi.  11),  son  of 
Josiah,  whom  he  succeeded  as  king  of 
Judah.  He  was  chosen  by  the  people  in 
preference  to  his  elder  (comp.  2  K.  xxiii. 
31  and  36)  brother,  b.  c.  610,  and  he  reigned 
three  months  in  Jerusalem.  Pharaoh-Necho 
on  his  return  from  Carchemish,  perhaps 
resenting  the  election  of  Jehoahaz,  sent  to 
Jerusalem  to  depose  him,  and  to  fetch  him 
to  Riblah.  There  he  was  cast  into  jchains, 
and  from  thence  he  was  taken  into  Egypt, 
where  he  died.  3.  The  name  given  (2 
Chr.  xxi.  17)  to  Ahaziah,  the  youngest  son 
of  Jehoram  king  of  Judah. 

JehO'ash,  the  uncontracted  form  of 
Joash.  1.  The  eighth  king  of  Judah ; 
son  of  Ahaziah  (2  K.  xi.  21,  xii.  1.  2,  4,  6, 
7,  18,  xiv.  13).  [Joash,  1.]  2.  The 
twelfth  king  of  Israel ;  son  of  Jehoahaz 
(2  K.  xiii.  10,  25,  xiv.  8,  9,  11,  13,  15,  16, 
17).     [Joash,  2.] 

JehO'hanan.  1.  A  Korhite  Levite, 
one  of  the  doorkeepers  to  the  house  of  Je- 
hovah, t.  e.  the  Tabernacle,  according  to 
the  appointment  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  3 ; 
comp.  XXV.  1).  He  was  the  sixth  of  the 
seven  sons  of  Meshelemiah.  2.  One  of  the 
principal  men  of  Judah,  under  king  Je- 
hoshaphat (2  Chr.  xvii.  15;  comp.  13  and 
19).  3.  Father  of  Ishmael,  one  of  the 
"captains  of  hundreds"  whom  Jehoiada 
the  priest  took  into  his  confidence  about  the 
restoration  of  the  line  of  Judah  (2  Chr. 
xxiii.  1).  4.  One  of  the  Bene-Bebai,  a  lay 
Israelite  who  was  forced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  28).  5.  A 
priest  (Neh.  xii.  13)  ;  the  representative  of 
the  house  of  Amariah  (comp.  2),  during 
the  high-priesthood  of  Joiakim  (ver.  12). 


JEHOIACHIN 


275 


JEHOIAEIB 


6.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  42). 

Jehoiachin,  son  of  Jelioiakim  and  Ne- 
hushta,  and  for  three  months  and  ten  days 
king  of  Judah,  b.  c.  597.  Jehoiachin  came 
to  the  throne  when  Egypt  was  still  prostrate 
in  consequence  of  the  victory  at  Carche- 
mish.  Jerusalem  was  quite  defenceless, 
and  unaljle  to  offer  any  resistance  to  the 
regular  army  which  Nebuchadnezzar  sent 
to  besiege  it  (2  K.  xxiv.  10,  11).  In  a  very 
short  time  Jehoiachin  surrendered  at  dis- 
cretion ;  and  he,  and  the  queen-mother,  and 
all  his  servants,  captains,  and  officers,  came 
out  and  gave  themselves  up  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who  carried  them,  witli  the  harem 
andtlie  eunuchs,  to  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  2; 
Ezek.  xvii.  12,  xix.  9).  There  he  remained 
a  prisoner,  actually  in  prison,  and  wearing 
prison  garments,  for  thirty-six  years,  viz. 
till  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  when 
Evil-Merodach,  succeeding  to  the  throne 
of  Babylon,  brought  him  out  of  prison,  and 
made  him  sit  at  his  own  table.  Whether 
Jehoiachin  outlived  the  two  years  of  Evil- 
Merodach's  reign  or  not  does  not  appear, 
nor  have  we  any  particulars  of  his  Ufe  at 
Babylon.  It  does  not  appear  certainly  from 
Scripture,  whether  Jehoiachin  was  married 
or  had  any  children.  That  Zedekiah,  who 
in  1  Chr.  iii.  16  is  called  "  his  son,"  is  the 
same  as  Zedekiah  his  uncle  (called  "his 
brother,"  2  Chr.  xxxvi.  10),  who  was  his 
successor  on  the  throne,  seems  certain. 

Jehoi'ada.  1.  Father  of  Benaiah, 
David's  well-known  warrior  (2  Sam.  viii. 
18,  1  K.  i.  and  ii.  passim,  1  Chr.  xviii.  17, 
&c.).  2.  Leader  of  the  Aaronites,  i.  e.  the 
priests;  who  joined  David  at  Hebron  (1 
Chr.  xii.  27).  3.  According  to  1  Chr. 
xxvii.  34,  son  of  Benaiah.  But  in  all  prob- 
ability, Benaiah  the  son  of  Jehoiada  is 
meant,  by  a  confusion  similar  to  that  which 
has  arisen  with  regard  to  Ahimelech  and 
Abiathar,  1  Chr.  xviii.  16,  2  Sara.  viii.  17. 
4.  High-priest  at  the  time  of  Athaliah's 
usurpation  of  the  throne  of  Judah  (b.  c. 
884-878),  and  during  the  greater  portion  of 
the  40  years'  reign  of  Joash.  He  probably 
succeeded  Amariah.  He  married  Jehoshe- 
BA,  or  Jehoshabeath,  daughter  of  king  Je- 
horam,  and  sister  of  king  Ahaziah  (2  Chr. 
xxii.  11);  and  when  Athaliah  slew  all  the 
seed  royal  of  Judah  after  Ahaziah  had  been 
put  to  death  by  Jehu,  he  and  his  wife  stole 
Joash  from  among  the  king's  sons,  and  hid 
him  for  six  years  in  the  Temple,  and  event- 
ually replaced  him  on  the  throne  of  his 
ancestors.  Having  divided  the  priests  and 
Levites  into  three  bands,  which  were  posted 
at  the  principal  entrances,  he  produced  the 
young  king  before  the  whole  assembly,  and 
crowned  and  anointed  him.  Athaliah  was 
put  to  death.  [Athaliah.]  The  destruc- 
tion of  Baal-worship  and  the  restoration  of 
the  Temple  were  among  the  great  works 


effected  by  Jehoiada.     He  died  b.  c.  834. 

5.  Second  priest,  or  sagan,  to  Seraiah  the 
high-priest  (Jer.  xxix.  25-29  ;  2  K.  xxv.  18). 

6.  Son  of  Paseach,  who  assisted  to  repair 
the  old  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6). 

Jehofakim,  called  Eliakim,  son  of 
Josiah  and  Zebudah,  and  king  of  Judah. 
After  deposing  Jehoahaz,  Pharaoh  Necho 
set  Eliakim,  his  elder  brother,  upon  the 
throne,  and  changed  his  name  to  Jchoiakim, 
B.  c.  608-597.  Egypt  played  no  part  in 
Jewish  politics  during  the  seven  or  eight 
years  of  Jehoiakim's  reign.  After  the  battle 
of  Carchemish  Nebuchadnezzar  came  into 
Palestine  as  one  of  the  Egyptian  tributary 
kingdoms,  the  capture  of  which  was  the 
natural  fruit  of  his  victory  over  Necho. 
He  found  Jehoiakim  quite  defenceless. 
After  a  short  siege  he  entered  Jerusalem, 
took  the  king  prisoner,  bound  him  in  fetters 
to  carry  him  to  Babylon,  and  took  also  some 
of  the  precious  vessels  of  the  Temple  and 
carried  them  to  the  land  of  Shinar.  But  he 
seems  to  have  changed  his  purpose  as  re- 
garded Jehoiakim,  and  to  have  accepted 
his  submission,  and  reinstated  him  on  the 
throne,  perhaps  in  remembrance  of  the 
fidelity  of  his  father  Josiah.  What  is 
certain  is,  that  Jehoiakim  became  tributary 
to  Nebuchadnezzar  after  his  invasion  of 
Judah,  and  continued  so  for  three  years, 
but  at  the  end  of  that  time  broke  his  oath  of 
allegiance  and  rebelled  against  him  (2  K. 
xxiv.  1).  Though  Nebuchadnezzar  was  not 
able  at  that  time  to  come  in  person  to 
chastise  his  rebellious  vassal  he  sent  against 
him  numerous  bands  of  Chaldeans,  with 
Syrians,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites,  who 
were  all  now  subject  to  Babylon  (2  K. 
xxiv.  7),  and  who  cruelly  harassed  the 
whole  country.  Either  in  an  engagement 
with  some  of  these  forces,  or  else  by  the 
hand  of  his  own  oppressed  subjects,  who 
thought  to  conciliate  the  Babylonians  by 
the  murder  of  their  king,  Jehoiakim  came 
to  a  violent  end  in  the  11th  year  of  his 
reign.  His  body  was  cast  out  ignominious- 
ly  on  the  ground ;  and  then,  after  being  left 
exposed  for  some  time,  was  dragged  away 
and  buried  "  with  the  burial  of  an  ass," 
without  pomp  or  lamentation,  "beyond  the 
gates  of  Jerusalem"  (Jer.  xxii.  18,  19, 
xxxvi.  30).  All  the  accounts  we  have  of  Je- 
hoiakim concur  in  ascribing  to  him  a  vicious 
and  irreligious  character.  The  writer  of  2 
K.  xxiii.  37,  tells  us  that  "  he  did  that  which 
was  evil  in  the  sight  of  Jehovah,"  a  state- 
ment which  is  repeated  xxiv.  9,  and  2  Chr. 
xxxvi.  5.  But  it  is  in  the  writings  of  Jere- 
miah thit  we  have  the  fullest  portraiture  of 
him.  The  reign  of  Jehoiakim  extends  from 
B.  c.  609  to  B.  c.  598,  or  as  some  reckon 
599.  • 

Jehoi'arib,  head  of  the  first  of  the 
24  courses  of  priests,  according  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  king  David  (1  Clir.  xAv.  7). 


JEHONADAB 


276 


JEHOEAM 


Some  of  his  descendants  returned  from  the  ' 
Babylonish  captivity,  as  we  learn  from  1  j 
Chr.  ix.  10,  Keh.  xi.  10.  Their  chief  in  ! 
the  days  of  Joiakim  the  son  of  Jeshua  was  ] 
Mattenai  (Neh.  xii.  6,  19).  They  were  j 
probably  of  the  house  of  Eleazar.  To  the  ; 
course  of  Jehoiarib  belonged  the  Asmonean 
family  (1  Mace.  ii.  1),  and  Josephus,  as  he 
informs  us. 

Jehon'adab,  and  Jon'adab,  the  son 

of  Rechab,  founder  of  the  Rechabites.  It 
appears  from  1  Chr.  ii.  55,  that  his  father 
or  ancestor  Rechab  belonged  to  a  branch 
of  the  Kenites,  the  Arabian  tribe  which  en- 
tered Palestine  with  the  Israelites.  One 
settlement  of  them  was  established,  under 
a  fourfold  division,  at  or  near  the  town  of 
Jabez  in  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  55).  To  these 
last  belonged  Rechab  and  his  son  Jehona- 
dab.  The  Bedouin  habits,  which  were  kept 
up  by  the  other  branches  of  the  Kenite 
tribe,  were  inculcated  by  Jehonadab  with 
the  utmost  minuteness  on  his  descendants 
(Jer.  XXXV.  6).  Bearing  in  mind  this  gen- 
eral character  of  Jehonadab  as  an  Arab 
chief,  and  the  founder  of  a  half  religious 
sect,  we  are  the  better  able  to  understand 
the  single  occasion  on  which  he  appears  be- 
fore us  in  the  historical  narrative.  Jehu  was 
advancing,  after  the  slaughter  of  Betheked, 
on  the  city  of  Samaria,  when  he  suddenly 
met  the  austere  Bedouin  coming  towards 
him  (2  K.  x.  15).  The  king  was  in  his 
chariot;  the  Arab  was  on  foot.  No  doubt 
he  acted  in  concert  with  Jehu  throughout ; 
the  only  occasion  on  which  he  is  expressly 
mentioned  is  when  he  went  with  Jehu 
tlirough  the  temple  of  Baal  to  turn  out  any 
that  there  might  happen  to  be  in  the  mass 
of  Pagan  worshippers  (2  K.  x.  23). 

Jehon'atlian.  1.  Son  of  Uzziah; 
superintendent  of  certain  of  king  David's 
storehouses  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  25).  2.  One  of 
the  Levites  who  were  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
through  the  cities  of  Judah,  with  a  book  of 
the  Law,  to  teach  the  people  (2  Chr.  xvii. 
8).  3.  A  priest  (Neh.  xii.  18)  ;  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  of  Shemaiah  (ver. 
6),  when  Joiakim  was  high-priest. 

Jelio'rain.  1.  Son  of  Ahab  king  of 
Israel,  who  succeeded  his  brother  Ahaziah, 
B.  0.  896,  and  died  b.  c.  884.  The  alliance 
between  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah, 
commenced  by  his  father  and  Jehoshaphat, 
was  very  close  throughout  his  reign.  We 
first  find  him  associated  with  Jehoshaphat 
and  the  king  of  Edom,  at  that  time  a  tribu- 
fcvry  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  in  a  war 
against  the  Moabites.  The  three  armies 
were  in  the  utmost  danger  of  perishing  for 
want  of  water.  The  piety  of  Jehoshaphat 
suggested  an  inquiry  of  some  prophet  of 
Jehovah,  and  Blisha,  at  that  time  and  since 
tlie  latter  part  of  Ahab's  reign  Elijah's  at- 
tendant (2  K.  iii.  11 ;  1  K.  xix.  19-21),  was 
found  with  the  host.     From  him  Jehoram 


received  a  severe  rebuke,  and  was  bid  to 
inquire  of  the  prophets  of  his  father  and 
mother,  the  prophets  of  Baal.  Neverthe- 
less for  Jehoshaphat's  sake  Elisha  inquired 
of  Jehovah,  and  received  the  promise  of  an 
abundant  supply  of  water,  and  of  a  great 
victory  over  the  Moabites ;  a  promise  wliich 
was  immediately  fulfilled.  The  Moabites 
were  put  to  the  rout.  The  allies  pursued 
them  with  great  slaughter  into  their  own 
land,  which  they  utterly  ravaged  and  de- 
stroyed with  all  its  cities.  Kirharaseth  alone 
remained,  and  there  the  king  of  Moab  made 
his  last  stand.  An  attempt  to  break  through 
the  besieging  army  having  failed,  he  re- 
sorted to  the  desperate  expedient  of  off'er- 
ing  up  his  eldest  son,  the  heir  to  his  throne, 
as  a  burnt-offering,  upon  the  wall  of  the 
city,  in  the  sight  of  the  enemy.  Upon  tliis 
the  Israelites  retired  and  returned  to  their 
own  land  (2  K.  iii.).  A  little  later,  wlien 
war  broke  out  between  Syria  and  Israel,  we 
find  Elisha  befriending  Jehoram.  What 
happened  after  this  to  change  the  relations 
between  the  king  and  the  prophet  we  can 
only  conjecture.  But  it  seems  probable 
that  when  the  Syrian  inroads  ceased,  and 
he  felt  less  dependent  upon  the  aid  of  the 
prophet,  he  relapsed  into  idolatry,  and  was 
rebuked  by  Elisha,  and  threatened  with  a 
return  of  the  calamities  from  which  he  had 
escaped.  Refusing  to  repent,  a  fresh  inva- 
sion by  the  Syrians,  and  a  close  siege  of 
Samaria,  actually  came  to  pass,  according 
probably  to  the  word  of  the  prophet. 
Hence,  when  the  terrible  incident  arose,  in 
consequence  of  the  famine,  of  a  woman 
boiling  and  eating  her  own  child,  the  king 
immediately  attributed  the  evil  to  Elisha, 
and  determined  to  take  away  his  life.  The 
providential  interposition  by  whicli  both 
Elisha's  life  was  saved  and  the  city  deliv- 
ered, is  narrated  2  K.  vii.,  and  Jehoram 
appears  to  have  returned  to  friendly  feeling 
towards  Elisha  (2  K.  viii.  4).  It  was  very 
soon  after  the  above  events  that  Elisha 
went  to  Damascus,  and  predicted  the  revolt 
of  Hazael,  and  his  accession  to  the  throne 
of  Syria  in  the  room  of  Ben-hadad.  Jeho- 
ram seems  to  have  thought  the  revolution 
in  Syria,  which  immediately  followed  Eli- 
sha's prediction,  a  good  opportunity  to  pur- 
sue his  father's  favorite  project  of  recov- 
ering Raraoth-Gilead  from  the  Syrians.  He 
accordingly  made  an  alliance  with  his  neph- 
ew Ahaziah,  who  had  just  succeeded  Joram 
on  the  throne  of  Judah,  and  the  two  kings 
proceeded  to  occupy  Ramoth-Gilead  by 
force.  The  expedition  was  an  unfortunate 
one.  Jehoram  was  wounded  in  battle,  and 
obliged  to  return  to  Jezreel  to  be  healed  of 
his  wounds  (2  K.  viii.  29,  ix.  14,  15),  leav- 
ing his  army  under  Jehu  to  hold  llamoth- 
Gilead  against  Hazael,  Jehu,  however, 
and  the  army  under  his  command,  revolted 
from  their  allegiance  to  Jehoram  (2  K.  ix.), 


JEHOSHABEATH 


277   JEHOSHAPHAT,  VALLEY  OF 


and  hastily  marching  to  Jczrecl,  surprised 
Jehoram,  wounded  and  defenceless  as  he 
was.  Jehoram,  going  out  to  meet  him,  fell 
pierced  by  an  arrow  from  Jehu's  bow  on 
the  very  plot  of  ground  which  Ahab  had 
wrested  from  Naboth  the  Jezreelite ;  thus 
fulfilling  to  the  letter  the  prophecy  of  Eli- 
jah (1  K.  xxi.  21-29).  With  the  life  of 
Jehoram.  ended  the  dynasty  of  Omri.  2. 
Eldest  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  succeeded  his 
f\ither  on  the  throne  of  Judah  at  the  age  of 
32,  and  reigned  eight  years,  from  b.  c. 
893-2  to  885-4.  Jehosheba  his  daughter 
was  wife  to  the  high-priest  Jehoiada.  As 
soon  as  he  was  fixed  on  the  throne,  he  put 
his  six  brothers  to  death,  with  many  of  the 
chief  nobles  of  the  land.  He  then,  proba- 
bly at  the  instance  of  his  wife  Athaliah  the 
daughter  of  Ahab,  proceeded  to  establish 
the  worship  of  Baal.  A  prophetic  writing 
from  the  aged  prophet  Elijah  (2  Chr.  xxi. 
12),  failed  to  produce  any  good  effect  upon 
him.  This  was  in  the  first  or  second  year 
of  his  reign.  The  remainder  of  it  was  a 
series  of  calamities.  First  the  Edomites, 
who  had  been  tributary  to  Jehoshaphat,  re- 
volted from  his  dominion,  and  established 
their  permanent  independence.  Next  Lib- 
nah,  one  of  the  strongest  fortified  cities  in 
Judah  (2  K.  xix.  8),  rebelled  against  him. 
Then  followed  invasions  of  armed  bands  of 
Philistines  and  of  Arabians,  who  stormed 
the  king's  palace,  put  his  wives  and  all  his 
children,  except  his  youngest  son  Ahaziah, 
to  death  (2  Chr.  xxii.  1),  or  carried  them 
into  captivity,  and  plundered  all  his  treas- 
ures. He  died  of  a  terrible  disease  (2  Chr. 
xxi.  19,  20)  early  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his 
brother-in-law  Jehoram's  reign  over  Israel. 

Jehoshab'eath,  the  form  in  wMch  the 
name  of  Jkhosiieba  is  given  in  2  Chr.' xxii. 
11. 

Jehosh'aphat.  1.  King  of  Judah,  son 
of  Asa,  succeeded  to  the  throne  b.  c.  914, 
when  he  was  35  years  old,  and  reigned  25 
years.  His  history  is  to  be  found  among 
the  events  recorded  in  1  K.  xv.  24 ;  2  K. 
viii.  16,  or  in  a  continuous  narrative  in  2 
Chr.  xvii.  1-xxi.  3.  He  was  contemporary 
with  Ahab,  Ahaziah,  and  Jehoram.  At 
first  he  strengthened  himself  against  Israel 
by  fortifying  and  garrisoning  the  cities  of 
Judah  and  the  Ephraimite  conquests  of 
Asia.  But  soon  afterwards  the  two  He- 
brew kings,  perhaps  appreciating  their  com- 
mon danger  from  Damascus  and  the  tribes 
on  their  eastern  frontier,  formed  an  alli- 
ance. Jehoshaphat's  eldest  son  Jehoram 
married  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab 
and  Jezebel.  In  his  own  kingdom  Jehosh- 
aphat ever  showed  himself  a  zealous  fol- 
lower of  the  commandments  of  God :  he 
tried,  it  would  seem  not  quite  successfully, 
to  put  down  the  high  places  and  groves  in 
which  the  people  of  Judah  burnt  incense. 
Riches  and  honors  increased  around  him. 


He  received  tribute  from  the  Philistines 
and  Arabians ;  and  kept  up  a  large  stand- 
ing army  in  Jerusalem.  It  was  probably 
about  the  16th  year  of  his  reign  (b.  c.  898) 
when  he  went  to  Samaria  to  visit  Ahab,  and 
to  become  his  ally  in  the  great  battle  of 
Ramoth-GileafJ.  From  thence  Jehoshaphat 
returned  to  Jerusalem  in  peace ;  and  went 
himself  through  the  people  "  from  Beer- 
sheba  to  Mount  Ephraim,"  reclaiming  them 
to  the  law  of  God.  Turning  his  attention 
to  foreign  commerce,  he  built  at  Ezion- 
geber,  with  the  help  of  Ahaziah,  a  navy  de- 
signed to  go  to  Tarshish ;  but  it  was  wrecked 
at  Ezion-geber.  Before  the  close  of  his 
reign  he  was  engaged  in  two  additional 
wars.  He  was  miraculously  delivered  from 
a  threatened  attack  of  the  people  of  Am- 
mon,  Moab,  and  Seir.  After  this,  perhaps, 
must  be  dated  the  war  which  Jehoshaphat, 
in  conjunction  with  Jehoram  king  of  Israel 
and  the  king  of  Edom,  carried  on  against 
the  rebellious  king  of  Moab  (2  K.  iii.).  In 
his  declining  years  the  administration  of 
affairs  was  placed  (probably  b.  c.  891)  in 
the  hands  of  his  son  Jehoram.  2.  Son  of 
Ahilud,  who  filled  the  office  of  recorder  or 
annalist  in  the  courts  of  David  (2  Sam.  viii. 
16,  &c.)  and  Solomon  (1  K.  iv.  3).  3. 
One  of  the  priests,  who  (1  Chr.  xv.  24) 
were  appointed  to  blow  trumpets  before  the 
ark  when  it  was  carried  from  the  house  of 
Obed-edom  to  Jerusalem.  4.  Son  of  Pa- 
ruah ;  one  of  the  twelve  purveyors  of  king 
Solomon  (1  K.  iv.  17).  5.  Son  of  Nimshi, 
and  father  of  king  Jehu  (2  K.  ix.  2,  14). 

Jehosh'aphat,  Valley  of,  a  valley 
mentioned  by  Joel  only,  as  the  spot  in 
which,  after  the  return  of  Judah  and  Jeru- 
salem from  captivity,  Jehovah  would  gather 
all  the  heathen  (Joel  iii.  2),  and  would  there 
sit  to  judge  them  for  their  misdeeds  to  Is- 
rael (iii.  12).  The  prophet  seems  to  have 
glanced  back  to  that  triumphant  day  when 
king  Jehoshaphat,  the  greatest  king  tha 
nation  had  seen  since  Solomon,  led  out  his 
people  to  a  valley  in  the  wilderness  of 
Tekoah,  and  was  there  blessed  with  such  a 
victory  over  the  hordes  of  his  enemies  as 
was  without  a  parallel  in  the  national  rec- 
ords (2  Chr.  XX.).  The  scene  of  "  Jeho- 
vah's judgment"  has  been  localized,  and  the 
name  has  come  down  to  us  attached  to  that 
deep  ravine  which  separates  Jerusalem  from 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  through  which  at  one 
time  the  Kedron  forced  its  stream.  At 
what  period  the  name  was  first  applied  to 
this  spot  is  not  known.  There  is  no  trace 
of  it  in  the  Bible  or  in  Josephus.  In  both 
the  only  name  used  for  this  gorge  is  Kid- 
RON  (N.  T.  Ceuron).  We  first  encounter 
its  new  title  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  century 
in  the  0«o?Mas^icoaofEuscbius  and  Jerome, 
and  in  the  Commentary  of  the  latter  Father 
on  Joel.  Since  that  time  the  name  has 
been  recognized  and  adopted  by  travellers 


JEIIOSHEBA 


278 


JEHOVAH 


of  all  ages  and  all  faiths.  Both  Moslems 
and  Jews  believe  that  the  last  Judgment  is 
to  take  place  there.  The  steep  sides  of  the 
ravine,  wherever  a  level  strip  affords  the 
opportunity,  are  crowded  —  in  places  al- 
most paved  —  by  the  sepulchres  of  the 
Moslems,  or  the  simpler  slal^  of  the  Jew- 
ish tombs,  alike  awaiting  the  assembly  of 
the  last  Judgment.  The  name  would  seem 
to  be  generally  confined  by  travellers  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  glen,  from  about  the 
*' Tomb  of  the  Virgin"  to  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem. 

Jehosh'eba,  daughter  of  Joram  king 
of  Israel,  and  wife  of  Jehoiada  the  high- 
priest  (2  K.  xi.  2).  Her  name  in  the  Chron- 
icles is  given  Jehoshabeath.  As  she  is 
called,  2  K.  xi.  2,  "  the  daughter  oi  Joram, 
sister  of  Ahaziah,"  it  has  been  conjectured 
tiiat  she  was  the  daughter,  not  of  Athaliah, 
hut  of  Joram  by  another  wife.  She  is  the 
only  recorded  instance  of  the  marriage  of  a 
princess  of  the  royal  house  with  a  high- 
jiriest. 

Jehosh'ua,  that  is,  "  help  of  Jehovah  " 
or  "  Saviour."  In  this  form  is  given  the 
name  of  Joshua  in  Num.  xiii.  16,  on  the  oc- 
casion of  its  bestowal  by  Moses.  Once 
more  only  the  name  appears  in  its  full  form 
in  the  A.  V.  —  as 

Jehosh'uall,  in  the  genealogy  of  Eph- 
raim  (1  Chr.  vii.  27). 

Jehovall.  The  true  pronunciation  of 
this  name,  by  which  God  was  known  to 
the  Hebrews,  has  been  entirely  lost,  the 
Jews  themselves  scrupulously  avoiding 
every  mention  of  it,  and  substituting  in  its 
stead  one  or  other  of  the  words  with  whose 
proper  vowel-points  it  may  happen  to  be 
written.  This  custom,  which  had  its  origin 
in  reverence,  and  has  almost  degenerated 
into  a  superstition,  was  founded  upon  an 
erroneous  rendering  of  Lev.  xxiv.  16,  from 
which  it  was  inferred  that  the  mere  utter- 
ance of  the  name  constituted  a  capital  of- 
fence. According  to  Jewish  tradition,  it 
was  pronounced  but  once  a  year  by  the 
high-priest  on  the  day  of  Atonement  when 
he  entered  the  Holy  of  Holies ;  but  on  this 
point  there  is  some  doubt.  On  the  authori- 
ty of  Maimonides  we  learn  that  it  ceased 
with  Simeon  the  Just.  But  even  after  the 
destruction  of  the  second  Temple  instances 
are  met  with  of  individuals  who  were  in 
possession  of  the  mysterious  secret.  That 
the  Hebrews  learned  the  word  from  the 
Egyptians  is  a  theory  which  has  found  some 
advocates.  There  can  be  but  little  doubt 
that  the  process  in  reality  was  reversed, 
and  that  in  this  case  the  Hebrews  were,  not 
the  borrowers,  but  the  lenders.  We  have 
indisputable  evidence  that  it  existed  among 
them,  whatever  may  have  been  its  origin, 
many  centuries  before  it  is  found  in  other 
records ;  of  the  contrarj"  we  have  no  evi- 
dence whatever.     One  argument   for  the 


Egyptian  origin  of  Jehovah  may  be  noticed. 
It  is  found  in  the  circumstance  that  Pharaoh 
changed  tlie  name  of  Eliakira  to  JeAoiakim 
(2  K.  xxiii.  34),  Avhich  it  is  assorted  is  not 
in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  conquer- 
ors towards  the  conquered,  unless  the 
Egyptian  king  imposed  upon  the  king  of 
Judah  the  name  of  one  of  his  own  gods. 
But  the  same  reasoning  would  prove  that 
the  origin  of  the  word  was  Babylonian,  for 
the  king  of  Babylon  changed  the  name  of 
Mattaniah  to  Zedekiafe  (2  K.  xxiv.  17). 
But  many,  abandoning  as  untenable  the 
theory  of  an  Egyptian  origin,  liave  sought 
to  trace  the  name  among  the  Phoenicians 
and  Canaanitish  tribes.  From  the  occur- 
rence of  Jehovah  as  a  compound  in  the 
proper  names  of  many  who  were  not  He- 
brews, Hamaker  contends  that  it  must  have 
been  known  among  heathen  people.  But 
such  knowledge,  if  it  existed,  was  no  more 
than  might  have  been  obtained  by  their  ne- 
cessary contact  with  the  Hebrews.  The 
names  of  \jviah,  the  Hittite,  of  Araunah  or 
Ar&njah  the  Jebusite,  of  TobzaA  the  Am- 
monite, and  of  the  Canaanitish  town  Biz- 
joth/afe,  may  be  all  explained  without  hav- 
ing recourse  to  Hamaker's  hypothesis. 
Most  of  the  authorities  on  the  opposite  side 
have  taken  for  the  basis  of  their  explana- 
tions, and  the  different  methods  of  punctua- 
tion which  they  propose,  the  passage  in  Ex. 
iii.  14,  to  wliich  we  must  naturally  look  for 
a  solution  of  the  question.  When  Moses 
received  his  commission  to  be  the  deliverer 
of  Israel,  the  Almighty,  who  appeared  in 
the  burning  bush,  communicated  to  him  the 
name  which  he  should  give  as  the  creden- 
tials of  his  mission  :  "And  God  said  unto 

Moses,  I   AM   THAT   I  AM    tT^uSt   "ICK   fl^'Ji^ 

ehyeh  dsher  ehyeh)  ;  and  he  said,  Thus  shalt 
thou  say  unto  the  children  of  Israel,  I  am 
hath  sent  me  unto  you."  That  this  passage 
is  intended  to  indicate  the  etymology  of 
Jehovah,  as  understood  by  the  Hebrews,  no 
one  has  ventured  to  doubt :  it  is  in  fact  the 
key  to  the  wliole  mystery.  The  next  point 
for  consideration  is  of  vastly  more  impor- 
tance :  what  is  the  meaning  of  Jehovah,  and 
what  does  it  express  of  the  being  and  nature 
of  God,  more  than  or  in  distinction  from  the 
other  names  applied  to  the  deity  in  the  O. 
T.  ?  Elohim  is  used  in  many  cases  of  the 
gods  of  the  heathen,  who  include.!  ui  tlie 
same  title  the  God  of  the  Hebrews,  and  de- 
noted generally  the  Deity  when  spoken  of 
a  supernatural  being;,  and  when  no  national 
feeling  influenced  the  speaker.  But,  al- 
though the  distinction  between  Elob.im,  ai* 
the  general  appellation  of  Deity,  and  Jeho- 
vah, the  national  God  of  the  Israelites,  con- 
tains some  superficial  truth,  the  real  nature 
of  their  difference  must  be  sought  for  far 
deeper,  and  as  a  foundation  for  the  argu- 
i  ments  which  will  be  adduced  recourse  must 


JEIIOVAH-JIREH 


279 


JEHU 


again  he  had  to  etymology.  With  regard 
to  the  derivation  of  Eloliitn,  etymologists  are 
divided  in  their  opinions  :  some  connecting 
it  with  cl,  and  the  unused  root  iil,  "  to  be 
strong."  From  whatever  root  however, 
tlie  word  may  be  derived,  most  are  of 
opinion  that  the  primary  idea  contained  in 
it  is  that  of  strength,  power ;  so  that  Elohim 
is  the  proper  appellation  of  the  Deity,  as 
manifested  in  Ilis  craative  and  universally 
sustaining  agency,  and  in  the  general  di- 
vine guidance  and  government  of  the  world. 
The  question  now  arises,  What  is  the  mean- 
ing to  be  attached  to  the  plural  form  of  the 
word?  Some  have  discovered  therein  the 
mystery  of  the  Trinity,  while  others  main- 
tain that  it  points  to  polytheism.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  plural  form  Elohim,  instead 
of  pointing  to  polytheism,  is  applied  to  God 
as  comprehending  in  Himself  the  fulness  of 
all  power,  and  uniting  in  a  perfect  degree 
all  that  which  the  name  signifies,  and  all 
the  attributes  which  the  heathen  ascribe  to 
the  several  divinities  of  their  pantheon. 
The  singular  eldah,  with  few  exceptions 
(Neh.  ix.  17;  2  Chr.  xxxii.  15),  occurs  only 
in  poetry.  It  will  be  found,  upon  examina- 
tion of  the  passages  in  which  Elohim  oc- 
curs, that  it  is  chiefly  in  places  where  God 
is  exhibited  only  in  the  plenitude  of  his 
power,  and  where  no  especial  reference  is 
made  to  his  unity,  personality,  or  holiness, 
or  to  his  relation  to  Israel  and  the  theoc- 
racy. But  while  Elohim  exhibits  God  dis- 
played in  his  power  as  the  creator  and 
governor  of  the  physical  universe,  the  name 
Jehovah  designates  his  nature  as  He  stands 
in  relation  to  man,  as  the  only  almighty, 
true,  personal,  holy  Being,  a  spirit,  and 
"  the  father  of  spirits "  (Num.  xvi.  22 ; 
comp.  John  iv.  24),  who  revealed  himself 
to  ilis  people,  made  a  covenant  with  them, 
and  became  their  lawgiver,  and  to  whom 
all  honor  and  worship  are  due.  If  the 
etymology  above  given  be  accepted,  and 
the  name  be  derived  from  the  future  tense 
of  the  substantive  verb,  it  would  denote,  in 
accordance  with  the  general  analogy  of 
proper  names  of  a  similar  form,  "He  that 
is,"  "the  Being,"  whose  chief  attribute  is 
eternal  existence.  As  the  Israelites  were 
in  a  remarkable  manner  distinguished  as 
the  people  of  Jehovah,  who  became  their 
lawgiver  and  supreme  ruler,  it  is  not  strange 
that  He  should  be  put  in  strong  contrast 
with  Chemosh  (Judg.  xi.  2i),  Ashtaroth 
(Judg.  X.  G),  and  the  Baalim  (Judg.  iii.  7),  | 
the  national  deities  of  the  surrounding 
nations,  and  thus  be  pre-eminently  distin- 
guished in  one  aspect  of  his  character  as 
the  tutelary  deity  of  the  Hebrews.  [God.] 

Jeho'vah-ji'reh,  i.  e.  "  Jehovah  will 
see,"  or  "  provide,"  the  name  given  by 
Abraham  to  the  place  on  which  he  had  been 
commanded  to  offer  Isaac,  to  commemorate 
the  interposition  of  the  angel  of  Jehovah, ; 


who  appeared  to  prevent  the  sacrifice  (Gen. 
xxii.  14),  and  provided  another  victim. 

Jeho'vah-nis'si,  i.  e.  "  Jehovah  my 
banner,"  the  name  given  by  Moses  to  the 
altar  which  he  built  in  commemoration  of 
the  discomfiture  of  the  Amalekites  by 
Joshua  and  his  chosen  warriors  at  Rcphi- 
dim  (Ex.  xvii.  15).  The  significance  of 
the  name  is  probably  contained  in  the  allu- 
sion to  the  staff  which  Moses  held  in  his 
hand  as  a  banner  during  the  engagement. 

Jeho'vah-sha'Iom,  i.  e.  "  Jehovah 
(is)  peace,"  or,  with  an  ellipsis,  "  Jehovah, 
the  God  of  peace,"  the  altar  erected  by 
Gideon  in  Ophrah  was  so  called  in  memo- 
ry of  the  salutation  addressed  to  him  by 
the  angel  of  Jehovah,  "  Peace  be  unto  thee  " 
(Judg.  vi.  24). 

Jehoz'abad.  1.  A  Korahite  Levite, 
second  son  of  Obed-edom,  and  one  of  the 
porters  of  the  south  gate  of  the  Temple, 
and  of  the  storehouse  there  in  the  time  of 
David  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  4,  15,  compared  with 
Neh.  xii.  25).  2.  A  Benjamite,  captain  of 
180,000  armed  men,  in  the  days  of  king 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  18).  3.  Son  of 
Shomer  or  Shimrith,  a  Moabitish  woman, 
who  with  another  conspired  against  king 
Joash  and  slew  him  in  his  bed  (2  K.  xii.  21 ; 
2  Chr.  xxiv.  26). 

Jehoz'adak,  son  of  the  high  priest 
Seraiah  (1  Chr.  vi.  14,  15)  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah.  When  his  father  was  slain  at 
Riblah  by  order  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the 
11th  of  Zedekiah  (2  K.  xxv.  18,  21),  Jehoz- 
adak  was  led  away  captive  to  Babylon  (1 
Chr.  vi.  15),  where  he  doubtless  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  days.  He  himself  never 
attained  the  high-priesthood,  but  he  was  the 
father  of  Jeshua  the  high-priest  —  who  with 
Zerubbabel  headed  the  Return  from  Captiv- 
ity —  and  of  all  his  successors  till  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Alcimus  (Ezr.  iii.  2 ;  Neh.  xii.  26,  &c.) 

Jehu.  1.  The  founder  of  the  fifth 
dynasty  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  son  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  K.  ix.  2).  In  his  youth  he 
had  been  one  of  the  guards  of  Ahab.  Hi8 
first  appearance  in  history  is  when,  with  a 
comrade  in  arms,  Bidkar,  he  rode  behind 
Ahab  on  the  fatal  journey  from  Samaria  to 
Jezreel,  and  heard  the  warning  of  Elijah 
against  the  murderer  of  Naboth  (2  K.  ix. 
25).  But  he  had  already,  as  it  would  seem, 
been  known  to  Elijah  as  a  youth  of  promise, 
and,  accordingly,  in  the  vision  at  Horeb  he 
is  mentioned  as  the  future  king  of  Israel, 
whom  Elijah  is  to  aroint  as  the  minister 
of  vengeance  on  Isravil  (1  K.  xix.  16,  17). 
This  injunction,  for  reasons  unknown  to  us, 
Elijah  never  fulfilled.  It  was  reserved  long 
afterwards  6r  his  successor  Elislia.  Jehu 
meantime,  in  the  reigns  of  Ahaziah  and 
Jehoram,  had  risen  to  importance.  He  was, 
under  the  last-named  king,  captain  of  the 
host  in  the  siege  of  Ramoth-Gilead.  Whilst 
in  the  midst  of  the  officers  of  the  besieging 


JEHU 


280 


JEHUSH 


army  a  youth  suddenly  entered,  of  wild  ap- 
pearance (2  K.  ix.  11),  and  insisted  on  a 
private  interview  with  Jehu.  They  retired 
into  a  secret  chamber.  The  youth  uncov- 
ered a  vial  of  the  sacred  oil  which  he  had 
brought  with  him,  poured  it  over  Jehu's 
head,  and  after  announcing  fo  him  the  mes- 
sage from  Elisha,  that  he  was  appointed  to 
be  king  of  Israel  and  destroyer  of  the  house 
of  Ahab,  rushed  out  of  the  house  and  disap- 
peared. Jehu's  countenance,  as  he  re-en- 
tered the  assembly  of  officers,  showed  that 
some  strange  tidings  had  reached  him.  He 
tried  at  first  to  evade  their  questions,  but 
then  revealed  the  situation  in  which  he 
found  himself  placed  by  the  prophetic  call. 
In  a  moment  the  enthusiasm  of  the  army 
took  fire.  They  threw  their  garments  un- 
der his  feet,  so  as  to  form  a  rough  carpet  of 
state,  placed  him  on  the  top  of  the  stairs, 
as  on  an  extenii)ore  throne,  blew  the  royal 
salute  on  their  trumpets,  and  thus  ordained 
him  king.  He  then  cut  off  all  communica- 
tion between  Ramoth-Gilead  and  Jezreel, 
and  set  off,  full  speed,  with  his  ancient  com- 
rade, Bidkar,  whom  he  had  made  captain 
of  the  host  in  his  place,  and  a  band  of  horse- 
men. From  the  tower  of  Jezreel  a  watch- 
man saw  the  cloud  of  dust  (A.  V.  "  com- 
pany ")  and  announced  his  coming  (2  K.  ix. 
17).  It  was  not  till  he  had  almost  reached 
the  city,  and  was  identified  by  the  watch- 
man, that  alarm  was  taken.  But  it  was  not 
till,  in  answer  to  Jehoram's  question,  "  Is  it 
peace,  Jehu  ?  "  that  Jehu's  fierce  denuncia- 
tion of  Jezebel  at  once  revealed  the  danger. 
Jehu  seized  his  opportunity,  and  shot  him 
through  the  heart  (ix.  24).  The  body  was 
thrown  out  on  the  fatal  field,  and  whilst  his 
soldiers  pursued  and  killed  the  king  of 
Judah  at  Beth-gan  (A.  V.  "  the  garden 
house  "),  probably  Engannim,  Jehu  himself 
advanced  to  the  gates  of  Jezreel  and  ful- 
filled the  divine  warning  on  Jezebel  as 
already  on  Jehoram.  He  then  entered  on 
a  work  of  extermination  hitherto  unparal- 
leled in  the  history  of  the  Jewish  monarchy. 
All  the  descendants  of  Ahab  that  remained 
in  Jezreel,  together  with  the  officers  of  the 
court,  and  hierarchy  of  Astarte,  were  swept 
away.  His  next  step  was  to  secure  Sama- 
ria. As  he  drove  on  he  encountered  a 
strange  figure,  such  as  might  have  remind- 
ed him  of  the  great  Elijah.  It  was  Jehona- 
dab,  the  austere  Arabian  sectary,  the  son 
of  Rechab.  In  him  his  keen  eye  discovered 
a  ready  ally.  He  took  him  into  his  chariot, 
and  they  concocted  their  schemes  as  they 
entered  Samaria  (x.  15,  IG).  Up  to  this 
moment  there  was  nothing  which  showed 
anything  beyond  a  determination  to  exter- 
minate in  all  its  branches  the  personal  ad- 
herents of  Ahab.  There  was  to  be  a  new 
inauguration  of  the  worship  of  Baal.  A 
solemn  assembly,  sacred  vestments,  innu- 
merable  victims,   were   ready.    The   vast 


temple  at  Samaria  raised  by  Ahab  (1  K. 
xvi.  32)  was  crowded  from  end  to  end.  The 
chief  sacrifice  was  offered,  as  if  in  the  ex- 
cess of  his  zeal,  by  Jehu  himself.  Jehona- 
dab  joined  in  the  deception.  There  was 
some  apprehension  lest  worshippers  of  Je- 
hovah might  be  found  in  the  temple ;  such, 
it  seems,  had  been  the  intermixture  of  the 
two  religions.  As  soon,  however,  as  it  was 
ascertained  that  all,  and  none  but,  the  idol- 
aters were  there,  the  signal  was  given  to 
eighty  trusted  guards,  and  a  sweeping  mas- 
sacre removed  at  one  blow  the  whole  liea- 
then  population  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
This  is  the  last  public  act  recorded  of  Jehu. 
The  remaining  twenty-seven  years  of  his 
long  reign  are  passed  over  in  a  few  words, 
in  which  two  points  only  are  material :  — 
He  did  not  destroy  the  calf- worship  of  Jero- 
boam :  —  The  trans- Jordanic  tril)es  suffered 
much  from  the  ravages  of  Hazael  (2  K.  x. 
29-33).  He  was  buried  in  state  in  Samaria, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jehoahaz 
(2  K.  X.  35).  His  name  is  the  first  of  tlie 
Israelite  kings  which  appears  in  the  Assyr- 
ian monuments.  2.  Jehu,  son  of  Hanani ; 
a  prophet  of  Judah,  but  whose  ministrations 
were  chiefly  directed  to  Israel.  His  father 
was  probably  the  seer  who  attacked  Asa 
(2  Chr.  xvi.  7).  He  must  have  begun  his 
career  as  a  prophet  when  very  young.  He 
first  denounced  Baasha  (1  K.  xvi.  1,  7),  and 
then,  after  an  interval  of  thirty  years,  reap- 
pears to  denounce  Jehoshaphat  for  his  al- 
liance with  Ahab  (2  Chr.  xix.  2,  3).  He 
survived  Jehoshaphat  and  wrote  his  life  (xx. 
34).  3.  A  man  of  Judah  of  the  house  of 
Hezron  (1  Chr.  ii.  38).  4.  A  Simeonite,  son 
of  Josibiah  (1  Chr.  iv.  35).  5.  Jehu  the 
Antothite  was  one  of  the  chief  of  the  heroes 
of  Benjamin,  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chr.  xii.  3). 

Jehub'bah,  a  man  of  Asher;  son  of 
Shamer  or  Shomer,  of  the  house  of  Beriah 
(1  Chr.  vii.  34). 

Je'hucal,  son  ofShelemiah;  one  of  two 
persons  sent  by  king  Zedekiah  to  Jeremiah, 
to  entreat  his  prayers  and  advice  (Jer. 
xxxvii.  3). 

Je'hud,  one  of  the  towns  of  the  tribe  of 
Dan  (Josh.  xix.  45),  named  between  Baal- 
ath  and  Bene-berak. 

JehU'di,  son  of  Nethaniah,  a  man  em- 
ployed by  the  princes  of  Jehoiakim's  court 
to  fetch  Baruch  to  read  Jeremiah's  denun- 
ciation (Jer.  xxxvi.  14),  and  then  by  the 
king  to  fetch  the  volume  itself  and  read  it 
to  him  (21,  23). 

Jehudi'jah.  There  is  really  no  such 
name  in  the  Heb.  Bible  as  that  which  our 
A.  V.  exhibits  at  1  Chr.  iv.  18.  If  it  is  a 
proper  name  at  all,  it  is  Ha-jehudijah,  like 
Ham-melech,  Hak-koz,  &c. ;  and  it  seems 
to  be  rather  an  appellative,  *'  the  Jewess." 

Je'hush,  son  of  Eshek,  a  remote  de- 
scendant of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  39). 


JEIEL 


281 


JEREMIAH 


Jei'el.  1.  A  Reubenite  of  the  house  of 
Joel  (1  Chr.  v.  7).  2.  A  Menirite  Levite, 
one  of  the  gate-keepers  to  the  sacred  tent 
(1  Chr.  XV.  18).  His  duty  was  also  to  play 
the  harp  (ver.  21),  or  the  psaltery  andliarp 
(xvi.  5),  in  the  service  before  the  Ark. 
3.  AGershonite  Levite,  one  of  the  Bene- 
Asaph,  forefather  of  Jahaziel  in  the  time 
of  king  Jchoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xx.  14).  4. 
Tlie  Scribe  who  kept  the  account  of  the 
numbers  of  king  Uzziah's  irregular  preda- 
tory warriors  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  11).  5.  AGer- 
shonite Levite,  one  of  the  Bene-Elizaphan 
(2  Chr.  xxix.  13).  6.  One  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  Levites  in  the  time  of  Josiah  (2  Chr. 
XXXV.  9).  7.  One  of  the  Bene-Adonikam 
who  formed  part  of  the  caravan  of  Ezra 
from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  (Ezr.  viii.  13). 
8.  A  layman,  of  the  Bene-Nebo,  who  had 
taken  a  foreign  wife  and  had  to  relinquish 
her  (Ezr.  x.  43). 

Jekab'zeel,  a  fuller  form  of  the  name 
of  Kabzeel,  the  most  remote  city  of  Judah 
on  the  southern  frontier  (Neh.  xi.  25). 

Jekame'am,  a  •  Levite  in  the  time  of 
king  David;  fourth  of  the  sons  of  Hebron, 
the  son  of  Kohath  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  19,  xxiv.  23). 

Jekami'ah,  son  of  Shallum,  in  the  line 
of  Ahlai  (1  Chr.  ii.  41). 

Jeku'thiel,  a  man  recorded  in  the  gen- 
ealogies of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  18)  as  the 
son  of  a  certain  Ezra  or  Mered,  by  his  Jew- 
ish wife  (A.  V.  Jehudijah),  and  in  his  turn 
the  father,  or  founder,  of  the  town  of  Zanoah. 

Jemi'ma,  the  eldest  of  the  three  daugh- 
ters born  to  Job  after  the  restoration  of  his 
prosperity  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Jemu'el,  the  eldest  son  of  Simeon 
(Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.  15). 

Jeph'thae  (Heb.  xi.  32),  the  Greek 
form  of  the  name  Jephthah. 

Jeph'thah,  a  judge,  about  B.  c.  1143- 
1137.  His  history  is  contained  in  Judg.  xi. 
1-xii.  8.  He  was  a  Gileadite,  the  son  of 
Gilead  and  a  concubine.  Driven  by  the 
legitimate  sons  from  his  father's  inheritance, 
he  went  to  Tob,  and  became  the  head  of  a 
company  of  freebooters  in  a  debatable  land 
probably  belonging  to  Ammon  (2  Sam.  x. 
6).  His  fame  as  a  bold  and  successful  cap- 
tivin  was  carried  back  to  his  native  Gilead ; 
and  when  the  time  was  ripe  for  throwing 
off  the  yoke  of  Ammon,  Jephthah  consent- 
ed to  become  their  captain,  on  the  condition 
(solemnly  ratified  before  the  Lord  in  Miz- 
peh)  that  in  tlie  event  of  his  success  against 
Ammon  lie  should  still  remain  as  their 
acknowledged  head.  He  collected  warriors 
throughout  Gilead  and  Manasseh,  the  prov- 
inces which  acknowledged  his  authority; 
and  then  he  vowed  his  vow  unto  the  Lord. 
The  Ammonites  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter.  But  as  the  conqueror  returned 
to  Mizpeh  there  came  out  to  meet  him  a 
procession  of  damsels  with  dances  and  tim- 
brels, and  among  them  —  the  first  person  ■ 


from  his  own  house  —  his  daughter  and 
only  child.  "  Alas  I  my  daughter,  thou  hast 
brought  me  very  low,"  was  the  greeting  of 
the  heart-stricken  father.  But  the  high- 
minded  maiden  is  ready  for  any  personal 
suffering  in  the  hour  of  her  father's  triumph. 
Only  she  asks  for  a  respite  of  two  months 
to  withdraw  to  her  native  mountains,  and 
in  their  recesses  to  weep  with  her  virgin- 
friends  over  the  early  disappointment  of 
her  life.  When  that  time  was  ended  she 
returned  to  her  father,  and  "  he  did  unto 
her  his  vow."  But  Jephthah  had  not  long 
leisure,  even  if  he  were  disposed,  for  the 
indulgence  of  domestic  grief.  The  proud 
tribe  of  Ephraim  challenged  his  right  to  go 
to  war,  as  he  had  done  without  their  con- 
currence, against  Ammon.  He  first  defeat- 
ed them,  then  intercepted  the  fugitives  at 
the  fords  of  Jordan,  and  there  put  forty-two 
thousand  men  to  the  sword.  He  judged 
Israel  six  years  and  died.  It  is  generally 
conjectured  that  liis  jurisdiction  was  limit- 
ed to  the  trans-Jordanic  region.  That  the 
daughter  of  Jephthah  was  really  offered  up 
to  God  in  sacrifice,  is  a  conclusion  which  it 
seems  impossible  to  avoid. 

Jephun'neh.  1.  Father  of  Caleb  the 
spy,  appears  to  have  belonged  to  an  Edom- 
itish  tribe  called  Kenezites,  from  Kenaz 
their  founder  (See  Num.  xiii.  6,  &c.,  xxxii. 
12,  &c. ;  Josh.  xiv.  14,  &c. ;  1  Chr.  iv.  15). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Asher,  eldest  of  the 
three  sons  of  Jether  (1  Chr.  vii.  38). 

Je'rah,  the  fourth  in  order  of  the  sons  of 
Joktan  (Gen.  x.  26;  1  Chr.  i.  20),  and  the 
progenitor  of  a  tribe  of  southern  Arabia. 

Jerah'meel.  1.  First-born  son  of 
Hezron,  the  son  of  Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah 
(1  Chr.  ii.  9,  25-27,  33,  42)  and  founder  of 
the  family  of  Jerahmeelites  (1  Sam.xxvii. 
10)..  2.  A  Merarite  Levite,  the  represen- 
tative of  the  family  of  Kish,  the  son  of 
Mahli  (1   Chr.  xxiv.  29;  comp.   xxiii.  21). 

3.  Son  of  Hammelech,  who  was  employed 
by  Jehoiakim  to  make  Jeremiah  and  Ba- 
ruch  prisoners,  after  he  had  burnt  the  roll 
of  Jeremiah's  projjhecy  (Jer.  xxxA'i.  26). 

Jerah'meelites,  The.  The  tribe  de- 
scended from  the  first  of  the  foregoing  per- 
sons (1  Sam.  xxvii.  10).  They  dwelt  in 
the  south  of  Judah. 

Je'red.  1.  Son  of  Mahalaleel  and  fa- 
ther of  Enoch  (1  Chr.  i.  2).  2.  One  of 
the  Jescendants  of  Judah  signalized  as  the 
"  father"  —  i.  e.  the  founder —  "  of  Gedor  " 
(1  Chr.  iv.  18). 

Jer'emai,  a  layman ;  one  of  the  Bene- 
Hashura,  who  was  compelled  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  33). 

Jeremi'ah  was  "  the  son  of  Hilkiah 
of  the  priests  that  were  in  Anathoth"  (Jer. 
i.  1),  and  was  a  child  in  the  reign  of  Jo- 
siah, B.  c.  638-608  (i.  6).  In  his  youth  he 
was  called  to  the  prophetic  oflSce,  but  we 
have   hardly  any  mention   of  liim   during 


JEREMIAH 


282 


JEREMIAH 


the  eighteen  years  between  his  call  and 
Josiah's  death,  or  during  the  short  reign 
of  Jehoahaz.  Under  Jehoiakim,  b.  c.  607- 
697,  he  opposed  tlie  Egyptian  party,  then 
dominant  in  Jerusalem,  and  maintained 
that  the  only  way  of  safety  lay  in  accepting 
tlie  supremacy  of  the  Chaldeans.  He  was 
accordingly  accused  of  treachery,  and  men 
claiming  to  be  prophets  had  their  "  word 
of  Jehovah "  to  set  against  his  (xiv.  13, 
xxiii.  7).  In  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim 
the  battle  of  Carchemish  overthrew  the 
hopes  of  the  Egyptian  party  (xlvi.  2),  and 
the  armies  of  Nebuchadnezzar  drove  those 
who  had  no  defenced  cities  to  take  refuge 
in  Jerusalem  (xxxv.  11).  As  the  danger 
from  the  Chaldeans  became  more  threaten- 
ing, the  persecution  against  Jeremiah  grew 
hotter  (xviii.).  The  people  sought  his  life ; 
his  voice  rose  up  in  the  prayer  that  God 
would  deliver  and  avenge  him.  That 
thought  he  soon  reproduced  in  act  as  wdl 
as  word.  Standing  in  the  valley  of  Ben- 
Hinnom,  he  brokd  the  earthen  vessel  he 
carried  in  his  hands,  and  prophesied  to  the 
people  that  the  whole  city  should  be  defiled 
with  the  dead,  as  that  valley  had  been, 
within  their  memory,  by  Josiah  (xix.  10- 
13).  The  boldness  of  the  speech  and  act 
drew  upon  him  immediate  punishment. 
The  years  tliat  followed  brought  no  change 
for  the  better.  Famine  and  drought  were 
added  to  the  miseries  of  the  people  (xiv.  1), 
but  false  prophets  still  deceived  them  with 
assurances  of  plenty;  and  Jeremiah  was 
looked  on  with  dislike,  as  "  a  prophet  of 
evil,"  and  "everyone  cursed"  him  (xv. 
10).  He  was  set,  however,  "  as  a  fenced 
brazen  wall"  (xv.  20),  and  went  on  with 
his  work,  reproving  king  and  nobles  and 
people.  The  danger  which  Jeremiah  had 
so  long  foretold  at  last  came  near.  First 
Jehoiakim,  and  afterwards  his  successor 
Jehoiachin,  were  carried  into  exile  (2  K. 
xxiv.) ;  but  Zedekiah  (b.  c.  597-586),  who 
was  appointed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  does 
not  exhibit  the  same  obstinate  resistance  to 
the  prophet's  counsels  as  Jehoiakim.  He 
respects  him,  fears  him,  seeks  his  counsel ; 
but  he  is  a  mere  shadow  of  a  king,  power- 
less even  against  his  own  counsellors,  and 
in  his  reign,  accordingly,  the  sufferings  of 
Jeremiah  were  sharper  than  they  had  been 
before.  The  approach  of  an  Egyptian 
army,  and  the  consequent  departure  of  the 
Chaldeans,  made  the  position  of  Jeremiah 
full  of  danger ;  and  he  sought  to  effect  his  es- 
cape from  the  city,  and  to  take  refuge  in  his 
own  town  of  Anathoth  or  its  neighborhood 
(xxxvii.  12).  The  discovery  of  this  plan  led 
to  the  charge  of  desertion  :  it  was  thought 
that  he  too  was  "  falling  away  to  tlie 
Chaldeans,"  as  others  were  doing  (xxxviii. 
19)  ;  and,  in  spite  of  his  denial,  he  was 
thrown  into  a  dungeon  (xxxvii.  16).  The 
interposition  of  the  king,  who  still  respect- 


ed and  consulted  him,  led  to  some  mitiga* 
tion  of  the  rigor  of  his  confinement  (xxxvii. 
21) ;  but,  as  tl-is  did  not  hinder  him  from 
speaking  to  the  people,  the  princes  of  Ju- 
dah,  bent  on  an  alliance  with  Egypt,  and 
calculating  on  the  king's  being  unable  to 
resist  them  (xxviii.  5),  threw  him  into  the 
prison-pit,  to  die  there.  From  this  hor- 
rible fate  he  was  again  delivered  by  the 
friendship  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  Ebed- 
Melech,  and  the  king's  regard  for  him, 
and  was  restored  to  the  milder  custody  in 
which  he  had  been  kept  previously  where 
we  find  (xxxii.  16)  he  had  the  compan- 
ionship of  Baruch.  The  return  of  the 
Chaldean  army  filled  both  king  and  people 
with  dismay  (xxxii.  1) ;  and  the  risk  now 
was,  that  they  would  pass  from  their  pre- 
sumptuous confidence  to  the  opposite  ex- 
treme, and  sink  down  in  despair,  with  no 
faith  in  God  and  no  hope  for  the  future. 
The  prophet  was  taught  how  to  meet  that 
danger  also.  In  his  prison,  while  the 
Chaldeans  were  ravaging  the  country,  he 
bought,  with  all  requisite  formalities,  the 
field  at  Anathoth  which  his  kinsman  Ha- 
nameel  wished  to  get  rid  of  (xxxii.  6-9). 
His  faith  in  the  promises  of  God  did  not 
fail  him.  At  last  the  blow  came.  The 
city  was  taken,  the  Temple  burnt.  The 
king  and  his  princes  shared  the  fate  of  Je- 
hoiachin. The  prophet  gave  utterance  to 
his  sorrow  in  the  Lamentations.  After 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  b.  c.  586,  the 
Chaldean  party  in  Judah  had  now  the  pros- 
pect of  better  things.  We  find  a  speciid 
charge  given  to  Nebuzaradan  (xxxix.  11), 
to  protect  the  person  of  Jeremiah ;  and,  af- 
ter being  carried  as  far  as  Ramah  with  the 
crowd  of  captives  (xl.  1),  he  was  set  free, 
and  Gedaliah  made  governor  over  the  cities 
of  Judah.  The  feeling  of  the  Chaldeans 
towards  him  was  shown  yet  more  strongly 
in  the  offer  made  him  by  Nebuzaradan  (xl. 
i,  5).  For  a  short  time  there  was  an  inter- 
val of  peace  (xl.  9-12),  soon  broken,  how- 
ever, by  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  by  Ishmael 
and  his  associates.  The  prophet  escaped 
from  the  massacre ;  and  the  people,  under 
Johanan,  who  had  taken  the  command  on 
the  death  of  Gedaliah,  turned  to  him  for 
counsel.  His  warnings  and  assurances 
were  in  vain,  and  did  but  draw  on  liim  and 
Baruch  the  old  charge  of  treachery  (xliii. 
3).  The  people  followed  their  own  coun- 
sel, and  in  order  to  escape  the  vengeance 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  for  the  murder  of  Ged- 
aliah, they  determined  to  take  refuge  in 
Egypt.  They  carried  with  them  Jeremiah 
and  his  faithful  friend  and  amanuensis 
Baruch.  [Baruch.]  In  Egypt,  in  the 
city  of  Tahpanhes,  we  have  the  last  clear 
glimpses  of  the  Prophet's  life.  His  words 
are  sharper  and  stronger  than  ever.  He 
does  not  shrink,  even  there,  from  speaking 
of  the  Chaldean  king  once  more  as  "the 


JEEEMIAH 


288 


JERICHO 


servant  of  Jehovah  "  (xliii.  10).  After  this 
all  is  uncertain.  If  we  could  assume  that 
lii.  31  was  written  by  Jeremiah  himself,  it 
ATOuld  she  PT  that  he  reached  an  extreme  old 
age,  but  this  is  so  doubtful  that  we  are  left  to 
other  sources.  On  the  one  hand  there  is 
the  Christian  tradition,  resting  doubtless  on 
some  earlier  belief,  that  the  Jews  at  Tah- 
panhes,  irritated  by  his  rebukes,  at  last 
stoned  him  to  death.  On  the  other  side 
there  is  the  Jewish  statement  that  on  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  he,  with 
Baruch,  made  his  escape  to  Babylon  or 
Judaea,  and  died  in  peace.  — The  absence 
of  any  chronological  order  in  the  present 
structure  of  the  collection  of  Jeremiah's 
prophecies  is  obvious  at  the  first  glance. 
In  the  present  order  we  have  two  great 
divisions :  I.  Ch.  i.-xlv.  Prophecies  de- 
livered at  various  times,  directed  mainly 
to  Judah,  or  connected  with  Jeremiah's 
personal  history.  II.  Ch.  xlvi.-li.  Proph- 
ecies connected  with  other  nations.  Ch. 
lii.  taken  largely,  though  not  entirely,  from 
2  K.  XXV.,  may  be  taken  either  as  a  supple- 
ment to  the  prophecy,  or  as  an  introduction 
to  the  Lamentations.  Looking  more  closely 
into  each  of  these  divisions  we  have  the 
following  sections  :  1.  Chs.  i.-xxi.  Con- 
taining probably  the  substance  of  the  book 
of  xxxvi.  32,  and  including  prophecies 
from  the  thirteenth  year  of  Josiah  to  the 
fourth  of  Jehoiakim  :  i.  3,  however,  indi- 
cates a  later  revision,  and  the  whole  of  ch. 
i.  may  possibly  have  been  added  on  the 
prophet's  retrospect  of  his  whole  work 
from  this  its  first  beginning.  Ch.  xxi.  be- 
longs to  a  later  period,  but  has  probably 
found  its  place  here  as  connected,  by  the 
recurrence  of  the  name  Pashur,  with  ch. 
XX.  2.  Ch.  xxii.,  xxv.  Shorter  prophecies, 
delivered  at  different  times,  against  the 
kings  of  Judaii  and  the  false  prophets. 
xxv.  13,  14,  evidently  marks  the  conclusion 
of  a  series  of  prophecies ;  and  that  which 
follows,  xxv.  15-38,  the  germ  of  the  fuller 
predictions  in  xlvi.-xlix.,  has  been  placed 
here  as  a  kind  of  completion  to  the  prophecy 
of  the  Seventy  Years  and  the  subsequent 
fall  of  Babylon.  3.  Ch.  xxvi.-xxviii.  The 
two  great  prophecies  of  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  the  history  connected  with  them. 
Ch.  xxvi.  belongs  to  the  earlier,  ch.  xxvii. 
and  xxviii.  to  the  later  period  of  the  prophet's 
work.  Jehoiakim,  in  xxvii.  1,  is  evidently 
(comp.  ver.  8)  a  mistake  for  Zedekiah.  4. 
Ch.  xxix.-xxxi.  The  message  of  comfort 
for  the  exiles  in  Babylon.  5.  Ch.  xxxii.- 
xliv.  The  history  of  the  last  two  years 
before  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  and  of 
Jcicuiiah's  work  in  them  and  in  the  period 
that  followed.  The  position  of  ch.  xlv., 
unconnected  with  anything  before  or  after 
it,  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  hypothesis 
that  Baruch  desired  to  place  on  record  so 
~>emorable  a  passage  in  hia  own  life,  and 


inserted  it  where  the  direct  narrative  of 
his  master's  life  ended.  The  same  expla- 
nation applies  in  part  to  ch.  xxxvi.  6.  Ch. 
xlvi.-li.  The  prophecies  against  foreign 
nations,  ending  with  the  great  prediction 
against  Babylon.  7.  The  supplementary 
narrative  of  ch.  lii. 

Jeremi'ah.  Seven  other  persons  bear- 
ing the  same  name  as  the  prophet  are 
mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  1.  Jeremiah  of 
Libnah,  father  of  Hamutal  wife  of  Josiah 
(2  K.  xxiii.  31).  2,  3,  4.  Three  warriors 
—  two  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  —  in  David's, 
army  (1  Chr.  xii.  4,  10,  13).  5.  One  of 
the  "mighty  men  of  valor"  of  the  trans- 
Jordanic  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Chr.  v. 
24).  6.  A  priest  of  high  rank,  head  of 
the  second  or  third  of  the  21  courses  which 
are  apparently  enumerated  in  Neh.  x.  2-8, 
xii.  1,  12.  This  course,  or  its  chief,  took 
part  in  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  xii.  34).  7.  The  father  of 
Jazaniah  the  Rechabite  (Jer.  xxxv.  3). 

Jeremias,  the  Greek  form  of  the 
name  of  Jeremiah  the  prophet  (Matt.  xvi. 
14). 

Jer'emy,  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Matt, 
ii.  17,  xxvii.  9). 

Jer'ibai,  one  the  Bene-Elnaan,  named 
among  the  heroes  of  David's  guard  (1  Chr. 
xi.  46). 

Jer'icho,  a  city  of  high  antiquity,  situ- 
ated in  a  plain  traversed  by  the  Jordan,  and 
exactly  over  against  where  that  river  was 
crossed  by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua 
(Josh.  iii.  16).  It  had  a  king.  Its  walls 
were  so  considerable  that  houses  were  built 
upon  them  (ii.  15),  and  its  gates  were  shut, 
as  throughout  the  East  still,  "  when  it  was 
dark  "  (v.  5).  The  spoil  that  was  found  in 
it  betokened  its  affluence.  Jericho  is  first 
mentioned  as  the  city  to  which  the  two 
spies  were  sent  by  Joshua  from  Shittim ; 
they  were  lodged  in  the  house  of  Rahab  the 
harlot  upon  the  wall,  and  departed,  having 
first  promised  to  save  her  and  all  that  were 
found  in  her  house  from  destruction  (ii. 
1-21).  As  it  had  been  left  by  Joshua  it 
was  bestowed  by  him  upon  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin (Josh,  xviii.  21),  and  from  this  time 
a  long  interval  elapses  before  Jericho  ap- 
pears again  upon  the  scene.  The  solemn 
manner  in  which  its  second  foundation 
under  Hiel  the  Bethelite  is  recorded  (1  K. 
xvi.  34)  implies  that  up  to  that  time  its  site 
had  been  uninhabited.  Once  rebuilt,  Jeri- 
cho rose  again  slowly  into  consequence. 
In  its  immediate  vicinity  the  sons  of  the 
prophets  sought  retirement  from  the  world ; 
Elisha  "  healed  the  spring  of  the  waters;  " 
and  over  against  it,  beyond  Jordan,  Elijah 
"went  up  by  a  whirlwind  into  heaven" 
(2  K.  ii.  1-22).  In  its  plains  Zedekiah  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Chaldeans  (2  K.  xxv. 
5;  Jer.  xxxix.  6).  In  the  return  under 
Zerubbabel  the  "  children  of  Jericho,"  345 


JERIEL 


284 


JEROBOAM 


In  number,  are  comprised  CEz.  iii.  34 ;  Neh. 
vii.  8G).  Under  Herod  tiio  Grent  it  again 
became  an  imi.ortant  place.  He  built  a 
fort  there,  which  ti«^  calle«j  "Cyprus"  in 
honor  of  his  lUdther,  a  towtr  \«-hich  he  called 
in  honor  of  his  brother  PliKs^aelis;  and  a 
number  of  new  palacies,  which  he  named 
after  his  friends.  He  eveii  founded  a  new 
town,  liigher  up  the  plain,  whicli  he  called, 
like  the  tower,  Phasaolis  If  he  did  not 
make  Jericho  his  hahitu.i)  residence,  he  at 
least  retired  thitlier  to  die,  and  it  was  in  the 
amphitheatre  of  Jericli(.  tliat  the  news  of 
his  death  was  announced  to  the  assembled 
soldiers  and  people  by  Salome.  Soon 
afterwards  the  jyulace  was  burnt,  and  the 
town  [ilundered  by  <ine  Simon,  slave  to 
Herod;  hut  Archtlaus  rebuilt  the  former 
sumptuously,  and  founded  a  new  town  on 
the  plain,  that  bov«  his  own  name  •.  and, 
most  important  of  all,  diverted  water  from 
a  villaije  called  Neaera,  to  irrigate  the  plain 
which  he  had  planted  with  palms.  Thus 
Jericho  was  once  more  "  a  city  of  palms  " 
when  our  Lord  visited  it.  Here  He  re- 
stored sight  to  the  blind  (Matt.  xx.  30; 
Mark  x.  46;  Luke  xviii.  35).  Here  the 
descendant  of  Rahab  did  not  disdain  the  hos- 
pitality of  Zaccliaeus  the  publican.  Finally, 
between  Jerusalem  and  Jericho  was  laid 
the  scene  of  his  story  of  the  good  Samari- 
tan. The  city  was  destroyed  by  Vespasian. 
The  site  of  ancient  (the  first)  Jericho  is 
placed  by  Dr.  Robinson  in  the  immediate 
neigiiborhood  of  the  fountain  of  Elisha ;  and 
that  of  the  second  (the  city  of  the  N.  T. 
and  of  Josephus)  at  the  opening  of  the 
Wady  Kelt  (^CherUli),  half  an  hour  from 
the  fountain. 

Je'riel,  a  man  of  Issachar,  one  of  the 
six  iieads  oi  liw  house  of  Tola  at  the  time 
of  the  census  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chr. 
vii  2  , 

Jer'emoth.  1.  A  Benjamite  chief,  a 
eoD  jf  the  house  of  Beriah  of  Elpaal  (1 
Chr  viii.  14;  comp.  12  and  18).  His  fam- 
ily dwelt  at  Jerusalem.  2.  AMerariteLe- 
vite,  son  of  Mushi  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  23).  3. 
Son  of  Heman ;  head  of  the  13th  course  of 
musicians  in  the  Divine  service  (1  Chr. 
XXV.  22).  4.  One  of  the  sons  of  Elam, 
and,  5.  One  of  the  sons  of  Zattu,  who  had 
taken  strange  wives  (Ezr.  x.  26,  27).  6. 
The  name  which  appears  in  the  same  list 
as  "and  Ramoth  "  (ver.  29). 

Jeri'ah,  a  Kohathite  Levite,  chief  of 
the  great  hotise  of  Hebron  when  David  or- 
ganized the  service  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  19,  xxiv. 
23).     The  same  man  is  mentioned  again  as 

Jeri'jah,  in  l  Ciir.  xxvi.  31. 

Jer'imoth.  1.  Son  or  descendant  of 
Bela  (1  Clir.  vii.  7).  He  is  perhaps  the 
same  as  2.,  who  joined  D.avid  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chr.  xii.  5).  3.  A  son  of  Becher  (1  Chr. 
vii.  8),  and  head  of  another  Benjamite 
house.    4.  Son  of  Moshi,  the  son  of  Me- 


rari  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  30).  5.  Son  of  Heman, 
head  of  the  15th  ward  of  musicians  (1  Chr. 
XXV.  4,  22).  6.  Son  of  Azriel,  ruler  of 
the  tribe  of  Naphtali  in  the  rei<rn  of  David 
(1  Chr.  xxvii.  19).  7.  Son  of  king  David, 
whose  daughter  Mahalath  was  one  of  the 
wives  of  Rehoboam,  her  cousin  Abihail  be- 
ing the  other  (2  Chr.  xi.  18).  8.  A  Levite 
in  the  reign  of  Hezckiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  13). 

Jer'ioth,  one  of  the  elder  Caleb's  wives 
(1  Chr.  ii.  18)  ;  but  according  to  the  Vul- 
gate she  was  liis  daughter  by  his  first  wife 
Azubah. 

Jerobo'am.  1.  The  first  king  of  tlie 
divided  kingdom  of  Israel  (b.  c.  975-954), 
was  the  son  of  an  Ephraimite  of  the  name 
of  Nebat.  He  was  employed  by  Solomon 
in  the  fortifications  of  Millo  underneath  tiie 
citadel  of  Zion,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  superintendent  over  the  taxes  and  labors 
exacted  from  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (IK. 
xi.  28).  He  made  the  most  of  his  position, 
and  at  last  was  perceived  by  Solomon  to  be 
aiming  at  the  monarchy.  These  ambitious 
designs  were  probably  fostered  by  the  sight 
of  the  growing  disaffection  of  the  great 
tribe  over  which  he  presided,  as  well  as  by 
the  alienation  of  the  Prophetic  order  from 
the  house  of  Solomon.  He  was  leaving  Je- 
rusalem, and  he  encountered,  on  one  of  tlie 
black-paved  roads  whicli  ran  out  of  tlie 
city,  Ahijah,  "  the  prophet"  of  the  ancient 
sanctuary  of  Shiloh.  Ahijah,  who  was 
dressed  in  a  new  outer  garment,  stripped  it 
off,  and  tore  it  into  12  shreds  ;  10  of  which 
he  gave  to  Jeroboam,  with  the  assurance 
that  on  condition  of  his  obedience  to  H's 
laws,  God  would  establish  for  him  a  king-  « 
dom  and  djmasty  equal  to  that  of  David  (I 
K.  xi.  29-40),  The  attempts  of  Solomon 
to  cut  short  Jeroboam's  designs  occasioned 
his  flight  into  Egy^t.  There  he  remained 
during  the  rest  of  Solomon's  reign.  On 
Solomon's  death,  he  demanded  Shishak's 
permission  to  return.  The  Egyptian  king 
seems,  in  his  reluctance,  to  have  offered 
any  gift  which  Jeroboam  cht»se,  as  a  reason 
for  his  remaining,  and  the  consequence  was 
the  marriage  with  Ano,  the  elder  sister  of 
the  Egyptian  queen,  Tahpenes,  and  of  an- 
other princess  who  had  married  the  Edom- 
ite  chief  Hadad.  A  year  elapsed,  and  a 
son,  Ahijah  (or  Abijam),  was  bom.  Then 
Jeroboam  again  requested  permission  to  de- 
part, which  was  granted ;  and  on  his  return 
to  Shechem  took  place  the  conference  with 
Rehoboam,  and  tlie  final  revolt  [Rehobo- 
am] ;  which  ended  in  the  elevation  of  Jero- 
boam to  the  throne  of  the  northern  king- 
dom. From  tlus  moment  one  fatal  error 
crept,  not  unnaturally,  into  his  policy, 
which  undermined  his  dynasty  and  tar- 
nished his  name  as  the  first  king  of  Israel. 
The  political  disruption  of  the  kingdom  waa 
complete ;  but  its  religious  unity  was  as  yet 
unimpaired.      He  feared  that  the  yearly 


JEROHAM  285  JERUSALEM 


-  -.'tt  (2 
of,  the 


.    V, 


'A  I  tutie  '61-'  i\i'  Sit"  . 
--    /?'  SO"  Enn  of  ! 


rf.-'Mtk 


JERUSALEM 


287 


JERUSALEM 


to  fix  tlie  site  of  Zion  with  a  considerable 
amount  of  certainty  (1  Mace.  iv.  37  and 
60,  vii.  33).  —  The  eastern  hill,  called 
Mount  Mokiah  in  2  Chron.  iii.  1,  was, 
as  already  remarked,  the  site  of  the  Tem- 
ple. It  was  situated  in  the  south-west 
angle  of  the  area,  now  known  as  the 
Haram  area,  and  was,  as  we  learn  from 
Josephus,  an  exact  square  of  a  stadium,  or 
COO  Greek  feet,  on  each  side.  Attached 
to  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Temple  was 
the  Antonia,  a  town  or  fortress.  North  of 
the  side  of  the  Temple  is  the  building  now 
known  to  Christians  as  the  Mosque  of 
Omar,  but  by  Moslems  called  the  Dome 
of  the  Rock.  This  building  is,  according 
to  Mr.  Fergusson's  theory,  the  identical 
church  which  Constantine  erected  over  the 
rock  containing  the  tomb  of  Christ.  Ac- 
cording to  this  view  the  Church  of  the  Uoly 
Sepulchre,  which  stands  on  the  western 
hill,  has  no  right  to  its  name.  The  south- 
ern continuation  of  the  eastern  hill  was 
named  Ophel,  which  gradually  came  to  a 
point  at  the  junction  of  the  valleys  Tyro- 
poeon  and  Jehoshaphat;  and  the  northern 
Bezetha,  "the  New  City,"  first  noticed 
by  Josephus,  which  was  separated  from 
Moriah  by  an  artificial  ditch,  and  over- 
looked the  valley  of  Kedron  on  the  E. ; 
this  hill  was  enclosed  within  the  walls  of 
Herod  Agrippa.  Lastly,  Acra  lay  west- 
ward of  .Moriah  and  northward  of  Zion, 
and  formed  the  "  Lower  City  "  in  the  time 
of  Josephus.  Gates. — The  following  is  a 
complete  list  of  those  which  are  named  in 
the  Bible  and  Josephus,  with  the  refer- 
ences to  their  occurrences :  1.  Gate  of 
Ephraim.  2  Chr.  xxv.  23;  Neh.  viii.  16, 
xii.  89.  This  is  probably  the  same  as  the, 
2.  Gate  of  Benjamin.  Jer.  xx.  2,  xxxvii. 
13 ;  Zech.  xiv.  10.  If  so,  it  was  400  cubits 
distant  from  the,  3.  Corner  gate.  2  Chr. 
xxv.  23,  xxvi.  9 ;  Jer.  xxxi.  38 ;  Zech.  xiv. 
10.  4.  Gate  of  Joshua,  governor  of  the 
city.  2  K.  xxiii.  8.  5.  Gate  between  the 
two  walls.  2  K.  xxv.  4;  Jer.  xxxix.  4. 
6.  Horse  gate.  Neh.  iii.  38 ;  2  Chr.  xxiii. 
15 ;  Jer.  xxxi.  40.  7.  Ravine  gate  (i.  e. 
opening  on  ravine  of  Hinnom).  2  Chr. 
xxvi.  9;  Neh.  ii.  13,  15,  iii.  13.  8.  Fish 
gate.  1  Chr.  xxxiii.  14 ;  Neh.  iii.  1 ;  Zeph. 
i.  16.     9.  Dung  gate,     Neh.  ii.  13,  iii.  13. 

10.  Sheep  gate.     Neh.  iii.   1,  32,  xii.  39. 

11.  East  gate.  Neh.  iii.  29.  12.  Miphkad. 
Neh.  iii.  31.  13.  Fountain  gate  (Siloam?). 
Neh.  xii.  37.  14.  Water  gate.  Neh.  xii. 
37.  15.  Old  gate.  Neh,  xii.  39.  16.  Pris- 
on gate.  Neh.  xii.  39.  17.  Gate  Harsith 
(perhaps  the  Sun;  A.  V.  East  gate).  Jer. 
xix.  2.  18.  First  gate.  Zech.  xiv.  10.  19. 
Gate  Gennath  (gardens).  Joseph.  B.  J.  v. 
4,  §  4.  20.  Essenes'  gate.  Jos.  B.  J.  4. 
§  2.  To  these  should  be  added  the  foUow- 
mg  gates  of  the  Temple :  Gate  Sur.  2 
K.  xi.  6.     Called  also  Gate  of  foundation. 


2  Chr.  xxiii.  5.  Gate  of  the  guard,  or  be- 
hind the  guard.  2  K.  xi.  6,  19.  Called  the 
High  gate.  2  Chr.  xxiii.  20,  xxvii.  3 ;  2 
K.  XV.  35.  Gate  Shallecheth.  1  Chr.  xxvi. 
16.  Walls.  —  These  are  described  by  Jose- 
phus. The  first  or  old  wall  began  on  the 
north  at  the  tower  called  Hippicus,  the 
ruins  now  called  Kasr  Jalud  at  the  N.  W. 
angle  of  the  present  city,  and,  extending 
to  the  Xystus,  joined  the  council  house, 
and  ended  at  the  west  cloister  of  the  Tem- 
ple. Its  southern  direction  is  described  as 
passing  the  gate  of  the  Essenes  (probably 
the  modern  Jaffa  gate),  and,  bending  above 
the  fountain  of  Siloam,  it  reached  Ophel, 
and  was  joined  to  the  eastern  cloister  of 
the  Temple.  The  second  wall  began  at  the 
gate  Gennath,  in  the  old  wall,  probably 
near  the  Hippicus,  and  passed  round  the 
northern  quarter  of  the  city,  enclosing  the 
great  valley  of  the  Tyropocon,  which  leads 
up  to  the  Damascus  gate ;  and  then,  pro- 
ceeding southward,  joined  the  fortress  An- 
tonia. The  direction  of  this  second  wall 
was  identical  with  that  of  the  modern  wall ; 
and  some  part  at  least  of  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  western  part  of  the  Haram  area 
is  probably  built  on  its  site.  The  third 
wall  was  built  by  King  Herod  Agrippa,  and 
was  intended  to  enclose  the  suburbs  which 
had  grown  out  on  the  northern  sides  of  the 
city,  which  before  this  had  been  left  ex- 
posed. It  began  at  the  Hippicus,  and 
reached  as  far  as  the  tower  Psephinus, 
till  it  came  opposite  the  monument  of 
Queen  Helena  of  Adiabene ;  it  then  passed 
by  the  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  kings 
—  a  well-known  locality  —  and  turning 
south  at  the  monument  of  the  Fuller,  joined 
the  old  wall  at  the  valley  called  the  valley 
of  Kedron.  After  describing  these  walls, 
Josephus  adds  that  the  whole  circumfer- 
ence of  the  city  was  33  stadia,  or  nearly 
four  English  miles,  which  is  as  near  as 
may  be  the  extent  indicated  by  the  locali- 
ties. He  then  adds  that  the  number  of 
towers  in  the  old  wall  was  60,  the  middle 
wall  40,  and  the  new  wall  99.  Pools  and 
Fountains.  —  Among  the  objects  of  interest 
about  Jerusalem  the  pools  hold  a  conspicu- 
ous place.  Outside  the  walls  on  the  W. 
side  were  the  Upper  and  Lower  Pools  of 
GiHON,  the  latter  close  under  Zion,  the 
former  more  to  the  N.  W.  on  the  Jaffa 
road.  At  the  junction  of  the  valleys  of 
Hinnom  and  Jehoshaphat  was  Enuogel, 
the  Well  of./ob,  in  the  midst  of  the  king's 
gardens.  Within  the  walls,  immediately 
N.  of  Zion,  was  the  "  Pool  of  Hezekiah." 
A  large  pool  existing  beneath  the  Temple 
(referred  to  in  Ecclus.  i.  3),  was  probaijly 
supplied  by  some  subterranean  aqueduct. 
The  "  King's  Pool "  was  probably  identical 
with  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  at  the 
southern  angle  of  Moriah.  It  possesses  the 
I)eculiarity  that  it  rises  and  falls  at  irrcgu- 


JERUSALEM 


288 


JERUSALEM 


lar  pciiods ;  it  is  supposed  to  be  fed  from 
the  cistern  below  tlie  Temple.  From  this 
a  subterranean  channel  cut  through  the 
solid  rock  leads  the  water  to  the  pool  of 
SiLOAH  or  SiLOAM,  whicli  has  also  acquired 
the  character  of  being  an  intermittent  foun- 
tain. The  pool  to  which  tradition  has  as- 
signed the  name  of  Bethesda  is  situated 
on  the  N.  side  of  Moriah :  it  is  now  named 
Birket  Israil.  Burial-grounds.  —  The 
main  cemetery  of  the  city  seems  from  an 
early  date  to  have  been  where  it  is  still  — 
on  the  steep  slopes  of  the  valley  of  the 
Kedron.  The  tombs  of  the  kings  were  in 
the  city  of  David,  that  is,  Mount  Zion. 
The  royal  sepulchres  were  probably  cham- 
bers containing  separate  recesses  for  the 
successive  kings.  Other  spots  also  were 
used  for  burial.  Gardens.  —  The  king's 
gardens  of  David  and  Solomon  seem  to 
have  been  in  the  bottom  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  Kedron  and  Hinnom  (Neh. 
iii.  15).  The  Mount  of  Olives,  as  its  name 
and  those  of  various  places  upon  it  seem 
to  imply,  was  a  fruitful  spot.  At  its  foot 
was  situated  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane. 
At  the  time  of  the  final  siege  the  space 
north  of  the  wall  of  Agrippa  was  covered 
with  gardens,  groves,  and  plantations  of 
fruit-trees,  enclosed  by  hedges  and  walls; 
and  to  level  these  was  one  of  Titus's  first 
operations.  We  know  that  the  gate  Gennath 
(t.  e.  "of  gardens  ")  opened  on  this  side  of 
the  city.  Streets,  Houses,  ^c.  —  Of  the 
nature  of  these  in  the  ancient  city  we  have 
only  the  most  scattered  notices.  The 
'•  East  street "  (2  Chr.  xxix.  4)  ;  the  "  street 
of  the  city  "  —  i.  e.  the  city  of  David 
(xxxii.  6) ;  the  '•  street  facing  the  water 
gate  "  (Xeh.  viii.  1,  3)  —  or,  according  to 
the  parallel  account  in  1  Esdr.  ix.  38,  the 
"  broad  place  of  the  Temple  towards  the 
East;  "  the  "  street  of  the  house  of  God" 
(Ezr.  X.  9)  ;  the  "  street  of  the  gate  of 
Ephraim  "  (Neh.  viii.  IG)  ;  and  the  "  open 
place  of  the  first  gate  towards  the  East " 
must  have  been  not  "  streets  "  in  our  sense 
of  the  word,  so  much  as  the  open  spaces 
found  in  eastern  towns  round  the  inside  of 
tlie  gates.  Streets,  properly  so  called,  there 
were  (Jer.  v.  1,  xi.  13,  &c.),  but  the  name 
of  only  one,  "the  bakers'  street"  (Jer. 
xxxvji.  21),  is  preserved  to  us.  To  the 
houses  we  have  even  less  clew ;  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  in  either 
houses  or  streets  tlie  ancient  Jerusalem 
dillered  very  materially  from  the  modern. 
Ko  doubt  the  ancient  city  did  not  exhibit 
that  air  of  mouldering  dilapidation  which 
is  now  so  prominent  there.  The  whole 
of  the  slopes  south  of  the  Haram  area 
(the  ancient  Ophel),  and  the  modern  Zion, 
and  tiie  west  side  of  the  valley  of  Jehosha- 
pliat,  present  the  appearance  of  gigantic 
mounds  of  rubbish.  In  this  point  at  least 
tlie  ancient  city  stood  in  favorable  contrast 


with  the  modern,  but  in  many  others  the 
resemblance  must  have  been  strong.  Pop- 
ulation.—  Taking  the  area  of  the  city  en- 
closed by  the  two  old  walls  at  750,000  yards, 
and  that  enclosed  by  the  wall  of  Agrippa  at 
1,500,000,  we  liave  2,250,000  yards  for  the 
whole.  Taking  the  population  of  the  old 
city  at  the  probable  number  of  one  person 
to  50  yards  we  have  15,000,  and  at  the  ex- 
treme limit  of  30  yards  we  should  have 
25,000  inhabitants  for  the  old  city.  And  at 
100  yards  to  each  individual  in  the  new  city 
about  15,000  more ;  so  that  the  population 
of  Jerusalem,  in  its  days  of  greatest  pros- 
perity, may  have  amounted  to  from  30,000 
to  45,000  souls,  but  could  hardly  ever  have 
reached  50,000 ;  and  assuming  that  in  times 
of  festival  one  half  were  added  to  this 
amount,  which  is  an  extreme  estimate, 
there  may  have  been  00,000  or  70,000  in 
the  city  when  Titus  came  up  against  it. 
Environs  of  the  City.  —  The  various  spots  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  city  are  described 
under  tlieir  own  names,  and  to  them  tho 
reader  is  accordingly  referred.  II.  The 
Annals  of  the  Citt.  In  considering  the 
annals  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  nothing 
strikes  one  so  forcibly  as  tlie  number 
and  severity  of  the  sieges  which  it  un- 
derwent. We  catch  our  earliest  glimpse 
of  it  in  the  brief  notice  of  the  1st 
chapter,  of  Judges,  which  describes  how 
the  "  children  of  Judah  smote  it  with 
the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  set  the  city  on 
fire ;  "  and  almost  the  latest  mention  of  it 
in  the  New  Testament  is  contained  in  the 
solemn  warnings  in  which  Christ  foretold 
how  Jerusalem  should  be  "  compassed  with 
armies  "  (Luke  xxi.  20),  and  the  "  abom- 
ination of  desolation  "  be  seen  standing  in 
the  Holy  Place  (Matt.  xxiv.  15).  In  the 
fifteen  centuries  which  elapsed  between 
those  two  points  the  city  was  besieged  no 
fewer  than  seventeen  times ;  twice  it  was 
razed  to  the  ground;  and  on  two  other 
occasions  its  walls  were  levelled.  In  this 
respect  it  stands  without  a  parallel  in  any 
city,  ancient  or  modern.  The  first  siege 
appears  to  have  taken  place  almost  imme- 
diately after  the  death  of  Joshua  (cLr.  1400 
B.  c).  Judah  and  Simeon  "  fought  against 
it  and  took  it,  and  smote  it  with  the  edg«;  of 
the  sword,  and  set  the  city  on  fire"  (Judg. 
i.  8).  To  this  brief  notice  Josephus  makes 
a  material  addition.  He  tells  us  that  the 
part  which  was»  taken  at  last,  and  in  which 
the  slaughter  was  made,  was  the  lower  city ; 
but  that  the  upper  city  was  so  strong,  that 
they  relinquished  the  attempt  and  moved 
off  to  Hebron.  As  long  as  the  upper  city 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Jebusites  they 
practically  had  possession  of  the  whole,  and 
a  Jehusite  city  in  fact  it  remained  for  a  long 
period  after  this.  The  Benjamites  followed 
the  men  of  Judah  to  Jerusalem,  but  with  no 
better  result  (Judg.  i.  21).     And  tliis  lasted 


JERUSALEM 


289 


JERUSALEM 


during  the  whole  period  of  the  Judges,  the 
reign  of  Saul,  and  the  reign  of  David  at 
Hebron.  David  advanced  against  the  place 
at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army.  No 
doubt  he  approached  the  city  from  the 
south.  As  before,  the  lower  city  was  im- 
mediately taken  —  and  as  before,  the  cita- 
del held  out.  The  undaunted  Jebusites, 
believing  in  the  impregnability  of  their  for- 
tress, manned  tlie  battlements  "  with  lame 
and  blind."  But  they  little  understood  the 
temper  of  the  king  or  of  those  he  command- 
ed. David's  anger  was  thoroughly  roused 
by  the  insult,  and  he  at  once  proclaimed  to 
his  host  that  the  first  man  who  would  scale 
the  rocky  side  of  the  fortress  and  kill  a 
Jebusite  should  be  made  chief  captain  of  the 
host.  A  crowd  of  warriors  rushed  forward 
to  the  attempt,  but  Joab's  superior  agility 
gained  him  the  day,  and  the  citadel,  the 
fastness  of  Zion,  was  taken  (1046  b.  c).  It 
is  the  first  time  that  that  memorable  name 
appears  in  history.  The  fortress,  which 
now  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  re- 
ceived the  name  of  "the  city  of  David;  " 
and  David  fortified  its  whole  circuit  roimd 
about  from  Millo,  while  Joab  repaired  the 
rest  of  the  city.  (2  Sam.  v.  G-9  ;  1  Chr.  xi. 
4-8.)  Until  the  time  of  Solomon  we  hear 
of  no  additions  to  the  city.  His  three  great 
works  were  the  Temple,  with  its  east  wall 
and  cloister,  his  own  Palace,  and  the  Wall 
of  Jerusalem.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the 
new  king  was  to  make  the  walls  larger. 
But  on  the  completion  of  the  Temple  he 
again  turned  his  attention  to  the  walls,  and 
both  increased  their  height  and  constructed 
very  large  towers  along  them.  Another 
work  of  his  in  Jerusalem  was  the  repair  or 
fortification  of  Millo  ( 1  K.  ix.  15,  24) .  The 
city  was  taken  by  the  Fliilistines  and  Arabi- 
ans in  the  reign  of  Jehoram  (h.  c.  886),  and 
by  the  Israelites  in  the  reign  of  Amaziah  (b. 
c.  826).  It  was  thrice  taken  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, in  the  years  b.  c.  607, 597,  and  5*6,  in  the 
last  of  which  it  was  utterly  destroyed.  Its 
restoration  commenced  under  Cyrus  (b.  c. 
538),  and  was  completed  under  Artaxerxes 
I.,  who  issued  commissions  for  this  purpose 
to  Ezra  (b.  c.  457)  and  Nehemiah  (b.  c. 
445).  In  B.  c.  332  it  was  captured  by  Al- 
exander the  Great.  Under  the  Ptolemies 
and  the  Seleucidae  the  town  was  prosper- 
ous, until  Antiochus  Epiphanes  sacked  it 
(b.  c.  170).  In  consequence  of  his  tyran- 
ny, tlie  Jews  rose  under  the  Maccabees, 
and  Jerusalem  became  again  independent, 
and  retained  its  position  until  its  capture  by 
the  Romans  under  Pompey  (b.  c.  63).  The 
Temple  was  subsequently  plundered  by 
Crassus  (b.  c.  54),  and  the  city  by  the  Par- 
thians  (b.  c.  40).  Herod  took  up  his  resi- 
dence there  as  soon  as  he  was  appointed 
sovereign,  and  restored  the  Temple  with 
great  magnificence.  On  the  death  of  Herod 
it  became  the  residence  of  the  Roman  proc- 
19 


urators,  who  occupied  the  fortress  cf  An* 
tonia.  Tlie  greatest  siege  that  it  sustained, 
however,  was  at  the  hands  of  the  Romans 
under  Titus,  when  it  held  out  nearly  five 
months,  and  when  the  town  was  completely 
destroyed  (a.  d.  70).  Hadrian  restored  it 
as  a  Roman  colony  (a.  d.  135),  and  among 
other  buildings  erected  a  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus  on  the  site  of  the  Temple.  He 
gave  to  it  the  name  of  Aelia  Capitolina, 
thus  combining  his  own  family  name  with 
that  of  the  Capitoline  Jupiter.  The  em- 
peror Constantine  established  the  Christian 
character  by  the  erection  of  a  church  on 
the  supposed  site  of  the  holy  sepulchre 
(a.  d.  336).  Of  the  buildings  which  Con- 
stantine or  his  mother,  Helena,  erected, 
Mr.  Fergus  son  maintains  that  two  of  them 
now  remain,  —  the  one  the  Anastasis,  a 
circular  building  erected  over  the  tomb  it- 
self; the  other  the  "  Golden  Gateway," 
which  was  the  propylea  described  by  Euse- 
bius  as  leading  to  the  atrium  of  the  basilica. 


Interior  of  Golden  Gateway.    (From  •  photograph.)- 

Justinian  added  several  churches  and  hos- 
pitals (about  A.  D.  532).  It  was  taken  by 
the  Persians  under  Chosroes  II.  in  A.  d- 
614.  After  a  struggle  of  fourteen  years  the 
imperiiU  arms  were  again  victorious,  andi 
in  628  Heraclius  entered  Jerusalem  on  foot> 
The  dominion  of  tlie  Christians  in  tlie  Holy 
City  was  now  rapidly  drawing  to  a  close.. 
In  A.  D.  637  the  patriarch  Sophronius  sur- 
rendered to  tlie  Khalif  Omar  in  person.. 
With  the  fall  of  the  Abassidcs  the  Holy 
City  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Fati- 
mite  dynasty,  under  whom  the  suff'erings  of 
the  Christians  in  Jerusalem  reached  their 
height.  About  the  year  1084  it  was  be- 
stowed upon  Ortok,  chief  of  a  Turkman 
horde  under  his  command.  From  this 
time  till  1091  brtok  was  emir  of  the  city. 
and  on  his  death  it  Avas  held  as  a  kind  of 
fief  by  his  sons  Ilghazy  and  SukmSn,  whose 
severity  to  the  Christians  became  the  proxi- 


JERUSHA 


290 


JESSE 


mate  cause  of  the  Crusades.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Crusaders  in  1099,  and  for  eighty- 
eight  years  Jerusalem  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  Christians.  In  1187  it  was  re- 
taken by  Saladin  after  a  siege  of  several 
weeks.  In  1277  Jerusalem  was  nominally 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Sicily.  In  1517 
it  passed  under  the  sway  of  the  Ottoman 
Sultan  Selim  I.,  whose  successor  Suliman 
built  the  present  walls  of  the  city  in  1542. 
Mohammed  Aly,  the  Pasha  of  Egypt,  took 
possession  of  it  in  1832 ;  and  in  1840,  after 
the  bombardment  of  Acre,  it  was  again  re- 
etored  to  the  Sultan. 

Jem  'sha,  daughter  of  Zadok,  and  queen 
ofUzziah  (2  K.  xv.  33). 

Jeru'shah  (2  Chr.  xxvii.  1).  The  same 
as  the  preceding. 

Jesai'ah.  1.  Son  of  Hananiah,  brother 
of  Pelatiah,  and  grandson  of  Zerubbabel  (1 
Chr.  iii.  21).    2.  A  Benjamite  (Neh.  xi.  7). 

Jeshai'ah.  1.  One  of  the  six  sons  of 
Jeduthun  (1  Chr.  xxv.  3,  15).  2.  A  Le- 
vite  in  the  reign  of  David,  eldest  son  of  Re- 
habiah,  a  descendant  of  Amram  through 
Moses  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  25).  [Isshiah.]  3. 
The  son  of  Athaliah,  and  chief  of  the  house 
of  the  Bene-Elam  who  returned  with  Ezra 
(Ezr.  viii.  7).  [Josias.]  4.  A  Merarite 
who  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  19). 

Jesh'anah,  a  town  which,  with  its  de- 
pendent villages,  was  one  of  the  three  taken 
from  Jeroboam  by  Abijah  (2  Chr.  xiii.  19). 

Jeshar'alah.,  son  of  Asaph,  and  head 
of  tlie  seventh  of  the  24  wards  into  which 
the  musicians  of  the  Levites  were  divided 

(1  Chr.  xxv.   14).       [ASAEELAH.] 

Jesheb'eab,  head  of  the  14th  course  of 
priests  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  13).     [Jehoiarib.] 

Je'sher,  one  of  the  sons  of  Caleb  the 
son  of  Hezron  by  his  wife  Azubah  (1  Chr. 
ii.  18). 

Jesh'imon,  "  the  waste,"  a  name  which 
occurs  in  Num.  xxi.  20,  and  xxiii.  28,  in 
designating  the  position  of  Pisgah  and  Peor ; 
both  described  as  "facing  the  Jeshimon." 
Perhaps  the  dreary,  barren  waste  of  hills 
lying  immediately  on  the  west  of  the  Dead 
Sea. 

Jeshish'aJ,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  the 
Gadites  who  dwelt  in  Gilead  (1  Chr.  v.  14). 

Jeshohai'ah.,  a  chief  of  the  Simeon- 
ites,  descended  from  Shimei  (1  Chr.  iv.  36). 

Jesli'ua  (another  form  of  the  name 
Joshua  or  Jesus).  I.  Joshua,  the  son  of 
Nun  (Neh.  viii.  17).  [Joshua.]  2.  A 
priest  in  the  reign  of  David,  to  whom  the 
ninth  course  fell  by  lot  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  11). 
3.  One  of  the  Levites  in  the  reign  of  Heze- 
kiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  15).  4.  Son  of  Jehoza- 
dak,  first  high-priest  of  the  third  series, 
viz.,  of  those  after  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
and  ancestor  of  the  fourteen  high-priests 
his  successors  down  to  Joshua  or  Jason, 
and  Onias  or  Menelaus,  inclusive.  [High- 
PBiEST.]    Jeshua,  like  his  contemporary 


I  Zerubbabel,  was  probably  born  in  Babylon, 
whither  his  father  Jehozadak  had  been  ta- 
ken captive  while  young  (1  Chr.  vi.  15, 
A.  v.).  He  came  up  from  Babylon  in  the 
first  year  of  Cyrus  with  Zerubbabel,  and 
took  a  leading  part  with  him  in  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  Temple,  and  the  restoration  of 
the  Jewish  commonwealth.  The  two  proph- 
ecies concerning  him  in  Zech.  iii.  and  vi. 
9-15  point  him  out  as  an  eminent  type  of 
Christ.  5.  Head  of  a  Levitical  house,  one 
of  those  which  returned  from  the  Babylo- 
nish captivity,  and  took  an  active  part  un- 
der Zerubbabel,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah.  The 
name  is  used  to  designate  either  the  whole 
family  or  the  successive  cliiefs  of  it  (Ezr. 
ii.  40,  iii.  9 ;  Neh.  iii.  19,  viii.  7,  ix.  4,  5, 
xii.  8,  &c.).  6.  A  branch  of  the  family  of 
Pahath-Moab,  one  of  the  chief  families, 
probably,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Neh^  x. 
14,  vii.  11,  &c.;  Ezr.  x.  30). 

Jesh'ua,  one  of  the  towns  re-inhabited 
by  the  people  of  Judah  after  the  return 
from  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  26).  It  is  not 
mentioned  elsewhere. 

Jesh'uah,  a  priest  in  the  reign  of  Da- 
vid (1  Chr.  xxiv.  11),  the  same  as  Jeshua, 
No.  2. 

Jesh'urun,  and  once  by  mistake  in 
A.  V.  Jes'urun  (Is.  xliv.  2),  a  symboli- 
cal name  for  Israel  in  Deut.  xxxii.  15, 
xxxiii.  5,  26 ;  Is.  xliv.  2.  It  is  most  prob- 
ably derived  from  a  root  signifying  "  to  be 
blessed."  With  the  intensive  termination 
Jeshurun  would  then  denote  Israel  as  su- 
premely happy  or  prosperous,  and  to  this 
signification  the  context  in  Deut.  xxxii.  15 
points. 

Jesi'ah.  1.  A  Korhite,  one  of  the  migh- 
ty men  who  joined  David's  standard  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chr.  xii.  6).  2.  The  second  son  of 
Uzziel,  the  son  of  Kohath  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  20). 
[Jeshiah.] 

Jesim'iel,  a  Simeonite  chief  of  the  fam- 
ily of  S*iimei  (1  Chr.  iv.  36). 

Jes'se,  the  father  of  David,  was  the  son 
of  Obed,  who  again  was  the  fruit  of  the 
union  of  Boaz  and  the  Moabitess  Ruth. 
Nor  was  Ruth's  the  only  foreign  blood  that 
ran  in  his  veins ;  for  his  great-grandmother 
was  no  less  a  person  than  Rahab  the  Ca- 
naanite,  of  Jericho  (Matt.  i.  5).  Jesse's 
genealogy  is  twice  given  in  full  in  the  O.  T., 
viz.  Ruth  iv.  18-22,  and  1  Chr.  ii.  5-12. 
He  is  commonly  designated  as  "Jesse  the 
Bethleheraite  "  (1  Sam.  xvi.  1,  18).  So  he 
is  called  by  his  son  David,  then  fresh  from 
home  (xvii.  68) ;  but  his  full  title  is  "  the 
Ephrathite  of  Bethlehem  Judah"  (xvii.  12). 
He  is  an  "  old  man "  when  we  first  meet 
with  him  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12),  with  eight  sons 
(xvi.  10,  xvii.  12),  residing  at  Bethlehem 
(xvi.  4,  5).  Jesse's  wealth  seems  to  have 
consisted  of  a  flock  of  sheep  and  goats, 
which  were  under  the  care  of  David  (xvi. 
11,  xvii.  34,  35).    When  David's  ruptura 


JESUI 


291 


JESUS  CHRIST 


•with  Saul  had  finally  driven  him  from  the 
court,  and  he  was  in  the  cave  of  AduUam, 
"  his  brethren  and  all  his  father's  house " 
joined  him  (xxii.  1).  Anxious  for  their 
safety,  he  took  his  father  and  his  mother 
into  the  country  of  Moab,  and  deposited 
them  with  the  king,  and  there  they  disap- 
pear from  our  view  in  the  records  of  Scrip- 
ture. Who  the  wife  of  Jesse  was  we  are 
not  told.  His  eight  sons  will  be  found  dis- 
played under  David. 

Jes'ui,  the  son  of  Asher,  whose  descend- 
ants THE  Jesuites  were  numbered  in  the 
plains  of  Moab  at  the  Jordan  of  Jericho 
(Niim.  xxvi.  44).  He  is  elsewhere  called 
Isui  (Gen.  xlvi.  17)  and  Ishuai  (1  Chr. 
vii.  30). 

Jes'mtes,  The.  A  family  of  tbe  tribe 
of  Asher  (Num.  xxvi.  44). 

Jes'urun.    [Jeshuedn.] 

Je'sus.  1.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name 
Joshua  or  Jeshua,  a  contraction  of  Jehosh- 
ua,  that  is,  "  help  of  Jehovah "  or  "  Sa- 
viour" (Num.  xiii.  16).  2.  Joshua,  son 
of  Nun  (vii.  45;  Heb.  iv.  8).  [Jehoshua.] 

Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach  is  described 
in  the  text  of  Ecclesiasticus  (i.  27)  as  the 
author  of  that  book,  which  in  the  LXX., 
and  generally,  except  in  the  Western 
Church,  is  called  by  his  name  the  Wisdom 
of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach,  or  simply  the 
Wisdom  of  Sirach.     [Ecclesiasticcs.] 

Je'sus,  called  Justus,  a  Christian  who 
was  with  St.  Paul  at  Rome  (Col.  iv.  11). 

Je'sus  Christ.  I.  Name.  The 
name  Jesus  signifies  Saviour.  The  name 
of  Christ  signifies  Anointed.  Priests  were 
anointed  among  the  Jews,  as  their  inaugura- 
tion to  their  office  (1  Chr.  xvi.  22;  Ps. 
cv.  15),  and  kings  also  (2  Mace.  i.  24; 
Ecclus.  xlvi.  19.)  In  the  New  Testament 
the  name  Christ  is  used  as  equivalent  to 
Messiah  (John  i.  41),  the  name  given  to 
the  long-promised  Prophet  and  King  whom 
the  Jews  had  been  taught  by  their  prophets 
to  expect  (Acts  xix.  4;  Matt.  xi.  3).  The 
use  of  this  name,  as  applied  to  the  Lord, 
has  always  a  reference  to  the  promises  of 
the  Prophets.  The  name  of  Jesus  is  the 
proper  name  of  our  Lord,  and  that  of  Christ 
is  added  to  identify  Him  with  the  promised 
Messiah.  II.  Bieth  and  Eaely  Life. 
According  to  the  received  chronology, 
which  is  in  fact  that  of  Dionysius  Exiguus 
in  the  6th  century,  the  Birth  of  Christ  oc- 
curred in  the  year  of  Rome  754  (a.  d.  1)  ; 
but  from  other  considerations  it  is  probable 
that  the  Nativity  took  place  some  time  be- 
fore the  month  of  April,  750  (a.  d.  4),  and 
if  it  happened  only  a  few  months  before 
Herod's  death,  then  its  date  would  be  four 
j-ears  earlier  than  the  Dionysian  reckoning. 
The  salutation  addressed  by  the  Angel  to 
Mary  His  mother,  *'  Hail !  thou  that  art 
higldy  favored,"  was  the  prelude  to  a  new 
act  of  divine  creation.      Marv  received  the 


announcement  of  a  miracle,  the  full  import 
of  which  she  could  not  have  understood, 
with  the  submission  of  one  who  knew  that 
the  message  came  from  God;  and  the 
Angel  departed  from  her.  The. prophet 
Micah  had  foretold  (v.  2)  that  the  future 
king  should  be  born  in  Bethlehem  of  Ju- 
daea, the  place  where  the  house  of  David 
had  its  origin ;  but  Mary  dwelt  in  Nazareth. 
Augustus,  however,  had  ordered  a  general 
census  of  the  Roman  empire.  From  the 
well-known  passage  of  St.  Luke  (ii.  2)  it 
appears  that  the  taxing  was  not  completed 
till  the  time  of  Quirinus  (Cyrenius),  some 
years  later;  and  how  far  it  was  carried 
now,  cannot  be  determined:  all  that  we 
learn  is,  that  it  brought  Joseph,  who  was 
of  the  house  of  David,  from  his  home  to 
Bethlehem,  where  the  Lord  was  born.  As 
there  was  no  room  in  the  inn,  a  manger  was 
the  cradle  in  which  Christ  the  Lord  was 
laid.  But  signs  wese  not  wanting  of  the 
greatness  of  the  event  that  seemed  so  un- 
important. Lowly  shepherds  were  the  wit- 
nesses of  the  wonder  that  accompanied  the 
lowly  Saviour's  birth ;  an  angel  proclaimed 
to  them  "good  tidings  of  great  joy;"  and 
then  the  exeeeding  joy  that  was  in  heaven 
amongst  the  angels  about  this  mystery  of 
love  broke  through  the  silence  of  night  with 
the  words,  *'  Glory  to  God  in  the  highest, 
and  on  earth  peace,  good  will  toward  men  " 
(Luke  ii.  8-20).  The  child  Jesus  is  cir- 
cumcised in  due  time,  is  brought  to  the 
Temple,  and  the  mother  makes  the  offering 
for  her  purification.  Simeon  and  Anna, 
taught  from  God  that  the  object  of  their 
earnest  longings  was  before  them,  prophe- 
sied of  His  divine  work :  the  one  rejoicing 
that  his  eyes  had  seen  the  salvation  of  God, 
and  the  other  speaking  of  Him  "  to  all 
that  looked  for  redemption  in  Jerusalem  " 
(Luke  ii.  28-38).  Thus  recognized  amongst 
His  own  people,  the  Saviour  was  not  with- 
out witness  amongst  the  heathen.  "  Wise 
men  from  the  East "  —  that  is,  Persian 
magi  of  the  Zfend  religion,  in  which  the  idea 
of  a  Zoziosh  or  Reedemer  was  clearly 
known  —  guided  miraculously  by  a  star  or 
meteor  created  for  the  purpose,  came  and 
sought  out  the  Saviour  to  pay  him  homage. 
A  little  child  made  the  great  Herod  quake 
upon  his  throne.  When  he  knew  that  the 
magi  were  come  to  hail  their  king  and 
Lord,  and  did  not  stop  at  his  palace,  but 
passed  on  to  a  humbler  roof,  and  when  he 
found  that  they  would  not  return  to  betray 
this  child  to  him,  he  put  to  death  all  the 
children  in  Bethlehem  that  were  under  two 
years  old.  Joseph,  warned  by  a  dream, 
flees  to  Egypt  with  the  young  child,  beyond 
the  reach  of  Herod's  arm.  After  tlie  death 
of  Herod,  in  less  than  a  year,  Jesus  return- 
ed with  his  parents  to  their  own  land,  and 
went  to  Nazareth,  where  they  abode.  Ex- 
cept as  to  one  event,  the  EvangeFsts  ara 


JESUS  CHRIST 


292 


JESUS  CHRIST 


silent  upon  the  succeeding  years  of  our 
Lord's  life  down  to  tlie  commencement  of 
His  ministry.  When  He  was  twelve  years 
old  He  was  found  in  the  Temple,  hearing 
the  doctors  and  asking  them  questions 
(Luke  ii.  40-52).  We  are  shown  this  one 
fact  that  we  may  know  that  at  the  time 
when  the  Jews  considered  childhood  to 
he  passing  into  youth,  Jesus  was  already 
aware  of  His  mission,  and  consciously  pre- 
paring for  it,  although  years  passed  before 
its  actual  commencement.  Thirty  years 
had  elapsed  from  the  birth  of  our  Lord  to 
the  opening  of  His  ministry.  In  that  time 
great  changes  had  come  over  the  chosen 
people.  Herod  the  Great  had  united  under 
him  almost  all  the  original  kingdom  of  Da- 
vid ;  after  the  death  of  that  prince  it  was 
dismembered  forever.  It  was  in  the  fif- 
teenth year  of  Tiberius  the  Emperor,  reck- 
oning from  his  joint  rule  with  Augustus 
(Jan.  u.  c.  765,  a.  d.  12),  and  not  from  his 
sole  rule  (Aug.  u.  c.  767,  a.  d.  14),  that 
John  the  Baptist  began  to  teach.  He  was 
the  last  representative  of  the  prophets  of 
the  old  covenant ;  and  his  work  was  two- 
fold —  to  enforce  repentance  and  the  ter- 
rors of  the  old  law,  and  to  revive  the  al- 
most forgotten  expectation  of  the  Messiah 
(Matt.  iii.  1-10 ;  Mark  i.  1-8 ;  Luke  iii.  1- 
18).  The  career  of  John  seems  to  have 
been  very  short.  Jesus  came  to  Jordan 
with  the  rest  to  receive  baptism  at  John's 
hands :  first,  in  order  that  the  sacrament 
by  which  all  were  hereafter  to  be  admitted 
into  His  kingdom  might  not  want  His  ex- 
ample to  justify  its  use  (Matt.  iii.  15) ; 
next,  that  John  might  have  an  assurance 
that  his  course  as  the  herald  of  Christ  was 
now  completed  by  his  appearance  (John  i. 
33)  ;  and  last,  that  some  public  token  might 
be  given  that  He  was  indeed  the  Anointed 
of  God  (Heb.  v.  5).  Immediately  after 
this  inauguration  of  His  ministry  Jesus  was 
led  up  of  the  Spirit  into  the  wilderness  to 
be  tempted  of  the  devil  (Matt.  iv.  1-11; 
Mark  i.  12,  18;  Luke  iv.  1-13).  The  three 
temptations  are  addressed  to  the  three 
forms  in  which  the  disease  of  sin  makes  its 
appearance  on  the  soul  —  to  the  solace  of 
sense,  and  the  love  of  praise,  and  the  de- 
sire of  gain  (1  John  ii.  16).  III.  The 
Lord's  Mikistkt.  Before  entering  upon 
the  history  of  our  Lord's  ministry,  there 
are  two  points  that  demand  a  few  remarks  : 
(i.)  the  scene  of  the  ministry ;  (ii.)  its 
duration,  (i.)  The  scene  of  the  ministry.  — 
As  to  the  scene  of  the  ministry  of  Christ, 
no  less  than  as  to  its  duration,  the  three 
Evangelists  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  at  vari- 
ance with  the  fourth.  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
Luke  record  only  our  Lord's  doings  in  Gal- 
ilee ;  if  we  put  aside  a  few  days  before  the 
Passion,  we  find  that  they  never  mention 
His  visiting  Jerusalem.  John,  on  the  other 
band,  whilst  he  records  some  acts  in  Gali- 


lee, devotes  tjie  chief  part  of  his  Gospel 
to  the  transactions  in  Judaea.  But  when 
the  supplemental  character  of  John's  Gos- 
pel is  borne  in  mind  there  is  little  difficulty 
in  explaining  this.  The  three  Evangelists 
do  not  profess  to  give  a  chronology  of  the 
ministry,  but  rather  a  picture  of  it :  notes 
of  time  are  not  frequent  in  their  narrative. 
And  as  they  chiefly  confined  tliemselves  to 
Galilee,  where  the  Redeemer's  chief  acts 
were  done,  they  might  naturally  omit  to 
mention  the  feasts,  which,  being  passed  by 
our  Lord  at  Jerusalem,  added  nothing  to 
the  materials  for  His  Galilean  ministry, 
(ii.)  Duration  of  the  ministry. — It  is  im- 
possible to  determine  exactly  from  the  Gos- 
pels the  number  of  years  during  which  the 
Redeemer  exercised  His  ministry  before 
the  Passion  :  but  the  doubt  lies  between  two 
and  three.  The  data  are  to  be  drawn  from 
St.  John.  This  Evangelist  mentions  six 
feasts,  at  five  of  which  Jesus  was  present; 
tlie  Passover  that  followed  His  baptism  (ii. 
13)  ;  "  a  feast  of  the  Jews  "  (v.  1)  ;  a  Pass- 
over during  which  Jesus  remained  in  Gal- 
ilee (vi.  4)  ;  the  feast  of  Tabernacles  to 
which  the  Lord  went  up  privately  (vii. 
2) ;  the  feast  of  Dedication  (x.  22)  ;  and 
lastly  the  feast  of  Passover,  at  which  he 
suffered  (xii.,  xiii.).  There  are  certain- 
ly three  Passovers,  and  it  is  possible  that 
"a  feast"  (v.  1)  may  be  a  fourth.  Upon 
this  possibility  the  question  turns.  But  if 
this  feast  is  not  a  Passover,  then  no  Pass- 
over is  mentioned  by  John  between  the 
first  (ii.  13),  and  that  which  is  spoken  of 
in  the  sixth  chapter ;  and  the  time  between 
those  two  must  be  assumed  to  be  a  single 
year  only.  Now,  although  the  record  of 
John  of  this  period  contains  but  few  facts, 
yet  when  all  the  Evangelists  are  compared, 
the  amount  of  labor  compressed  into  this 
single  year  would  be  too  much  for  its  com- 
pass. It  is,  to  say  the  least,  easier  to  sup- 
pose that  the  "feast"  (John  v.  1)  was  a 
Passover,  dividing  the  time  into  two,  and 
throwing  two  of  these  circuits  into  the  sec- 
ond year  of  the  ministry.  Upon  the  whole, 
though  there  is  nothing  that  amounts  to 
proof,  it  is  probable  that  there  were  four 
Passovers,  and  consequently  that  our  Lord's 
ministry  lasted  somewhat  more  than  three 
years,  the  "  beginning  of  miracles  "  (John 
ii.)  having  been  wrought  before  the  first 
Passover.  1.  First  year  of  the  ministry.  — 
The  year  of  the  first  of  these  Passovers 
was  u.  c.  780  (a.  d.  27),  and  the  Baptism 
of  our  Lord  took  place  either  in  the  be- 
ginning of  that  year  or  the  end  of  the 
year  preceding.  Our  Lord  has  now  passed 
through  the  ordeal  of  temptation,  and 
His  ministry  is  begun.  At  Bethabara,  to 
which  He  returns,  disciples  begin  to  be 
drawn  towards  Him ;  Andrew  and  anoth- 
er, probably  John,  the  sole  narrator  of 
\  the  fact,  sec  Jesus,  aod  hear  the  Baptist's 


JESUS  CHRIST 


293 


JESUS  CHUIST 


tostimony  concerning  Him.  Andrew  brings 
Simon  Peter  to  see  Him  also ;  and  he  re- 
ceives from  the  Loi-d  the  name  of  Cephas. 
Then  Philip  and  Nathanael  are  brought 
into  (contact  with  our  Lord.  The  two  dis- 
ciples last  named  saw  Him  as  He  was  about 
to  se  t  out  for  Galilee,  on  the  third  day  of 
His  sojourn  at  Bethabara.  The  third  day 
after  this  interview  Jesus  is  at  Cana  in 
Galilee,  and  works  His  first  miracle,  by 
making  the  water  wine  (John  i.  29,  35,  43 ; 
ii.  1).  He  now  betakes  Himself  to  Caper- 
naum, and  after  a  sojourn  there  of  "not 
many  days,"  sets  out  for  Jerusalem  to  the 
Passover,  which  was  to  be  the  beginning 
of  His  ministry  in  Judaea  (John  ii.  12,  13). 
The  cleansing  of  the  Temple  is  associated 
by  St.  John  with  this  first  Passover  (ii.  12- 
22),  and  a  similar  cleansing  is  assigned  to 
the  last  Passover  by  the  other  Evangelists. 
These  two  cannot  be  confounded  without 
throwing  discredit  on  the  historical  charac- 
ter of  one  narrative  or  the  other ;  the  notes 
of  time  are  too  precise.  The  expulsion  of 
the  traders  was  not  likely  to  produce  a  per- 
manent effect,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years 
Jesus  found  the  tumult  and  the  traffic  de- 
filing the  court  of  the  Temple  as  they  had 
done  when  He  visited  it  before.  The  visit 
of  Nicodemus  to  Jesus  took  place  about  the 
first  Passover.  It  implies  that  our  Lord 
had  done  more  at  Jerusalem  than  is  record- 
ed of  Him  even  by  John ;  since  we  have 
here  a  Master  of  Israel  (John  iii.  10),  a 
member  of  the  Sanhedrim  (John  vii.  50) 
expressing  his  belief  in  Him,  although  too 
timid  at  this  time  to  make  an  open  profes- 
sion. The  object  of  the  visit,  though  not 
directly  stated,  is  still  clear :  he  was  one  of 
the  better  Pharisees,  who  were  expecting 
the  kingdom  of  Messiah,  and  having  seen 
tlie  miracles  that  Jesus  did,  he  came  to  in- 
quire more  fully  about  these  signs  of  its 
approach.  It  has  been  well  said  that  this 
discourse  contains  the  whole  Gospel  in 
epitome.  After  a  sojourn  at  Jerusalem  of 
uncertain  duration,  Jesus  went  to  the  Jor- 
dan with  His  disciples ;  and  they  there  bap- 
tized in  His  name.  The  Baptist  was  now 
at  Aenon  near  Salira ;  and  the  jealousy  of 
his  disciples  against  Jesus  drew  from  John 
an  avowal  of  his  position,  which  is  remark- 
able for  its  humility  (John  iii.  27-30).  How 
long  this  sojourn  in  Judaea  lasted  is  un- 
certain. In  the  way  to  Galilee  Jesus  passed 
by  the  shortest  route,  through  Samaria. 
In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Samaritans 
were  hated  by  the  Jews  even  more  than  if 
they  had  been  Gentiles,  Yet  even  in  Sa- 
maria were  souls  to  be  saved ;  and  Jesus 
would  not  shake  off  even  that  dust  from 
His  feet.  He  came  in  His  journey  to 
Sichera,  which  the  Jews  in  mockery  had 
changed  to  Sychar,  "Wearied  and  athirst 
He  sat  on  the  side  of  Jacob's  well.  A  wo- 
man from  the  neighboring  town  came  to 


draw  from  the  well,  and  was  astonished  that 
a  Jew  should  address  her  as  a  neighbor, 
with  a  request  for  water.  The  conversation 
that  ensued  might  be  taken  for  an  example 
of  the  mode  in  which  Christ  leads  to  Him- 
self the  souls  of  men.  In  this  remarkable 
dialogue  are  many  things  to  ponder  over. 
The  living  water  which  Christ  would  give ; 
the  announcement  of  a  change  in  the  wor- 
ship of  Jew  and  Samaritan ;  lastly,  the 
confession  that  He  who  speaks  is  truly  the 
Messiah,  are  all  noteworthy.  Jesus  now 
returned  to  Galilee,  and  came  to  Nazareth, 
His  own  city.  In  the  Synagogue  He  ex- 
pounded to  the  people  a  passage  from  Isaiah 
(Ixi.  1),  telling  them  that  its  fulfilment  was 
now  at  hand  in  His  person.  The  same 
truth  that  had  filled  the  Samaritans  with 
gratitude,  wrought  up  to  fury  the  men  of 
Nazaii§th,  who  would  have  destroyed  Hira 
if  He  had  not  escaped  out  of  their  hands 
(Luke  iv.  16-30).  He  came  now  to  Caper- 
naum. On  his  way  hither,  when  He  had 
reached  Cana,  He  healed  the  son  of  one  of 
the  courtiers  of  Herod  Antipas  (John  iv. 
46-54),  who  "himself  believed,  and  his 
whole  house."  This  was  the  second  Gali- 
lean miracle.  At  Capernaum  He  wrought 
many  miracles  for  them  that  needed.  Here 
two  disciples  who  had  known  him  before, 
namely,  Simon  Peter  and  Andrew,  were 
called  from  their  fishing  to  become  "fishers 
of  men  "  (Matt.  iv.  19),  and  the  two  sons  of 
Zebedee  received  the  same  summons.  After 
healing  on  the  Sabbath  a  demoniac  in  the 
Synagogue,  He  returned  the  same  day  to 
Simon's  house,  and  healed  the  motber-in- 
law  of  Simon,  who  was  sick  of  a  fever.  At 
sunset,  the  multitude,  now  fully  aroused  by 
what  they  had  heard,  brought  their  sick  to 
Simon's  door  to  get  them  healed.  He  did 
not  refuse  His  succor,  and  healed  them  all 
(Mark  i.  29-34) .  He  now,  after  showering 
down  on  Capernaum  so  many  cures,  turned 
His  thoughts  to  the  rest  of  Galilee,  where 
other  "lost  sheep"  were  scattered:  "Let 
us  go  into  the  next  towns  that  I  may  preach 
there  also,  for  therefore  came  I  forth" 
(Mark  i.  38).  The  journey  through  Galilee, 
on  which  He  now  entered,  must  have  been  a 
general  circuit  of  that  country.  2.  Second 
year  of  the  ministry.  —  Jesus  went  up  to 
Jerusalem  to  "  a  feast  of  the  Jews,"  which 
was  probably  the  Passoi^r.  At  the  pool 
Bethesda  (=s  house  of  rnercy),  which  was 
near  the  sheep-gate  (Neh.  iii.  1)  on  the 
north-east  side  of  the  Temple,  Jesus  saw 
many  infirm  persons  waiting  their  turn  for 
the  healing  virtues  of  the  water  (John  v.  1— 
18).  Among  them  was  a  man  who  had  an 
infirmity  thirty-eight  years :  Jesus  made 
him  whole  by  a  word,  bidding  him  take  up 
his  bed  and  walk.  The  miracle  was  done 
on  the  Sabbath ;  and  the  Jews,  who  acted 
against  Jesus,  rebuked  the  man  for  carrying 
his  bed.    It  was  a  labor,  and  as  such  for- 


JESUS  CHRIST 


294 


JESUS  CHRIST 


bidden  (Jer.  xvii.  21).  In  our  Lord's  jus- 
tification of  Himself,  "  My  Father  worketh 
hitherto,  and  I  work"  (John  v.  17),  there 
is  an  unequivocal  claim  to  the  divine  na- 
ture. Another  discussion  about  the  Sab- 
bath arose  from  the  disciples  plucking  the 
ears  of  corn  as  they  went  through  the  fields 
(Matt.  xii.  1-8).  The  time  of  this  is  some- 
what uncertain ;  some  would  place  it  a  year 
later,  just  after  the  third  Passover  :  but  its 
place  is  much  more  probably  here.  Our 
Lord  quotes  cases  where  the  law  is  super- 
seded or  set  aside,  because  He  is  One  who 
has  power  to  do  the  same.  And  the  rise 
of  a  new  law  is  implied  in  those  words  which 
St  Mark  alone  has  recorded:  "The  Sab- 
bat.: was  made  for  man,  and  not  man  for 
the  Sabbath."  The  law  upon  the  Sabbath 
was  made  in  love  to  men,  to  preserve  for 
them  a  due  measure  of  rest,  to  keep  room 
for  the  worship  of  God.  The  Son  of  Man 
has  power  to  re-adjust  this  law,  if  its  work 
is  done,  or  if  men  are  fit  to  receive  a  high- 
er. This  may  have  taken  place  on  the  way 
to  Jerusalem  after  the  Passover.  On  an- 
other Sabbath,  probably  at  Capernaum,  to 
which  Jesus  had  returned,  the  Pharisees 
gave  a  far  more  striking  proof  of  the  way  in 
wliich  their  hard  and  narrow  and  unloving 
interpretation  would  turn  the  beneficence 
of  the  Law  into  a  blighting  oppression.  Our 
Lord  entered  into  the  synagogue,  and  found 
there  a  man  with  a  withered  hand  —  some 
poor  artisan  perhaps  whose  handiwork  was 
his  means  of  life.  Jesus  was  about  to  heal 
him  —  which  would  give  back  life  to  the 
suflTerer  —  which  would  give  joy  to  every 
beholder  who  had  one  tcmch  of  pity  in  his 
heart.  The  Pharisees  interfere :  "  Is  it 
lawful  to  heal  on  the  Sabbath-day  ?  "  Their 
doctors  would  hare  allowed  them  to  pull  a 
sheep  out  of  a  pit ;  but  they  will  not  have 
a  man  rescued  from  the  depth  of  misery. 
Rarely  is  that  loving  Teacher  wroth,  but 
here  His  anger,  mixed  with  grief,  showed 
itself:  He  looked  round  about  upon  them 
"  with  anger,  being  grieved  at  the  hardness 
of  their  hearts,"  and  answered  their  cavils 
by  healing  the  man  (Matt.  xii.  9-14 ;  Mark 
iii.  1-6;  Luke  vi.  6-11).  In  placing  the 
ordination  or  calling  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 
just  before  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  we 
are  under  the  guidance  of  St.  Luke  (vi.  13, 
17).  But  this  ilore  solemn  separation  for 
their  work  by  no  means  marks  the  time  of 
their  first  approach  to  Jesus.  That  which 
takes  place  here  is  the  appointment  of 
twelve  disciples  to  be  a  distinct  body,  under 
the  name  of  Apostles.  They  are  not  sent 
forth  to  preach  until  later  in  the  same  year. 
The  number  twelve  must  have  reference  to 
the  number  of  the  Jewish  tribes :  it  is  a 
number  selected  on  account  of  its  symbol- 
ical meaning,  for  the  work  confided  to  them 
might  have  been  wrought  by  more  or  fewer. 
In  the  four  lists  of  the  names  of  the  Apos- 


tles preserved  to  us  (Matt,  x.,  Mark  iii., 
Luke  vi.,  Acts  i.),  there  is  a  certain  order 
preserved,  amidst  variations.  The  two 
pairs  of  brothers,  Simon  and  Andrew,  and 
the  sons  of  Zebedee,  are  always  named  the 
first ;  and  of  these  Simon  Peter  ever  holds 
the  first  place.  Philip  and  Bartholomew, 
Thomas  and  Matthew,  are  always  in  the 
next  rank;  and  of  them  Philip  is  always  the 
first.  In  the  third  rank  James  the  son  of 
Alpheus  is  the  first,  as  Judas  Iscariot  is 
always  the  last,  with  Simon  the  Zealot  and 
Thaddaeus  between.  Some  of  the  Apostles 
were  cer^inly  poor  and  unlearned  men ;  it 
is  probable  that  the  rest  were  of  the  same 
kind.  Four  of  them  were  fishermen,  not 
indeed  the  poorest  of  their  class ;  and  a  fifth 
was  a  "  publican,"  one  of  the  tax-gatherers, 
who  collected  the  taxes  farmed  by  Romans 
of  higher  rank.  From  henceforth  the  edu- 
cation of  the  twelve  Apostles  will  be  one 
of  the  principal  features  of  the  Lord's  min- 
istry. First  He  instructs  them ;  then  He 
takes  them  with  Him  as  companions  of  His 
wayfaring;  then  He  sends  them  forth  to 
teach  and  heal  for  Him.  The  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  although  it  is  meant  for  all  the 
disciples,  seems  to  have  a  special  reference 
to  the  chosen  Twelve  (Matt.  v.  11).  About 
this  time  it  was  that  John  the  Baptist,  long 
a  prisoner  with  little  hope  of  release,  sent 
his  disciples  to  Jesus  with  the  question, 
"  Art  thou  He  that  should  come,  or  do  we 
look  for  another  ? "  In  all  the  Gospels 
there  is  no  more  touching  incident.  The 
great  privilege  of  John's  life  was  that  he 
was  appointed  to  recognize  and  bear  wit- 
ness to  the  Messiah  (John  i.  31).  After 
languishing  a  year  in  a  dungeon,  after 
learning  that  even  yet  Jesus  had  made  no 
steps  towards  the  estabUshment  of  His 
kingdom  of  the  Jews,  and  that  His  follow- 
ing consisted  of  only  twelve  poor  Galileans, 
doubts  began  to  cloud  over  his  spirit. 
Was  the  kingdom  of  Messiah  as  near 
as  he  had  thought?  Was  Jesus  not 
the  Messiah,  but  some  forerunner  of 
that  Deliverer,  as  he  himself  had  been  ? 
There  is  no  unbelief;  he  does  not  suppose 
that  Jesus  has  deceived ;  when  the  doubts 
arise,  it  is  to  Jesus  that  he  submits  them. 
But  it  was  not  without  great  depression  and 
perplexity  that  he  put  the  question,  "  Art 
thou  He  that  should  come?"  The  scope 
of  the  answer  given  lies  in  its  recalling 
John  to  the  grounds  of  his  former  confi- 
dence. Now  commences  the  second  circuit 
of  Galilee  (Luke  viii.  1-3),  to  which  belong 
the  parables  in  Matt.  xiii. ;  the  visit  of  our 
Lord's  mother  and  brethren  (Luke  viii.  19- 
21),  and  the  account  of  His  reception  at 
Nazareth  (Mark  vi.  1-6).  During  this 
time  the  twelve  have  journeyed  with  Him, 
But  now  a  third  circuit  in  Galilee  is  record- 
ed, which  probably  occurred  during  the 
last  three  montlis  of  this  year  (Matt,  ix- 


JESUS  CHRIST 


295 


JESUS  CHRIST 


85-38);  and  during  this  circuit,  after  re- 
minding them  liow  great  is  the  harvest  and 
how  pressing  the  need  of  laborers,  He  car- 
ries tiie  training  of  the  disciples  one  step 
farther  by  sending  them  forth  by  themselves 
to  teach  (Matt,  x.,  xi.).  They  went  forth 
two  and  two ;  and  our  Lord  continued  His 
own  circuit  (Matt.  xi.  1),  with  what  com- 
panions does  not  appear.  After  a  journey 
of  perhaps  two  months'  duration  the  twelve 
returned  to  Jesus,  and  gave  an  account  of 
their  ministry.  The  third  Passover  was 
now  drawing  near ;  but  the  Lord  did  not  go 
up  to  it.  He  wished  to  commune  with  His 
Apostles  privately  upon  their  work,  and, 
we  may  suppose,  to  add  to  the  instruction 
they  had  already  received  from  Him  (Mark 
vi.  30,  31).  He  therefore  went  with  them 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Capernaum  to  a 
mountain  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Sea 
of  Tiberias,  near  Bethsaida  Julias,  not  far 
from  the  head  of  the  sea.  Great  multi- 
tudes pursued  them ;  and  here  the  Lord, 
moved  to  compassion  by  the  hunger  and 
weariness  of  the  people,  wrought  for  them 
one  of  His  most  remarkable  miracles.  Out 
of  five  barley  loaves  and  two  small  fishes. 
He  produced  food  for  five  thousand  men 
besides  women  and  children.  After  the 
miracle  the  disciples  crossed  the  sea,  and 
Jesus  retired  alone  to  a  mountain  to  com- 
mune with  the  Father.  They  were  toiling 
at  the  oar,  for  the  wind  was  contrary,  when, 
as  the  night  drew  towards  morning,  they 
saw  Jesus  walking  to  them  on  the  sea,  hav- 
ing passed  the  whole  night  on  the  moun- 
tain. They  were  amazed  and  terrified.  He 
came  into  the  ship  and  the  wind  ceased. 
When  they  reached  the  shore  of  Gennesa- 
ret  the  whole  people  showed  their  faith  in 
Him  as  a  Healer  of  disease  (Mark  vi.  53- 
56) ;  and  He  performed  very  many  mira- 
cles on  them.  Yet  on  the  next  day  the 
great  discourse  just  alluded  to  was  uttered, 
and  "  from  that  time  many  of  His  disciples 
went  back,  and  walked  no  more  with  Him  " 
(John  vi.  66).  3.  Third  year  of  the  min- 
istry. —  Hearing  perhaps  that  Jesus  was 
not  coming  to  the  feast,  Scribes  and  Phari- 
sees from  Jerusalem  went  down  to  see  Him 
at  Capernaum  (Matt.  xv.  1).  Leaving  the 
neighborhood  of  Capernaum  our  Lord  now 
travels  to  the  north-west  of  Galilee,  to  the 
region  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  The  time  is  not 
strictly  determined,  but  it  was  probably  the 
early  summer  of  this  year.  It  does  not 
appear  that  He  retired  into  this  heathen 
country  for  the  purpose  of  ministering; 
more  probably  it  was  a  retreat  from  the 
machination?  of  the  Jews  (Matt.  xv.  21- 
28;  Mark  vii.  24-30).  Returning  thence 
He  passed  round  by  the  north  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  to  the  region  of  Decapolis  on  its 
eastern  side  (Mark  vii.  31-37).  Inthis  dis- 
trict he  performed  many  miracles,  and  es- 
pecially the  restoration  of  a  deaf  man  who 


had  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  remarkac 
ble  for  the  seeming  effort  with  which  He 
wrought  it.  To  these  succeeded  the  feed- 
ing of  the  four  thousand  with  the  seven 
loaves  (Matt.  xv.  32).  He  now  crossed  the 
Lake  of  Magdala,  wkere  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees  asked  and  were  refused  a  "sign." 
After  they  had  departed  Jesus  crossed  the 
lake  with  his  disciples.  At  Bethsaida  Ju- 
lias, He  restored  sight  to  a  blind  man ;  and 
here,  as  in  a  former  case,  the  form  and 
preparation  which  He  adopted  are  to  be  re- 
marked (Mark  viii.  22-26).  The  ministry 
in  Galilee  is  now  drawing  to  its  close. 
Through  the  length  and  breadth  of  that 
country  Jesus  has  proclaimed  the  kingdom 
of  Christ,  and  has  shown  by  mighty  works 
that  He  is  the  Christ  that  was  to  come. 
Many  thousands  had  actually  been  benefited 
by  the  miracles ;  and  yet  of  all  these  there 
were  only  twelve  that  really  clav^e  to  Him, 
and  one  of  them  was  Judas  the  traitor. 
With  this  rejection  an  epoch  of  the  history 
is  connected.  He  begins  to  unfold  now  the 
doctrine  of  His  passion  more  fully.  The 
doctrine  of  a  suffering  Messiah,  so  plainly 
exhibited  in  the  prophets,  had  receded  from 
sight  in  the  current  religion  of  that  time. 
The  announcement  of  it  to  the  disciples 
was  at  once  new  and  shocking.  Turning 
now  to  the  whole  body  of  those  who  fol- 
lowed Him,  He  published  the  Christian 
doctrine  of  self-denial.  The  Apostles  had 
just  shown  that  they  took  the  natural  view 
of  suffering,  that  it  was  an  evil  to  be  shunned. 
They  shrank  from  conflict,  and  pain,  and 
death,  as  it  is  natural  men  should.  But 
Jesus  teaches  that,  in  comparison  with  the 
higher  life,  the  life  of  the  soul,  the  life  of 
the  body  is  valueless  (Matt.  xvi.  21-28; 
Mark  viii.  31-38;  Luke  ix.  22-27).  The- 
Transfiguration,  which  took  place  just 
a  week  after  this  conversation,  is  to  be 
understood  in  connection  with  it.  The 
minds  of  the  twelve  were  greatly  disturbed 
at  what  they  had  heard.  Now,  if  ever, 
they  needed  support  for  their  perplexed 
spirits,  and  this  their  loving  Master  failed 
not  to  give  them.  He  takes  with  Him 
three  chosen  disciples,  Peter,  John,  and 
James,  who  formed  as  it  were  a  smaller 
circle  nearer  to  Jesus  than  the  rest,  into  a 
high  mountain  apart  by  themselves.  There 
are  no  means  of  determining  the  position 
of  the  mountain.  The  three  disciples  were 
taken  up  with  Him,  who  should  afterwards 
be  the  three  witnesses  of  His  agony  in  the 
garden  of  Gethsemane  :  tliose  who  saw  His 
glory  in  the  holy  mount  would  be  sustained 
by  the  remembrance  of  it  when  they  beheld 
His  lowest  humiliation.  Meantime  amongst 
the  multitude  below  a  scene  w.as  taking 
place  which  formed  the  strongest  contrast 
to  the  glory  and  the  peace  which  they  had 
witnessed,  and  which  seemed  to  justify 
Peter's  remark,  "It  is  good  for  us  to  b« 


JESUS  CHRIST 


296 


JESUS  CHRIST 


here."  A  poor  youth,  lunatic  and  pos- 
sessed by  a  devil,  was  brought  to  the  dis- 
ciples who  were  not  with  Jesus,  to  be 
cured.  Tliey  could  not  prevail ;  and  when 
Jesus  appeared  amongst  thera  the  agonized 
and  disappointed  father  appealed  to  Him, 
with  a  kind  of  complaint  of  the  impotence 
of  the  disciples.  What  the  disciples  had 
failed  to  do,  Jesus  did  at  a  word.  He  then 
explained  to  them  that  their  want  of  faith 
in  their  own  power  to  heal,  and  in  His 
promises  to  bestow  the  power  upon  them, 
was  the  cause  of  their  inability  (Matt.  xvii. 
14-21;  Mark  ix.  14-29;  Luke  ix.  37-43). 
Once  more  did  Jesus  foretell  His  suffer- 
ings on  their  way  back  to  Capernaum 
(Mark  ix.  30-32).  Third  year,  from  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles.  —  The  Feast  of  Tab- 
ernacles was  now  approaching.  His  breth- 
ren set  out  for  the  feast  without  Him,  and 
He  abode  in  Galilee  for  a  few  days  longer 
(John  vii.  2-10).  Afterwards  He  set  out, 
taking  the  more  direct  but  less  frequented 
route  by  Samaria.  St.  Luke  alone  records, 
in  connection  with  this  journey,  the  send- 
ing forth  of  the  seventy  disciples.  This 
event  is  to  be  regarded  in  a  different  light 
from  that  of  the  twelve.  The  seventy  had 
received  no  special  education  from  our 
Lord,  and  their  commission  was  of  a  tem- 
porary kind.  The  number  has  reference  to 
the  Gentiles,  as  twelve  had  to  the  Jews ; 
and  the  scene  of  the  work,  Samaria,  re- 
minds ns  that  tliis  is  a  movement  directed 
towards  the  stranger.  After  healing  the 
ten  lepers  in  Samaria,  He  came  about  the 
midst  of  the  feast  to  Jerusalem.  The  Phar- 
isees and  rulers  sought  to  take  Him ;  some 
of  the  people,  however,  believed  in  Him, 
but  concealed  their  opinion  for  fear  of  the 
•rulers.  To  this  division  of  opinion  we  may 
attribute  the  failure  of  the  repeated  at- 
tempts on  the  part  of  the  Sanhedrim  to 
take  One  who  was  openly  teaching  in  the 
Temple  (John  vii.  11-53:  see  esp.  ver.  30, 
32,  44,  45,  46).  The  officers  were  partly 
afraid  to  seize  in  the  presence  of  the  peo- 
ple the  favorite  Teacher,  and  partly  were 
themselves  awed  and  attracted  by  Him. 
The  history  of  the  woman  taken  in  adul- 
tery belongs  to  this  time.  To  this  place 
belongs  the  account,  given  by  John  alone, 
of  the  healing  of  one  who  was  born  blind, 
and  the  consequences  of  it  (John  ix.  1-41, 
X.  1-21).  The  well-known  parable  of  the 
good  shepherd  is  an  answer  to  the  calumny 
of  the  Pharisees,  that  He  was  an  impostor 
and  breaker  of  the  law :  "  This  man  is  not 
of  God,  because  he  keepeth  not  the  Sab- 
bath-day" (ix.  16).  —  We  now  approach  a 
difficult  portion  of  the  sacred  history.  The 
note  of  time  given  us  by  John  immediately 
afterwards  is  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication, 
which  was  celebrated  on  the  25th  of  KisleUv 
answering  nearly  to  December.  Accord- 
ing to  this  Evangelist  our  Lord  does  not 


appear  to  have  returned  to  Galilee  between 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  and  that  of  the 
Dedication,  but  to  have  passed  the  time  in 
and  near  Jerusalem.  Matthew  and  Mark 
do  not  allude  to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 
Luke  appears  to  do  so  in  ix.  51 :  but  the 
words  there  used  would  imply  that  this 
was  the  last  journey  to  Jerusalem.  Now 
in  St.  Luke's  Gospel  a  large  section,  from 
ix.  51  to  xviii.  14,  seems  to  belong  to  the 
time  preceding  the  departure  from  Galilee; 
and  the  question  is,  How  is  this  to  be  ar- 
ranged, so  that  it  shall  harmonize  with  the 
narrative  of  St.  John  ?  In  most  Harmonic's 
a  return  of  our  Lord  to  Galilee  has  been 
assumed,  in  order  to  find  a  place  for  this 
part  of  Luke's  Gospel.  Perhaps  tliis  great 
division  of  Luke  (x.  17-xviii.  14)  should 
be  inserted  entire  between  John  x.  21  and 
22.  Some  of  the  most  striking  parables, 
preserved  only  by  Luke,  belong  to  this 
period.  The  parables  of  the  good  Samari- 
tan, the  prodigal  son,  the  unjust  steward, 
the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  and  the  Pharisee 
and  publican,  aU  peculiar  to  this  Gospel, 
belong  to  the  present  section.  The  in- 
structive account  of  Mary  and  Martha  and 
the  miracle  of  the  ten  lepers  belong  to  this 
portion  of  the  narrative.  Besides  these, 
scattered  sayings  that  occur  in  St.  Matthew 
are  here  repeated  in  a  new  connection. 
The  account  of  the  bringing  of  younsj 
children  to  Jesus  unites  again  the  three 
Evangelists  (Matt.  xix.  13-15;  Mark  x. 
13-16;  Luke  xviii.  15-17).  On  the  way 
to  Jerusalem  through  Peraeai,  to  the  Feast 
of  Dedication,  Jesus  again  puts  before 
the  minds  of  the  twelve  what  they  are 
never  now  to  forget  —  the  sufferings  that 
await  Him.  They  "  understood  none  of 
these  things,"  for  they  could  not  reconcile 
this  foreboding  of  suffering  with  the  signs 
and  announcements  of  the  coming  of  His 
kingdom  (Matt.  xx.  17-19;  Mark  x.  32-34; 
Luke  xviii.  31-34).  In  consequence  of  this 
new,  though  dark,  intimation  of  the  coming 
of  the  kingdom,  Salome,  with  her  two 
sons,  James  and  John,  came  to  bespeak 
the  two  places  of  highest  honor  in  the 
kingdom.  Jesus  tells  them  that  they  know 
not  what  they  ask ;  that  the  places  of  honor 
in  the  kingdom  shall  be  bestowed,  not  by 
Jesus  in  answer  to  a  chance  request,  but 
upon  those  for  whom  they  are  prepared  by 
the  Father.  As  sin  ever  provokes  sin,  the 
ambition  of  the  ten  was  now  aroused,  and 
they  began  to  be  much  displeased  with 
James  and  John.  Jesus  once  more  recalls 
the  principle  that  the  child-like  disposition 
is  that  which  He  approves  (Matt.  xx.  20-28 ; 
Mark  x.  35-45).  The  healing  of  the  two 
blind  men  at  Jericho  is  chiefly  remarkable 
among  the  miracles  from  the  difficijty 
which  has  arisen  '  \  harmonizing  the  ac- 
counts. Matthew  speaks  oitwo  blind  men, 
and  of  the  occasion  as  the  departure  from 


JESUS  CHRIST 


297 


JESUS  CHRIST 


Jericho;  Mark  of  one,  whom  he  names, 
and  of  their  arrival  at  Jericho ;  and  Luke 
agrees  with  him.  This  point  has  received 
much  discussion ;  but  tlie  view  of  Liglit- 
foot  finds  favor  with  many  eminent  exposi- 
»ors,  that  there  were  two  blind  men,  and 
both  were  healed  under  similar  circum- 
stinces,  except  that  Bartimaeus  was  on  one 
side  of  the  city,  and  was  healed  by  Jesus 
aa  he  entered,  and  the  other  was  healed  on 
the  other  side  as  they  departed  ("Matt.  xx. 
29-34;  Mark  x.  46-52;  Luke  xviii.  35-43). 
The  calling  of  Zacchaeus  has  more  than  a 
mere  personal  interest.  He  was  a  publi- 
can,* one  of  a  class  hated  and  despised 
by  the  Jews.  But  he  was  one  who  sought 
to  serve  God.  From  such  did  Jesus  wish 
to  call  His  disciples,  whether  they  were 
publicans  or  not  (Luke  xix.  1-10).  We 
have  reached  now  the  Feast  of  Dedication ; 
but,  as  has  been  said,  the  exact  place  of  the 
events  in  St.  Luke  about  this  part  of  the 
ministry  has  not  been  conclusively  deter- 
mined. After  being  present  at  the  feast, 
Jesus  returned  to  Bethabara  beyond  Jor- 
dan, where  John  had  formerly  baptized, 
and  abode  there.  How  long  He  remained 
here  does  not  appear.  It  was  probably  for 
some  weeks.  The  sore  need  of  a  family 
in  Bethany,  who  were  what  men  call  the 
intimate  friends  of  our  Lord,  called  Him 
thence.  Lazarus  was  sick,  and  his  sisters 
sent  word  of  it  to  Jesus,  whose  power  they 
well  knew.  It  was  not  till  Lazarus  had 
been  four  days  in  the  grave  that  the  Saviour 
appeared  on  the  scene.  But  with  the  power 
of  God  He  breaks  the  fetters  of  brass  in 
which  Lazarus  was  held  by  death,  and  at 
His  word  the  man  on  whom  corruption  had 
already  begun  to  do  its  work,  came  forth 
alive  and  whole  (John  xi.  1-45).  A  mir- 
acle so  public,  for  Bethany  was  close  to 
Jerusalem,  and  the  family  of  Lazarus 
well  known  to  many  people  in  the  mother- 
city,  could  not  escape  the  notice  of  the 
Sanhedrim.  A  meeting  of  this  Council 
was  called  without  loss  of  time,  and  the 
matter  discussed.  We  now  approach  the 
final  stage  of  the  history,  and  every  word 
and  act  tend  towards  the  great  act  of  suf- 
fering. Eacli  day  is  marked  by  its  own 
events  or  instructions.  Our  Lord  entered 
into  Bethany  on  Friday  the  8th  of  Nisan, 
the  eve  of  the  Sabbath,  and  remained  over 
the  Sabbath.  —  Saturday,  the  9th  of  Nisan 
{April  1st).  As  He  was  at  supper  in  the 
house  of  one  Simon,  surnamed  "  the  leper," 
a  relation  of  Lazarus,  who  was  at  table 
with  Him,  Mary,  full  of  gratitude  for  the 
wonderful  raising  of  her  brother  from  the 
dead,  took  a  vessel  containing  a  quantity 
of  pure  ointment  of  spikenard,  and  anointed 
the  feet  of  Jesus,  and  wiped  His  feet  with 
her  hair,  and  anointed  His  head  likewise. 
-  Passion  Week.  Sunday  the  lOih  day 
of  Nisan  {April  2d).     When  He  arrives 


at  the  Mount  of  Olives  He  commant  s  two 
of  His  disciples  to  go  into  the  village  near 
at  hand,  where  they  would  find  an  ass  and 
a  colt  tied  with  her.  With  these  beasts, 
impressed  as  for  the  service  of  a  king,  He 
was  to  enter  into  Jerusalem.  The  disciples 
spread  upon  the  ass  their  ragged  cloaks  for 
Him  to  sit  on.  And  the  multitudes  cried 
aloud  before  Him  in  the  words  of  the  118th 
Psalm,  "Hosanna,  Save  now!  blessed  is 
He  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord." 
All  the  city  was  moved.  Blind  and  lame 
came  to  the  Temple  when  He  arrived  there 
and  were  healed.  After  working  miracles 
in  the  Temple  He  returned  to  Bethany, 
The  10th  of  Nisan  was  the  day  for  the  sep- 
aration of  the  pasclial  lamb  (Ex.  xii.  3). 
Jesus,  the  Lamb  of  God,  entered  Jeru- 
salem and  the  Temple  on  this  day,  and 
although  none  but  He  knew  that  He  was 
the  Paschal  Lamb,  the  coincidence  is  not 
undesigned  (Matt.  xxi.  1-11,14-17;  Mark 
xi.  I-ll;  Luke  xix.  29-44;  John  xii.  12- 
19). —  Monday  the  llth  of  Nisan  {April 
3d.  The  next  day  Jesus  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  again  to  take  advantage  of  tlie 
mood  of  the  people  to  instruct  them.  On 
the  way  He  approached  one  of  the  many 
fig-trees  which  grew  in  that  quarter,  and 
found  that  it  was  full  of  foliage,  but 
without  fruit.  He  said,  "  No  man  eat 
fruit  of  thee  hereafter  forever  I "  and  the 
fig-tree  withered  away  (Matt.  xxi.  18,  19 ; 
Mark  xi.  12-14).  Proceeding  now  to  the 
Temple,  He  cleared  its  court  of  the  crowd 
of  traders  that  gathered  there  (Matt.  xxi. 
12,  13;  Mark  xi.  15-19;  Luke  xix.  45-48). 
In  the  evening  he  returned  again  to  Beth- 
any, —  Tuesday  the  I2th  of  Nisan  {April 
ith).  On  this  the  third  day  of  Passion 
week  Jesus  went  into  Jerusalem  as  before, " 
and  visited  the  Temple.  The  Sanhedrim 
came  to  Him  to  call  Him  to  account  for 
the  clearing  of  the  Temple.  "By  what 
authority  doest  thou  these  things  ?  "  The 
Lord  answered  this  question  by  another. 
They  refused  to  answer,  and  Jesus  refused 
in  like  manner  to  answer  them.  To  this 
time  belong  the  parables  of  the  two  sons 
(Matt.  xxi.  23-32 ;  Mark  xi.  27-33 ;  Luke 
XX.  1-8),  of  the  wicked  husbandman,  and 
of  the  wedding  garment  (Matt.  xxi.  33-46, 
xxii.  1-14;  Mark  xii.  1-12;  Luke  xx.  9- 
19).  Another  great  discourse  belongs  to 
this  day,  which,  more  than  any  other,  pre- 
sents Jesus  as  the  great  Prophet  of  His 
people.  On  leaving  the  Temple  His  disci- 
ples drew  attention  to  the  beauty  of  its 
structure,  its  "  goodly  stones  and  gifts," 
their  remarks  probably  arising  from  the 
threats  of  destruction  which  liad  so  lately 
been  uttered  by  Jesus.  Their  Master  an- 
swered that  not  one  stone  of  the  noble  pile 
should  be  left  upon  another.  When  they 
reached  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  disciples, 
or  rather  the  first  four  (Mark),  speaking 


JESUS  CHEIST 


298 


JESUS  CimiST 


for  the  rest,  asked  Him  when  this  destruc- 
tion should  be  accomplished.  To  under- 
stand the  answer  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  Jesus  warned  them  that  He  was  not 
giving  them  an  historical  account  such  as 
would  enable  them  to  anticipate  the  events. 
'*  Of  that  day  and  hour  knoweth  no  man, 
no,  not  the  angels  of  heaven,  but  my  Father 
only."  Exact  data  of  time  are  to  be  pur- 
posely withheld  from  them.  Accordingly 
two  events,  analogous  in  character  but 
widely  sundered  by  time,  are  so  treated  in 
the  prophecy  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
disentangle  them.  The  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem and  the  day  of  judgment  —  tlie 
national  and  the  universal  days  of  account 
—  are  spoken  of  together  or  alternately 
without  hint  of  the  great  interval  of  time 
that  separates  them.  The  conclusion  which 
Jesus  drew  from  his  own  awful  warning 
was,  that  they  were  not  to  attempt  to  fix  the 
date  of  his  return.  The  lesson  of  the  par- 
able of  the  Ten  Virgins  is  the  same  (Matt. 
xxiv.  44,  XXV.  13).  And  the  parahle  of  the 
Talents,  here  repeated  in  a  modified  form, 
teaches  how  precious  to  souls  are  the  uses 
of  time  (xxv.  14-30).  In  concluding  this 
momentous  discourse,  our  Lord  puts  aside 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  displays 
to  our  eyes  the  picture  of  the  final  judg- 
ment (Matt.  xxv.  31-46).  With  these 
weighty  words  ends  the  third  day. — 
Wednesday  the  l^th  of  Nisan  (April  5th). 
This  day  was  passed  in  retirement  with 
the  Apostles.  Satan  had  put  it  into  the 
mind  of  one  of  them  to  betray  Him ;  and 
Judas  Iscariot  made  a  covenant  to  betray 
Him  to  the  chief  priests  for  thirty  pieces  of 
silver  (Jlatt.  xxvi.  14-16;  Mark  xiv.  10, 
11 ;  Luke  xxii.  1-6).  —  Thursday  the  lith 
'of  Nisan  (April  Qth).  On  "the  first  day 
of  unleavened  bread,"  the  disciples  asked 
their  Master  where  they  were  to  eat  the 
Passover.  He  directed  Peter  and  John  to 
go  into  Jerusalem,  and  to  follow  a  man 
whom  they  should  see  bearing  a  pitcher  of 
water,  and  to  demand  of  him,  in  their  Mas- 
ter's name,  the  use  of  the  guest-chamber  in 
his  house  for  this  purpose.  All  happened 
as  Jesus  had  told  them,  and  in  the  evening 
they  assembled  to  celebrate,  for  the  last 
time,  the  paschal  meal.  The  sequence  of 
the  events  is  not  quite  clear  from  a  com- 
parison of  the  EvangeUsts.  The  order 
seems  to  be  as  follows.  When  they  had 
taken  their  places  at  table  and  the  supper 
had  begun,  Jesus  gave  them  the  first  cup 
to  divide  amongst  themselves  (Luke).  It 
was  customary  to  drink  at  the  paschal  sup- 
per four  cups  of  wine  mixed  with  water; 
and  this  answered  to  the  first  of  them. 
There  now  arose  a  contention  among  the 
disciples  which  of  them  should  be  the 
greatest;  perhaps  in  connection  with  the 
places  wliich  they  had  taken  at  this  feast 
(Luke).    After  a  solemn  warning  against 


pride  and  ambition  Jesus  performed  an  act 
which,  as  one  of  the  last  of  His  life,  must 
ever  have  been  remembered  by  the  wit- 
nesses as  a  great  lesson  of  humility.  He 
rose  from  the  table,  poured  water  into  a 
basin,  girded  himself  with  a  towel,  and 
proceeded  to  wash  the  disciples'  feet 
(John).  After  all  had  been  washed,  the 
Saviour  explained  to  them  the  meaning  of 
what  He  had  done.  "If  I,  your  Lord  and 
Master,  have  washed  your  feet,  ye  also 
ought  to  wash  one  another's  feet.  For  I 
have  given  you  an  example,  that  ye  should 
do  as  I  have  done  to  you  "  (Matt.  xxvi.  17- 
20 ;  Mark  xiv.  12-17 ;  Luke  xxii.  7-30 ;  John 
xiii.  1-20).  From  this  act  of  love  it  does 
not  seem  that  even  the  traitor  Judas  was 
excluded.  But  his  treason  was  thoroughly 
known;  and  now  Jesus  denounces  it.  One  of 
them  should  betray  Him.  The  traitor  hav- 
ing gone  straight  to  his  wicked  object,  the 
end  of  the  Saviour's  ministry  seemed  already 
at  hand.  He  gave  them  the  new  command- 
ment, to  love  one  another,  as  though  it 
were  a  last  bequest  to  them  (Matt.  xxvi.  21 
-25 ;  Mark  xiv.  18-21 ;  Luke  xxii.  21-23 ; 
John  xiii.  21-35).  Towards  the  close  of  the 
meal  Jesus  instituted  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  (Matt.  xxvi.  26-29;  Mark 
xiv.  22-25;  Luke  xxii.  19,  20;  1  Cor.  xL 
23-25).  The  denial  of  Peter  is  now  fore- 
told, and  to  no  one  would  such  an  announce- 
ment be  more  incredible  than  to  Peter  liim- 
self  (Matt.  xxvi.  31-35;  Mark  xiv.  27-31; 
Luke  xxii.  31-38 ;  John  xiii.  36-38).  That 
great  final  discourse,  which  John  alone  has 
recorded,  is  now  delivered.  Although  in 
the  middle  of  it  there  is  a  mention  of  de- 
parture (John  xiv.  31),  this  perhaps  only 
implies  that  they  prepared  to  go ;  and  then 
the  whole  discourse  was  delivered  in  the 
house  before  they  proceeded  to  Gethsema- 
ne  (John  xiv.-xvii.).  —  Friday  the  loth  of 
Nisan  (April  7th),  including  part  of  the 
eve  of  it.  "  When  they  had  sung  a  hymn  " 
which  perhaps  means,  when  they  had  sung 
the  second  part  of  the  Hallel,  or  song  of 
praise,  which  consisted  of  Psalms  cxv.- 
cxviii.,  the  former  part  (Psalms  cxiii.-cxiv.) 
having  been  sung  at  an  earlier  part  of  the 
supper,  they  went  out  into  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  Jesus  takes  only  his  three  proved 
companions,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  and 
passes  with  them  farther  into  the  garden, 
leaving  the  rest  seated,  probably  near  the 
entrance.  No  pen  can  attempt  to  describe 
what  passed  that  night  in  that  secluded  spot. 
He  tells  them,  "  My  soul  is  exceeding  sor- 
rowful, even  unto  death ;  tarry  ye  here  and 
watch  with  me,"  and  then  leaving  even  the 
three  He  goes  further,  and  in  solitude 
wrestles  with  an  inconceivable  trial.  The 
words  of  Mark  are  still  more  expressive  — 
"  He  began  to  be  sore  amazed,  and  to  be 
very  heavy  "  (xiv.  33).  The  former  word 
means  that  he  was  struck  with  a  great 


JESUS  CHRIST 


299 


JESUS  CHKIST 


dread ;  not  from  the  fear  of  physical  suffer- 
ing, however  excruciating,  we  may  well 
believe,  but  from  the  contact  with  the  sins  of 
the  world,  of  which,  in  some  inconceivable 
way.  He  felt  the  bitterness  and  the  weight. 
He  did  not  merely  contemplate  them,  but 
bear  and  feel  them.  It  is  impossible  to 
explain  this  scene  in  Gethsemane  in  any 
other  way.  The  disciples  have  sunk  to 
sleep.  It  was  in  search  of  consolation  that 
He  came  back  to  them.  The  disciple  who 
had  been  so  ready  to  ask,  "  Why  cannot  I 
follow  thee  now?  "  must  hear  another  ques- 
tion, that  rebukes  his  former  confidence  — 
"  Couldest  not  thou  watch  one  hour?" 
A  second  time  He  departs  and  wrestles  in 
prayer  with  the  Father.  A  second  time 
He  returns  and  finds  them  sleeping.  The 
same  scene  is  repeated  yet  a  third  time ;  and 
then  all  is  concluded.  Henceforth  they 
may  sleep  and  take  their  rest ;  never  more 
shall  they  be  asked  to  watch  one  hour  with 
Jesus,  for  His  ministry  in  the  flesh  is  at  an 
end.  This  scene  is  in  complete  contrast 
to  the  Transfiguration  (Matt.  xxvi.  36-46 ; 
Mark  xiv.  32-42 ;  Luke  xxii.  39-46 ;  John 
xviii.  1).  Judas  nov»r  appeared  to  complete 
his  work.  In  the  doubtful  light  of  torches, 
a  kiss  from  him  was  the  sign  to  the  officers 
whom  they  should  take.  Peter,  whose 
name  is  first  given  in  John's  Gospel,  drew 
a  sword  and  smote  a  servant  of  the  high- 
priest  and  cut  off  his  ear ;  but  his  Lord  re- 
fused such  succor,  and  healed  the  wounded 
man.  All  the  disciples  forsook  Him  and 
fled  (Matt.  xxvi.  47-56 ;  Mark  xiv.  43-52 ; 
Luke  xxii.  47-53 ;  John  xviii.  2  12).  There 
is  some  difficulty  in  arranging  the  events 
that  immediately  follow,  so  as  to  embrace 
all  the  four  accounts.  On  the  capture  of 
Jesus  he  was  first  taken  to  the  house  of 
Annas,  the  father-in-law  of  Caiaphas  the 
high-priest.  It  might  appear  from  the 
course  of  John's  narrative,  that  the  exam- 
ination of  our  Lord,  and  the  first  denial  of 
Peter,  took  place  in  the  house  of  Annas 
(John  xviii.  13,  14).  But  the  24th  verse 
is  retrospective ;  and  probably  all  that  oc- 
curred after  verse  14  took  place  not  at  the 
house  of  Annas,  but  at  that  of  Caiaphas. 
The  house  of  the  high-priest  consisted 
probably,  like  other  Eastern  houses,  of  an 
open  central  court  with  chambers  round  it. 
Into  this  court  a  gate  admitted  them,  at 
which  a  woman  stood  to  open.  As  Peter 
passed  in,  the  portress  took  note  of  him ; 
and  afterwards,  at  the  fire  which  had  been 
lighted,  asked  him,  "  Art  not  thou  also  one 
of  this  man's  disciples?"  (John).  All 
the  zeal  and  boldness  of  Peter  seem  to 
ha*'e  deserted  him.  He  had  come  as  in  se- 
cret; he  is  determined  so  to  remain,  and  he 
denies  his  Master !  Fcehng  now  the  dan- 
ger of  his  situation,  he  went  out  into  the 
porch,  and  there  some  one,  or,  looking  at 
all  the  accounts,  probably*  several  persons, 


asked  hhn  the  question  a  second  time,  and 
he  denied  more  strongly.  About  an  hour 
after,  when  he  had  returned  into  the  court, 
the  same  question  was  put  to  him  a  third 
time,  with  the  same  result.  Then  the  cock 
crew;  and  Jesus,  who  was  within  sight, 
probably  in  some  open  room  communicat- 
ing with  the  court,  "  turned  and  looked 
upon  Peter.  And  Peter  remembered  the 
word  of  the  Lord,  how  He  had  said  unto 
him.  Before  the  cock  crow,  thou  shalt 
deny  Me  thrice.  And  Peter  went  out  and 
wept  bitterly"  (Matt.  xxvi.  57,  58,  69-75; 
Mark  xiv.  53,  54,  66-72 ;  Luke  xxii.  54-62 ; 
John  xviii.  13  18,  24-27).  The  first  inter- 
rogatory to  which  our  Lord  was  subject 
(John  xviii.  19-24)  was  addressed  to  Him 
by  Caiaphas,  probably  before  the  Sanhe- 
drim had  time  to  assemble.  It  was  the 
questioning  of  an  inquisitive  person  who 
had  an  important  criminal  in  his  pres- 
ence, rather  than  a  formal  examination. 
The  Lord's  refusal  to  answer  is  thus  ex- 
plained and  justified.  When  the  more 
regular  proceedings  begin  He  is  ready  to 
answer.  A  servant  of  the  high-priest, 
knowing  that  he  should  thereby  please  his 
master,  smote  the  cheek  of  the  Son  of  God 
with  the  palm  of  his  hand.  But  this  was 
only  the  beginning  of  horrors.  At  the  dawn 
of  day  the  Sanhedrim,  summoned  by  the 
high-priest  in  the  course  of  the  night>  as- 
sembled, and  brought  their  band  of  ialse 
witnesses,  whom  they  must  have  had  ready 
before.  These  gave  their  testimony,  but 
even  before  this  unjust  tribunal  it  could  not 
stand,  it  was  so  full  of  contradictions.  At 
last  two  false  witnesses  came,  and  their 
testimony  was  very  like  the  truth.  Even 
these  two  fell  into  contradictions.  The 
high-priest  now  with  a  solenm  adjuration 
asks  Him  whether  He  is  the  Christ  the  Son 
of  God.  He  answers  that  He  is,  and  fore- 
tells His  return  in  glory  and  power  at  the 
last  day.  This  is  enough  for  their  purpose. 
They  pronounce  him  guilty  of  a  crime  for 
which  death  should  be  the  punishment 
(John  xviii.  19-24 ;  Luke  xxii.  63-71 ;  Matt, 
xxvi.  59-68;  Mark  xiv.  55-65).  Although 
they  had  pronounced  Jesus  to  be  guilty  of 
death,  the  Sanhedrim  possessed  no  power 
to  carry  out  such  a  sentence.  As  soon  as 
it  was  day  they  took  Him  to  Pilate,  the 
Roman  procurator.  The  hall  of  judgment, 
or  praetorium,  was  probably  a  part  of  the 
tower  of  Antonia  near  the  Temple,  where 
the  Roman  garrison  was.  Pilate,  hearing 
that  Jesus  was  an  offender  under  their  law, 
was  about  to  give  them  leave  to  treat  Hira 
accordingly ;  and  this  would  have  made  it 
quite  safe  to  execute  Him.  From  the  first 
Jesus  found  favor  in  the  eyes  of  Pilate, 
and  he  pronounced  that  he  found  no  fault 
in  Him.  Not  so  easily  were  the  Jews  to  be 
cheated  of  their  prey.  They  heaped  up  ac- 
cusations against  Him  as  a  disturber  of  the 


JESUS  CHEIST 


800 


JESUS  CHRIST 


public  peace  (Luke  xxiii.  5).  Pilate  was 
no  match  for  tlieir  vehemence.  Finding 
that  Jesus  was  a  Galilean,  he  sent  Him  to 
Herod  to  be  dealt  with ;  but  Herod,  after 
cruel  mockery  and  persecution,  sent  Him 
back  to  Pilate.  Now  commenced  the  fear- 
ful struggle  between  the  Roman  procurator, 
a  weak  as  well  as  cruel  man,  and  the  Jews. 
The  well-known  incidents  of  the  second  in- 
terview are  soon  recalled.  After  the  ex- 
amination by  Herod,  and  the  return  of 
Jesus,  Pilate  proposed  to  release  Him,  as  it 
was  usual  on  the  feast-day  to  release  a 
prisoner  to  the  Jews  out  of  grace.  Pilate 
knew  well  that  the  priests  and  rulers  would 
object  to  this  ;  but  it  was  a  covert  appeal  to 
the  people.  The  multitude,  persuaded  by 
the  priests,  preferred  another  prisoner, 
called  Barabbas.  Now  came  the  scourging, 
and  the  blows  and  insults  of  the  soldiers, 
who,  uttering  truth  when  they  were  only 
reviling,  crowned  Him  and  addressed  Him 
as  King  of  the  Jews.  According  to  John, 
Pilate  now  made  one  more  effort  for  His 
release.  He  still  sought  to  release  Je- 
sus :  but  the  last  argument,  which  had  been 
in  the  minds  of  both  sides  all  along,  was 
now  openly  applied  to  him :  "If  thou  let 
this  man  go,  thou  art  not  Caesar's  friend." 
This  decided  the  question.  He  delivered 
Jesus  to  be  crucified  (Matt,  xxvii.  15-30 ; 
ilark  XV.  6-19 ;  Luke  xxiii.  17-25 ;  John 
xviii.  39,  40,  xix.  1-16).  John  mentions 
that  this  occurred  about  the  sixth  hour, 
reckoning  probably  from  midnight.  In 
Mark  the  Jewish  reckoning  from  six  in  the 
morning  is  followed.  One  Person  alone 
has  been  calm  amidst  the  excitements  of 
that  night  of  horrors.  On  Him  is  now  laid 
the  weight  of  His  cross,  or  at  le.ost  of  the 
transverse  beam  of  it ;  and,  with  this  press- 
ing Him  down,  they  proceed  out  of  the  city 
to  Golgotha  or  Calvary,  a  place  the  site  of 
which  is  now  uncertain.  As  He  began  to 
droop.  His  persecutors,  unwilling  to  defile 
themselves  with  the  accursed  burden,  lay 
hold  of  Simon  of  Cyrene  and  compel  him 
to  carry  the  cross  after  Jesus.  After  offer- 
ing Him  wine  and  myrrh,  they  crucified 
Him  between  two  thieves.  Nothing  was 
wanting  to  His  humiliation;  a  thief  had 
been  preferred  before  Him,  and  two  thieves 
share  His  punishment.  Pilate  set  over  Him 
in  three  languages  the  inscription,  "Jesus, 
the  King  of  the  Jews."  The  chief  priests 
took  exception  to  this,  that  it  did  not  de- 
nounce Him  as  falsely  calling  Himself  by 
that  name,  but  Pilate  refused  to  alter  it. 
One  of  the  two  thieves  underwent  a  change 
of  heart  even  on  the  cross  :  he  reviled  at 
first  (Matt.)  ;  and  then,  at  the  sight  of  the 
constancy  of  Jesus,  repented  (Luke)  (Matt. 
xxvii. ;  Mark  xv. ;  Luke  xxiii. ;  John  xix,). 
In  the  depths  of  His  bodily  suffering,  Jesus 
calmiy  commended  to  John  (?),  who  stood 
near,  the  care  of  Mary  bis  mother.    "  Be- 


hold thy  son !  behold  tby  mother."  From 
the  sixth  hour  to  the  ninth  there  was  dark- 
ness over  the  whole  land.  At  the  ninth  hour 
(3  p.  M.)  Jesus  uttered  with  a  loud  voice  the 
opening  words  of  the  22d  Psalm,  all  the  in- 
spired words  of  which  referred  to  the  suffer- 
ing Messiah.  One  of  those  present  dipped 
a  sponge  in  the  common  sour  wine  of  the 
soldiers  and  put  it  on  a  reed  to  moisten  the 
sufferer's  lips.  Again  he  cried  with  a  loud 
voice,  "It  is  finished  "(John),"  Father,  into 
thy  hands  I  commend  my  spirit"  (Luke), 
and  gave  up  the  ghost  (Matt,  xxvii.  31-56; 
Mark  xv.  20-41 ;  Luke  xxiii.  33-49  ;  John 
xix.  17-30).  On  the  death  of  Jesus  the  veil 
which  covered  the  most  Holy  Place  of  the 
Temple,  the  place  of  the  more  especial  pres- 
ence of  Jehovah,  was  rent  in  twain.  There 
was  a  great  earthquake.  Many  who  were 
dead  rose  from  their  graves,  although  they 
returned  to  the  dust  again  after  this  great 
token  of  Christ's  quickening  power  had 
been  given  to  many  (Matt.).  The  Jews, 
very  zealous  for  the  Sabbath  in  the  midst 
of  their  murderous  work,  begged  Pilate 
that  he  would  put  an  end  to  the  punishment 
by  breaking  the  legs  of  the  criminals  th.at 
they  might  be  taken  down  and  buried  be- 
fore the  Sabbath,  for  which  they  were  pre- 
paring (Dent.  xxi.  23 ;  Joseph.  B.  J.  iv.  5, 
§  2).  Those  who  were  to  execute  this  duty 
found  that  Jesus  was  dead  and  the  thieves 
still  living.  The  death  of  the  Lord  before 
the  others  was,  no  doubt,  partly  the  con- 
sequence of  the  previous  mental  suffering 
which  He  had  undergone,  and  partly  be- 
cause His  will  to  die  lessened  tlie  natural 
resistance  of  the  frame  to  dissolution. 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,  a  member  of  the 
Council  but  a  secret  disciple  of  Jesus,  came 
to  Pilate  to  beg  the  body  of  Jesus,  that  he 
might  bury  it.  Nicodemus  assisted  in  this 
work  of  love,  and  they  anointed  the  body 
and  laid  it  in  Joseph's  new  tomb  (Matt. 
xxvii.  50-61 ;  Mark  xv.  37-47 ;  Luke  xxiii. 
46-56;  John  xix.  ZO-^2).— Saturday  the 
16th  of  Nisan  {April  8th).  The  chief 
priests  and  Pharisees,  with  Pilate's  permis- 
sion, set  a  watch  over  the  tomb,  "  lest  His 
disciples  come  by  night  and  steal  Him  away, 
and  say  unto  the  people.  He  is  risen  from 
the  dead."  (Matt,  xxvii.  62-66).  —  Sunday 
the  nth  of  Nisan  {April  dth).  The  Sab- 
bath ended  at  six  on  the  evening  of  Nisan 
16th.  Early  the  next  morning  the  resur- 
rection of  Jesus  took  place.  The  exact 
hour  of  the  resurrection  is  not  mentioned 
by  any  of  the  Evangelists..  Of  the  great 
mvstery  itself,  the  resumption  of  life  by 
Him  who  was  truly  dead,  we  see  but  little. 
The  women,  who  had  stood  by  the  cross  of 
Jesus,  had  prepared  spices  on  the  evening 
before,  perhaps  to  complete  the  embalming 
of  our  Lord's  body,  already  performed  in 
haste  by  Joseph  and  Nicodemus.  They 
came  very  early  on  the  first  day  of  the 


JETHER 


301 


JEW 


week  to  the  Sepulchre.  When  they  arrive 
they  find  the  stone  rolled  away,  and  Jesus 
no  longer  in  the  Sepulchre.  He  had  risen 
from  the  dead.  Mary  Magdalene  at  this 
point  goes  back  in  haste;  and  at  once, 
believing  that  the  body  has  been  removed 
by  men,  tells  Peter  and  John  that  the  Lord 
has  been  taken  away.  The  otiier  women, 
liowever,  go  into  the  Sepulchre,  and  they 
see  an  angel  (Matt.  Mark).  The  two 
angels,  mentioned  by  St.  Luke,  are  prob- 
ably two  separate  appearances  to  different 
members  of  the  group ;  for  he  alone  men- 
tions an  indefinite  number  of  women.  They 
now  leave  the  Sepulchre,  and  go  in  haste  to 
make  known  the  news  to  the  Apostles.  As 
they  were  going,  "Jesus  met  them,  saying, 
All  hail."  The  eleven  do  not  believe  the 
account  when  they  receive  it.  In  the  mean 
time  Peter  and  John  came  to  the  Sepulchre. 
They  ran,  in  their  eagerness,  and  John  ar- 
rived first  and  looked  in ;  Peter  afterwards 
came  up,  and  it  is  characteristic  that  the 
awe  which  had  prevented  the  other  disciple 
from  going  in  appears  to  have  been  unfelt  by 
Peter,  who  entered  at  once,  and  found  the 
grave-clothes  lying,  but  not  Him  who  had 
worn  them.  This  fact  must  have  suggested 
that  the  removal  was  not  the  work  of  human 
hands.  They  then  returned,  wondering  at 
what  they  had  seen.  Mary  Magdalene, 
however,  remained  weeping  at  the  tomb, 
and  she  too  saw  the  two  angels  in  the  tomb, 
thougli  Peter  and  John  did  not.  They  ad- 
dress her,  and  she  answers,  still,  however, 
without  any  suspicion  that  the  Lord  is 
t-isen.  As  she  turns  away  she  sees  Jesus, 
but  in  the  tumult  of  her  feelings  does  not 
even  recognize  Him  at  His  first  address. 
But  He  calls  her  by  name,  and  then  she 
joyfully  recognizes  her  Master.  The  third 
appearance  of  our  Lord  was  to  Peter  (Luke, 
Paul)  ;  the  fourth  to  the  two  disciples  going 
to  Emmaus  in  the  evening  (Mark,  Luke)  ; 
the  fifth  in  the  same  evening  to  the  eleven 
as  they  sat  at  meat  (Mark,  Luke,  John). 
All  of  these  occurred  on  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  the  very  day  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion. Exactly  a  week  after.  He  appeared 
to  the  Apostles,  and  gave  Thomas  a  con- 
vincing proof  of  His  resurrection  (John)  ; 
this  was  the  sixth  appearance.  The  seventh 
was  in  Galilee,  where  seven  of  the  Apostles 
were  assembled,  some  of  them  probably 
about  to  return  to  their  old  trade  of  fishing 
(Jo!m).  The  eighth  was  to  the  eleven 
(Matt.),  and  probably  to  five  hundred 
brethren  assembled  with  them  (Paul)  on 
a  mountain  in  Galilee.  The  ninth  was  to  | 
James  (Paul) ;  and  the  last  to  the  Apos- 
tles at  Jerusalem  just  before  the  Ascension 
(Acts). 

Je'ther.  1.  Jethro,  the  father-in-law 
of  Moses  (Ex.  iv.  18).  2.  The  first-born 
of  Gideon's  seventy  sons  (Judg.  viii.  20). 
3.  The  father  of  Amasa,  captain-general 


of  Absalom's  army.  Jether  is  merely  an- 
other form  of  Iihra  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25),  the 
latter  being  probably  a  corruption.  He  is 
described  in  1  Chr.  ii.  17  as  an  Ishmaelite, 
which  again  is  more  likely  to  be  correct 
than  the  "Israelite"  of  the  Heb.  in  2  Sam. 
xvii.,  or  the  "  Jezreelite"  of  the  LXX.  and 
Vulg.  in  the  same  passage.  4.  The  son 
of  Jada,  a  descendant  of  Hezron,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  32).  5.  The  son 
of  Ezra,  whose  name  occurs  in  a  dislocated 
passage  in  the  genealogy  of  Judah  (1  Chr. 
iv.  17).  6.  The  chief  of  a  family  of  war- 
riors of  the  line  of  Asher,  and  father  of 
Jephunneh  (1  Chr.  vii.  38).  He  is  probably 
the  same  as  Ithran  in  the  preceding  verse. 

Je'theth,  one  of  the  phylarchs  (A.  V. 
"  dukes  ")  who  came  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
40 ;  1  Chr.  i.  51).  This  record  of  the  Edom- 
ite  phylarchs  may  point  specially  to  the 
places  and  habitations,  or  towns,  named 
after,  or  occupied  by,  them. 

Jetll'lah,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  tribe  of 
Dan  (Josh.  xix.  42), 

Je'thrO  was  priest  or  prince  of  Midian, 
both  offices  probably  being  combined  in  one 
person.  Moses  spent  the  forty  years  of  his 
exile  from  Egypt  with  him;  and  married  his 
daughter  Zipporah.  By  the  advice  of  Jeth- 
ro, Moses  appointed  deputies  to  judge  the 
congregation  and  share  the  burden  of  gov- 
ernment with  himself  (Ex.  xviii.).  On  ac- 
count of  his  local  knowledge  he  was  entreat- 
ed to  remain  with  the  Israelites  throughout 
their  journey  to  Canaan  (Num.  x.  31,  33). 
It  is  said  in  Ex.  ii.  18  that  the  priest  of 
Midian  whose  daughter  Moses  married  was 
Reuel;  afterwards  at  ch.  iii.  1  he  is  called 
Jethro,  as  also  in  ch.  xviii. ;  but  in  Num.  x. 
29  "Hobab  the  son  of  Eaguel  the  Midian- 
ite  "  is  apparently  called  Moses'  father-in- 
law  (comp.  Judg.  iv.  11).  Some  commen- 
tators take  Jethro  and  Kouel  to  be  identical, 
and  call  Hobab  the  brotlier-in-law  of  Moses. 

Je'tur,  Gen.  XXV.  15 ;  1  Chr.  i.  31,  v. 
19.     [Itcraea.] 

Je'uel,  a  chief  man  of  Judah,  one  of 
the  Bene-Zerah  (1  Chr.  ix.  6;  comp.  2). 
[Jeiel.] 

Je'ush.  1.  Son  of  Esau,  by  Aholiba- 
mah,  the  daughter  of  Anah,  the  son  of  Ze- 
beon  the  Hivite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  5,  14,  18 ;  1 
Chr.  i.  35).  2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Bil- 
han  (1  Chr.  vii.  10,  11).  3.  A  Gershonite 
Levite,  of  the  house  of  Sliimei  (1  Chr.  xxiii. 
10,  11).  4.  Son  of  Rehoboam  king  of  Ju- 
dah (2  Chr.  xi.  18,  19). 

Je'uz,  head  of  a  Benjamite  house,  in  an 
obscure  genealogy  (1  Chr.  viii.  10),  appar- 
ently son  of  Shaharaim  and  Hodesh  his 
third  wife,  and  born  in  Moab. 

Jew.  This  name  was  properly  applied 
to  a  member  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  after 
the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes.  The  term 
first  makes  its  appearance  just  before  the 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes   (2  K.  xvi.  6). 


JEWEL 


302 


JEZIEL 


After  the  Return  the  word  received  a  larger 
application.  Partly  from  the  predominance 
of  the  members  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah  among  those  who  returned  to  Palestine, 
partly  from'  the  identification  of  Judah  with 
the  religious  ideas  and  hopes  of  the  people, 
all  the  members  of  the  new  state  were  called 
Jews  (Judaeans),  and  the  name  was  ex- 
tended to  the  remnants  of  the  race  scattered 
throughout  the  nations  (Dan.  iii.  8, 12 ;  Ezr. 
iv.  12,  23,  &c. ;  Neh.  i.  2,  ii.  16,  v.  1,  &c. ; 
Esth.  iii.  4,  ff.,  &c.).  Under  the  name 
of  "  Judaeans,"  the  people  of  Israel  were 
known  to  classical  writers  (Tac.  H.  v.  2, 
&c.).  The  force  of  the  title  "  Jew  "  is  seen 
particularly  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  who 
very  rarely  uses  any  other  term  to  describe 
the  opponents  of  our  Lord.  The  name, 
indeed,  appeared  at  the  close  of  the  apos- 
tle's life  to  be  the  true  antithesis  to  Chris- 
tianity, as  describing  the  limited  and  defi- 
nite form  of  a  national  religion ;  but  at  an 
earlier  stage  of  the  progress  of  the  faith,  it 
was  contrasted  with  Greek  as  implying  an 
outward  covenant  with  God  (Rom.  i.  16,  ii. 
9,  10;  Col.  iii.  11,  &c.),  which  was  the 
correlative  of  ndlenist  [Hellenist],  and 
marked  a  division  of  language  subsisting 
within  the  entire  body,  and  at  the  same 
time  less  expressive  than  Israelite,  which 
brought  out  with  especial  clearness  the 
privileges  and  hopes  of  the  children  of  Ja- 
cob (2  Cor.  xi.  22 ;  John  i.  47 ;  1  Mace.  i. 
4<«,  53,  and  often). 

Jew'eL     [Pkecious  Stones.] 

Jew'ess,  a  woman  of  Hebrew  birth, 
without  distinction  of  tribe  (Acts  xvi.  1, 
xxiv.  24). 

Jew'ish,  of  or  belonging  to  Jews;  an 
epithet  applied  to  their  Rabbinical  legends 
(Tit.  i.  14). 

Jew'ry,  the  same  word  elsewhere  ren- 
dered Judah  and  Judaea.  It  occurs  sev- 
eral times  in  the  Apoc.  and  N.  T.,  but  once 
only  in  the  O.  T.  (Dan.  v.  13).  Jewry 
comes  to  us  through  the  Norman-French, 
and  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Old  Eng- 
lish. 

Jezani'all,  the  son  of  Hoshaiah,  the 
Maachathite,  and  one  of  the  captains  of  the 
forces  who  had  escaped  from  Jerusalem 
during  the  final  attack  of  the  beleaguering 
army  of  the  Chaldaeans.  When  the  Baby- 
lonians had  departed,  Jezaniah,  with  the 
men  under  his  command,  was  one  of  the 
first  who  returned  to  Gedaliah  at  Mizpah. 
In  the  events  which  followed  the  assassina- 
tion of  that  oflicer  Jezaniah  took  a  promi- 
nent part  (2  K.  xxv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  8,  xlii.  1, 
xliii.2). 

Jez'ebel,  wife  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel, 
and  mother  of  Athaliah,  queen  of  Judah, 
and  Ahaziah  and  Joram,  kings  of  Israel. 
She  was  a  Phoenician  princess,  daughter 
of  "Ethbaal  king  of  the  Zidonians."  In 
her  hands  her  husband  became  a  mere  pup- 


pet (1  K.  xxi.  25).  The  first  effect  of  her 
influence  was  the  immediate  establishment 
of  the  Phoenician  worship  on  a  grand  scale 
in  the  court  of  Ahab.  At  her  table  were 
supported  no  less  than  450  propliets  of 
Baal,  and  400  of  Astarte  (1  K.  xvi.  31,  32, 
xviii.  19).  The  prophets  of  Jehovah,  who 
up  to  this  time  had  found  their  chief  refuge 
in  the  northern  kingdom,  were  attacked  by 
her  orders  and  put  to  the  sword  (1  K.  xviii. 
13 ;  2  K.  ix.  7).  When  at  last  tlie  people, 
at  the  instigation  of  Elijah,  rose  against  her 
ministers,  and  slaughtered  them  at  the  foot 
of  Carmel,  and  when  Ahab  was  terrified 
into  submission,  she  alone  retained  her 
presence  of  mind.  The  next  instance  of 
her  power  is  still  more  characteristic  and 
complete.  When  she  found  her  husband 
cast  down  by  his  disappointment  at  being 
thwarted  by  Naboth,  she  took  the  matter 
into  her  own  hands,  with  a  spirit  which  re- 
minds us  of  Clytemnestra  or  Lady  Macbeth 
(IK.  xxi.  7).  She  wrote  a  warrant  in 
Ahab's  name,  and  sealed  it  with  his  seal. 
To  her,  and  not  to  Ahab,  was  sent  the  an- 
nouncement that  the  royal  wishes  were  ac- 
complished (1  K.  xxi.  14),  and  she  bade 
her  husband  go  and  take  the  vacant  prop- 
erty ;  and  on  her  accordingly  fell  the  proph- 
et's curse,  as  well  as  on  her  husband  (IK. 
xxi.  23).  We  hear  no  more  of  her  for  a 
long  period.  But  she  survived  Ahab  for  14 
years,  and  still,  as  queen-mother  (after  the 
Oriental  custom),  was  a  great  personage  in 
the  court  of  her  sons,  and,  as  such,  became 
the  special  mark  for  the  vengeance  of  Jehu. 
She  was  looking  out  from  the  window  of« 
the  palace,  which  stood  by  the  gate  of  the 
city,  as  Jehu  approached.  The  new  king 
looked  up  from  his  chariot.  Two  or  three 
eunuchs  of  the  royal  harem  showed  their 
faces  at  the  windows,  and  at  his  command 
dashed  the  ancient  princess  down  from  the 
chamber.  She  fell  immediately  in  front 
of  the  conqueror's  chariot.  The  merciless 
destroyer  passed  on ;  and  the  last  remains 
of  life  were  trampled  out  by  the  horses* 
hoofs.  The  body  was  left  in  that  open 
space  called  in  modern  Eastern  language 
"  the  mounds,"  where  offal  is  thrown  from 
the  city  walls.  The  dogs  of  Eastern  cities, 
which  prowl  around  these  localities,  and 
which  the  present  writer  met  on  this  very 
spot  by  the  modern  village  which  occupies 
the  site  of  Jezreel,  pounced  upon  this  un^ 
expected  prey. 

Jeze'Ius.  1.  The  same  as  Jahazibi, 
(1  Esd.  viii.  32).  2.  Jehiel,  the  father 
of  Obadiah  (1  Esd.  viii.  35). 

Je'zer,  the  third  son  of  Naphtali  (Gen. 
xlvi.  24 ;  Num.  xxvi.  49 ;  1  Chr.  vii.  13), 
and  father  of  the  family  of  the  Jezerites. 

Jezi'ah,  a  descendant  of  Parosh,  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  25). 

Je'ziel,  a  Benjamite  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  3). 


JEZLIAH 


303 


JOAB 


Jezli'ah,  a  Benjamite  of  the  sons  of 
Elpaal  (1  Chr.  viii.  18). 

Jez'oar,  the  son  of  Helah,  one  of  the 
wives  of  Asher  (1  Chr.  iv.  7). 

JezraM'ah,  a  Levite,  the  leader  of  the 
choristers  at  the  solemn  dedication  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
xii.  42). 

Jez'reel,  a  descendant  of  the  father  or 
founder  of  Et:im,  of  the  line  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  iv.  3).  But  as  the  verse  now  stands, 
we  must  supply  some  such  word  as  *'  fami- 
lies ; "  "  tliese  (are  the  families  of)  the  fa- 
ther of  Etam." 

Jez'reel.  1.  A  city  situated  in  the 
plain  of  the  same  name  between  Gilboa 
and  Little  Hermon,  now  generally  called 
Esdraelon.  [Esdkaelon.]  It  appears  in 
Josh.  xix.  18,  but  its  historical  importance 
dates  from  the  roicrn  of  Ahab,  who  chose  it 
for  his  chief  residence.  The  situation  of 
the  modern  village  of  Zerin  still  remains 
to  show  the  fitness  of  his  choice.  In  the 
neighborhood,  or  within  the  town  probably, 
were  a  temple  and  grove  of  Astarte,  with  an 
establishment  of  400  priests  supported  by 
Jezebel  (1  K.  xvi.  33;  2  K.  x.  11).  The 
palace  of  Ahab  (1  K.  xxi.  1,  xviii.  46), 
probably  containing  his  "ivory  house"  (1 
K.  xxii.  39),  was  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
city,  forming  part  of  the  city  wall  (comp.  1 
K.  xxi.  1 ;  2  K.  ix.  25,  30,  33).  The  se- 
raglio, in  which  Jezebel  lived,  was  on  the 
city  wall,  and  had  a  high  window  facing 
eastward  (2  K.  ix.  30).  Close  by,  if  not 
forming  part  of  this  seraglio,  was  a  watch- 
tower,  on  which  a  sentinel  stood,  to  give 
notice  of  arrivals  from  the  disturbed  district 
beyond  the  Jordan  (2  K.  ix.  17).  An  an- 
cient square  tower  which  stands  among  the 
hovels  of  the  modern  village  may  be  its 
representative.  The  gateway  of  the  city  on 
the  east  was  also  the  gateway  of  the  palace 
(2  K.  ix.  34).  Whether  the  vineyard  of 
Naboth  was  here  or  at  Samaria  is  a  doubt- 
ful question.  Still  in  the  same  eastern 
direction  are  two  springs,  one  12  minutes 
from  the  town,  the  other  20  minutes.  The 
latter  probably  both  from  its  size  and  situa- 
tion, was  known  as  "  the  Spring  of  Jez- 
reel"  (mistranslated  A.  V.  "  a  fountain," 
1  Sam.  xxix.  1).  With  the  fall  of  the  house 
of  Ahab  the  glory  of  Jezreel  departed.  2. 
A  town  in  Judah,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  southern  Carmel  (Josh.  xv.  56).  Here 
David  m  his  wanderings  took  Ahinoam  the 
Israelitess  for  his  first  wife  (1  Sam.  xxvii. 
3,  XXX.  5).  3.  The  eldest  son  of  the 
prophet  Hosea  (Hos.  i.  4). 

Jez'reelltess.  A  woman  of  Jezreel 
(1  Sam.  xxvii.  3,  xxx.  6 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  2,  iii. 
2;  1  Chr.  iii.  1). 

Jib'sam,  one  of  the  eons  of  Tola,  the 
Bon  of  Issachar  (1  Chr.  vii.  2). 

Jid'laph,  a  son  of  Nahor  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 

Jim'na,  the  firstborn  of  Asher  (Num. 


xxvi.  44).  He  is  elsewhere  called  in  the 
A.  V.  JiMNAH  (Gen,  xlvi.  17)  and  Imnah 
(1  Chr.  vii.  30). 

Jim'nah  =  Jimna  =  Imnah  (Gen.  xlvi. 
17). 

Jim'nites,  The,  descendants  of  the 
preceding  (Num.  xxvi.  44). 

Jiph'tah,  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah  in 
the  maritime  lowlajid,  or  Shefelah  (Josh. 
XV.  43).     It  has  not  yet  been  met  with. 

Jiph'thah-el,  The  Valley  of,  a  val- 
ley which  served  as  one  of  the  landmarks 
for  the  boundary  both  of  Zebulun  (Josh. 
xix.  14)  and  Asher  (27).  Dr.  Robinson 
suggests  that  Jiphthah-el  was  identical  with 
Jotapata,  and  that  they  survive  in  the  mod- 
em Jefat,  a  village  in  the  mountains  of 
Galilee,  half  way  between  the  Bay  of  Acre 
and  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth. 

Jo'ab,  the  most  remarkable  of  the  three 
nephews  of  David,  the  children  of  Zeruiah, 
David's  sister.  Their  father  is  unknown, 
but  seems  to  have  resided  at  Bethlehem, 
and  to  have  died  before  his  sons,  as  we  find 
mention  of  his  sepulchre  at  that  place  (2 
Sam.  ii.  32).  Joab  first  appears  after  Da- 
vid's accession  to  the  throne  at  Hebron. 
Abner  slew  in  battle  Asahel,  the  younger 
brother  of  Joab ;  and  when  David  after- 
wards received  Abner  into  favor,  Joab 
treacherously  murdered  him.  [Abner.] 
There  was  now  no  rival  left  in  the  way  of 
Joab's  advancement,  and  at  the  siege  of 
Jebus  he  was  appointed  for  his  prowess 
commander-in-chief —  "  captain  of  the 
host "  —  the  same  office  that  Abner  had  held 
under  Saul,  the  highest  in  the  state  after 
the  king  (1  Chr.  xi.  6 ;  2  Sam.  viii.  16).  In 
this  post  he  was  content,  and  served  the 
king  with  undeviating  fidelity.  In  the  wide 
range  of  wars  which  David  undertook,  Joab 
was  the  acting  general.  He  was  called  by 
the  almost  regal  title  of  "Lord"  (2  Sam. 
xi.  11),  "  the  prince  of  the  king's  army  " 
(1  Chr.  xxvii.  34.)  1.  His  great  war  was 
against  the  Ammonites,  which  he  conducted, 
in  person.  It  was  divided  into  three  cam- 
paigns. At  the  siege  of  Rabbah,  in  the  last 
campaign,  the  ark  was  sent  with  him,  and 
the  whole  army  was  encamped  in  booths  or 
huts  round  the  beleaguered  city  (2  Sara.  xi. 
1,  11).  Joab  took  the  lower  city  on  the 
river,  and  then  sent  to  urge  David  to 
come  and  take  the  citadel  (2  Sam.  xii.  26- 
28).  2.  The  services  of  Joab  to  the  king 
were  not  confined  to  these  military  achieve- 
ments. In  the  entangled  relations  which 
grew  up  in  David's  domestic  life,  he  bore 
an  important  part,  (a)  The  first  occasion 
was  the  unh<appy  correspondence  which 
passed  between  him  and  tlie  king  during 
the  Ammonite  war  respecting  Uriah  the 
Hittite  (2  Sam.  xi.  1-25.)  (&)  The  next 
occasion  on  wluch  it  was  disi)layed  was  in 
his  successful  endeavor  to  reinstate  Absa- 
lom in  David's  favor,  after  the  murder  of 


JOAH 


804 


JOASH 


Amnon  (2  Sam.  xiv.  1-20).  (c)  The  same 
keen  sense  of  his  master's  interests  ruled 
the  conduct  of  Joab  no  less,  when  the  rela- 
tions of  the  father  and  son  were  reversed 
by  the  successful  revolt  of  Absalom.  His 
former  intimacy  with  the  prince  did  not  im- 
pair his  fidelity  to  the  king.  He  followed 
biin  beyond  the  Jordan,  and  in  the  final 
battle  of  Ephraim  assupied  the  responsibil- 
ity of  taking  the  rebel  prince's  dangerous 
life  in  spite  of  David's  injunction  to  spare 
liim,  and  when  no  one  else  had  courage  to 
act  so  decisive  a  part  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2, 1 1- 
15).  The  king  transferred  the  command 
to  Aniasa.  (d)  Nothing  brings  out  more 
strongly  the  good  and  bad  qualities  of  Joab 
than  his  conduct  in  this  trying  crisis  of  his 
history.  With  his  own  guard  and  the 
mighty  men  under  Abishai  he  went  out  in 
pursuit  of  the  remnants  of  the  rebellion.  In 
the  heat  of  pursuit,  he  encountered  his  rival 
Araasa,  more  leisurely  engaged  in  the  same 
quest.  At  "  the  great  stone  "  in  Gibeon, 
the  cousins  met.  Joab's  sword  was  at- 
tached to  his  girdle ;  by  design  or  accident 
it  protruded  from  the  sheath ;  Amasa  rushed 
into  the  treacherous  embrace,  to  which  Joab 
invited  him,  holding  fast  his  beard  by  his 
own  right  hand,  whilst  the  unsheathed 
sword  in  his  left  hand  plunged  into  Amasa's 
stomach ;  a  single  blow  from  that  practised 
arm,  as  in  the  case  of  Abner,  suflGlced  to  do 
its  work.  3.  There  :s  something  mournful 
in  the  end  of  Joab.  At  the  close  of  his  long 
life,  liis  loyalty,  so  long  unshaken,  at  last 
wavered.  "  Though  he  had  not  turned 
after  Absalom  he  turned  after  Adonijah  " 
(1  K.  ii.  28).  This  probably  filled  up  the 
measure  of  the  king's  long-cherished  re- 
sentment. The  revival  of  tlie  pretensions 
of  Adonijah  after  David's  death  was  suffi- 
cient to  awaken  the  suspicions  of  Solomon. 
Joab  fled  to  the  shelter  of  the  altar  at  Gib- 
eon,  and  was  there  slain  by  Benaiah. 

Jo'ah.  1.  The  son  of  Asaph,  and 
^chronicler,  or  keeper  of  the  records,  to 
'Hezekiah  (Is.  xxxvi.  3,  11,  22).  2.  The 
son  or  grandson  ofZimmah,  aGershonite  (1 
Chr.  vi.  21).  3.  The  third  son  of  Obed- 
cdom  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  4),  a  Korhite,  and  one 
of  the  doorkeepers  appointed  by  David. 
4.  A  Gershonite,  the  son  of  Zimmah,  and 
father  of  Eden  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12).  5.  The 
son  of  Joahaz,  and  keeper  of  the  records, 
or  annalist  to  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxiv.  8). 

Jo'ahaz,  the  father  of  Joab,  the  chron- 
icler or  keeper  of  the  records  to  king  Josiah 
(2  Chr.  xxxiv.  8). 

Joan'na.  1.  Son  of  Rhesa,  according 
to  tlie  text  of  Luke  iii.  27,  and  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  Christ.  But  according  to  the 
view  explained  in  a  previous  article,  son  of 
Zerubbabcl,  and  the  same  as  Hananiah  in 
1  Chr.  iii.  19.  2.  The  name  of  a  woman, 
occurring  twice  in  Luke  (viii.  3,  xxiv.  10), 
but  evidently  denoting  the  same  person.  In 


the  first  passage  she  is  expressly  stated  to 
have  been  "  wife  of  Chuza,  steward  of 
Herod,"  that  is,  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galilee. 
Jo'asll,  contr.  from  Jkhoash.  1.  Son 
of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  the  only 
one  of  his  children  who  escaped  the  mur- 
derous hand  of  Athaliah.  After  his  father's 
sister  Jehoshabeath,  the  wife  of  Jehoiada 
the  high-priest,  had  stolen  him  from  among 
the  king's  sons,  he  was  hidden  for  six  years 
in  the  chambers  of  the  Temple.  In  the  7th 
year  of  his  age  and  of  his  concealment,  a 
successful  revolution,  conducted  by  Jehoi- 
ada, placed  him  on  the  throne  of  his  ances- 
tors, and  freed  the  country  from  the  tyr- 
anny and  idolatries  of  Athaliah.  For  at 
least  23  years,  while  Jehoiada  lived,  this 
reign  was  very  prosperous.  But,  after  the 
death  of  Jehoiada,  Joash  fell  into  the  hands 
of  bad  advisers,  at  whose  suggestion  he  re- 
vived the  worship  of  Baal  and  Ashtaroth. 
When  he  was  rebuked  for  this  by  Zecha- 
riah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  Joash  caused  him 
to  be  stoned  to  death  in  the  very  court  of 
the  Lord's  house  (Matt,  xxiii.  35).  The 
vengeance  imprecated  by  the  murdered  high- 
priest  was  not  long  delayed.  That  very 
year,  Ilazael  king  of  Syria  came  up  against 
Jerusalem,  and  carried  oflP  a  vast  booty  as 
the  price  of  his  departure.  Joash  had 
scarcely  escaped  this  danger,  when  he  fell 
into  another  and  fatal  one.  Two  of  his  ser- 
vants, taking  advantage  of  his  severe  illness, 
—  some  think  of  a  wound  received  in  bat- 
tle, —  conspired  against  him,  and  slew  him 
in  his  bed  in  the  fortress  of  Millo.  Joash's 
reign  lasted  40  years,  from  878  to  838  b.  c. 
2.  Son  and  successor  of  Jehoahaz  on  the 
throne  of  Israel  from  b.  c.  840  to  825,  and 
for  two  full  years  a  contemporary  sovereign 
with  the  preceding  (2  K.  xiv.  1,  comp.  with 
xii.  1,  xiii.  10).  When  he  succeeded  to 
the  crown,  the  kingdom  was  in  a  deplorable 
state  from  the  devastations  of  Hazael  and 
Benhadad,  kings  of  Syria.  On  occasion 
of  a  friendly  visit  paid  by  Joash  to  Elisha 
on  his  death-bed,  the  prophet  promised  him 
deliverance  from  the  Syrian  yoke  in  Aphek 
(1  K.  XX.  2G-30).  He  then  bade  him  smite 
upon  the  ground,  and  the  king  smote  thrice 
and  then  stayed.  The  prophet  rebuked 
him  for  staying,  and  limited  to  three  his 
victories  over  Syria.  Accordingly  Joash 
did  beat  Benhadad  three  times  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  recovered  from  him  the  cities 
which  Hazael  had  taken  from  Jehoahaz. 
The  other  great  military  event  of  Joasli's 
reign  was  his  successful  war  with  Amaziah 
king  of  Judah.  The  grounds  of  this  war  are 
given  fully  in  2  Chr.  xxv.  The  iwo  armies 
met  at  Beth-shemesh ;  that  of  Joash  was 
victorious,  put  the  army  of  Amaziah  to  the 
rout,  took  him  prisoner,  brought  him  to 
Jerusalem,  broke  down  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  plundered  the  city.  He  died  in 
the  15th  year  of  Amaziah  king  of  Judah, 


JOATHAM 


305 


JOB 


anrl  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Joroboam  IT 
3.  The  father  of  Gideon,  and  a  wealthy 
man  among  the  Abiezrites  (Judg.  vi.  11, 
20,  30,  31,  vii.  14,  viii.  13,  29,  32).  4 
Apparently  a  younger  son  of  Ahab,  who 
held  a  subordinate  jurisdiction  in  the  life- 
time of  his  father,  or  was  appointed  viceroy 
(2  Chr.  xviii.  25)  during  his  absence  in  the 
attack  on  llamoth-Gilead  (1  K.  xxii.  26 ;  2 
Chr.  xviii.  25).  Or  he  may  have  been 
merely  a  prince  of  the  blood-royal.  5.  A 
descendant  of  Shelahthe  son  of  Judah,  but 
whether  his  son  or  the  son  of  Jokim,  is  not 
clear  (1  Chr.  iv.  22).  6.  ABenjamite,  son 
of  Sheraaah  of  Gibeah  (1  Chr.  xii.  3),  who 
resorted  to  David  at  Ziklag.  7.  One  of 
the  officers  of  David's  household  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  28).  8.  Son  of  Becher,  and  head 
of  a  Benjamite  house  (1  Chr.  vii.  8). 

Jo'atham  =  JoTHAM  the  son  of  Uzziah 
(Matt.  i.  9). 

Job,  the  third  son  of  Issachar  (Gen. 
xlvi.  13),  called  in  another  genealogy 
Jashub  (1  Chr.  vii.  1). 

Job,  the  patriarch,  the  name  of  one  of 
the  books  of  the  O.  T.  His  residence  in 
the  land  of  Uz,  which  took  its  name  from  a 
son  of  Aram  (Gen.  x.  23),  or  Nahor  (Gen. 
xxii.  21),  marks  him  as  belonging  to  a 
branch  of  the  Aramaean  race,  which  had 
settled  in  tiie  lower  part  of  Mesopotamia 
(probably  to  the  south  or  south-east  of  Pal- 
estine, in  Idumaean  Arabia),  adjacent  to 
the  Sabaeans  and  Chaldaoans.  The  opin- 
ions of  Job  and  his  friends  are  thus  pecu- 
liarly interesting  as  exhibiting  an  aspect  of 
the  patriarchal  religion  outside  of  the  family 
of  Abraham,  and  as  yet  uninfluenced  by 
the  legislation  of  Moses.  The  form  of 
worship  belongs  essentially  to  the  early 
patriarchal  type ;  with  little  of  ceremonial 
ritual,  without  a  separate  priesthood,  it  is 
thoroughly  domestic  in  form  and  spirit. 
Job  is  represented  as  a  chieftain  of  im- 
mense wealth  and  high  rank,  blameless  in 
all  the  relations  of  life.  1.  One  question 
could  be  raised  by  envy;  may  not  the  good- 
ness which  secures  such  direct  and  tangi- 
ble rewards  be  a  refined  form  of  selfish- 
ness? Satan,  the  accusing  angel,  suggests 
the  doubt,  "  Doth  Job  fear  God  for  nought  ?  " 
and  asserts  boldly  that  if  those  external 
blessings  were  withdrawn,  Job  would  cast 
off  his  allegiance  —  "he  will  curse  thee  to 
thy  face."  The  problem  is  thus  distinctly 
propounded  which  this  book  is  intended 
to  discuss  and  solve.  Can  goodness  exist 
irrespective  of  reward?  The  accuser 
receives  permission  to  make  the  trial.  He 
destroys  Job's  property,  then  his  children ; 
and  afterwards,  to  leave  no  possible  open- 
ing for  a  cavil,  is  allowed  to  inflict  upon 
liim  the  most  terrible  disease  known  in  the 
East.  Job's  wife  breaks  down  entirely 
under  the  trial.  Job  remains  steadfast. 
He  repels  his  wife's  suggestion  with  the 
20 


simple  words,  "What!  shall  we  receive 
good  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  and  shall  we 
not  receive  evil?"  "In  all  this  Job  did 
not  sin  with  his  lips."  The  question  raised 
by  Satan  was  thus  answered.  2.  Still  it  is 
clear  that  many  points  of  deep  interest 
would  have  been  left  in  obscurity.  Entire 
as  was  the  submission  of  Job,  he  must  have 
been  inwardly  perplexed  by  events  to  which 
he  had  no  clew.  An  opportunity  for  the 
discussion  of  the  providential  government 
of  the  world  is  aflTorded  by  the  introduction 
of  three  men,  representing  the  wisdom  and 
experience  of  the  age,  who  came  to  condole 
with  Job  on  bearing  of  his  misfortunes. 
The  meeting  is  described  with  singular 
beauty.  At  a  distance  they  greet  him  with 
the  wild  demonstrations  of  sympathizing 
grief  usual  in  the  East ;  coming  near  they 
are  overpowered  by  the  sight  of  his  wretch- 
edness, and  sit  seven  days  and  seven  nights 
without  uttering  a  word.  This  awful  si- 
lence drew  out  all  his  anguish.  In  an  ago- 
ny of  desperation  he  curses  the  day  of  his 
birth.  "With  the  answer  to  this  outburst 
begins  a  series  of  discussions,  continued 
probably  with  some  intervals,  during  sever- 
al successive  days.  The  results  of  the^r.';^ 
discussion  (from  ch.  iii.-xiv.)  may  be  thus 
summed  up.  We  have  on  the  part  of  Job's 
friends  a  theory  of  the  divine  government 
resting  upon  an  exact  and  uniform  correla- 
tion between  sin  and  punishment  (iv.  6,  11, 
and  throughout).  Afflictions  are  always  pe- 
nal, issuing  in  the  destruction  of  those  who 
are  radically  opposed  to  God,  or  who  do  not 
submit  to  His  chastisements.  They  lead  of 
course  to  correction  and  amendment  of  life 
when  the  sufferer  repents  and  turns  to  Gou. 
Still  the  fact  of  the  suffering  always  proves 
the  commission  of  some  special  sin.  These 
principles  are  applied  by  them  to  the  case  of 
Job.  In  order  to  do  justice  to  the  position 
and  arguments  of  Job,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  the  direct  object  of  the  trial  waa 
to  ascertain  whether  he  would  deny  or  for- 
sake God,  and  that  his  real  integrity  is  as- 
serted by  God  Himself.  He  denies  the 
assertion  that  punishment  follows  surely  on 
guilt,  or  proves  its  commission.  Still  he 
doubts  not  that  God  is  just.  There  remains 
then  but  one  course  open  to  him,  and  that 
he  tiikes.  He  turns  to  supplication,  im- 
plores God  to  give  him  a  fair  and  open  trial 
(xiii.  18-28).  Believing  that  with  death  all 
hope  connected  with  this  world  ceases,  he 
prays  that  he  may  be  hidden  in  the  grave 
(xiv.  13),  and  tiiere  reserved  for  the  day 
when  God  will  try  his  cause  and  manifest 
himself  in  love  (ver.  15).  In  the  second 
discussion  (xv.-xxi.)  there  is  a  more  reso- 
lute, elaborate  attempt  on  the  part  of  Job's 
friends  to  vindicate  their  theory  of  retribu- 
tive justice.  Eliphaz  (xv.),  who,  as  usual, 
lays  down  the  basis  of  the  argument,  does 
not  now  hesitate  to  impute  to  Job  the  worst 


JOB 


306 


JOB 


crimes  of  which  man  could  be  guilty.  Bil- 
dad  (xviii.)  takes  up  this  suggestion  of  un- 
godliness, and  concludes  that  the  special 
evils  which  had  come  upon  Job  are  pecu- 
liarly the  penalties  due  to  one  who  is  with- 
out God.  Zophar  not  only  accounts  for 
Job's  present  calamities,  but  menaces  him 
with  still  gi-eater  evils  (xx.).  In  answer, 
Job  recognizes  the  hand  of  God  in  his  af- 
flictions (xvi.  7-lG,  and  xix.  6-20),  but  re- 
jects the  charge  of  ungodliness ;  he  has 
never  forsaken  his  Maker,  and  never  ceased 
to  pray.  He  argues  that  since  in  this  life 
the  righteous  certainly  are  not  saved  from 
evil,  it  follows  that  their  ways  are  watched 
and  their  sufferings  recorded,  with  a  view 
to  a  future  and  perfect  manifestation  of  the 
divine  justice.  On  the  other  hand,  stung 
by  the  harsh  and  narrow-minded  bigotry  of 
his  opponents.  Job  draws  out  (xxi.)  with 
terrible  force  the  undeniable  fact,  that  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  their  lives,  un- 
godly men,  avowed  atheists  (vers.  14,  15), 
persons,  in  fact,  guilty  of  the  very  crimes 
imputed,  out  of  mere  conjecture,  to  him- 
self, frequently  enjoy  great  and  unbroken 
prosperity.  In  the  third  dialogue  (xxii.- 
xxxi.)  no  real  progress  is  made  by  Job's 
opponents.  Eliphaz  (xxii.)  makes  a  last 
effort.  The  station  in  which  Job  was  for- 
merly placed  presented  temptations  to  cer- 
tain crimes  ;  the  punishments  which  he  un- 
dergoes are  precisely  such  as  might  be 
expected  had  those  crimes  been  committed ; 
hence  he  infers  they  actually  were  commit- 
ted. In  his  two  last  discourses  Job  does 
not  alter  his  position,  nor  adduce  any  new 
argument,  but  he  states  with  incomparable 
force  and  eloquence  the  chief  points  which 
he  regards  as  established  (xxvi.).  Then 
follows  (xxviii.)  the  grand  description  of 
Wisdom.  The  remainder  of  this  discourse 
(xxix.-xxxi.)  contains  a  singularly  beauti- 
ful description  of  his  former  life,  contrasted 
with  his  actual  misery,  together  with  a  full 
vindication  of  his  character  from  all  the 
charges  made  or  insinuated  by  his  opponents. 
After  this  long  discussion  between  Job  and 
his  three  friends,  Elihu,  a  young  man,  who 
had  listened  in  indignant  silence  to  the  ar- 
guments of  his  elders  (xxxii.  7),  now  ad- 
dresses himself  (xxxii.-xxxvii.)  to  both 
parties  in  the  discussion,  and  specially  to 
Job.  He  shows  that  they  had  accused  Job 
upon  false  or  insufficient  grounds,  and  failed 
to  convict  him  or  to  vindicate  God's  justice. 
Job  again  had  assumed  his  entire  inno- 
cence, and  had  arraigned  that  justice. 
Jehovah  at  length  appears  in  the  midst  of 
a  storm,  and  in  language  of  incomparable 
grandeur  He  reproves  and  silences  the  mur- 
murs of  Job.  He  rebukes  the  opponents 
of  Job,  and  vindicates  the  integrity  of  the 
pati  iarch.  The  restoration  of  Job's  exter- 
nal prosperity,  which  is  the  result  of  God's 
personal  manifestation,  symbolizes  the  ulti- 


mate compensation  of  the  righteous  for  all 
sufferings  undergone  upon  earth.  The 
great  object  of  the  book  must  surely  be 
that  which  is  distinctly  intimated  in  the  in- 
troduction, and  confirmed  in  the  conclusion, 
to  show  the  effects  of  calamity  in  its  worst 
and  most  awful  form  upon  a  truly  religious 
spirit.  Integrity  of  the  hook.  —  Four  parts 
of  the  book  have  been  most  generally  at- 
tacked. Objections  have  been  made  to  the 
introductory  and  concluding  chapters:  1. 
On  account  of  the  style.  Of  course  there 
is  an  obvious  and  natural  difference  be- 
tween the  prose  of  the  narrative  and  the 
highly  poetical  language  of  the  colloquy. 
Yet  the  best  critics  now  acknowledge  that 
the  style  of  these  portions  is  quite  as  an- 
tique in  its  simple  and  severe  grandeur,  as 
that  of  the  Pentateuch  itself.  It  is  said  again 
that  the  doctrinal  views  are  not  in  harmony 
with  those  of  Job.  This  is  wholly  un- 
founded. The  form  of  worship  belongs 
essentially  to  the  early  patriarchal  type. 
2.  Strong  objections  are  made  to  the  pas- 
sage xxvii.  from  ver.  7  to  the  end  of  the 
chapter.  Here  Job  describes  the  ultimate 
fate  of  the  godless  hypocrite  in  terms  which 
some  critics  hold  to  be  in  direct  contradic- 
tion to  the  whole  tenor  of  his  arguments  in 
other  discourses.  The  fact  of  the  contra- 
diction is  denied  by  able  writers,  who  have 
shown  that  it  rests  upon  a  misapprehension 
of  the  patriarch's  character  and  fundamen- 
tal principles.  The  whole  chapter  is  tlior- 
oughly  coherent :  the  first  part  is  admitted 
by  all  to  belong  to  Job ;  nor  can  the  rest  be 
disjoined  from  it  without  injury  to  the  sense. 
As  for  the  style,  M.  Renan,  a  most  compe- 
tent authority  in  a  matter  of  taste,  declares 
that  it  is  one  of  the  finest  developments  in 
the  poem.  3.  The  last  two  chapters  of  the 
address  of  the  Almighty  have  been  rejected 
as  interpolations  by  many  writers,  partly 
because  of  an  alleged  inferiority  of  style, 
partly  as  not  having  any  bearing  upon  the 
argument.  4.  The  speech  of  Elihu  pre- 
sents greater  difficulties,  and  has  been  re- 
jected by  several,  whose  opinion,  however, 
is  controverted  not  only  by  orthodox  writers, 
but  by  some  of  the  most  sceptical  commen- 
tators. The  former  support  their  decision 
chiefly  on  the  manifest,  and  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent the  real,  difference  between  this  and 
other  parts  of  the  book  in  tone  of  thought, 
in  doctrinal  views,  and  more  positively  in 
language  and  general  style.  Much  stress 
also  is  laid  upon  the  facts  that  Elihu  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  introduction  nor  at  the 
end,  and  that  his  speech  is  unanswered  by 
Job,  and  unnoticed  in  the  final  address  of 
the  Almighty.  A  candid  and  searching 
examination,  however,  leads  to  a  different 
conclusion.  It  is  proved  that  there  is  a 
close  internal  connection  between  this  and 
other  parts  of  the  book;  there  are  refer- 
ences to    numerous   passages  in   the  dis- 


JOB 


307 


JOB 


courses  of  Job  and  his  friends,  so  covert 
as  only  to  be  discovered  by  close  inquiry, 
yet,  when  pointed  out,  so  striking  and  nat- 
ural as  to  leave  no  room  for  doubt.  Elihu 
supplies  exactly  what  Job  repeatedly  de- 
mands —  a  confutation  of  his  opinions  by 
rational  and  human  arguments.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  omission 
of  Elihu's  name  in  the  introduction.  No 
persons  are  named  in  the  book  until  they 
appear  as  agents,  or  as  otherwise  concerned 
in  tlie  events.  Again,  the  discourse,  being 
substantially  true,  did  not  need  correction, 
and  is  therefore  left  unnoticed  in  the  final 
decision  of  the  Almighty.  More  weight  is 
to  be  attached  to  the  objection  resting  upon 
diversity  of  style  and  dialectic  peculiari- 
ties. It  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  sup- 
position that  the  Chaldaic  forms  and  idioms 
are  such  as  peculiarly  suit  the  style  of  the 
young  and  fiery  speaker.  Historical  char- 
acter of  the  work.  —  Three  distinct  theories 
have  been  maintained  at  various  times ; 
some  believing  the  book  to  be  strictly  his- 
torical ;  others  a  religious  fiction ;  others  a 
composition  based  upon  facts.  By  some 
the  authorship  of  the  work  was  attributed 
to  Moses.  The  fact  of  Job's  existence,  and 
the  substantial  truth  of  the  narrative,  were 
not  likely  to  be  denied  by  Hebrews  or 
Christians,  considering  the  terms  in  which 
the  patriarch  is  named  in  the  14th  of  Eze- 
kiel  and  in  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  (v.  11). 
Luther  first  suggested  the  theory,  which, 
in  some  form  or  other,  is  now  most  gener- 
ally received.  He  says,  "  I  look  upon  the 
book  of  Job  as  a  true  history,  yet  I  do  not 
believe  that  all  took  place  just  as  it  is  writ- 
ten, but  that  an  ingenious,  pious,  and  learned 
man  brought  it  into  its  present  form."  The 
probable  age,  country,  and  position  of  the 
author.  —  The  date  of  the  book  is  doubt- 
ful, and  there  have  been  many  theories 
upon  the  subject.  The  language  approaches 
far  more  nearly  to  the  Arabic  than  any 
other  Hebrew  production.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  undoubtedly  many  Aramaic 
words,  and  grammatical  forms,  which  some 
critics  have  regarded  as  a  strong  proof  that 
the  writer  must  have  lived  during,  or  even 
after,  the  captivity.  This  hypothesis  is  now 
universally  given  up  as  untenable ;  and  it 
has  been  proved  that  these  Aramaisms  are 
such  as  characterize  the  antique  and  highly 
poetic  style.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  set- 
tled point  that  the  book  was  written  long 
before  the  exile ;  while  there  is  absolutely 
nothing  to  prove  a  later  date  than  the  Pen- 
tateuch. This  impression  is  borne  out  by 
the  style.  All  critics  have  recognized  its 
grand  archaic  character.  Job  is  far  more 
remarkable  for  obscurity  than  any  Hebrew 
writing.  Ewald,  whose  judgment  in  this 
case  will  not  be  questioned,  asserts  very 
positively  that  in  all  the  descriptions  of 
manners    and    customs,   domestic,   social, 


and  political,  and  even  in  the  indirect  allu- 
sions and  illustrations,  the  genuine  coloring 
of  the  age  of  Job,  that  is,  of  the  period  be- 
tween Abraham  and  Moses,  is  very  faith- 
fully observed ;  that  all  historical  examples 
and  allusions  are  taken  exclusively  from 
patriarchal  times,  and  that  there  is  a  com- 
plete and  successful  avoidance  of  direct 
reference  to  later  occurrences,  which  in  his 
opinion  may  have  been  known  to  the  wri- 
ter. All  critics  concur  in  extolling  the 
fresh,  antique  simplicity  of  manners  de- 
scribed in  this  book,  the  genuine  air  of  the 
wild,  free,  vigorous  life  of  the  desert,  the 
stamp  of  hoar  antiquity,  and  the  thorough 
consistency  in  the  development  of  charac- 
ters, equally  remarkable  for  originality 
and  force.  These  considerations  lead  of 
course  to  the  conclusion  that  the  book  must 
have  been  written  before  the  promulgation 
of  the  Law,  by  one  speaking  the  Hebrew 
language,  and  thoroughly  conversant  j^ith 
the  traditions  preserved  in  the  family  of 
Abraham.  One  hypothesis  which  has  been 
lately  brought  forward,  and  supported  by 
very  ingenious  arguments,  deserves  a  more 
special  notice.  That  supposition  is,  that 
Job  may  have  been  written  after  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Israelites  by  a  dweller  in  the 
south  of  Judaea,  in  a  district  immediately 
bordering  upon  the  Iduraean  desert.  The 
local  coloring,  so  strikingly  characteristic 
of  this  book,  and  so  evidently  natural,  is 
just  what  might  be  expected  from  such  a 
writer.  The  people  appear  also  to  have 
been  noted  for  freshness  and  originality  of 
mind ;  qualities  seen  in  the  woman  of  Te- 
koah,  or  still  more  remarkably  in  Amos, 
the  poor  and  unlearned  herdman,  also  of 
Tekoah.  Some  weight  may  also  be  attached 
to  the  observation  that  the  dialectic  peculi- 
arities of  Southern  Palestine,  especially  the 
softening  of  the  aspirates  and  exchanges  of 
the  sibilants,  resemble  the  few  divergencies 
from  pure  Hebrew  which  are  noted  in  the 
book  of  Job.  The  controversy  about  the 
authorship  cannot  ever  be  finally  settled. 
From  the  introduction  it  may  certainly  be 
inferred  that  the  writer  lived  many  years 
after  the  death  of  Job.  Erom  the  strong- 
est internal  evidence  it  is  also  clear  that  he 
must  either  have  composed  the  work  be- 
fore the  Law  was  promulgated,  or  under 
most  peculiar  circumstances  which  exempt- 
ed him  from  its  influence.  The  total  ab- 
sence of  any  allusion,  iiot  only  to  the  Mo- 
saic Law,  but  to  the  events  of  the  Exodus, 
the  fame  of  which  must  have  reached  the 
country  of  Job,  on  any  hypothesis  respect- 
ing its  locality,  is  a  strong  argument  for 
the  early  age  of  the  patriarch  and  the  book. 
Jo'bab.  1.  The  last  in  order  of  the 
sons  of  Joktan  (Gen.  x.  29 ;  1  Chr.  i.  23). 
2.  One  of  the  "kings"  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  33,  34;  1  Chr.  i.  44,  45).  3.  King 
of  Madon  ;  one  of  the  northern  chieftaina 


JOCIIEBED 


308 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE 


who  attempted  to  oppose  Joshua's  con- 
quest, and  were  routed  by  hhn  at  Meron 
(Josh.  xi.  1,  only).  4.  Head  of  a  Benja- 
mite  house  (1  Chr.  viii.  10). 

Joch'ebed,  the  wife  and  at  the  same 
time  the  aunt  of  Amram,  and  the  mother 
of  Moses  and  Aaron  (Ex.  ii.  1,  vi.  20; 
Num.  xxvi.  59). 

Jo'ed,  a  Benjamite,  the  son  of  Pedaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7). 

Jo'el.  1.  Eldest  son  of  Samuel  the 
prophet  (1  Sam.  viii.  2;  1  Chr.  vi.  33,  xv. 
17),  and  father  of  Heman  the  singer.  2. 
In  1  Chr.  vi.  36,  A.  V.,  Joel  seems  to  be 
merely  a  corruption  of  Shaul  in  ver.  24. 
3.  The  second  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets, 
the  son  of  Pethuel,  probably  prophesied  in 
Judah  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah.  We  find, 
what  we  should  expect  on  the  supposition 
of  Joel  being  the  first  prophet  to  Judah, 
only  a  grand  outline  of  the  whole  terrible 
scene,  which  was  to  be  depicted  more  and 
more  in  detail  by  subsequent  prophets. 
The  proximate  event  to  which  tlie  prophe- 
cy related  was  a  public  calamity,  then  im- 
pending on  Judah,  of  a  twofold  charac- 
ter :  want  of  water,  and  a  plague  of  lo- 
custs, continuing  for  several  years.  The 
prophet  exhorts  the  people  to  turn  to  God 
with  penitence,  fasting,  and  prayer;  and 
then  (he  says)  the  plague  shall  cease,  and 
the  rain  descend  in  its  season,  and  the  land 
yield  her  accustomed  fruit.  Nay,  the  time 
will  be  a  most  joyful  one ;  for  God,  by  the 
outpouring  of  His  Spirit,  will  extend  the 
blessings  of  true  religion  to  heathen  lands. 
The  prophecy  is  referred  to  in  Acts  ii.  4. 
A  Simeonite  chief  (1  Chr.  iv.  35).  5.  A 
descendant  of  Reuben.  Junius  and  Tre- 
mellius  make  him  the  son  of  Hanoch,  while 
others  trace  his  descent  through  Carmi  (1 
Chr.  V.  4).  6.  Chief  of  the  Gadites,  who 
dwelt  in  the  land  of  Bashan  (1  Chr.  v.  12). 
7.  The  son  of  Izrahiah,  of  the  tribe  of  Is- 
sachar  (1  Chr.  vii.  3).  8.  The  brother  of 
Nathan  of  Zobah  (1  Chr.  xi.  38),  and  one 
of  David's  guard.  0.  The  chief  of  the 
Gershomites  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr. 
XV.  7,  11).  10.  A  Gershonite  Levite  in  the 
reign  of  David,  son  of  Johiel,  a  descendant 
of  Laadan,  and  probably  the  same  as  the 
preceding  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  8,  xxvi.  22).  11. 
The  son  of  Pedaiah,  and  a  chief  of  the 
half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  west  of  Jordan,  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  20).  12. 
A  Kohathite  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Hezeki- 
ah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12).  13.  One  of  the  sons 
of  Nebo,  who  returned  with  Ezra,  and  had 
married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  43).  14. 
The  son  of  Zichri,  a  Benjamite  (Neh.  xi. 
9). 

Joe'lah.,  son  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor  (1 
Chr.  xii.  7). 

Joe'zer,  a  Korhite,  one  of  David's  cap- 
tains (1  Chr.  xii.  6). 

Jog'behah,  one  of  the  cities  on  tbe 


east  of  Jordan  which  were  built  and  forti* 
fied  by  the  tribe  of  Gad  when  they  took 
possession  of  their  territory  (Num.  xxxii. 
35). 

Jogli,  the  father  of  Bukki,  a  Danite 
chief  (Num.  xxxiv.  22). 

Jo'ha.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Beriah, 
the  Benjamite  (1  Chr.  viii.  16).  2.  The 
Tizite,  one  of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi. 
45). 

Joha'nan.  1.  Son  of  Azariah,  and 
grandson  of  Ahimaaz  the  son  of  Zadok, 
and  father  of  Azariah,  3  (1  Chr.  vi.  9,  10, 
A.  v.).  We  may  conclude  without  much 
doubt  that  Johanan's  pontificate  foil  in  the 
reign  of  Rehoboam.  2.  Son  of  Elioenai, 
the  son  of  Neariah,  the  son  of  Shemaiah,.in 
the  line  of  Zerubbabel's  heirs  (1  Chr.  iii. 
24).  3.  The  son  of  Kareah,  and  one  of 
the  captains  of  the  scattered  remnants  of 
the  army  of  Judah,  who  escaped  in  the 
final  attack  upon  Jerusalem  by  the  Chal- 
deans. After  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  Jo- 
hanan  was  one  of  the  foremost  in  the  pur- 
suit of  his  assassin,  and  rescued  the  cap- 
tives he  had  carried  off  from  Mizpah  (Jer. 
xii.  11-16).  Fearing  the  vengeance  of  the 
Chaldeans,  the  captains,  with  Johanan  at 
their  head,  notwithstanding  the  warnings 
of  Jeremiah,  retired  into  Egypt.  4.  The 
first-born  son  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  iii.  15).  5.  A  valiant  Benjamite  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  4).  6. 
A  Gadite  warrior,  who  followed  David  (1 
Chr.  xii.  12).  7.  The  father  of  Azariah, 
an  Ephraimite  in  the  time  of  Ahaz  (2  Chr. 
xxviii.  12).  8.  The  son  of  Hakkatan,  and 
chief  of  the  Bene-Azgad  who  returned  with 
Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  12).  9.  The  son  of  Elia- 
sliib,  one  of  the  chief  Levites  (Neh.  xii. 
23;  Ezr.  x.  6).  10.  The  son  of  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite  (Neh.  vi.  18). 

Jolm,  the  same  name  as  Johanan,  a  con- 
traction of  Jehohanan,  "Jehovah's  gift." 
1.  The  father  of  Mattathias,  and  grand- 
father of  the  Maccabaean  family  (1  Mace, 
ii.  1.).  2.  The  eldest  son  of  Mattathias 
surnamed  Caddis,  who  was  slain  by  "  the 
children  of  Jambri"  (1  Mace.  ii.  2,  ix.  36- 
38).  3.  The  father  of  Eupolemus,  one  of 
the  envoys  whom  Judas  Maccabaeus  sent 
to  Rome  (1  Mace.  viii.  17;  2  Mace.  iv. 
11).  4.  The  son  of  Simon,  the  brother  of 
Judas  Maccabaeus  (1  Mace.  xiii.  53,  xvi. 
1).  5.  One  of  the  high-priest's  family, 
who,  with  Annas  and  Caiaphas,  sat  in  judg- 
ment upon  the  Apostles  Peter  and  John 
(Acts  iv.  6).  6.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the 
Evangelist  Mark  (Acts  xii.  12,  25,  xiii.  5, 
13,  XV.  37). 

John  the  Apostle  was  the  son  of 
Zebedee,  a  fisherman  on  the  Lake  of  Gali- 
lee, and  of  Salome,  and  brother  of  James, 
also  an  apostle.  He  was  probably  younger 
than  his  brother,  whose  name  commonly 
precedes  his  (Matt.  iv.  21,  x.  3,  xvii   1, 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE 


309 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST 


&c.).  younger  than  his  friend  Peter,  possi- 
bly also  than  his  Master.  His  call,  and 
that  of  his  brother,  to  be  first  disciples  and 
then  apostles  of  our  Lord,  are  related  un- 
der James.  Peter  and  James  and  John 
come  within  the  innermost  circle  of  their 
Lord's  friends.  Peter  is  throughout  the 
leader  of  that  band ;  to  John  belongs  the 
jet  more  memorable  distinction  of  being 
the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved.  He  hardly 
sustains  the  popular  notion,  fostered  by  the 
received  typos  of  Christian  art,  of  a  nature 
gentle,  yielding,  feminine.  The  name  Bo- 
anerges (Mark  iii.  17)  implies  a  vehemence, 
zeal,  intensity,  which  gave  to  those  who  had 
it  the  might  of  Sons  of  Thunder.  [James.] 
The  three  are  with  Him  when  none  else  are, 
in  the  chamber  of  death  (Mark  v.  37),  in  the 
glory  of  the  transfiguration  (Matt.  xvii.  1), 
when  he  forewarns  them  of  the  destruction 
of  the  Holy  City  (Mark  xiii.  3,  Andrew,  in 
this  instance,  with  them),  in  the  agony  of 
Gethsemane.  When  the  betrayal  is  accom- 
plished, Peter  and  John,  after  the  first  mo- 
ment of  confusion,  follow  afar  off,  while  the 
others  simply  seek  safety  in  a  hasty  flight 
(John  xviii.  15).  The  personal  acquaint- 
ance which  existed  between  John  and  Caia- 
phas  enabled  him  to  gain  access  both  for 
himself  and  Peter,  but  the  latter  remains  in 
the  porch,  with  the  officers  and  servants, 
while  John  himself  apparently  is  admitted 
to  the  council-chamber,  and  follows  Jesus 
thence,  even  to  the  praetorium  of  the  Ro- 
man Procurator  (John  xviii.  16,  19,  28). 
Thence  he  followed,  accompanied  probably 
by  his  own  mother,  Mary  the  mother  of 
Jesus,  and  Mary  Magdalene,  to  the  place 
of  crucifixion.  The  Teacher  who  had  been 
to  him  as  a  brother  leaves  to  him  a  brother's 
duty.  He  is  to  be  as  a  son  to  the  mother 
who  is  left  desolate  (John  xix.  26,  27). 
The  sabbath  tliat  followed  was  spent,  it 
would  appear,  in  the  same  company.  He 
receives  Peter,  in  spite  of  his  denial,  on  the 
old  terms  of  friendship.  It  is  to  them  that 
Mary  Magdalene  first  runs  with  the  tidings 
of  the  emptied  sepulchre  (John  xx.  2); 
they  are  the  first  to  go  together  to  see  what 
the  strange  words  meant.  Not  without 
some  bearing  on  their  respective  characters 
is  the  fact  that  John  is  the  more  impetuous, 
running  on  most  eagerly  to  the  rock-tomb ; 
Peter,  the  least  restrained  by  awe,  the  first 
to  enter  in  and  look  (John  xx.  4-6).  For 
at  least  eight  days  they  continued  in  Jeru- 
salem (John  XX.  26).  Then,  in  the  interval 
between  the  resurrection  and  the  ascension, 
we  find  them  still  together  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee  (John  xxi.  1).  Here  too  there  is  a 
characteristic  difference.  John  is  the  first 
to  recognize  in  the  dim  form  seen  in  the 
morning  twilight  the  presence  of  his  risen 
Lord;  Peter  the  first  to  plunge  into  the 
water  and  swim  towards  the  shore  where  i 
He  stood  calling  to  them  (John  xxi.  7).  j 


The  last  words  of  the  Gospel  reveal  to  us 
the  deep  affection  which  united  the  two 
friends.  It  is  not  enough  for  Peter  to  know 
his  own  future.  That  at  once  suggests  the 
question,  "  And  what  shall  this  man  do?  " 
(John  xxi.  21).  The  history  of  the  Acts 
shows  the  same  union.  They  are  of  course 
together  at  the  ascension  and  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost.  Together  they  enter  the  Tem- 
ple as  worshippers  (Acts  iii.  1 )  and  protest 
against  the  threats  of  the  Sanhedrim  (iv. 
13).  The  persecution  which  was  pushed  on 
by  Saul  of  Tarsus  did  not  drive  him  or  any 
of  the  apostles  from  their  post  (viii.  1). 
The  sharper  though  shorter  persecution 
which  followed  under  Herod  Agrippa 
brought  a  great  sorrow  to  him  in  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  his  brother  (Acts  xii.  2).  His 
friend  was  driven  to  seek  safety  in  flight. 
Fifteen  years  after  St.  Paul's  first  visit  he 
was  still  at  Jerusalem,  and  helped  to  take 
part  in  tlie  settlement  of  the  great  contro- 
versy between  the  Jewish  and  the  Gentile 
Christians  (Acts  xv.  6).  His  subsequent 
history  we  know  only  by  tradition.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  he  removed  from 
Jerusalem  and  settled  at  Ephesus,  thoiigh 
at  what  time  is  uncertain.  Tradition  goes 
on  to  relate  that  in  the  persecution  under 
Domitian  he  is  taken  to  Rome,  and  there, 
by  his  boldness,  though  not  by  death,  gains 
the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The  boiling  oil 
into  which  he  is  thrown  has  no  power  to 
hurt  him.  He  is  then  sent  to  labor  in  the 
mines,  and  Patmos  is  the  place  of  his  exile. 
The  accession  of  Nerva  frees  him  from 
danger,  and  he  returns  to  Ephesus.  Here- 
sies continue  to  show  themselves,  but  he 
meets  them  with  the  strongest  possible  pro- 
test. The  very  time  of  his  death  lies  with- 
in the  region  of  conjecture  rather  than  of 
history,  and  the  dates  that  have  been  as- 
signed for  it  range  from  A.  ».  89  to  a.  d. 
120. 

Jolin  the  Baptist  was  of  the  priestly 
race  by  both  parents,  for  his  father  Zacha- 
rias  was  himself  a  priest  of  the  course  of 
Abia,  or  Abijah  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  10),  offering 
incense  at  the  very  time  when  a  son  was 
promised  to  him ;  and  Elizabeth  was  of 
the  daughters  of  Aaron  (Luke  i.  5).  His 
birth  —  a  birth  not  according  to  the  ordi- 
nary laws  of  nature,  but  through  the  mirac- 
ulous interposition  of  almighty  power  — 
was  foretold  by  an  angel  sent  from  God, 
and  is  related  at  length  in  the  first  chapter 
of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke.  The  birth  of 
John  preceded  by  six  months  that  of  our 
Lord.  John  was  ordained  to  be  a  Nazarite 
from  his  birth  (Luke  i.  15),  Dwelling  by 
himself  in  the  wild  and  thinly  peopled 
region  westward  of  the  Dead  Sea,  he  pre- 
pared liimself  for  the  wonderful  office  to 
which  he  had  been  divinely  called.  The 
very  appearance  of  the  holy  Baptist  was  of 
itself  a  lesson  to  bis  countrymen;  bis  dreu 


JOim  THE  BAPTIST 


310 


JOHN,  GOSPEL  OP 


wna  that  of  the  old  prophets  —  a  garment 
woven  of  camel's  hair  (2  K.  i.  8),  attached 
to  the  body  by  a  leathern  girdle.  His 
food  was  such  as  the  desert  afforded  — 
locusts  (Lev.  xi.  22)  and  wild  honey  (Ps. 
Ixxxi.  16).  And  now  the  long  secluded 
hermit  came  forth  to  the  discharge  of  his 
oflBce.  His  supernatural  birth  —  his  hard 
ascetic  life  — his  reputation  for  extraordina- 
ry sanctity  —  and  the  generally  prevailing 
expectation  that  some  great  one  was  about 
to  appear  —  these  causes,  without  the  aid 
of  miraculous  power,  for  "John  did  no 
miracle  "  (John  x.  41),  were  sufficient  to  at- 
tract to  him  a  great  multitude  from  "  every 
quarter"  (Matt.  iii.  5).  Brief  and  startling 
was  his  first  exhortation  to  them,  "  Repent 
ye,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand." 
Many  of  every  class  pressed  forward  to 
confess  their  sins  and  to  be  baptized.  The 
preparatory  baptism  of  John  was  a  visible 
sign  to  the  people,  and  a  distinct  acknowl- 
edgment by  them,  that  a  hearty  renuncia- 
tion of  sin  and  a  real  amendment  of  life 
were  necessary  for  admission  into  the  king- 
dom of  heaven,  which  the  Baptist  pro- 
claimed to  be  at  hand.  But  the  fundamen- 
tal distinction  between  John's  baptism  unto 
repentance,  and  that  baptism  accompanied 
with  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  our 
Lord  afterwards  ordained,  is  clearly  marked 
by  John  liimself  (Matt.  iii.  11,  12).  Jesus 
himself  came  from  Galilee  to  Jordan  to  be 
baptized  of  John.  [Jesus.]  From  inci- 
dental notices  we  learn  that  John  and  his 
disciples  continued  to  baptize  some  time 
after  our  Lord  entered  upon  his  ministry 
(see  John  iii.  23,  iv.  1;  Acts  xix.  3).  We 
gather  also  that  John  instructed  his  disci- 
ples in  certain  moral  and  religious  duties, 
as  fasting  (Matt.  ix.  14 ;  Luke  v.  33)  and 
prayer  (Luke  xi.  1).  But  shortly  after  he 
had  given  his  testimony  to  the  Messiah, 
John's  public  ministry  was  brought  to  a 
close.  In  daring  disregard  of  the  divine 
laws,  Herod  Antipas  had  taken  to  himself 
the  wife  of  his  brother  Philip ;  and  when 
John  reproved  him  for  this,  as  well  as  for 
other  sins  (Luke  iii.  19),  Herod  cast  him 
into  prison.  The  place  of  his  confinement 
was  the  castle  of  Machaerus  —  a  fortress 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It 
was  here  that  reports  reached  him  of 
the  miracles  which  our  Lord  was  working 
in  Judaea.  Respecting  the  message  which 
John  sent  to  our  Saviour,  see  Jesus,  p.  294. 
Nothing  but  the  death  of  the  Baptist  would 
satisfy  the  resentment  of  Herodias.  A 
court  festival  was  kept  at  Machaerus  in 
honor  of  the  king's  birthday.  After  sup- 
per, the  daughter  of  Herodias  came  in  and 
danced  before  the  company,  and  so  charmed 
was  the  king  by  her  grace  that  he  promised 
with  an  oath  to  give  her  whatsoever  she 
should  ask.  Salome,  prompted  by  her 
abandoned  mother,  demanded  the  head  of 


John  the  Baptist.  Herod  gave  instructions 
to  an  officer  of  his  guard,  who  went  and 
executed  John  in  tlie  prison,  and  his  head 
was  brought  to  feast  the  eyes  of  the  adul- 
teress whose  sins  he  had  denounced.  His 
deatli  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  just 
before  the  third  passover,  in  the  course  of 
the  Lord's  ministry. 

John,  Gospel  of.  No  doubt  has  been 
entertained  at  any  time  in  the  Church, 
either  of  the  canonical  authority  of  thi» 
Gospel,  or  of  its  being  written  by  St.  John. 
Ephesus  and  Patmos  are  the  two  places 
mentioned  by  early  writers  as  the  place 
where  this  gospel  was  written ;  and  the 
weight  of  evidence  seems  to  preponderate 
in  favor  of  Ephesus.  The  Apostle's  sojourn 
at  Ephesus  probably  began  after  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was  written,  «'.  e. 
after  a.  d.  62.  Eusebius  specifies  the 
fourteenth  year  of  Domitian,  i.  e.  a.  d.  95, 
as  the  year  of  his  banishment  to  Patmos. 
Probably  the  date  of  the  Gospel  may  lie 
about  midway  between  these  two,  about 
A.  D.  78.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem A.  D.  69,  Ephesus  probably  became  the 
centre  of  the  active  life  of  Eastern  Christen- 
dom. It  contained  a  large  clmrch  of  faith- 
ful Christians,  a  multitude  of  zealous  Jews, 
an  indigenous  population  devoted  to  the 
worship  of  a  strange  idol  whose  image  was 
borrowed  from  tiie  East,  its  name  from 
the  West.  The  Gospel  was  obviously  ad- 
dressed primarily  to  Christians,  not  to 
heathens.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  main  object  of  St.  John,  who  wrote 
after  the  other  Evangelists,  is  to  supple- 
ment their  narratives,  which  were  almost 
confined  to  our  Lord's  life^in  Galilee.  [See 
further.  Gospel.]  The  following  is  an 
abridgment  of  its  contents  :  A.  TJu  Pro- 
logue, i.  1-18.  B.  The  History,  i.  19-xx.  29. 
a.  Various  events  relating  to  our  Lord's 
ministry,  narrated  in  connection  with  seven 
journeys,  i.  19-xii.  50 :  1.  First  journey, 
into  Judaea  and  beginning  of  his  ministry, 
i.  19-ii.  12.  2.  Second  journey,  at  the 
Passover  in  the  first  year  of  His  ministry, 
ii.  13-iv.  3.  Third  journey,  in  the  second 
year  of  His  ministry,  about  the  Passover, 
v.  4.  Fourth  journey,  about  the  Passover, 
in  the  third  year  of  His  ministry,  beyond 
Jordan,  vi.  5.  Fifth  journey,  six  months 
before  his  death,  begun  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  vii.-x.  21.  6.  Sixth  journey, 
about  the  Feast  of  Dedication,  x.  22-42.  7. 
Seventh  journey  in  Judaea  towards  Beth- 
any, xi.  1-54.  8.  Eighth  journey,  before  His 
last  Passover,  xi.  5o-xii.  h.  History  of  the 
death  of  Christ,  xiii.-xx.  29.  1.  Preparation 
for  His  Passion,  xiii.-xvii.  2.  The  circum- 
stances of  His  Passion  and  Death,  xviii., 
xix.  3.  His  Resurrection,  and  the  proofs  of 
it,  XX.  1-29.  C.  Tlie  Conclusion,  xx.  30- 
xxi. :  1.  Scope  of  the  foregoing  history,  xx. 
30,  31.    2.  Confirmation  of  the  authority  of 


JOHN,  EPISTLES  OF 


311 


JOKTHEEL 


the  Evangelist  by  additional  historical  facts, 
and  by  the  testimony  of  the  elders  of  the 
Church,  xxi.  1-24.  3.  Keason  of  the  ter- 
mination of  the  history,  xxi.  25. 

John,  The  First  Epistle  General 
of.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Apos- 
tle John  was  the  author  of  this  Epistle. 
Like  the  Gospel  it  was  probably  writtea 
from  Ephesus,  and  most  likely  at  the  close 
of  the  first  century.  It  was  primarily  meant 
for  the.  churches  of  Asia  under  St.  John's 
inspection,  to  whom  he  had  already  orally 
delivered  his  doctrine  (i.  3,  ii.  7).  In  the 
introduction  (i.  1-4)  the  Apostle  states  the 
purpose  of  his  Epistle.  It  is  to  declare  the 
Word  of  life  to  those  whom  he  is  address- 
ing, in  order  that  he  and  they  might  be 
united  in  true  communion  with  each  other, 
and  with  God  the  Father,  and  his  Son  Jesus 
Clirist.  The  first  part  of  the  Epistle  may 
be  considered  to  end  at  ii.  28.  The  Apostle 
begins  afresh  with  the  doctrine  of  sonship 
or  communion  at  ii.  29,  and  returns  to  the 
same  theme  at  iv.  7.  Ilis  Ifesson  through- 
out is,  that  the  means  of  union  with  God 
are,  on  the  part  of  Christ,  his  atoning  blood 
(i.  7,  ii.  2,  iii.  5,  iv.  10,  14,  v.  6)  and  advo- 
cacy (ii.  1)  —  on  the  part  of  man,  holiness, 
(i.  6),  obedience  (ii.  3),  purity  (iii.  3), 
faith  (iii.  23,  iv.  3,  v.  5),  and  above  all  love 
(ii.  7,  iii.  14,  iv.  7,  v.  1).  There  are  two 
doubtful  passages  in  this  Epistle,  ii.  23, 
"But  he  that  acknowledgeth  the  Son  hath 
the  Father  also,"  and  v.  7,  "  For  there  are 
three  that  bear  record  in  heaven,  the  Father, 
the  Word,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  these 
tliree  are  on 2."  It  would  appear  without 
doubt  that  they  are  not  genuine. 

John,  The  Second  and  Third 
Epistles  of.  These  two  Epistles  are 
placed  by  Eusebius  in  the  class  of  "dis- 
puted "  books,  and  he  appears  himself  to 
be  doubtful  whether  they  were  written  by 
the  Evangelist,  or  by  some  other  John. 
The  evidence  of  antiquity  in  their  favor  is 
not  very  strong,  but  yet  is  considerable. 
In  the  5th  century  they  were  almost  uni- 
versally received.  The  title  and  contents 
of  the  Epistles  are  strong  arguments 
against  a  fabricator,  whereas  they  would 
account  for  their  non-universal  reception 
in  early  times.  The  Second  Epistle  is  ad- 
dressed iy.Xty.T^  xvQia.  An  individual  wo- 
man who  had  children,  and  a  sister  and 
nieces,  is  clearly  indicated.  Whether  her 
name  is  given,  and  if  so,  what  it  is,  has 
been  doubted.  According  to  one  interpre- 
tation she  is  "  the  Lady  Electa,"  to  another, 
"  the  elect  Kyria,"  to  a  third,  "  the  elect 
Lady."  The  English  version  is  probablj' 
right,  though  here  too  we  should  have  ex- 
pected the  article.  The  Third  Epistle  is 
addressed  to  Gains  or  Caius.  We  have  no 
reason  for  identifying  him  with  Caius  of 
Macedonia  (Acts  xix.  29),  or  with  Caius  of 
Derbe  (Acts  xx.  4),  or  with  Caius  of  Cor- 


'inth  (Rom.  xvi.  23;  1  Cor.  i.  14),  or  with 
'.  Caius  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  or  with  Caius 
Bishop  of  Thessalonica,  or  with  Caiua 
Bishop  of  Perganios.  He  was  probably  a 
convert  of  St.  John  (Ep.  iii.  4),  and  a  lay- 
man of  wealth  and  distinction  (Ep.  iii.  5) 
in  some  city  near  Ephesus.  The  object  of 
St.  John  in  writing  the  Second  Epistle  waa 
to  warn  the  lady  to  whom  he  wrote  against 
abetting  the  teaching  known  as  that  of  Ba- 
silides  and  his  followers,  by  perhaps  an 
undue  kindness  displayed  by  her  towards 
the  preachers  of  the  false  doctrine.  The 
Third  Epistle  was  written  for  the  purpose 
of  commending  to  the  kindness  and  hospi- 
tality of  Caius  some  Christians  who  were 
strangers  in  the  place  where  he  lived.  It 
is  probable  that  these  Christians  carried 
this  letter  with  them  to  Caius  as  their  in- 
troduction. 

Joi'ada,  high-priest  after  his  father  Eli- 
ashib  (Neh.-xiii.  28). 

Joi'akim,  a  high-priest,  son  of  the  re- 
nowned Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  10). 

Joi'arib.  1.  A  layman  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  16).  2. 
The  founder  of  one  of  the  courses  of 
priests,  elsewhere  called  in  full  Jehoiahib 
(Neh.  xii.  6,  19).  3.  A  Shilonite  —  t.  *. 
probably  a  descendant  of  Shelah  the  son 
of  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

Jok'.deam,  a  city  of  Judah,  in  the 
mountains  (Josh.  xv.  56),  apparently  south 
of  Hebron. 

Jo'kim,  one  of  the  sons  of  Shelah  the 
son  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv,  22),  of  whom 
nothing  further  is  known. 

Jok'meam,  a  city  of  Ephraim,  given 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  Kohathite  Levites 
(1  Chr.  vi.  68).  The  situation  of  Jokmeara 
is  to  a  certain  extent  indicated  in  1  K.  iv. 
12,  where  it  is  named  with  places  which  we 
know  to  have  been  in  the  Jordan  valley  at 
the  extreme  east  boundary  of  the  tribe. 

Jok'neam,  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
lun,  allotted  with  its  suburbs  to  the  Mera- 
rite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  34).  Its  modem 
site  is  Tell  Kaimon,  an  eminence  which 
stands  just  below  the  eastern  termination 
of  Carnicl. 

Jok'shan,  a  son  of  Abraham  and  Ketu- 
rah  (Gen.  \xv.  2,  3 ;  1  Chr.  i.  32),  whose 
sons  were  Sheba  and  Dedan. 

Jok'tan,  son  of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  25;  1 
Chr.  i.  19),  and  the  father  of  the  Joktanite 
Arabs.  Scholars  are  agreed  in  placing  the 
settlements  of  Joktan  in  the  south  of  the 
peninsula.  The  original  limits  are  stated 
in  the  Bible  :  "  their  dwelling  was  from  Me- 
sha,  as  thou  goest  unto  Sephar,  s  mount  of 
the  East"  (Gen.  x.  30).  The  ancestor  of 
the  great  southern  peoples  was  called  Kah- 
tin,  who,  say  the  Arabs,  was  the  same  as 
Joktan. 

Jok'theel.  1.  A  city  in  the  low  coun- 
try of  Judah  (Josh    xv.  38),  named  next  to 


JONA 


312 


JONATHAN 


Lachish.  2.  "  God-subdued,"  the  title 
given  by  Amaziah  to  the  cliff  (A.  V.  Selah) 
—  the  stronghold  of  the  Edomites  —  after 
he  had  captured  it  from  them  (2  K.  xiv.  7). 
The  parallel  narrative  of  2  Chr.  xxt.  11-13 
supplies  fuller  details. 

Jb'na,  the  father  of  the  Apostle  Peter 
(John  i.  42),  who  is  hence  addressed  as 
Simon  Barjona  Qi.  e.  son  of  Jona)  in  Matt, 
xvi.  17. 

Jon'adab.  1.  Son  of  Shimeah  and 
nephew  of  David.  He  is  described  as 
"very  subtil"  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3).  His  age 
naturally  made  him  the  friend  of  his  cousin 
Amnon,  heir  to  the  throne  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3). 
He  gave  him  the  fatal  advice  for  insnaring 
his  sister  Tamar  (5,  6).  Again,  when,  in  a 
later  stage  of  the  same  tragedy,  Amnon 
was  murdered  by  Absalom,  and  the  exag- 
gerated report  reached  David  that  all  the 
princes  were  slaughtered,  Jonadab  was  al- 
ready aware  of  the  real  state  of  the  case 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  32,  33).  2.  Jer.  xxxv.  6,  8, 
10,  14,  16,  18,  19.     [Jehonadab.] 

Jo'nah,  the  fifth  of  the  Minor  Prophets, 
according  to  the  order  of  our  Bible,  was 
the  son  of  Amittai,  and  a  native  of  Gath- 
hepher,  a  town  of  Lower  Galilee  in  Zebu- 
lun  (2  K.  xiv.  25).  He  lived  after  the 
reign  of  Jehu,  when  the  losses  of  Israel  (2 
K.  X.  32)  began ;  and  probably  not  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II. 
The  general  opinion  is,  that  Jonah  was  the 
first  of  the  prophets.  The  king  of  Nine- 
veh at  this  time  is  supposed  to  have  been 
Pul,  who  is  placed  b.  c.  750.  Our  English 
Bible  gives  b.  c.  862.  Having  already,  as 
it  seems,  prophesied  to  Israel,  he  was  sent 
to  Nineveh.  The  time  was  one  of  political 
revival  in  Israel ;  but  ere  long  the  Assyr- 
ians were  to  be  employed  by  God  as  a 
scourge  upon  them.  The  prophet  shrank 
from  a  commission  which  he  felt  sure 
would  result  (iv.  2)  in  the  sparing  of  a 
hostile  city.  He  attempted  therefore  to  es- 
cape to  Tarshish.  The  providence  of  God, 
however,  watched  over  him,  first  in  a 
storm,  and  then  in  his  being  swallowed  by 
a  large  fish  for  the  space  of  three  days  and 
three  nights.  [On  this  subject  see  art. 
Whale.]  After  his  deliverance,  Jonah  ex- 
ecuted his  commission;  and  th»»  king,  "  be- 
lieving him  to  be  a  minister  from  the  su- 
preme deity  of  the  nation,"  and  having 
heard  of  his  miraculous  deliverance,  ordered 
a  general  fast,  and  averted  the  threatened 
judgment.  But  the  prophet,  not  from  per- 
gonal, but  national  feelings,  grudged  the 
mercy  shown  to  a  heathen  nation.  He  was 
therefore  taught,  by  the  significant  lesson 
of  the  "  gourd,"  whose  growth  and  decay 
brought  the  truth  at  once  home  to  him,  that 
he  was  sent  to  testify  by  deed,  as  other 
prophets  would  afterwards  testify  by  word, 
the  capacity  of  Gentiles  for  salvation,  and 
the  design  of  God  to  make  them  partakers 


of  it.  This  was  "  the  sign  of  the  prophet 
Jonas  "  (Luke  xi.  29,  30).  But  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ  itself  was  also  shadowed 
forth  in  the  history  of  the  prophet  (Matt, 
xii.  39,  41,  xvi.  4).  The  mission  of  Jonah 
was  highly  symbolical.  The  facts  con- 
tained a  concealed  prophecy.  The  old  tradi- 
tion made  the  burial-place  of  Jonah  to  be 
Gathhepher :  the  modern  tradition  places  it 
at  Nebi-Yunus,  opposite  Mosul. 

Jo'nan,  son  of  Eliakim,  in  the  geneal- 
ogy of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  30). 

Jo'nas.  1.  The  prophet  Jonah  (Matt. 
xii.  39,  40,  41,  xvi.  4).  2.  Father  of  Peter 
(John  xxi.  15-17).     [Jona.] 

Jon'athan,  that  is,  "  the  gift  of  Jeho- 
vah," the  eldest  son  of  king  Saul.  He  waa 
regarded  in  his  father's  lifetime  as  heir  to 
the  throne.  Like  Saul,  he  was  a  man  of 
great  strength  and  activity  (2  Sam.  i.  23). 
He  was  also  famous  for  the  peculiar  martial 
exercises  in  which  his  tribe  excelled  —  arch- 
ery and  slinging  (1  Chr.  xii.  2).  His  bow 
was  to  him  what  the  spear  was  to  his  father : 
"  the  bow  of  Jonathan  turned  not  back " 
(2  Sam.  i.  22).  It  was  always  about  him 
(1  Sam.  xviii.  4,  xx.  35).  His  life  may  be 
divided  into  two  main  parts.  1.  The  war 
with  the  Philistines,  commonly  called,  from 
its  locality,  "the  war  of  Michmash "  (1 
Sam.  xiii.  21).  The  Philistines  were  still 
in  the  general  command  of  the  country ;  an 
officer  was  stationed  at  Geba,  either  the 
same  as  Jonathan's  position  or  close  to  it. 
In  a  sudden  act  of  youthful  daring  Jona- 
than slew  this  officer,  and  thus  gave  the 
signal  for  a  general  revolt.  But  it  was  a 
premature  attempt.  The  Philistines  poured 
in  from  the  plain,  and  the  tyranny  became 
more  deeply  rooted  than  ever.  From  this 
oppression,  as  Jonathan  by  his  former  act 
had  been  the  first  to  provoke  it,  so  now  he 
was  the  first  to  deliver  his  people.  With- 
out communicating  his  project  to  any  one, 
except  the  young  man,  whom,  like  all  the 
chiefs  of  that  age,  he  retained  as  his  armor- 
bearer,  he  sallied  forth  from  Gibeah  to  at- 
tack the  garrison  of  the  Philistines  stationed 
on  the  other  side  of  the  steep  defile  of 
Michmash  (xir.  1).  A  panic  seized  the 
garrison,  thence  spread  to  the  camp,  and 
thence  to  the  surrounding  hordes  of  marau- 
ders ;  an  earthquake  combined  with  the 
terror  of  the  moment.  Saul  and  his  little 
band  had  watched  in  astonishment  the  wild 
retreat  from  the  heights  of  Gibeah  :  he  now 
joined  in  the  pursuit.  Jonathan  had  not 
heard  of  the  rash  curse  (xiv.  24)  which 
Saul  invoked  on  any  one  who  ate  before  the 
evening,  and  he  tasted  the  honey  which  lay 
on  the  ground  as  they  passed  through  the 
forest.  Jephthah's  dreadful  sacrifice  would 
have  been  repeated ;  but  the  people  inter- 
posed in  behalf  of  the  hero  of  that  great 
day ;  and  Jonathan  was  saved  (xiv.  24-46). 
2.  But  tlie  chief  interest  of  his  career  ii 


JONATH-ELEM-RECHOKIM        313 


JORDAN 


dt  rived  from  the  friendship  with  David, 
which  began  on  the  day  of  David's  return 
from  the  victory  over  the  champion  of  Gath, 
and  continued  till  his  death.  Their  last 
meeling  was  in  the  forest  of  Ziph,  during 
Saul's  pursuit  of  David  (1  Sam.,  xxiii.  IG- 
18).  From  this  time  forth  we  hear  no 
more  till  the  battle  of  Gilboa.  In  that  battle 
ho  fell,  with  his  two  brothers  and  his  father, 
and  his  corpse  shared  their  fate  (1  Sam. 
xxxi.  2,  8).  His  ashes  were  buried  first 
at  Jabesh-Gilead  (i6.  13),  but  afterwards 
removed  with  those  of  his  father  to  Zelah 
in  Benjamin  (2  Sam.  xxi.  12).  The  news 
of  his  death  occasioned  the  celebrated  elegy 
of  David.  He  left  a  son,  Mephibosheth. 
[Mephibosheth.]  2.  Son  of  Shimeah 
brother  of  Jonadab,  and  nephew  of  Davirt 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  21 ;  1  Chr.  xx.  7).  Like  Da- 
vid, he  engaged  in  a  single  combat,  and 
slew  a  gigantic  Philistine  of  Gath  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  21).  3.  The  son  of  Abiathar,  tlie 
high-priest,  is  the  last  descendant  of  Eli 
of  whom  we  hear  anything.  He  appears 
on  the  day  of  David's  flight  from  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  XV.  36,  xvii.  15-21),  and  on  the 
day  of  Solomon's  inauguration  (1  K.  i.  42, 
43).  4.  The  son  of  Shage  the  Hararite  (1 
Chr.  xi.  34;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  32).  He  was 
one  of  David's  heroes.  5.  The  son,  or  de- 
scendant, of  Gershom  the  son  of  Moses 
(Judg.  xviii.  30).  [Micah.]  6.  One  of 
the  Bene-Adin  (Ezr.  viii.  6).  7.  A  priest, 
the  son  of  Asahel,  in  the  time  of  Ezra 
(Ezr.  X.  15).  8.  A  priest  of  the  family  of 
Melicu,  in  the  days  of  Joiakim,  son  of 
Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  14.  9.  One  of  the  sons 
of  Kareah,  and  brother  of  Johanan  (Jer. 
xl.  8).  He  was  one  of  the  captains  of  the 
army  who  had  escaped  from  Jerusalem  in 
the  final  assault  by  the  Chaldeans,  and 
with  his  brother  Johanan  resorted  to  Geda- 
liah  at  Mizpah  :  from  that  time  we  hear 
nothing  more  of  him.  10.  Son  of  Joiada, 
and  his  su<!cessor  in  the  high-priesthood 
(Neh.  xii.  11,  22,  23).  11.  Father  of 
Zechariah,  a  priest  who  blew  the  trumpet 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  (Neh.  xii.  35.) 
12.     1  Esdr.  viii.  32.     [See  No.  6.] 

Jo'natli-e'lein-re'chokiln,  "a  dumb 
dove  of  (in)  distant  places,"  a  phrase  found 
once  only  in  tlie  Bible  as  a  heading  to  the 
5Gth  psalm.  Aben  Ezra,  who  regards  Jo- 
nath  Elera  Rechokim  as  merely  indicating 
the  modulation  or  the  rhythm  of  the  psalm, 
appears  to  come  the  nearest  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  passage. 

Jop'pa.  or  Japho,  now  Jaffa,  a  town 
on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  Palestine,  in  the  por- 
tion of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  46).  Having  a  har- 
bor attached  to  it  —  though  always,  as  still, 
a  dangerous  one  —  it  became  the  port  of 
Jerusalem  in\he  days  of  Solomon,  and  has 
been  ever  since.  Here  Jonah  "  took  ship 
to  flee  from  the  presence  of  his  Maker." 
Here,  on  the  house-top  of  Simon  the  tan- 


ner, "by  the  seaside,"  St.  Peter  had  his 
vision  of  tolerance  (Acts  xi.  5).  The  ex- 
isting town  contains  about  4000  inhabitants. 

Jo'rah,  the  ancestor  of  a  family  of  112 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezr. 
ii.  18).  In  Neh.  vii.  24  he  appears  under 
the  name  Hariph,  or  more  correctly  the 
same  family  are  represented  as  the  Bene- 
Hariph. 

Jo'rai.  One  of  the  Gadites  dwelling  in 
Gilead  in  Bashan,  in  the  reign  of  Jothan 
king  of  Judah  (]  Chr  v.  13). 

Jo'ram.  1.  Son  of  Ahab;  king  of 
Israel  (2  K  viii.  16,  25,  28,  29 ;  ix.  14,  17, 
21-23,  29).  [Jehoram,  1.]  2.  Son  of 
Jehoshaphat;  king  of  Judah  (2  K.  viii.  21, 
23,  24;  IChr.  iii.  11;  2  Chr.  xxii.  5,7; 
Matt.  i.  8).  [Jehoram,  2.]  3.  A  priest 
in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii. 
8).  4.  A  Levite,  ancestor  of  Shelomith  in 
the  time  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  25).  5.  Son 
of  Toi,  king  of  Hamath  (2  Sam.  viii.  10). 
[Hadoram.]  6.  1  Esd.  i.  9.  [Jozabad,  3.] 

Jor'dan,  the  one  river  of  Palestine,  has 
a  course  of  little  more  than  200  miles,  from 
the  roots  of  Anti-Lebanon  to  the  head  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  the  river  of  the  "  great 
plain  "  of  Palestine  —  the  "  Descender  " — 
if  not  "  the  river  of  God  "  in  the  book  of 
Psalms,  at  least  that  of  His  chosen  people 
throughout  their  history.  There  were  fords 
over  against  Jericho,  to  which  point  the 
men  of  Jericho  pursued  the  spies  (Josh.  ii. 
7;  comp.  Judg.  iii.  28).  Higher  up,  per- 
haps over  against  Succoth,  some  way  abova 
where  the  little  river  Jabbok  {Zerka)  enters 
the  Jordan,  were  the  fords  or  passages  of 
Bethbarah  (probably  the  Bethabara  of  the 
Gospel),  where  Gideon  lay  in  wait  for  the 
Midianites  (Judg.  vii.  24),  and  where  the 
men  of  Gilead  slew  the  Ephraimites  (xii. 
6).  These  fords  undoubtedly  witnessed 
the  first  recorded  passage  of  the  Jordan  in 
the  O.  T.  (Gen.  xxxii.  10).  Jordan  was 
next  crossed,  over  against  Jericho,  by  Josh- 
ua the  son  of  Nun  (Josh.  iv.  12,  13). 
From  their  vicinity  to  Jerusalem  the  lower 
fords  were  much  used ;  David,  it  is  proba- 
ble, passed  over  them  in  one  instance  to 
fight  the  Syrians  (2  Sam.  x.  17)  ;  and  sub- 
sequently, when  a  fugitive  himself,  in  his 
way  to  Mahanaim  (xvii.  22)  on  the  east 
bank.  Thus  there  were  two  customary 
places  at  which  the  Jordan  was  fordable ; 
and  it  must  have  been  at  one  of  these,  if 
not  at  both,  that  baptism  was  afterwards  ad- 
ministered by  St.  Jolm,  and  by  the  disci- 
ples of  our  Lord.  Where  our  Lord  was 
baptized  is  not  stated  expressly ;  but  it  was 
probably  at  the  upper  ford.  These  fords 
were  rendered  so  much  the  more  precious 
in  those  days  from  two  circumstances. 
First,  it  does  not  appear  that  there  were 
then  any  bridges  thrown  over,  or  boats 
regularly  established  on,  the  Jordan  ;  and 
secondly,  because  "  Jordan  overflowed  aU 


JORIM 


314 


JOSEPH 


Tils  banks  all  the  time  of  harvest "  (Josh, 
iii.  15).  The  channel  or  bed  of  the  river 
became  brimful,  so  that  the  lerel  of  the 
water  and  of  the  banks  was  then  the  same. 
The  last  feature  which  remains  to  be  noticed 
in  the  Scriptural  account  of  the  Jordan  is 
its  freq\ient  mention  as  a  boundary :  "  over 
Jordan,"  "this,"  and  "  the  other  side,"  or 
**  beyond  Jordan,"  were  expressions  as  fa- 
miliar to  the  Israelites  as  "  across  the  wa- 
ter," "this,"  and  "the  other  side  of  the 
Channel,"  are  to  English  ears.  In  one 
sense  indeed,  that  is,  in  so  far  as  it  was  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  it 
was  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  promised 
land  (Num.  xxxiv.  12).  The  Jordan  rises 
from  several  sources  near  Paniura  {Bd- 
ni&s),  and  passes  through  the  lakes  of 
Merora  {Huleh)  and  Gennesaret.  The  two 
principal  features  in  its  course  are  its  de- 
scent and  its  windings.  From  its  fountain- 
tain  heads  to  the  Dead  Sea,  it  rushes  <lown 
one  continuous  inclined  plane,  only  broken 
by  a  series  of  rapids  or  precipitous  falls. 
Between  the  lake  of  Gennesaret  and  the 
Dead  Sea  there  are  27  rapids ;  the  depres- 
sion of  the  lake  of  Gennesaret  below  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean  is  G53  feet;  and 
that  of  the  Dead  Sea  1316  feet.  Its  sinu- 
osity is  not  so  remarkable  in  the  upper  part 
of  its  course.  The  only  tributaries  to  the 
Jordan  below  Gennesaret  are  the  Yarmuk 
(Hieroraax)  and  the  Zerka  (Jabbok).  Not 
a  single  city  ever  crowned  the  banks  of  the 
Jordan.  Still  Bethshan  and  Jericho  to  the 
W.,  Gerasa,  Pella,  and  Gadara  to  the  E.  of 
it,  were  important  cities,  and  caused  a  good 
deal  of  traffic  between  the  two  opposite 
banks.  The  physical  features  of  the  Ghor, 
through  which  the  Jordan  flows,  are  treated 
of  under  Palestine. 

Jo'rim,  son  of  Matthat,  in  the  geneal- 
ogy of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  29). 

Jor'koam,  either  a  descendant  of  Caleb 
the  son  of  Hozron,  or  the  name  of  a  place 
in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  44). 

Jos'abad.  Properly  Jozabad,  the 
Gederathite,  one  of  the  warriors  of  Ben- 
jamin who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr. 
xii.  4). 

Jos'apliat  =  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Ju- 
dah (Matt.  i.  8). 

Jo'se,  son  of  Eliezer.  in  the  genealogy 
of  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  iii.  29). 

Jos'edech.  ==  Jehozadak  the.  son  of 
Seraiah  (Hag.  i.  1,  12,  14,  ii.  2,  4 ;  Zech. 
vi.  11). 

Jo'seph.  1.  The  elder  of  the  two  sons 
of  Jacob  by  Rachel,  is  first  mentioned  when 
a  youth,  seventeen  years  old.  Jacob  seems 
then  to  have  staid  at  Hebron  with  the 
aged  Isaac,  while  his  sons  kept  his  flocks. 
Joseph,  we  read,  brought  the  evil  report  of 
his  brethren  to  his  father,  and  they  hated 
him  because  his  father  loved  him  more  than 
tbem,  as  the  "  son  of  his  old  age,"  and  had 


shown  his  preference  by  making  him  a  dress 
which  appears  to  have  been  a  long  tunic 
with  sleeves,  worn  by  youths  and  maidens 
of  tlie  richer  class  (Gen.  xxxvii.  2).  Tlie 
hatred  of  Joseph's  brethren  was  increased 
by  his  telling  of  a  dream  foreshowing 
that  they  would  bow  down  to  him,  which 
was  followed  by  another  of  the  same  import. 
They  had  gone  to  Shechem  to  feed  the  flock ; 
and  Joseph  was  sent  thither  from  the  vale  of 
Hebron  by  his  father  to  bring  him  word  of 
their  welfare  and  that  of  the  flock.  They 
were  not  at  Shechem,  but  were  gone  to 
Dothan,  which  appears  to  have  been  not 
far  distant,  pasturing  their  flock  like  the 
Arabs  of  the  present  day,  wherever  the 
wild  country  was  unowned.  On  Joseph's 
approach,  his  brethren,  except  Reuben,  re- 
solved to  kill  him ;  but  Reuben  saved  him, 
persuading  them  to  cast  him  into  a  dry  pit, 
to  the  intent  that  he  might  restore  him  to 
his  father.  Accordingly,  when  Joseph  was 
come,  they  stripped  him  of  his  tunic  and 
cast  him  into  the  pit,  "and  they  sat  down 
to  eat  bread;  and  they  lifted  up  their  eyes 
and  looked,  and,  behold,  a  company  of 
Ishmeelites  came  from  Gilead  with  their 
camels."  Judah  suggested  to  his  brethren 
to  sell  Joseph  to  the  Ishmeelites,  and  ac- 
cordingly they  took  him  out  of  tlie  pit  and 
sold  him  "for  twenty  [shekels]  of  silver" 
(ver.  28).  His  brethren  pretended  to  Jacob 
that  Joseph  had  been  killed  by  some  wild 
beast,  taking  to  him  the  tunic  stained  with 
a  kid's  blood.  The  Midianites  sold  Joseph 
in  Egypt  to  Potiphar,  "an  officer  of  Plia- 
raoh,  captain  of  the  executioners,  an  Egyp- 
tian" (xxxix.  1 ;  coinp.  xxxvii.  3(j).  Joseph 
prospered  in  the  house  of  tlie  Egyptian, 
who,  seeing  that  God  blessed  him,  and 
pleased  with  his  good  service,  "set  him 
over  his  house,  and  all  [that]  he  had  he 
gave  into  his  hand"  (xxxix.  4,  comp.  5). 
His  master's  wife,  with  the  well-known 
profligacy  of  the  Egyptian  women,  tempted 
him,  and  failing,  charged  him  with  the 
crime  she  would  have  made  him  commit. 
Potiphar,  incensed  against  Josepli,  cast  him 
into  prison,  where  he  remained  for  at  least 
two  years,  and  perhaps  longer.  In  the 
prison,  as  in  Potiphar's  house,  Joseph  was 
found  worthy  of  complete  trust,  and  the 
keeper  of  the  prison  placed  everything 
under  his  control.  After  a  while,  Pharaoh 
was  incensed  against  two  of  his  officers, 
"the  chief  of  the  cup-bearers"  and  the 
"  chief  of  the  bakers,"  and  cast  them  into 
the  prison  where  Josepli  was.  Each  dreamed 
a  prophetic  dream,  which  Joseph  interpret- 
ed. "After  two  years,"  Joseph's  deliver- 
ance came.  Pharaoh  dreamed  two  pro- 
phetic dreams.  "He  stood  by  the  river 
[the  Nile].  And,  behold,  rtmiing  up  out 
of  the  river  seven  kine  [or  '  heifers  *], 
beautiful  in  appearance  and  fat-fleshed; 
and  they  fed  in  the  marsh-grass.    And,  be- 


JOSEPH 


315 


JOSEPH 


hold,  seven  other  kine  coming  up  after 
them  out  of  the  river,  evil  in  appearance, 
and  lean-fleshed  "  (xli.  1-3).  These,  after- 
wards described  still  more  strongly,  ate  up 
the  first  seven,  and  yet,  as  is  said  in  the 
second  account,  when  tliey  had  eaten  them 
remained  as  le»n  as  before  (xli.  1-4, 17-21). 
Then  Pharaoh  had  a  second  dream :  "  Be- 
hold, seven  ears  of  corn  coming  up  on  one 
stalk,  fat  [or  'full,'  ver.  22]  and  good. 
And,  behold,  seven  ears,  thin  and  blasted 
with  the  east  wind,  sprouting  forth  after 
them"  (ver.  5,  6).  These,  also  described 
more  strongly  in  the  second  account,  de- 
voured the  first  seven  ears  (ver.  5-7,  22- 
24).  In  the  morning  Pharaoh  sent  for  the 
"scribes "and  the  "wise  men,"  and  they 
were  unaiile  to  give  him  an  interpretation. 
Then  the  chief  of  the  cup-bearers  remem- 
bered Joseph,  and  told  Pliaraoh  how  a 
young  Hebrew,  "  servant  to  the  captain  of 
the  executioners,"  had  interpreted  his  and 
his  fellow-prisoner's  dreams.  "  Then  Pha- 
raoh sent  and  called  Joseph,  and  they  made 
him  hasten  out  of  the  prison  :  and  he  shaved 
[himself],  and  changed  his  raiment,  and 
came  unto  Pliaraoh"  (ver.  14).  The  king 
then  related  his  dreams,  and  Joseph,  when 
he  had  disclaimed  human  wisdom,  declared 
to  him  that  they  were  sent  of  God  to  fore- 
warn Pharaoh.  There  was  essentially  but 
one  dream.  Both  kine  and  ears  symbolized 
years.  There  were  to  be  seven  years  of 
great  plenty  in  Egj'pt,  and  after  them  seven 
years  of  consuming  and  "  very  heavy  fam- 
ine." On  the  interpretation  it  may  be 
remarked,  that  the  kine  represented  the 
animal  products,  and  the  ears  of  corn  the 
vegetable  products,  the  most  important 
object  in  each  class  representing  the  whole 
class.  Having  interpreted  the  dream,  Jo- 
seph counselled  Pharaoh  to  choose  a  wise 
man  and  set  him  over  the  country,  in  order 
that  he  should  take  the  fifth  part  of  the 
produce  of  the  seven  years  of  plenty  against 
the  years  of  famine.  To  this  high  post  the 
king  appointed  Joseph,  made  Mm  not  only 
governor  of  Egypt,  but  second  only  to  the 
sovereign.  He  also  "  gave  liim  to  wife 
Asenath  daughter  of  Potipherali,  priest  [or 
*  prince ']  of  On."  Joseph's  first  act  was  to 
go  throughout  all  the  land  of  Egypt.  Dur- 
ing the  seven  plenteous  years  there  was  a 
very  abundant  produce,  and  he  gathered 
the  fifth  part,  as  he  had  advised  Pharaoh, 
and  laid  it  up.  Before  the  year  of  famine 
Asenath  bare  Joseph  two  sons.  When  the 
seven  good  years  had  passed,  the  famine 
began  (Gen.  xli.  54-57).  Famines  are 
not  very  unfrequent  in  the  history  of 
Egypt.  [Famine.]  After  the  famine  had 
lasted  for  a  time,  apparently  two  years, 
Joseph  gathered  up  all  the  money  that 
was  found  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  for  the  corn  which 
they   bought;    and    Joseph    brought    the 


;  money  into  Pharaoh's  house  (xlvii.  13,  14). 
I  When   all   the   money  of  Epypt  and   Ca- 
I  najin  was  exhausted,  barter  became  ncces- 
I  sary.    Joseph  then  obtained  all  the  cattle  of 
I  Egypt,  and  in  the  next  year,  all  tlie  land. 
'  except  that  of  the  priests,  and  apparently, 
'  as  a  consequence,  the  Egyptians  themselves. 
j  He  demanded,  however,  only  a  fifth  part 
of  the  produce  as  Pharaoh's  right.     Early 
in  the   time   of  famine,   which    prevailed 
equally  in  Canaan  and  Egypt,  Jacob   re- 
proved his  helpless  sons,  and  sent  them  to 
Egypt,  where  he  knew  there  was  corn  to  be 
bought.     Benjamin  alone  he  kept  with  him. 
Joseph  was  now  governor,  an  Egyptian  in 
habits  and  speech.     His  brethren  did  not 
know  him,  grown,  from  the  boy  they  had 
sokl,into  a  man.    Joseph  remembered  Ma 
dreams,  and  behaved  to  them  as  a  stranger, 
using,  as  we   afterwards   learn,  an   inter- 
preter, and  spoke  hard  words  to  them,  and 
accused  them  of  being  spies.     In  defending 
themselves  they  spoke  of  their  household. 
The  whole  story  of  Joseph's  treatment  of 
j  his  brethren  is  so  graphically  told  in  Gen. 
xlii.-xlv.,  and  is  so  famiUar,  that  it  is  unne- 
I  cessary   here   to   repeat  it.     After  the  re- 
I  moval  of  his  family  into  Egypt,  Jacob  and 
I  his  house  abode  in  the  land   of  Goshen, 
I  Joseph  still   ruling  the    country.       Here 
'  Jacob,  when  near  his  end,  gave  Joseph  a 
j  portion  above  his  brethren,  doubtless  in- 
I  eluding  the  "  parcel  of  ground  "  at  She- 
chem,  his  future  burying-place  (comp.  John 
iv.  5).     Then  he  blessed  his  sons,  Joseph 
most  earnestly  of  all,  and  died  in  Egypt. 
"  And  Joseph  fell  upon  his  face,  and  wept 
upon  him,  and  kissed  him"  (1.  1).     When 
he  had  caused  him  to  be  embalmed  by  "his 
servants  the  physicians,"  he  carried  him  to 
Canaan,  and  laid  him  in  the  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah,    the   burying-place   of   his    fathers. 
Then  it  was  that  his  brethren  feared  that, 
their  father  being  dead,  Joseph  would  pun- 
ish them,  and  that  he  strove  to  remove 
their  fears.     We  know  no  more  of  Joseph 
than   that   he   lived    "  a  hundred   and  ten 
years,"  having  been  more  than  ninety  in 
Egypt;   that  he   "  saw  Ephraim's  children 
of  the  third"  [generation],  and  that  "the 
children  also  of  Machir  the  son  of  Manas- 
seh  were  borne  upon  Joseph's  knees ;  "  and 
that  dying  he  took  an  oath  of  his  brethren 
that  they  should  carry  up  his  bones  to  the 
land  of  promise  :  thus  showing  in  his  latest 
action  the  faith  (Heb.  xi.  22)  which  had 
guided  Ills  whole  life.    Like  his  father  he 
was  embalmed,  "  and  he  was  put  in  a  coffin 
in  Egypt"   (1.26).     His  trust  Moses  kept, 
and  laid  the  bones  of  Joseph  in  liis  inherit- 
ance in  Shechem,  in  the  territory  of  Ephra- 
im  his  offspring.     As  to  the  dynasty  which 
ruled  in  Egypt  during  Joseph's  residence, 
see  Egypt.     2.  Father  of  Igal  who  repre- 
sented the  tribe  of  Issachar  among  the  spies 
(Num.  TfHi.  7).    3.  A  lay  Israelite  of  tho 


JOSEPH 


ai6 


JOSHUA 


family  of  Bani  who  was  compelled  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his   foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  42). 

4.  Kepresentative  of  the  priestly  family  of 
Shebaniah,  in  the  next  generation  after 
the  Return  from  Captivity  (Neh.  xii.  14). 

5.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  Christ  (Luke  iii. 
30),  son  of  Jonan.  6.  Another  ancestor 
of  Christ,  son  of  Judah  (Luke  iii.  26).  7. 
Another,  son  of  Mattathias  (Luke  iii.  24). 
8-  Son  of  Heli,  and  reputed  father  of  Jesus 
Christ.  All  that  is  told  us  of  Joseph  in  the 
N.  T.  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words. 
He  was  a  just  man,  and  of  the  house  and 
lineage  of  David.  The  public  registers 
also  contained  his  name  under  the  reckon- 
ing of  the  house  of  David  (John  i.  45 ;  Luke 
iii.  23;  Matt.  i.  20;  Luke  ii.  4).  He  lived 
at  Nazareth  in  Galilee,  and  it  is  probable 
that  his  family  had  been  settled  there  for 
at  least  two  preceding  generations,  possibly 
from  the  time  of  Matthat,  the  common 
grandfather  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  since 
Mary  lived  there  too  (Luke  i.  26,  27).  He 
espoused  Mary,  the  daughter  and  heir  of 
his  uncle  Jacob,  and  before  he  took  her 
home  as  his  wife  received  the  angelic  com- 
munication recorded  in  Matt.  i.  20.  When 
Jesus  was  12  years  old  Joseph  and  Mary 
took  him  with  them  to  keep  the  Passover 
at  Jerusalem,  and  when  they  returned  to 
Nazareth  he  continued  to  act  as  a  father  to 
the  child  Jesus,  and  was  reputed  to  be  so 
indeed.  But  here  our  knowledge  of  Joseph 
ends.  That  he  died  before  our  Lord's 
crucifixion,  is  indeed  tolerably  certain,  by 
what  is  related,  John  xix.  27,  and  perhaps 
Mark  vi.  3  may  imply  that  he  was  then 
dead.  But  where,  when,  or  how  he  died, 
we  know  not.  9.  Joseph  of  Akima- 
THAEA,  a  rich  and  pious  Israelite,  is  denom- 
inated by  Mark  (xv.  43),  an  honorable 
counsellor,  by  which  we  are  probably  to 
understand  that  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Great  Council,  or  Sanhedrim.  He  is  fur- 
ther characterized  as  "a  good  man  and  a 
just"  (Luke  xxiii.  50),  one  of  those  who, 
bearing  in  their  hearts  the  words  of  their  old 
prophets,  were  waiting  for  the  kingdom  of 
God  (Mark  xv.  43 ;  Luke  ii.  25,  38,  xxiii. 
51).  We  are  expressly  told  that  he  did  not 
"  consent  to  the  counsel  and  deed  "  of  his 
colleagues  in  conspiring  to  bring  about  the 
death  of  Jesus ;  but  he  seems  to  have  lacked 
the  courage  to  protest  against  their  judg- 
ment. At  all  events  we  know  that  he 
shrank,  through  fear  of  his  countrymen, 
from  professing  himself  openly  a  disciple 
of  our  Lord.  The  crucifixion  seems  to  have 
wrought  in  him  the  same  clear  conviction 
that  it  wrought  in  the  Centurion  who  stood 
by  the  cross ;  for  on  the  very  evening  of 
that  dreadful  day,  when  the  triumph  of  the 
chief  priests  and  rulers  seemed  complete, 
Joseph  "went  in  boldly  unto  Pilate  and 
craved  the  body  of  Jesus."  Pilate  con- 
sented.   Joseph  and  Nicodemus  then,  hav- 


ing enfolded  the  sacred  body  in  the  linen 
shroud  which  Joseph  had  bought,  consigned 
it  to  a  tomb  hewn  in  a  rock,  a  tomb  where 
no  human  corpse  had  ever  yet  been  laid. 
The  tomb  was  in  a  garden  belonging  to 
Joseph,  and  close  to  the  place  of  cruci- 
fixion. There  is  a  tradition  that  he  was 
one  of  the  seventy  disciples.  10.  Joseph, 
called  Barsabas,  and  surnamed  Justus ; 
one  of  the  two  persons  chosen  by  the  as- 
sembled church  (Acts  i.  23)  as  worthy  to 
fill  the  place  in  the  Apostolic  company  from 
which  Judas  had  fallen. 

Jo'ses.  1.  Son  of  Eliezer,  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  29).  2.  One  of 
the  Lord's  brethren  (Matt.  xiii.  55 ;  Mark 
vi.  3).  3.  JosEs  Babnabas  (Acts  iv.  36). 
[Barnabas.] 

Jo'shah,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Sim- 
eon, son  of  Amaziah,  in  the  days  of  Heze- 
kiah  (I  Clir.  iv.  34,  38-41). 

Josh'aphat,  the  Mithnite,  one  of  Da- 
vid's guard  (1  Chr.  xi.  43). 

Joshavi'ah,  the  son  of  Elnaam,  and 
one  of  David's  guards  (1  Chr.  xi.  46). 

Joshbek'ashah,  son  of  Hcman,  head 
of  the  17th  course  of  musicians  (1  Chr. 
XXV.  4,  24). 

Josh.'ua.  His  name  appears  in  the 
various  forms  of  Hoshea,  Oshea,  Jehosh- 
UA,  Jeshca,  and  Jesus.  1.  The  son  of 
Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (1  Chr.  vii. 
27),  and  was  nearly  forty  years  old  wlien 
he  shared  in  the  hurried  triumph  of  the  Ex- 
odus. He  is  mentioned  first  in  connection 
with  the  fight  against  Amalek  at  Eephidim, 
when  he  was  chosen  by  Moses  to  lead  the 
Israelites  (Ex.  xvii.  9).  When  Moses  as- 
cended Mount  Sinai  to  receive  for  the  first 
time  the  two  Tables,  Joshua,  who  is  called 
his  minister  or  servant,  accompanied  him 
part  of  the  way,  and  was  the  first  to  accost 
him  in  his  descent  (Ex.  xxxii.  17).  Soon 
afterwards  he  was  one  of  the  twelve  chiefs 
who  were  sent  (Num.  xiii.  17)  to  explore 
the  land  of  Canaan,  and  one  of  the  two 
(xiv.  6)  who  gave  an  encouraging  report 
of  their  journey.  The  40  years  of  wander- 
ing were  almost  passed,  and  Joshua  was 
one  of  the  few  survivors,  when  Moses, 
shortly  before  his  death,  was  directed  (Num. 
xxvii.  18)  to  invest  Joshua  solemnly  and 
publicly  with  definite  authority,  in  connec- 
tion with  Eleazar  the  priest,  over  the  peo- 
ple. And  after  this  was  done,  God  Him- 
self gave  Joshua  a  charge  by  the  mouth  of 
the  dying  Lawgiver  (Deut.  xxxi.  14,  23). 
Under  the  direction  of  God  again  renewed 
(Josh.  i.  1),  Joshua  assumed  the  command 
of  the  people  at  Sbittim,  sent  spies  into  Jer- 
icho, crossed  the  Jordan,  fortified  a  camp 
at  Gilgal,  circumcised  the  people,  kept  the 
passover,  and  was  visited  by  the  Captain 
of  the  Lord's  Host.  A  miracle  made  the  fall 
of  Jericho  more  terrible  to  the  Canaanites. 
In  tl>f  first  attack  upon  Ai  the  Israelites 


JOSHTJA,  BOOK  OP 


817 


JOSIAH 


were  repulsed  :  it  fell  at  the  second  assault, 
and  the  invaders  marched  to  the  relief  of 
Gibeon.  In  the  great  battle  of  Bethhoron 
the  Amorites  were  signally  routed,  and  the 
south  country  was  open  to  the  Israelites. 
Joshua  returned  to  the  camp  at  Gilgal, 
master  of  half  of  Palestine.  In  the  north, 
at  the  waters  of  Merom,  he  defeated  the 
Canaanites  under  Jabin  king  of  Hazor,  and 
pursued  his  success  to  the  gates  of  Zidon 
and  into  the  valley  of  Lebanon  under  Her- 
mon.  In  six  years,  six  tribes  with  thirty- 
one  petty  chiefs  were  conquered ;  amongst 
others  the  Anakim  —  the  old  terror  of  Is- 
rael —  are  especially  recorded  as  destroyed 
everywhere  except  in  Philistia.  Joshua, 
now  stricken  in  years,  proceeded  in  con- 
junction with  Eleazar  and  the  heads  of  the 
tribes  to  complete  the  division  of  the  con- 
quered land;  and  when  all  was  allotted, 
Timnath-serah  in  Mount  Ephraim  was  as- 
signed by  the  people  as  Joshua's  peculiar 
inheritance.  After  an  interval  of  rest, 
Joshua  convoked  an  assembly  from  all  Is- 
rael. He  delivered  two  solemn  addresses, 
reminding  them  of  the  marvellous  fulfil- 
ment of  God's  promises  to  their  fathers,  and 
warning  them  of  the  conditions  on  which 
their  prosperity  depended;  and  lastly,  he 
caused  them  to  renew  their  covenant  with 
God  at  Shechem,  a  place  already  famous 
in  connection  with  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxv.  4), 
and  Joseph  (Josh.  xxiv.  32).  He  died  at 
the  age  of  110  years,  and  was  buried  in  his 
own  city,  Timnath-serah.  2.  An  inhab- 
itant of  Bethshemesh,  in  whose  land  was 
tlie  stone  at  which  the  milch-kine  stopped, 
when  they  drew  the  ark  of  God  with  the 
offerings  of  the  Philistines  from  Ekron  to 
Bethshemesh  (1  Sam.  vi.  14,  18).  3.  A 
governor  of  the  city  who  gave  his  name  to 
a  gate  of  Jerusalem  (2  K.  xxiii.  8).  4. 
Jeshca  the  son  of  Jozadak  (Hag.  i.  14,  ii. 
1 ;  Zech.  iii.  1,  &c.). 

Joshua,  Book  of.  This  book  has 
been  regarded  by  many  critics  as  a  part  of 
the  Pentateuch,  forming  with  the  latter  one 
complete  work ;  but  there  do  not  appear  to 
be  sufficient  grounds  for  this  opinion.  The 
fact  that  the  first  sentence  of  Joshua  begins 
with  a  conjunction  does  not  show  any  closer 
connection  between  it  and  the  Pentateuch 
than  exists  between  Judges  and  it.  The 
references  in  i.  8,  viii.  31,  xxiii.  6,  xxiv. 
20,  to  the  "book  of  the  law"  rather  show 
that  that  book  was  distinct  from  Joshua. 
Other  references  to  events  recorded  in  the 
Pentateuch  tend  in  the  same  direction.  No 
quotation  (in  the  strict  modem  sense  of  the 
word)  from  the  Pentateuch  can  be  found  in 
Joshua.  —  The  book  may  be  regarded  as 
consisting  of  three  parts :  (I.)  The  con- 
quest of  Canaan;  (II.)  The  partition  of 
Canaan;  (III.)  Joshua's  farewell.  I.  The 
preparations  for  the  war  and  the  passage 
of  the  Jordan,  ch.  1-6 ;  the  capture  of  Jeri- 


I  cho,  6 ;  the  conquest  of  the  south,  7-10;  the 
conquest  of  the  north,  11;  recapitulation, 
12.  II.  Territory  assigned  to  Eeuben, 
Gad,  and  half  Manasseh,  13;  the  lot  of  Ca- 
leb and  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  14, 15 ;  Ephra- 
im and  half  Manasseh,  16,  17 ;  Benja- 
min, 18 ;  Simeon,  Zebulun,  Issachar,  Asher, 
Naphtali,  and  Dan,  19 ;  the  appointment  of 
six  cities  of  refuge,  20;  the  assignment  of 
forty-eight  cities  to  Levi,  21 ;  the  departure 
of  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  to  their  homes, 
22.  This  part  of  the  book  has  been  aptly 
compared  to  the  Domesday-book  of  the 
Norman  conquerors  of  England.  The  doc- 
uments of  which  it  consists  were  doubtless 
the  abstract  of  such  reports  as  were  supplied 
by  the  men  whom  Joshua  sent  out  to  de- 
scribe the  land.  In  the  course  of  time  it 
is  probable  that  changes  were  introduced 
into  their  reports  by  transcribers  adapting 
them  to  the  actual  state  of  the  country  in 
later  times,  when  political  divisions  were 
modified,  new  towns  sprang  up  and  old 
ones  disappeared.  III.  Joshua's  convoca- 
tion of  the  people  and  first  address,  23 ;  hia 
second  address  at  Shechem,  and  liis  death, 
24.  Nothing  is  really  known  as  to  the  au- 
thorship of  the  book.  Joshua  himself  is 
generally  named  as  the  author  by  the  Jew- 
ish writers  and  the  Christian  Fathers ;  but 
no  contemporary  assertion  or  sufficient  his- 
torical proof  of  the  fact  exists,  and  it  can- 
not be  maintained  without  qualification. 
The  last  verses  (xxiv.  29-33)  were  obvi- 
ously added  at  a  later  time.  Some  events, 
such  as  the  capture  of  Hebron,  of  Debit 
(Josh.  XV.  13-19,  and  Judg.  i.  10-15),  of 
Leshem  (Josh.  xix.  47,  and  Judg.  xviii. 
7),  and  the  joint  occupation  of  Jerusalem 
(Josh.  XV.  63,  and  Judg.  i.  21)  probably 
did  not  occur  till  after  Joshua's  death. 

Josi'ah.  1.  The  son  of  Amon  and 
Jedidah,  succeeded  his  father  b.  c.  641,  in 
the  eighth  year  of  his  age,  and  reigned  31 
years.  His  history  is  contained  in  2  K. 
xxii.-xxiv.  SO;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.,  xxxv. ;  and 
the  first  twelve  chapters  of  Jeremiah  throw 
much  light  upon  the  general  character  of 
the  Jews  in  his  days.  He  began  in  the 
eighth  year  of  his  reign  to  seek  the  Lord ; 
and  in  his  twelfth  year,  and  for  six  years 
afterwards,  in  a  personal  progress  through- 
out all  the  land  of  Judah  and  Israel,  he 
destroyed  everywhere  high  places,  groves, 
images,  and  .all  outward  signs  and  relics  of 
idolatry.  The  temple  was  restored  under  a 
special. commission;  and  in  the  course  of 
the  repairs  Hilkiah  the  priest  found  that 
book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord  which  quick- 
ened so  remarkably  the  ardent  zeal  of  the 
king.  The  great  day  of  Josiah's  life  was 
the  day  of  the  Passover  in  the  eighteenth 
year  of  his  reign.  After  this,  his  endeavors 
to  abolish  every  trace  of  idolatry  and  super- 
stition were  still  carried  en.  But  the  time 
drew  near  which  had  been  indicated  by 


JOSIAS 


318 


JUDA 


Huldah  (2  K.  xxii.  20).  "When  Pharaoh- 
Necho  went  from  Egypt  to  Carcheniisli  to 
carry  on  his  war  against  Assyria,  Josiah, 
possibly  in  a  spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  As- 
syrian king,  to  whom  he  may  have  been 
bound,  opposed  his  march  along  the  sea- 
coast.  Necho  reluctantly  paused  and  gave 
him  battle  in  the  valley  of  Esdraelon.  Jo- 
siah was  mortally  wounded,  and  died  be- 
fore he  could  reach  Jerusalem.  He  was 
buried  with  extraordinary  honors.  2.  The 
eon  of  Zephaniah,  at  whose  house  the 
prophet  Zechariah  was  commanded  to  as- 
eerable  the  chief  men  of  the  captivity,  to 
witness  the  solemn  and  symbolical  crown- 
ing of  Joshua  the  high-priest  (Zech.  vi.  9). 

Josi'as.  Josiah,  king  of  Judah  (Matt. 
i.  10,  11). 

Josibi'ah,  the  father  of  Jehu,  a  Simeon- 
ite  (1  Chr.  iv.  35). 

Josiphi'ah,  the  father  or  ancestor  of 
8helonaith,  who  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezr. 
viii.  10). 

Jot'bah.,  the  native  place  of  Meshulle- 
moth,  tlie  queen  of  Manasseh  (2  K.  xxi.  19). 

Jot'bath,  or  Jofbathah  (Deut.  x.  7 ; 
Num.  xxxiii.  33),  a  desert  station  of  the 
Israelites. 

Jo'tham.  1.  The  youngest  son  of 
Gideon  (Judg.  ix.  5),  who  escaped  from  the 
massacre  of  his  brethren.  His  parable  of 
the  reign  of  the  bramble  is  the  earliest  ex- 
ample of  the  kind.  2.  The  son  of  king 
Uzziah  or  Azarah  and  Jerushah.  After 
iiil:i\inistering  the  kingdom  for  some  years 
during  Ms  father's  leprosy,  he  succeeded  to 
the  throne  b.  c.  758,  when  he  was  25  years 
eld,  and  reigned  16  years  in  Jerusalem. 
He  was  contemporary  with  Pekah  and  with 
the  prophet  Isaiah.  His  history  is  con- 
tained in  2  K.  XV.  and  2  Chr.  xxvii.  3.  A 
descendant  of  Judah,  son  of  Jahdai  (1  Chr. 
u.  47). 

Joz'abad.  1.  A  captain  of  the  thou- 
sands of  Manasseh,  who  deserted  to  David 
before  the  battle  of  Gilboa  (1  Chr.  xii.  20). 
2.  A  hero  of  Manasseh,  like  the  preceding 
(1  Chr.  xii.  20).  3.  A  Levite  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  13).  4.  A  chief 
Levite  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxv. 
9).  5.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jeslma,  in  the 
days  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  33).  Probably 
identical  with  7.  6.  A  priest  of  the  sons 
of  Pashur,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
(Ezr.  X.  22).  7.  A  Levite  among  those 
who  returned  with  Ezra  and  had  married 
foreign  wives.  He  is  probably  identical 
with  Jozabad  the  Levite  (Neh.  viii.  7) ; 
and  with  Jozabad,  who  presided  over  the 
outer  work  of  the  Temple  (Neh.  xi.  IG). 

Joz'ach.ar,  the  son  of  Shimeath  the 
Ammonitess,  and  one  of  the  murderers  of 
Joash  king  of  Judah  (2  K.  xii.  21).  The 
writer  of  the  Chronicles  (2  Chr.  xxiv.  26) 
calls  him  Zabad,  which  is  nothing  more 
than  a  clerical  error  for  Jozachar. 


Joz'adak,  Ezr.  iii.  2,  8  ;  V.  2 ;  X.  18 ,  Neh. 
xii.  26.  The  contracted  form  of  Jehozadak. 

Ju'bal,  a  son  of  Lamech  by  Adah,  and 
the  inventor  of  the  "harp  and  organ" 
(Gen.  iv.  21),  probably  general  terms  for 
stringed  and  wind  instruments. 

Jubilee,  Tlie  Year  of,  the  fiftieth 
year  after  the  succession  of  seven  Sabbati- 
cal years,  in  which  all  the  land  which  had 
been  alienated  returned  to  the  families  of 
those  to  whom  it  had  been  allotted  in  the 
original  distribution,  and  all  bondmen  of 
Hebrew  blood  were  liberated.  The  rela- 
tion in  which  it  stood  to  the  Sabbatical 
year  and  the  general  directions  for  its  ob- 
servance are  given  Lev.  xxv.  8-16  -and  23- 
55.  Its  bearing  on  lands  dedicated  to  Je- 
hovah is  stated  Lev.  xxvii.  16-25.  There 
is  no  mention  of  the  Jubilee  in  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy,  and  the  only  other  refer- 
ence to  it  in  the  Pentateuch  is  in  Num. 
xxxvi.  4.  The  year  was  inaugurated  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement  with  the  blowing  of 
trumpets  throughout  the  land,  and  by  a 
proclamation  of  universal  liberty.  Jose- 
phus  states  that  all  debts  were  remitted  in 
the  year  of  Jubilee;  but  the  Scripture 
speaks  of  the  remission  of  debts  only  in 
connection  with  the  Sabbatical  year  (Deut. 
XV.  1,  2),  and  the  Jewish  writers  say  ex- 
pressly that  the  remission  of  debts  was  a 
point  of  distinction  between  the  Sabbatical 
year  and  the  Jubilee.  The  Jewish  writers 
in  general  consider  that  the  Jubilee  was 
observed  till  the  destruction  of  the  first 
temple.  But  there  is  no  direct  historical 
notice  of  its  observance  on  any  one  occa- 
sion, either  in  the  books  of  the  O.  T.,  or  in 
any  other  records.  The  only  passages  in 
the  Prophets  which  can  be  regarded  with 
much  confidence,  as  referring  to  the  Ju- 
bilee in  any  way,  are  Is.  v.  7,  8,  9,  10,  Ixi. 
1,  2;  Ez.  vii.  12,  13,  xlvi.  16,  17,  18.  The 
Jubilee  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  outer  cir- 
cle of  that  great  Sabbatical  system  which 
comprises  within  it  the  Sabbatical  year, 
the  sabbatical  month,  and  the  sabbath  day. 
But  the  Jubilee  is  more  immediately  con- 
nected with  the  body  politic ;  and  it  was 
only  as  a  member  of  the  state  tliat  each 
person  concerned  could  participate  in  it.s 
provisions.  It  was  not  distinguished  by 
any  prescribed  religious  observance  pecu- 
liar to  itself,  like  the  rites  of  the  sabbath 
day  and  of  the  sabbatical  month.  As  far 
as  legislation  could  go,  its  provisions  tend- 
ed to  restore  that  equality  in  outward  cir- 
cumstances which  was  instituted  in  the 
first  settlement  of  the  land  by  Joshua. 

Ju'cal,  son  of  Shelemiah  (Jer.  xxxviii. 

Ju'da.  1.  Son  of  Joseph  in  the  gen- 
ealogy of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  30).  2.  Son 
of  Joanna,  or  Hananiah  [Hananiah,  8] 
(Luke  iii.  26).  He  seems  to  be  certainly 
the  same  person  as  Abiud  in  Matt.  i.  13. 


JUDAEA 


319 


JUDAH,  KINGDOM  OF 


3.  One  of  the  Lord's  brethren,  enumerated 
in  Mark  vi.  3.  4.  The  patriarch  Judah 
(Sus.  56 ;  Luke  iii.  33 ;  Heb.  vii.  14 ;  Rev. 
V.  5,  vii.  5). 

Judae'a,  or  Judo'a,  a  territorial  divis- 
ion which  succeeded  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  ancient  landmarks  of  the  tribes  of  Is- 
rael and  Judah  in  their  respective  captivi- 
ties. The  word  first  occurs  Dan.  v.  13  (A. 
V.  "  Jewry  "),  and  the  first  mention  of  the 
"province  of  Judea"  is  in  the  book  of 
Ezra  (v.  8) ;  it  is  alluded  to  in  Neh.  xi.  3 
(A.  V.  "Judah"),  and  was  the  result  of 
the  division  of  tlie  Persian  empire  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus  (iii.  89-97),  under 
Darius  (comp.  Esth.  viii.  9;  Dan.  vi.  1). 
In  the  Apocryphal  Books  the  word  "  prov- 
ince "  is  dropped,  and  throughout  the 
books  of  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith,  and  Mac- 
cabees, the  expressions  are  the  "  land  of 
Judaea,"  "  Judaea "  (A.  V.  frequently 
"Jewry"),  and  throughout  the  N.  T.  In 
a  wide  and  more  improper  sense,  the  term 
Judaea  was  sometimes  extended  to  the 
whole  country  of  the  Canaanites,  its  an- 
cient inhabitants ;  and  even  in  the  Gospels 
we  seem  to  read  of  the  coasts  of  Judaea 
"beyond  Jordan"  (Matt.  xix.  1;  Mark  x. 
1).  Judaea  was,  in  strict  language,  the 
name  of  the  third  district,  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  south  of  Samaria.  It  was  made 
a  portion  of  the  Roman  province  of  Syria 
upon  the  deposition  of  Archelaus,  the  eth- 
narch  of  Judea,  in  a.  d.  6,  and  was  gov- 
erned by  a  procurator,  who  was  subject  to 
the  governor  of  Syria. 

Ju'dah,  the  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  the 
fourth  of  Leah,  the  last  before  the  tempo- 
rary cessation  in  the  births  of  her  children. 
His  whole-brothers  were  Reuben,  Simeon, 
and  Levi,  elder  than  himself —  Issachar 
and  Zebulun,  younger  (see  Gen.  xxxv.  23). 
Of  Judah's  personal  character  more  traits 
are  preserved  than  of  any  other  of  the  pa- 
triarchs, with  the  exception  of  Joseph.  In 
the  matter  of  the  sale  of  Joseph,  he  and 
Reuben  stand  out  in  favorable  contrast  to 
the  rest  of  the  brothers.  Wh^n  a  second 
visit  to  Egypt  for  corn  had  become  inevita- 
ble, it  was  Judali  who,  as  the  mouthpiece 
of  the  rest,  headed  the  remonstrance  against 
the  detention  of  Benjamin  by  Jacob,  and 
finally  undertook  to  be  responsible  for  the 
safety  of  the  lad  (xliii.  3-10).  And  when, 
through  Joseph's  artifice,  the  brothers  were 
brought  back  to  the  palace,  he  is  again  the 
leader  and  spokesman  of  the  band.  So  too 
it  is  Judah  who  is  sent  before  Jacob  to 
smooth  the  way  for  him  in  the  land  of  Go- 
shen (xlvi.  28).  This  ascendency  over 
his  brethren  is  reflected  in  the  last  words 
addressed  to  him  by  his  father.  His  sons 
were  five.  Of  these,  three  were  by  his 
Canaanite  wife  Bath-shua.  They  are  all 
insignificant;  two  died  early ;  and  the  third, 
SuELAH,  does  not  come  prominently  for- 


ward, either  in  his  person  or  his  family. 
The  other  two,  Pharez  and  Zerah,  were 
illegitimate  sons  by  the  widow  of  Er,  the 
eldest  of  the  former  family.  As  is  not  un- 
frequently  the  case,  the  illegitimate  sons 
surpassed  the  legitimate,  and  from  Pharez, 
the  elder,  were  descended  the  royal  and 
other  illustrious  families  of  Judah.  The 
three  sons  went  with  their  father  into  Egypt 
at  the  time  of  the  final  removal  thither 
(Gen.  xlvi.  12;  Ex.  i.  2).  When  we  again 
meet  with  the  families  of  Judah  they  occu- 
py a  position  among  the  tribes  similar  to 
that  which  their  progenitor  had  taken 
amongst  the  patriarchs.  The  numbers  of 
the  tribe  at  the  census  at  Sinai  were  74,600 
(Num.  i.  26,  27),  considerably  in  advance 
of  any  of  the  others,  the  largest  of  which 
—  Dan  —  numbered  62,700.  On  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Promised  Land  the^  were  76,500 
(xxvi.  22),  Dan  being  still  the  nearest. 
During  the  march  through  the  desert,  Ju- 
dah's place  was  in  the  van  of  the  host,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Tabernacle,  with  his 
kinsmen  Issachar  and  Zebulun  (ii.  3-9,  x. 
14).  During  the  conquest  of  the  country 
the  only  incidents  specially  affecting  the 
tribe  of  Judah  are  —  (1)  the  misdeed  of 
Achan,  who  was  of  the  great  house  of  Ze- 
rah (Josh.  vii.  1,  16-18)  ;  and  (2)  the  con- 
quest of  the  mountain  district  of  Hebron 
by  Caleb,  and  of  the  strong  city  Debir, 
in  the  same  locality,  by  his  nephew  and 
son-in-law  Othniel  (Josh.  xiv.  6-15,  xv.  13- 
19).  The  boundaries  and  contents  of  the 
territory  allotted  to  Judah  are  narrated  at 
great  length,  and  with  greater  minuteness 
than  the  others,  in  Josh.  xv.  20-63.  The 
north  boundary,  for  the  most  part  coinci- 
dent with  the  south  boundary  of  Benjamin, 
began  at  the  embouchure  of  the  Jordan, 
entered  the  hills  apparently  at  or  about 
the  present  road  from  Jericho,  ran  west- 
ward to  En-shemesh,  probably  the  pres- 
ent Ain-Uaud,  below  Bethany,  thence  over 
the  Mount  of  Olives  to  Enrogel,  in  the 
valley  beneath  Jerusalem ;  went  along  the 
ravine  of  Hinnom,  under  the  precipices  of 
the  city,  climbed  the  hill  in  a  N.  W.  direc- 
tion to  the  water  of  the  Nephtoah  (probably 
Lifta),  and  thence  byKirjath-Jearim  (prob- 
ably Kuriet-el-Enab),  Bethshemesh  {Ain- 
Shems),  Timuath,  and  Ekron  to  Jabneel  on 
the  sea-coast.  On  the  east  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  on  the  west  the  Mediterranean,  formed 
the  boundaries.  The  southern  line  is  hard 
to  determine,  since  it  is  denoted  by  places 
many  of  which  have  not  been  identified.  It 
left  the  Dead  Sea  at  its  extreme  south  end, 
and  joined  the  Mediterranean  at  the  Wady 
el-Arish.  This  territory  is  in  average 
length  about  45  miles,  and  in  average 
breadth  about  50. 

Ju'dah,  Kingdom  of.  When  the  dis- 
ruption of  Solomon's  kingdom  took  place  at 
Shechem,  only  the  tribe  of  Judah  followed 


JTJDAH,  KINGDOM  OF 


320 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT 


thehouse  of  David.  But  almost  immediately 
afterwards,  when  Rehoboara  conceived  the 
design  of  establisliing  his  authority  over 
Israel  by  force  of  arms,  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin also  is  recorded  as  obeying  his  sum- 
mons, and  contributing  its  warriors  to  make 
up  his  army.  Two  Benjamite  towns.  Bethel 
and  Jericho,  were  included  in  the  northern 
kixgdora.  A  part,  if  not  all,  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Simeon  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6 ;  1  K.  xix. 
S ;  comp.  Josh.  xix.  1)  and  of  Dan  (2  Chr. 
xi.  10;  comp.  Josh.  xix.  41,  42)  was  recog- 
nized as  belonging  to  Judah ;  and  in  the 
reigns  of  Abijah  and  Asa  the  southern 
kingdom  was  enlarged  by  some  additions 
taken  out  of  the  territory  of  Ephraim  (2 
Chr.  xiii.  19,  xv.  8,  xvii.  2).  The  kingdom 
of  Judah  possessed  many  advantages  which 
secured  for  it  a  longer  continuance  than 
that  of  Israel.  A  frontier  less  exposed  to 
powerful  enemies,  a  soil  less  fertile,  a  popu- 
lation hardier  and  more  united,  a  fixed  and 
venerated  centre  of  administration  and  re- 
ligion, an  hereditary  aristocracy  in  the  sac- 
erdotal caste,  an  army  always  subordinate, 
a  succession  of  kings  which  no  revolution 
interrupted  :  —  to  these  and  other  secon- 
dary causes  is  to  be  attributed  the  fact  that 
Judah  survived  her  more  populous  and 
more  powerful  sister  kingdom  by  135  years, 
and  lasted  from  b.  c.  975  to  b.  c.  636.  (a.) 
The  first  three  kings  of  Judah  seem  to 
have  cherished  the  hope  of  re-establishing 
their  authority  over  the  Ten  Tribes ;  for 
sixty  years  there  was  war  between  tliem 
and  the  kings  of  Israel.  The  victory 
achieved  by  the  daring  Abijah  brought  to 
Judah  a  temporary  accession  of  territory. 
Asa  appears  to  have  enlarged  it  still  fur- 
ther. (6.)  Hanani's  remonstrance  (2  Chr. 
xvi.  7)  prepares  us  for  the  reversal  by  Je- 
hoshaphat  of  the  policy  which  Asa  pursued 
towards  Israel  and  Damascus.  A  close 
alliance  sprang  up  with  strange  rapidity 
between  Judah  and  Israel.  Jehoshaphat, 
active  and  prosperous,  repelled  nomad  in- 
vaders from  the  desert,  curbed  the  aggres- 
sive spirit  of  his  nearer  neighbors,  and 
made  his  influence  felt  even  among  the 
Philistines  and  Arabians.  Amaziah,  flushed 
with  the  recovery  of  Edom,  provoked  a 
war  witli  his  more  powerful  contemporary 
Jehoash  the  conqueror  of  the  Syrians  ;  and 
Jerusalem  was  entered  and  plundered  by 
the  Israelites.  Under  Uzziah  and  Jotham, 
Judah  long  enjoyed  political  and  religious 
prosperity,  till  Ahaz  became  the  tributary 
and  vassal  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  (c.)  Al- 
ready in  the  fatal  grasp  of  Assyria,  Judah 
was  yet  spared  for  a  checkered  existence 
of  almost  another  century  and  a  half  after 
the  termination  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
The  consummation  of  the  ruin  came  upon 
them  in  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  by 
tlie  hand  of  Nebuzaradan,  amid  the  wail- 
ings  of  prophets,  and  the  taunts  of  heathen 


tribes  released  at  length  from  the  yoke  of 
David. 

Ju'das,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
name  Judah,  occurring  in  the  LXX.  and 
N.  T.  1.  The  Patriarch  Judah  (Matt.  i. 
2,  3).  2.  A  man  residing  at  Damascus,  in 
"  the  street  which  is  called  Straight,"  in 
whose  house  Saul  of  Tarsus  lodged  after 
his  miraculous  conversion  (Acts  ix.  11). 

Ju'das,  surnamed  Bar'sabas,  a  lead- 
ing member  of  the  Apostolic  church  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  22),  endued  with  the 
gift  of  prophecy  (ver.  32),  cliosen  with 
Silas  to  accompany  Paul  and  Barnabas  as 
delegates  to  the  church  at  Antioch,  to  make 
known  the  decree  concerning  the  terms  of 
admission  of  the  Gentile  converts  (ver.  27). 
After  employing  their  prophetical  gifts  for 
the  confirmation  of  the  Syrian  Cliristians  in 
the  faith,  Judas  went  back  to  Jerusalem. 

Ju'das  of  Galilee,  the  leader  of  a 
popular  revolt  "in  the  days  of  the  taxing" 
(t.  e.  the  census,  under  the  prefecture  of 
P.  Sulp.  Quirinus,  a.  d.  6,  a.  u.  c.  759),  re- 
ferred to  by  Gamaliel  in  his  speech  before 
the  Sanhedrim  (Acts  v.  37).  According 
to  Josephus,  Judas  was  a  Gaulonite  of  the 
city  of  Gamala,  probablj'  taking  his  name 
of  Galilean  from  his  insurrection  having 
had  its  rise  in  Galilee.  His  revolt  had  a 
theocratic  character,  the  watchword  of 
which  was,  "  We  have  no  lord  or  master 
but  God."  Judas  himself  perished,  and  his 
followers  were  dispersed.  With  his  fellow- 
insurgent  Sadoc,  a  Pharisee,  Judas  is  rep- 
resented by  Josephus  as  the  founder  of  a 
fourth  sect,  in  addition  to  the  Pharisees, 
Sadducees,  and  Essenes.  The  Gaulonites, 
as  his  followers  were  called,  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  doctrinal  ancestors  of  the 
Zealots  and  Sicarii  of  later  days. 

Ju'das  Iscar'iot.  He  is  sometimes 
called  "  the  son  of  Simon  "  (John  vi.  71, 
xiii.  2,  26),  but  more  commonly  called  (the 
three  Synoptic  Gospels  give  no  other  name) 
Iscariotes  (Matt.  x.  4 ;  Mark  iii.  19 ;  Luke 
vi.  16,  &c.).  In  the  three  lists  of  the 
Twelve  there  is  added  in  each  case  the 
fact  that  he  was  the  betrayer.  The  name 
Iscariot  has  received  manj'  interpretations 
more  or  less  conjectural.  The  most  proba- 
ble are  —  (1)  From  Kerioth  (Josh.  xv.  25), 
in  the  tribe  of  Judah.  On  this  hypothesis 
his  position  among  the  Twelve,  the  rest  of 
whom  belonged  to  Galilee  (Acts  ii.  7), 
would  be  exceptional;  and  this  has  led  to 
(2)  From  Kartha  in  Galilee  (Kartan,  A.  V. 
Josh.  xxi.  22).  (3)  From  scortea,  a  leath- 
ern apron,  the  name  being  applied  to  him 
as  the  bearer  of  the  bag,  and  =  Judas  with 
the  apron.  —  Of  the  life  of  Judas,  before 
the  appearance  of  his  name  in  the  lists  of 
the  Apostles,  we  know  absolutely  nothing. 
What  that  appearance  implies,  however, 
is,  that  he  had  previously  declared  him- 
self a  disciple.     He  was  drawn,  as  the 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT 


321 


JUDE 


others  were,  by  the  preaching  of  the  Bap- 
tist, or  his  own  Messianic  hopes,  or  the 
"gracious  words"  of  the  new  Teacher,  to 
leave  his  former  life,  and  to  obey  the  call  of 
the  Prophet  of  Nazareth.  The  choice  was 
not  made,  we  mu«;  remember,  without  a 
prevision  of  its  issue  (John.  vi.  64).  The 
germs  of  the  evil,  in  all  likelihood,  unfold- 
ed themselves  gradually.  The  rules  to 
which  the  Twelve  were  subject  in  their 
first  journey  (Matt.  x.  9,  10)  shelteced  him 
from  the  temptation  that  would  have  been 
most  dangerous  to  him.  The  new  form 
of  life,  of  which  we  find  the  first  traces  in 
Luke  viii.  3,  brought  that  temptation  with 
it.  As  soon  as  the  Twelve  were  recognized 
as  a  body,  travelling  hither  and  thither  with 
their  Master,  receiving  money  and  other 
offerings,  and  redistributing  what  they  re- 
ceived to  the  poor,  it  became  necessary  that 
some  one  should  act  as  the  steward  and 
almoner  of  the  small  society,  and  this  fell 
to  Judas  (John  xii.  6,  xiii.  29).  The  Gal- 
ilean or  Judaean  peasant  found  himself 
intrusted  with  larger  sums  of  money  than 
before,  and  with  this  there  came  covetous- 
ness,  unfaithfulness,  embezzlement.  It 
was  impossible  after  this  that  he  could  feel 
at  ease  with  One  who  asserted  so  clearly 
and  sharply  the  laws  of  faithfulness,  duty, 
unselfishness.  The  narrative  of  Matt,  xxvi., 
Mark  xiv.,  places  this  history  in  close  con- 
nection with  the  fact  of  the  betrayal.  It 
leaves  the  motives  of  the  betrayer  to  con- 
jecture. The  mere  love  of  money  may 
have  been  strong  enough  to  make  him 
clutch  at  the  bribe  offered  him.  Mingled 
with  this  there  may  have  been  some  feeling 
of  vindictiveness,  a  vague,  confused  desire 
to  show  that  he  had  power  to  stop  the 
career  of  the  Teacher  who  had  reproved 
him.  There  may  have  been  the  thought 
that,  after  all,  the  betrayal  could  do  no 
harm,  that  his  Master  would  prove  his  in- 
nocence, or  by  some  supernatural  manifes- 
tation effect  his  escape.  Another  motive 
has  been  suggested  of  an  entirely  different 
kind,  altering  altogether  the  character  of 
the  act.  Not  the  love  of  money,  nor  re- 
venge, nor  fear,  nor  disappointment,  but 
policy,  a  subtle  plan  to  force  on  the  hour 
of  the  triumph  of  the  Messianic  -kingdom, 
the  belief  that  for  this  service  he  would  re- 
ceive as  high  a  place  as  Peter,  or  James,  or 
John ;  this  it  was  that  maxle  him  the  traitor. 
Ingenious  as  this  hypothesis  is,  it  fails  for 
that  very  reason.  Of  the  other  motives 
that  have  been  assigned  we  need  not  care 
to  fix  on  any  one,  as  that  which  singly  led 
him  on.  During  the  days  that  intervened 
between  the  supper  at  Bethany  and  the 
Paschal  or  quasi- Paschal  gathering,  he  ap- 
peared to  have  concealed  his  treachery.  At 
the  last  Supper  he  5s  present,  looking  for- 
ward to  the  consummation  of  his  guilt  as 
drawing  nearer  every  hour.  Then  come 
21 


the  sorrowful  words  which  showed  him  that 
his  design  was  known.  "  One  of  you  shall 
betray  me."  After  this  there  comes  on  him 
that  paroxysm  and  insanity  of  guilt  as  of 
one  whose  human  soul  was  possessed  by  the 
Spirit  of  Evil —  "  Satan  entered  into  him  " 
(John  xiii.  27).  He  knows  that  garden  in 
which  his  Master  and  his  companions  had 
so  often  rested  after  the  weary  work  of  the 
day.  He  comes,  accompanied  by  a  band 
of  officers  and  servants  (John  xviii.  3),  with 
the  kiss  which  was  probably  the  usual  salu- 
tation of  the  disciples.  The  words  of  Jesus, 
calm  and  gentle  as  they  were,  showed  that 
this  was  what  embittered  the  treachery,  and 
made  the  suffering  it  inflicted  more  acute 
(Luke  xxii.  48).  What  followed  in  the 
confusion  of  that  night  the  Gospels  do  not 
record.  The  fever  of  the  crime  passed 
away.  There  came  back  on  him  the  recol- 
lection of  the  sinless  righteousness  of  the 
Master  he  had  wronged  (Matt,  xxvii.  3). 
He  repented,  and  his  guilt  and  all  that  had 
tempted  him  to  it  became  hateful.  He  car- 
ried back  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  to  the 
chief  priests,  and  confessed  his  sin,  hoping 
perhaps  that  good  might  yet  be  done  by  this 
assertion  of  Christ's  innocence.  Their  only 
answer  was  to  throw  the  responsibility  upon 
him ;  and  casting  down  the  money  on  the 
pavement  of  the  Temple,  he  went  and 
hanged  himself.  His  death  was  made  more 
horrible  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  circumstance  recorded  by  St.  Luke 
in  the  Acts ;  but  most  awful  of  all  is  the 
sentence  which  was  more  than  once  pro- 
nounced upon  him  by  the  Lord,  and  with 
which  Peter  dismisses  his  name  from  the 
Apostles'  list,  "  from  which  Judas  by  trans- 
gression fell,  that  he  might  go  to  his  own 
place."  With  a  scrupulousness  which  is  the 
most  striking  example  of  religious  formal- 
ism glossing  over  moral  deformity,  the 
chief  priests  decided  that  the  thirty  silver- 
pieces,  as  the  price  of  blood,  must  not  be- 
put  back  into  the  treasury;  so  they  pur^ 
chased  with  them  the  potter's  field,  without 
the  city,  as  a  burial-place  for  strangers.  It 
seems  to  be  implied  in  the  narrative  that 
the  field  thus  purchased  was  also  the  place 
where  Judas  committed  suicide,  and  the 
double  memorial  of  the  scene  and  the  price 
of  blood  was  preserved  by  its  name,  Acel- 
dama, the  field  of  blood  (Matt,  xxvii.  3-10; 
Acts  i.  18,  19).  It  is  hardly  necessary  to. 
point  out  that  "  purchased "  in  the  latter- 
passage  is  an  instance  of  a  common  figure  ot 
speech,  implying  indirect  agency.  [Acel- 
dama.] 
Ju'das  Maccabae'us.  [Maccabees.] 
Jude,  or  Ju'das,  Lebbe'us,  and 
Thadde'us  (A.  V.  "  Judas  the  brother  of 
James"),  one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles;  a 
member,  together  with  his  namesake  "  Is- 
cariot,"  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  and 
Simon  Z  jlotes,  of  the  last  of  the  three  sec- 


JUDAS,  THE  LORD'S  BROTHEE    322 


JUDGES 


tions  of  the  Apostolic  body.  The  same 
Judas  only,  without  any  distinguishing 
mark,  occurs  in  the  lists  given  by  St.  Luke 
tI.  16;  Acts  i.  13;  and  in  John  xiv.  22 
(where  we  find  "Judas  not  Iscariot " 
among  the  Apostles),  but  the  Apostle  has 
been  generally  identified  with  "Lebbeus 
whose  surname  was  Thaddeus  "  (Matt.  x. 
3 ;  Mark  iii.  18).  Much  difference  of  opin- 
ion has  existed  from  the  earliest  times  as 
to  the  right  interpretation  of  the  words 
'lox'du?  'laxwfiiw.  The  generally  received 
opinion  is  that  the  A.  V.  is  right  in  trans- 
lating "  Judas  the  brother  of  James."  But 
we  prtfer  to  follow  nearly  all  the  most  em- 
inent critical  authorities,  and  render  the 
words  "  Judas  the  son  of  James."  The 
name  of  Jude  occurs  only  once  in  the  Gos- 
pel narrative  (John  xiv.  22).  Nothing  is 
certainly  known  of  the  later  history  of  the 
Apostle.  Tradition  connects  him  with  the 
foundation  of  the  church  at  Edessa. 

Ju'das,  the  Lord's  brother.  Among 
the  brethren  of  our  Lord  mentioned  by  the 
people  of  Nazareth  (Matt.  xiii.  55 ;  Mark 
vi.  3)  occurs  a  "  Judas,"  who  has  been 
sometimes  identified  with  the  Apostle  of  the 
same  name.  It  has  been  considered  with 
more  probability  that  he  was  the  writer  of 
the  Epistle  which  bears  the  name  of  "  Jude 
the  brother  of  James." 

Jude,  Epistle  of.  Its  author  was  prob- 
ably Jude,  one  of  the  brethren  of  Jesus, 
the  subject  of  the  preceding  article.  Al- 
though the  canon  icity  of  this  Epistle  was 
questioned  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
Church,  there  never  was  any  doubt  of  its 
genuineness.  The  question  was  never 
whether  it  was  the  work  of  an  impostor, 
but  whether  its  author  was  of  suflScient 
weight  to  warrant  its  admission  into  the 
Canon.  Tliis  question  was  gradually  de- 
cided in  its  fiivor.  There  are  no  data  from 
which  to  determine  its  date  or  place  of 
writing.  Lardner  places  the  time  between 
A.  D.  64  and  66,  Davidson  before  a.  d.  70, 
Credner  a.  d.  80,  Calmet,  Estius,  Witsius, 
and  Neander,  after  the  death  of  all  the 
Apostles  but  John,  and  perhaps  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem.  The  object  of  the  Epistle 
is  plainly  enough  announced,  ver.  3 :  the 
reason  for  this  exhortation  is  given  ver.  i. 
The  remainder  of  the  Epistle  is  almost  en- 
tirely occupied  by  a  minute  depiction  of  the 
adversaries  of  the  faith.  The  Epistle  closes 
by  briefly  reminding  the  readers  of  the 
oft-repeated  prediction  of  the  Apostles  — 
among  whom  the  writer  seems  not  to  rank 
himself — that  the  ftiith  would  be  assailed 
by  such  enemies  as  he  has  depicted  (ver. 
17-19),  exliorting  them  to  maintain  their 
own  steadfastness  in  the  faith  (ver.  20,  21), 
while  they  earn?%tly  sought  to  rescue  others 
from  the  corrupt  example  of  those  licentious 
livers  (ver.  22,  23),  and  commending  them 
to  the  power  of  God  in  language  wliich  for- 


cibly recalls  the  closing  benediction  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  (ver.  24,  25;  cf. 
Rom.  xvi.  25-27).  This  Epistle  presents 
one  peculiarity,  which,  as  we  learn  from 
St.  Jerome,  caused  its  authority  to  be  im- 
pugned in  very  early  times  —  the  supposed 
citation  of  apocryphal  writings  (ver.  9,  14, 
15).  The  former  of  these  passages,  con- 
taining the  reference  to  the  contest  of  the 
archangel  Michael  and  the  devil  "  about 
the  body  of  Moses,"  was  supposed  by 
Origen  to  have  been  founded  on  a  Jewish 
work  called  the  "  Assumption  of  Moses." 
As  regards  the  supposed  quotation  from  the 
Book  of  Enoch,  the  question  is  not  so  clear 
whether  St.  Jude  is  making  a  citation  from 
a  work  already  in  the  hands  of  his  readers, 
or  is  employing  a  traditionary  prophecy  not 
at  that  time  committed  to  writing.  The 
larger  portion  of  this  Epistle  (ver.  3-16)  is 
almost  identical  in  language  and  subject 
with  a  part  of  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter 
(2  Pet.  ii.  1-19) .  This  question  is  examined 
in  the  article  Peter,  Second  Epistle  of. 
Judges.  The  Judges  were  temporary 
and  special  deliverers,  sent  by  God  to  de- 
liver the  Israelites  from  their  oppressors, 
not  supreme  magistrates,  succeeding  to  the 
authority  of  Moses  and  Joshua.  Their 
power  only  extended  over  portions  of  the 
country,  and  some  of  them  were  contempo- 
raneous. Their  name  in  Hebrew  is  Sho- 
phetim,  which  is  the  same  as  that  for  ordi- 
nary j'udgies  ;  nor  is  it  applied  to  them  in  a 
different  sense.*  For,  though  their  first 
work  was  that  of  deliverers  and  leaders  in 
war,  they  then  administered  justice  to  the 
people,  and  their  authority  supplied  the 
want  of  a  regular  government.  But  the 
only  recognized  central  authority  was  still 
the  oracle  at  Shiloh,  which  sunk  into  a 
system  of  priestly  weakness  and  disorder 
under  Eli  and  his  sons.  Even  while  the 
administration  of  Samuel  gave  something 
like  a  settled  government  to  the  South, 
there  was  scope  for  the  irregular  exploits 
of  Samson  on  the  borders  of  the  Philistines ; 
and  Samuel  at  last  established  his  ivuthority 
as  Judge  and  prophet,  but  still  as  the  ser- 
vant of  Jehovah,  only  to  see  it  so  abused  by 
his  sons  .as  to  exhaust  the  patience  of  the 
people,  who  at  length  demanded  a  King, 
after  the  pattern  of  the  surrounding  nations. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Judges,  whose 
history  is  given  under  their  respective 
names  :  — 

First  Servitude,  to  Mesopotamia  — 

Fiist  Judge :  Othniel. 
Second  Servitude,  to  Moab  — 

Second  Judge  :  Ehud  ; 

Tliird  Judge :  Shamgar. 
Third  Servitude,  to  Jabin  and  Sisera  — 

Fourth  Judge :  Deborah  and  Barak. 


*  The  Hebrew  word  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Carthaein- 
inn  "  Siiff'ctcs,"  the  name  of  the  magistrates  whom  we  find 
in  the  time  of  tlie  Punic  wars. 


JUDGES,  BOOK  OF  323 


JUDITH 


Fourth  Servitude,  to  Midian  — 

Fifth  Judge :  Gideon  ; 

Siocth  Judge :  Abimelech 

Seventh  Judge  :  Tola  ; 

Eighth  Judge  :  Jair. 
Fifth  Servitude,  to  Ammon  — 

Ninth  Judge  :  Jephthah  ; 

Tenth  Judge  :  Ibzan  ; 

Eleventh  Judge  :  Elon  ; 

Twelfth  Judge :  Abdon. 
Sixth  Servitude,  to  the  Pliilistines  — 

Thirteenth  Judge  :  Samson  ; 

Fourteenth  Judge :  Eli  ; 

Fifteenth  Judge :  Samuel. 

On  the  Chronology  of  the  Judges,  see  the 
following  article. 

Judges,  Book  of,  of  which  the  book  of 
Ruth  formed  originally  a  part,  contains  the 
history  from  Joshua  to  Samson.  As  the  his- 
tory of  the  Judges  occupies  by  far  the  great- 
er part  of  the  narrative,  and  is  at  the  same 
time  the  history  of  the  people,  the  title  of 
the  whole  book  is  derived  from  that  portion. 
The  book  may  be  divided  into  two  parts  — 
(I.)  Ch.  i.-xvi.  The  subdivisions  are  — 
(a)  i.-ii.  5,  which  may  be  considered  as  a 
first  introduction,  giving  a  summary  of  the 
results  of  the  war  carried  on  against'  the 
Canaanites  by  the  several  tribes  on  the 
west  of  Jordan  after  Joshua's  death,  and 
forming  a  continuation  of  Josh.  xii.  (i)  ii. 
6-iii.  6.  This  is  a  second  introduction, 
standing  in  nearer  relation  to  the  following 
history,  (c)  iii.  7-xvi.  The  words,  "  and 
the  children  of  Israel  did  evil  in  the  sight 
of  the  Lord,"  which  had  been  already  used 
in  ii.  11,  are  employed  to  introduce  the  his- 
tory of  the  thirteen  Judges  comprised  in 
this  book.  An  account  of  six  of  these 
thirteen  is  given  at  greater  or  less  length. 
The  account  of  the  remaining  seven  is 
very  short,  and  merely  attached  to  the 
longer  narratives.  We  may  observe  in 
general  on  this  portion  of  the  book,  that  it 
is  almost  entirely  a  history  of  the  wars  of 
deliverance.  (II.)  Ch.  xvii.-xxi.  This 
part  has  no  formal  connection  with  the 
preceding,  and  is  often  called  an  appendix. 
No  mention  of  the  Judges  occurs  in  it.  It 
contains  allusions  to  "  the  house  of  God," 
the  ark,  and  the  high-priest.  The  period 
to  which  the  narrative  relates  is  simply 
maj-kod  by  the  expression,  "  when  there 
was  no  king  in  Israel  "  (xix.  1 ;  cf.  xviii.  1). 
It  records  (a)  the  conquest  of  Laish  by  a 
portion  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  the  estab- 
lishment there  of  the  idolatrous  wosship 
of  Jehovah  already  instituted  by  Micah  in 
Mount  Ephraim.  (i)  The  almost  total 
extinction  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  The 
date  is  marked  by  the  mention  of  Phin- 
ehas,  the  grandson  of  Aaron  (xx.  28). 
From  the  above  account  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  history  ceases  with  Samson,  ex- 
cluding Eli  and  Samuel ;  and  then  at  this 


point  two  historical  pieces  are  added  — 
xvii.-xxi.,  and  the  book  of  Ruth  —  inde- 
pendent of  the  general  plan  and  of  each 
other.  This  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the 
supposition  that  the  books  from  Judges  to 
2  Kings  formed  one  work.  [Kings,  Books 
of.]  In  this  case  the  histories  of  Eli  and 
Samuel,  so  closely  united  between  them- 
selves, are  only  deferred  on  account  of 
their  close  connection  with  the  rise  of  the 
monarchy.  And  Judg.  xvii.-xxi.  is  insert- 
ed both  as  an  illustration  of  the  sin  of 
Israel  during  the  time  of  the  Judges,  in 
which  respect  it  agrees  with  i.-xvi.,  and  as 
presenting  a  contrast  with  the  better  order 
prevailing  in  the  time  of  the  kings.  If  we 
adopt  the  view,  that  Judges  to  2  Kings 
form  one  book,  the  final  arrangement  of 
the  whole  must  have  been  after  the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity,  or 
B.  c.  562  (2  K.  XXV.  27).  The  time  com- 
monly assigned  to  the  period  contained  in 
this  book  is  299  years.  The  dates  which 
are  given  amount  to  410  years  when  reck- 
oned consecutively;  and  Acts  xiii.  20 
would  show  that  this  was  the  computation 
commonly  adopted,  as  the  450  years  seem 
to  result  from  adding  40  years  for  Eli  to  the 
410  of  this  book.  But  a  difficulty  is  created 
by  xi.  26,  and  in  a  still  greater  degree  by 
1  K.  vi.  1,  where  the  whole  period  from  the 
Exodus  to  the  building  of  the  Temple  is 
stated  as  480  years.  On  the  whole,  it 
seems  safer  to  give  up  the  attempt  to  ascer- 
tain the  chronology  exactly.  The  succes- 
sive narratives  give  us  the  history  of  only 
parts  of  the  country,  and  some  of  the  occur- 
rences may  have  been  contemporary  (x.  7). 

Judgment-hall.  The  word  Praeto- 
rium  is  so  translated  five  times  in  tlie  A. 
V.  of  the  N.  T. ;  and  in  those  five  pas- 
sages it  denotes  two  different  places.  1.  In 
John  xviii.  28,  33,  xxix.  9,  it  is  the  resi- 
dence which  Pilate  occupied  when  he  visit- 
ed Jerusalem.  The  site  of  Pilate's  prae- 
torium  in  Jerusalem  has  given  rise  to  muc^ 
dispute,  some  supposing  it  to  be  the  palace 
of  king  Herod,  others  the  tower  of  Anto- 
nia ;  but  it  was  probably  the  latter,  which 
was  then  and  long  afterwards  the  citadel  of 
Jerusalem.  2.  In  Acts  xxiii.  35,  Herod's 
judgment-hall  or  praetorium  in  Caesarea 
was  doubtless  a  part  of  that  magnificent 
range  of  buildings,  the  erection  of  which 
by  king  Herod  is  described  in  Josephus. 
The  word  "  palace,"  or  "  Caesar's  court," 
in  the  A.  V.  of  Phil.  i.  13,  is  a  translation 
of  the  same  word  praetorium.  It  may 
here  have  denoted  the  quarter  of  that  de- 
tachment of  the  Praetorian  Guards  which 
was  in  immediate  attendance  upon  the  em- 
peror, and  had  barracks  in  Mount  Palatine. 

Ju'dith.  1.  The  daughter  of  Beeri  the 
Hittite,  and  wife  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxvi.  34). 
2.  The  heroine  of  the  apocryphal  book 
which  bears  her  name,  who  appears  as  an 


JUDITH,  BOOK  OF 


324 


KADESH 


ideal  type  of  piety  (Jud.  viii.  6),  beauty 
(xi.  21),  courage,  and  chastity  (xvi.  22,  ff). 

Ju'dith,  The  Book  of,  one  of  the 
books  of  the  Apocrypha,  lilie  tliat  of  Tobit, 
belongs  to  the  earliest  specimens  of  his- 
torical fiction.  The  narrative  of  the  reign 
of  "  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of  Nineveh,  "  (i. 
1),  of  the  campaign  of  Holofernes,  and  the 
deliverance  of  Bethulia,  through  the  strat- 
agem and  courage  of  the  Jewish  heroine, 
contains  too  many  and  too  serious  diffi- 
culties, both  historical  and  geographical,  to 
allow  of  the  supposition  that  it  is  either 
literally  true,  or  even  carefully  moulded  on 
truth.  It  belongs  to  the  Maccabaean  peri- 
od, which  it  reflects  not  only  in  its  general 
spirit,  but  even  in  its  smaller  traits.  Tiie 
text  exists  at  present  in  two  distinct  recen- 
sions, the  Greek  and  the  Latin.  The  for- 
mer evidently  is  the  truer  representative 
of  the  original,  and  it  seems  certain  that 
the  Latin  was  derived,  in  the  main,  from 
the  Greek  by  a  series  of  successive  altera- 
tions. 

Ju'lia,  a  Christian  woman  at  Home, 
probably  the  wife,  or  perhaps  the  sister, 
of  Philologus,  in  connection  with  whom  she 
is  saluted  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

Ju'lius,  the  centurion  of  "Augustus' 
band,"  to  whose  charge  St.  Paul  was  de- 
livered when  he  was  sent  prisoner  from 
Caesarea  to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  1,  3). 

Ju'uia,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  mentioned 
by  St.  Paul  as  one  of  his  kinsfolk  and  fel- 
low prisoners,  of  note  among  the  Apostles, 
and  in  Christ  before  St.  Paiil  (Rom. 
xvi.  7). 

Juniper  (l  K.  xix.  4,  5 ;  Ps.  cxx.  4 ; 
Job  XXX.  4).  The  word  which  is  rendered 
in  A.  V.  juniper  is  beyond  doubt  a  sort  of 
broom.  Genista  monosperma,  G.  raetam  of 
forskal,  answering  to  the  Arabic  Rethem. 
It  is  very  abundant  in  the  desert  of  Sinai, 
and  affords  shade  and  protection,  both  in 
heat  and  storm,  to  travellers.  The  Rothem 
is  a  leguminous  plant,  and  bears  a  white 
flower.  It  is  also  found  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  Palestine. 

Ju'piter  (the  Greek  Zeus).  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  dedicated  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem to  the  service  of  Zeus  Olympius  (2 
Mace.  vi.  2),  and  at  the  same  time  the  rival 
temple  on  Gerizim  was  devoted  to  Zeus 
Xenius  {Jupiter  hospiialis,  Vulg.).  The 
Olympian  Zeus  was  the  national  god  of  the 
Hellenic  race,  as  well  as  the  supreme  ruler 
of  the  heathen  world,  and  as  such  formed 
the  true  opposite  to  Jehovah.  The  appli- 
cation of  the  second  epithet,  "  the  God  of 
hospitality,"  is  more  obscure.  Jupiter  or 
Zeus  is  mentioned  in  one  passage  of  the  N. 
T.,  on  the  occasion  of  St.  Paul's  visit  to 
Lystra  (Acts  xiv.  12,  13),  where  the  ex- 
pression "  Jupiter,  which  was  before  their 
city,"  means  that  liis  temple  was  outside 
tlie  city. 


Ju'shab-he'sed,  son  of  Zerubbabel 
(IChr.  iii.  20). 

Jus'tus.  1.  A  surname  of  Joseph  called 
Barsabas  (Acts  i.  23).  2.  A  Christian  at 
Corinth,  with  whom  St.  Paul  lodged  (Acts 
xviii.  7).  3.  A  surname  of  Jesus,  a  friend 
of  St.  Paul  (Col.  iv.  11). 

Jut'tah,  a  city  in  the  mountain  region 
of  Judah,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Maon  and 
Carmel  (Josh.  xv.  55). 


K. 


Eab'zeel,  one  of  the  "cities"  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  21),  the  native 
place  of  the  great  hero  Benaiah-ben-Jehoi- 
ada  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20;  1  Chr.  xi.  22). 
After  the  captivity  it  was  reinhabited  by 
the  Jews,  and  appears  as  Jekabzeel. 

Ka'desh,  Ka'desh-bar'nea  (Kadesh 
means  holy :  it  is  the  same  word  as  the 
Arabic  name  for  Jerusalem,  El-Khuds). 
This  place,  the  scene  of  Miriam's  death, 
was  the  farthest  point  which  the  Israelites 
reached  in  tlieir  direct  road  to  Canaan :  it 
was  also  that  whence  the  spies  were  sent, 
and  where,  on  their  return,  the  people 
broke  out  into  murmuring,  upon  which 
their  strictly  penal  term  of  wandering  be- 
gan (Num.  xiii.  3,  2G,  xiv.  29-33,  xx.  1 ; 
Deut.  ii.  14).  It  is  probable  that  the  term 
"  Kadesh,"  though  applied  to  signify  a 
"  city,"  yet  had  also  a  wider  application  to 
a  region,  in  which  Kadesh-Meribah  certain- 
ly, and  Kadesh-Barnea  probably,  indicates 
a  precise  spot.  In  Gen.  xiv.  7,  Kadesh  is 
identified  with  En-Mishpat,  the  "fountain 
of  judgment,"  and  is  connected  with  Taniar 
or  Hazazon-Tamar.  Precisely  thus  stands 
Kadesh-Barnea  in  the  Books  of  Numbers 
and  Joshua  (comp.  Ezek.  xlvii.  19,  xlviii. 
28;  Num.  xsxiv.  4;  Josh.  xv.  3).  The 
name  of  the  place  to  which  the  spies  re- 
turned is  "Kadesh"  simply,  in  Num.  xiii. 
26,  and  is  there  closely  connected  with  the 
" wilderness  of  Paran;"yet  the  "wilder- 
ness of  Zin ''  stands  in  near  conjunction,  as 
the  point  whence  the  "  search  "  of  the  spies 
commenced  (ver.  21).  Again,  in  Num.  xx., 
we  find  the  people  encamped  in  Kadesh 
after  reaching  the  wilderness  of  Zin.  Hence 
it  has  been  supposed  that  there  were  two 
places  of  the  name  of  Kadesh,  one  in  the 
wilderness  of  Paran,  and  the  other  in  that 
of  Zin;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  only 
one  oJace  is  meant,  for  whether  these  tracts 
were  contiguous,  and  Kadesh  on  their  com- 
mon border,  or  ran  into  each  other,  and 
embraced  a  common  territory,  to  wliich  the 
name  "  Kadesh,"  in  an  extended  sense, 
might  be  given,  is  comparatively  unimpor- 
tant. Kadesh  must  be  placed  in  a  site  near 
where  the  mountain  of  the  Amorites  de- 
scends to  the  low  region  of  the  Arabah  and 


KADMIEL 


325 


KEMTJEL 


Dead  Sea ;  but  its  exact  locality  cannot  be 
ascertained.  Dean  Stanley  would  identify 
it  with  Petra. 

Kad'miel,  one  of  the  Levites  who  with 
his  family  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  40;  Neh.  vii.  43).  He 
and  his  house  are  prominent  in  history  on 
three  occasions  (Ezr.  iii.  9 ;  Neh.  ix.  i,  5, 
X.  9). 

Kad'monites,  The,  a  people  named  in 
Gen.  XV.  19  only ;  one  of  the  nations  who  at 
that  time  occupied  the  land  promised  to  the 
descendants  of  Abram.  The  name  is  prob- 
ably a  synonyme  for  the  Bene-Kedem  — 
the  "children  of  the  East." 

Ealla'i,  a  priest  in  the  days  of  Joiakim 
the  son  of  Jeshua.  He  represented  the 
family  of  Sallai  (Neh.  xii.  20). 

Ea'nah..  1.  One  of  the  places  which 
formed  the  landmarks  of  the  boundary  of 
Asher ;  apparently  next  to  Zidon-rabbah,  or 
"  great  Zidon  "  (Josh.  xix.  28).  2.  The 
Kiver,  a  stream  falling  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean, which  formed  the  division  between 
the  territories  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 
the  former  on  the  south,  the  latter  on  the 
north  (Josh.  xvi.  8,  xvii.  9). 

Kare'ah,  the  father  of  Johanan  and 
Jonathan,  who  supported  Gedaliah's  author- 
ity and  avenged  his  murder  (Jer.  xl.  8,  13, 
15,  16,  xli.  11,  13,  14,  16,  xlii.  1,  8,  xliii. 
2,  4,  5). 

Kaika'a,  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
83uth  D>undary  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  3).     Its  site  is  unknown. 

Ear'kor,  the  place  in  which  Zebah  and 
Zalmunna  were  again  routed  by  Gideon 
(Judg.  viii.  10),  must  have  been  on  the 
east  of  Jordan. 

Kar'tah,  a  town  of  Zebulun,  allotted  to 
the  Merarite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  34). 

Kar'tan,  a  city  of  Naphtali,  allotted  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  32).  In 
the  parallel  list  of  1  Chr.  vi.  the  name  ap- 
pears in  the  more  expanded  form  of  Kie- 
JATHAIM  (ver.  76). 

Eat'tatta.,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  tribe 
of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  15).  Schwarz  seeks 
to  identify  it  with  Kana  el-Jelil,  —  most 
probably  the  Cana  of  Galilee  of  the  New 
Testament. 

Ke'dar,  the  second  in  order  of  the  sons 
of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  13;  1  Chr.  i.  29), 
and  the  name  of  a  great  tribe  of  the  Arabs, 
settled  on  the  north-west  of  the  peninsula 
and  the  confines  of  Palestine.  The  "  glory 
of  Kedar  "  is  recorded  by  the  prophet  Isa- 
iali  (xxi.  13-17)  in  the  burden  upon  Ara- 
bia ;  and  its  importance  may  also  be  inferred 
from  the  "  princes  of  Kedar  "  mentioned  by 
Ez.  (xxvii.  21),  as  well  as  the  pastoral  char- 
acter of  the  tribe.  They  appear  also  to 
have  been,  like  the  wandering  tribes  of  the 
present  day,  "  archers  "  and  "  mighty  men  " 
(Is.  xxi.  17;  comp.  Ps.  cxx.  5).  That 
they  also  settled  in  villages  or  towns,  we 


find  from  Isaiah  (xlii.  11).  The  tribe 
seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  all  the  Ishmaelite  tribes,  and 
hence  the  Rabbins  call  the  Arabians  uni- 
versally by  this  name. 

Ke'demah,  the  youngest  of  the  sons 
of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  15;  1  Chr.  i.  31). 

Ke'demoth,  one  of  the  towns  in  the 
district  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  g^Uotted  to  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xiii.  18) ;  given  to 
the  Merai'ite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  37 ;  1  Chr. 
vi.  79).  It  possibly  conferred  its  name  on 
the  "  wilderness,"  or  uncultivated  pasture 
land,  "  of  Kedemoth"  (Num.  xxi.  23 ;  Deut. 
U.  26,  27,  &c.). 

Ke'desh.  1.  In  the  extreme  south  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  23).  2.  A  city  of  Issa- 
char,  allotted  to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (1 
Chr.  vi.  72) .  The  Kedesh  mentioned  among 
the  cities  whose  kings  were  slain  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xii.  22),  in  company  with  Megiddo 
and  Jokneam  of  Carmel,  would  seem  to 
have  been  this  city  of  Issachar.  3.  Ke- 
desh ;  also  Kedesh  in  Galilee  ;  and  once, 
Judg.  iv.  6,  Kedesh-Naphtali.  One  of  the 
fortified  cities  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
named  between  Hazor  and  Edrei  (Josh, 
xix.  37)  ;  appointed  as  a  city  of  refuge,  and 
allotted  with  its  *'  suburbs  "  to  the  Gershon- 
ite Levites  (xx.  7,  xxi.  32;  1  Chr.  vi.  76). 
It  was  the  residence  of  Barak  (Judg.  iv.  6), 
and  there  he  and  Deborah  assembled  the 
tribes  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali  before  the 
conflict,  being  probably,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, a  "holy  place"  of  great  antiquity. 
It  was  taken  by  Tiglath-Pileser  in  the  reign 
of  Pekah  (2  K.  xv.  29).  It  is  identified 
with  the  village  Kades,  which  lies  4  miles 
to  the  N.  W.  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Sea 
of  Merora.  * 

Ked'ron,  properly  Kidron.     [Kidron.J 

Kehela'thah,  a  desert  encampment  of 
the  Israelites  (Num.  xxxiii.  22),  of  which 
nothing  is  known. 

Ke'llah,  a  city  of  the  Shefelah,  or  low- 
land district  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  44).  Its 
main  interest  consists  in  its  connection  with 
David  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  7-13).  It  is  repre- 
sented by  Kila,  a  site  with  ruins,  on  the 
lower  road  from  Beit  Jibrin  to  Hebron. 

Ke'ilah  the  Garmite,  apparently  a 
descendant  of  the  great  Caleb  (1  Chr.  iv. 
19).  There  is  no  apparent  connection  with 
the  town  Keilah. 

Kelai'ah  =  Kelita  (Ezr.  x.  23). 

Ee'lita,  one  of  the  Levites  who  returned 
with  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  23).  He  assisted  in 
expounding  the  law  (Neh.  viii.  7),  and 
signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
X.  10). 

Kem'uel.  1.  The  son  of  Nahor  by 
Milcah,  and  father  of  Aram  (Gen.  xxii.  21). 
2.  The  son  of  Sliiphtan,  and  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim ;  one  of  the  twelve  men 
appointed  by  Moses  to  divide  the  land  of 
Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv.  24).    3.  A  Levite, 


KENAN 


326 


KIDRON 


father  of  Hashabiah,  prince  of  the  trihe  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  17). 

Ke'nan  =  Cainan,  the  son  of  Enos  (1 
Chr.  i.  2). 

Ke'nath,  one  of  the  cities  on  the  east 
of  Jordan,  with  its  "daughter-towns  "  (A.  V. 
"  villages  ")  taken  possession  of  by  a  cer- 
tain NoBAH,  who  then  called  it  by  his  own 
name  (Num.  xxxii.  42). 

Ke'naz.  *1.  Son  of  Eliphaz,  the  son  of 
Esau.  He  was  one  of  the  dukes  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  15,  42;  1  Chr.  i.  53).  2.  One 
of  the  same  family,  a  grandson  of  Caleb, 
according  to  1  Chr.  iv.  15,  where,  however, 
the  Hebrew  text  is  corrupt. 

Ke'nezite,  or  Ke'nizzite  (Gen.  xv. 
19),  an  Edomitish  tribe  (Num.  xxxii.  12; 
Josh.  xiv.  6,  14). 

Ke'nite,  The,  and  Ke'nites,  The,  a 
tribe  or  nation,  first  mentioned  in  company 
with  the  Kenizzites  and  Kadmonites  (Gen. 
XV.  19).  Their  origin  is  hidden  from  us. 
But  we  may  fairly  infer  that  they  were  a 
branch  of  the  larger  nation  of  Midian,  — 
from  liie  fact  that  Jethro,  who  in  Exodus 
(see  ii.  15,  16,  iv.  19,  &c.)  is  represented 
as  dwelling  in  the  land  of  Midian,  and  as 
priest  or  prince  of  that  nation,  is  in  Judges 
(i.  IG,  iv.  11)  as  distinctly  said  to  have  been 
a  Kenite.  The  important  services  ren- 
dered by  the  sheikh  of  the  Kenites  to  Moses 
during  a  time  of  great  pressure  and  diffi- 
culty were  rewarded  by  the  latter  with  a 
promise  of  firm  friendship  between  the  two 
peoples.  The  connection  then  commenced 
lasted  as  firmly  as  a  connection  could  last 
between  a  settled  people  like  Israel  and 
one  whose  tendencies  were  so  ineradicably 
nomadic  as  the  Kenites.  They  seem  to 
have  accompanied  the  Hebrews  during  their 
wanderings  (Num.  xxiv.  21,  22;  Judg.  i. 
16 ;  comp.  2  Chr.  xxviii.  15).  But  the  wan- 
derings of  Israel^  over,  they  forsook  the 
neighborhood  of  the  towns,  and  betook 
themselves  to  freer  air,  —  to  "  the  wilder- 
ness of  Judah,  which  is  to  the  south  of 
Arad"  (Judg.  i.  16).  But  one  of  the  sheikhs 
of  the  tribe,  Heber  by  name,  had  wandered 
north  instead  of  south  (Judg.  iv.  11).  The 
most  remarkable  development  of  this  peo- 
ple is  to  be  found  in  the  sect  or  family  of 
the  Eechabites. 

Ke'nizzite.     (Gen.  xv.    19).     [Kene- 

ZITE.] 

Ke'ren-liap'pucll,  the  youngest  of  the 
daughters  of  Job,  born  to  him  during  the 
period  of  his  reviving  prosperity  (Job  xlii. 
14). 

Kerioth..  1.  A  name  which  occurs 
among  the  lists  of  the  towns  in  the  southern 
district  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  25).  2.  A  city 
of  Moab,  named  by  Jeremiah  only  (Jer. 
xlviii.  24). 

Ke'ros,  one  of  the  Nethinim,  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
ii.  44;  Neh.  vii.  47). 


Kettle,  a  vessel  for  culinary  or  sacrifi- 
cial purposes  (1  Sam.  ii.  14).  The  Hebrew 
word  is  also  rendered  "basket"  in  Jer. 
xxiv.  2,  "  caldron  "  in  2  Chr.  xxxv.  13,  and 
"pot"  in  Job  xli.  20. 

Ketu'rah.,  the  wife  whom  Abraham 
"added  and  took"  (A.  V.  "again  took") 
besides,  or  after  the  death  of,  Sarah  (Gen. 
XXV.  1 ;  1  Chr.  i.  32).  Some  critics  think 
that  Abraham  took  Keturah  after  Sarah's 
death ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  he  took 
her  during  Sarah's  lifetime  (comp.  Gen. 
xvii.  17,  xviii.  11;  Rom.  iv.  19;  lleb.  xi. . 
12).  That  she  was  strictly  speaking  his 
wife  is  also  very  uncertain.  In  the  record 
in  1  Chr.  i.  32  she  is  called  a  "  concubine" 
(comp.  Gen.  xxv.  5,  6). 

Key.  The  key  of  a  native  Oriental 
lock  is  a  piece  of  wood,  from  7  inches  to 
2  feet  in  length,  fitted  with  wires  or  short 
nails,  which,  being  inserted  laterally  into 
the  hollow  bolt  which  serves  as  a  lock,  raises 
other  pins  within  the  staple  so  as  to  allow 
the  bolt  to  be  drawn  back.  But  it  is  not 
difficult  to  open  a  lock  of  this  kind  even 
without  a  key,  viz.  with  the  finger  dipped 
in  paste  or  other  adhesive  substance.  The 
passage  Cant.  v.  4,  5,  is  thus  probably  ex- 
plained. 

Kezi'a,  thQ  second  of  the  daughters  of 
Job,  born  to  him  after  his  recovery  (Job 
xlii.  14). 

Ke'ziz,  The  Valley  of,  one  of  the 
"  cities  "  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  21)  and 
the  eastern  border  of  the  tribe. 

Kib'roth-hatta'avah,  Num.  xi.  84; 
marg.  "the  graves  of  lust"  (comp.  xxxiii. 
17).  From  there  being  no  change  of  spot 
mentioned  between  it  and  Taberah  in  xi.  3, 
it  is  probably,  like  the  latter,  about  three 
days'  journey  from  Sinai  (x.  33),  and  near 
the  sea  (xi.  22,  31).  If  BMherd  be  Haze- 
roth,  then  "the  graves  of  lust"  may  be 
perhaps  within  a  day's  journey  thence  in 
the  direction  of  Sinai. 

Kibza'im,  a  city  of  Mount  Ephraim, 
given  up  with  its  "  suburbs  "  to  the  Kohath- 
ite  Levites  (xxi.  22).  In  the  parallel  list 
of  1  Chr.  vi.  JoKMEAM  is  substituted  for 
Kibzaim  (ver.  68). 

Kid.     [GoatJ 

Kid'ron  (orKed'ron),  The  Brook, 
a  torrent  or  valley  —  not  a  "  brook,"  as  in 
the  A.  V.  —  close  to  Jerusalem.  It  lay  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
and  was  crossed  by  David  in  his  flight  (3 
Sam.  XV.  23,  comp.  30),  and  by  our  Lord 
on  His  way  to  Gethsemane  (Jolin  xviii.  1 ; 
comp.  Mark  xiv.  26;  Luke  xxii.  39).  Its 
connection  with  these  two  occurrences  is 
alone  sufficient  to  leave  no  doubt  that  the 
Kidron  is  the  deep  ravine  on  the  east  of  Je- 
rusalem, now  commonly  known  as  the  ' '  Val- 
ley of  Jehoshaphat."  The  distinguishing 
peculiarity  of  the  Kidron  valley  —  that  in 
respect    to  which  it  is    most   frequentl/ 


KINAH 


327 


KING 


mentioned  in  (he  Old  Testament  —  is  the 
impurity  whicli  appears  to  have  been  as- 
cribed to  it.  In  the  time  of  Josiah  it  was 
the  common  cemetery  of  the  city  (2  K. 
xxiii.  G;  comp.  Jer.  xxvi.  23,  "graves  of 
the  common  people ").  At  present  it  is 
the  favorite  resting-place  of  Moslems  and 
Jews,  the  former  on  the  west,  the  latter  on 
the  east,  of  the  valley.  The  channel  of  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat  is  nothing  more  than 
the  dry  bed  of  a  wintry  torrent,  bearing 
marks  of  being  occasionally  swept  over  by 
a  large  volume  of  water. 

Ei'nah,  a  city  of  Judah,  on  the  extreme 
south  boundary  of  the  tribe,  next  to  £dom 
(Josh.  XV.  22). 

Kindred.  I.  Of  the  special  names  de- 
noting relation  by  consanguinity,  the  prin- 
cipai  will  be  found  explained  under  their 
proper  heads.  Father,  Brother,  &c.  It 
will  be  there  seen  that  the  words  which  de- 
note near  relation  in  the  direct  line  are  used 
also  for  tlie  other  superior  or  inferior  de- 
grees in  that  line,  as  grandfather,  grand- 
son, &c.  II.  The  words  wliich  express  col- 
lateral consanguinity  are  —  1.  uncle;  2. 
aunt;  3.  nephew;  4.  niece  (not  in  A.  V.); 
5.  cousin.  III.  The  terms  of  affinity  are 
—  1.  (a)  father-in-law,  (i)  mother-in-law; 
2.  (a)  son-in-law,  (6)  daughter-in-law;  3. 
(a)  brother-in-law,  (6)  sister-in-law.  The 
domestic  and  economical  questions  arising 
out  of  kindred  may  be  classed  under  the 
tliree  heads  of  Marriage,  Inheritance, 
and  Blood -revenge,  and  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  on  those  subjects. 

King.  [Bull.  | 

King,  the  name  of  the  Supreme  Ruler 
of  the  Hebrews  during  a  period  of  about 
500  years  previous  to  the  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem, B.  c.  586.  The  immediate  occa- 
sion of  the  substitution  of  a  regal  form  of 
government  for  that  of  Judges,  seems  to 
have  been  the  siege  of  Jabesh-Gilead  by 
Nahash,  king  of  the  Ammonites  (1  Sam. 
xi.  1,  xii.  12),  and  the  refusal  to  allow  the 
inhabitants  of  that  city  to  capitulate,  except 
on  humiliating  and  cruel  conditions  (1  Sam. 
xi.  2,  4—6).  The  conviction  seems  to  have 
forced  itself  on  the  Israelites  that  they 
could  not  resist  their  formidable  neighbor 
unless  they  placed  themselves  under  the 
«way  of  a  king,  like  surrounding  nations. 
Concurrently  with  this  conviction,  disgust 
had  been  excited  by  the  corrupt  administra- 
tion of  justice  under  the  sons  of  Samuel, 
and  a  radical  change  was  desired  by  them 
in  this  respect  also  (1  Sam.  viii.  3-5).  Ac- 
cordingly the  original  idea  of  a  Hebrew 
king  was  twofold  :  first,  that  he  should  lead 
the  people  to  battle  in  time  of  war ;  and, 
2dly,  that  he  should  execute  judgment 
and  justice  to  them  in  war  and  in  peace  (I 
Sam.  viii.  20).  In  both  respects  the  de- 
sired end  was  attained.  To  form  a  correct 
idea  of  a  Hebrew  king,  we  must  abstract 


ourselves  from  the  notions  of  modern  Eu- 
rope, and  realize  the  position  of  Oriental 
sovereigns.  Besides  being  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army,  supreme  judge,  and  ab- 
solute master,  as  it  were,  of  the  lives  of  his 
subjects,  the  king  exercised  the  power  of 
imposing  taxes  on  them,  and  of  exacting 
from  them  personal  service  and  labor.  And 
the  degree  to  which  the  exaction  of  personal 
labor  might  be  carried  on  a  special  occa- 
sion is  illustrated  by  King  Solomon's  re- 
quirements for  building  the  temple.  In 
addition  to  these  earthly  powers,  the  king 
of  Israel  had  a  more  awiul_jplaim  to  respect 
and  obedience.  He  was  the  vicegerent  of 
Jehovah  (1  Sara.  x.  1,  xvi.  13),  and  as  it 
were  His  son,  if  just  and  holy  (2  Sam.  vii. 
14;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  26,  27,  ii.  6,  7).  He  had 
been  set  apart  as  a  consecrated  ruler.  Upon 
his  head  had  been  poured  the  holy  anoint- 
ing oil,  which  had  hitherto  been  reserved 
exclusively  for  the  priests  of  Jehovah.  He 
had  become,  in  fact,  emphatically  "  the 
Lord's  anointed."  A  ruler  in  whom  so 
much  authority,  human  and  divine,  was 
embodied,  was  naturally  distinguished  by 
outward  honors  and  luxuries.  He  had  a 
court  of  Oriental  magnificence.  When 
the  power  of  the  kingdom  was  at  its  height, 
he  sat  on  a  throne  of  ivory,  covered  with 
pure  gold,  at  the  feet  of  which  were  two 
figures  of  lions.  The  king  was  dressed 
in  royal  robes  (1  K.  xxii.  10;  2  Chr. 
xviii.  9) ;  his  insignia  were,  a  crown  or 
diadem  of  pure  gold,  or  perhaps  ra- 
diant with  precious  gems  (2  Sam.  i.  10, 
xii.  30;  2  K.  xi.  12 ;  Ps.  xxi.  3),  and  a  royal 
sceptre.  Those  who  approached  liim  did 
him  obeisance,  bowing  down  and  touching 
the  ground  with  their  foreheads  (1  Sam. 
xxiv.  8 ;  2  Sam.  xix.  24) ;  and  this  was 
done  even  by  a  king's  wife,  the  mother  of 
Solomon  (1  K.  i.  16).  Their  officers  and 
subjects  called  themselves  his  servants  or 
slaves,  though  they  do  not  seem  habitually 
to  have  given  way  to  such  extravagant  sal- 
utations as  in  the  Chaldaean  and  Persian 
courts  (1  Sam.  xvii.  32,  34,  36,  xx.  8;  2 
Sam.  vi.  20;  Dan.  ii.  4).  As  in  the  East  to 
this  day,  a  kiss  was  a  sign  of  respect  and 
homage  (1  Sam.  x.  1,  perhaps  Ps.  ii.  12). 
He  lived  in  a  splendid  palace,  with  porches 
and  columns  (1  K.  vii.  2-7).  All  his  drink- 
ing vessels  were  of  gold  (1  K.  x.  21).  He 
had  a  large  harem,  which  in  the  time  of 
Solomon  must  have  been  the  source  of 
enormous  expense.  As  is  invariably  the 
case  in  the  great  eastern  monarcliies  at 
present,  his  harem  was  guarded  by  eunuchs, 
translated  "  officers  "  in  the  A.  V.  for  the 
most  part  (1  Sam.  viii.  15;  2  K.  xxiv.  12, 
15 ;  1  K.  xxii.  9 ;  2  K.  viii.  6,  jx.  32,  33,  xx. 
18,  xxiii.  11 ;  Jer.  xxxviii.  7).  The  law  of 
succession  to  the  throne  is  somewhat  ob- 
scure, but  it  seems  most  probable  that  the 
kir^  du'''mg  his  lifetime  named  his  succes- 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OF 


328 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OF 


eor.  This  was  certainly  the  case  with  David 
(1  K.  i.  30,  ii.  22),  and  with  Rehoboam  (2 
Chr.  xi.  21,  22).  At  the  same  time,  if  no 
partiality  for  a  favorite  wife  or  son  inter- 
vened, there  would  always  be  a  natural  bias 
of  affection  in  favor  of  the  eldest  son. 

Kings,  First  and  Second  Books 
of,  originally  only  one  book  in  the  Hebrew 
Canon,  form  in  the  LXX.  and  the  Vulgate 
the  third  and  fourth  Books  of  Kings  (the 
Books  of  Samuel  being  the  first  and  second). 
It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  divis- 
ion between  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Sam- 
uel is  equally  artificial,  and  that  in  point  of 
fact  the  historical  books  commencing  with 
Judges  and  ending  with  2  Kings  present 
the  appearance  of  one  work,  giving  a  con- 
tinuous history  of  Israel  from  the  time  of 
Joshua  to  the  death  of  Jehoiachin.  The 
Books  of  Kings  contain  the  history  from 
David's  death  and  Solomon's  accession  to 
the  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
and  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem,  with  a 
supplemental  notice  of  an  event  that  oc- 
curred after  an  interval  of  twenty-six  years, 
viz.  the  liberation  of  Jehoiachin  from  his 
prison  at  Babylon,  and  a  still  further  ex- 
tension to  Jelioiachin's  death,  the  time  of 
which  is  not  known,  but  which  was  proba- 
bly not  long  after  his  liberation.  The  his- 
tory therefore  comprehends  the  whole  time 
of  the  Israelitish  monarchy,  exclusive  of 
the  reigns  of  Saul  and  David.  As  regards 
the  affairs  of  foreign  nations,  and  the  rela- 
tion of  Israel  to  them,  the  historical  notices 
in  these  books,  though  in  the  earlier  times 
scanty,  are  most  valuable,  and  in  striking 
accordance  with  the  latest  additions  to  our 
knowledge  of  contemporary  profane  his- 
tory. The  ramcs  of  Omri,  Jehu,  Mena- 
hem,  Hoshea,  Hezekiah,  &c.,  are  believed 
to  have  been  deciphered  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  which  also  contain  pretty  full 
accounts  of  the  campaigns  of  Tiglath-Pile- 
ser,  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  Esarhaddon : 
Shalmaneser's  name  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered, though  two  inscriptions  in  the 
British  Museum  are  thought  to  refer  to 
his  reign.  Another  most  important  aid  to 
a  right  understanding  of  the  history  in 
these  books,  and  to  the  filling  up  of  its 
outline,  is  to  be  found  in  the  prophets, 
and  especially  in  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.  It 
must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the  chron- 
ological details  expressly  given  in  the  books 
of  Kings  form  a  remarkable  contrast  with 
their  striking  historical  accuracy.  The 
very  first  date  of  a  decidedly  chronological 
character  which  is  given,  that  of  the  foun- 
d.ation  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  K.  vi.  1),  is 
manifestly  erroneous,  as  being  irreconcila- 
ble with  any  view  of  the  chronology  of  the 
times  of  the  Judges,  or  with  St.  Paul's  cal- 
culation, Acts  xiii.  20.  It  is  in  fact  aban- 
doned by  almost  all  chronologists,  to  what- 
ever school  they  belong,  whether  ancient 


or  modern,  and  is  utterly  ignored  by  Jose- 
phus.  As  regards,  however,  these  chrono- 
logical difficulties,  it  must  be  observed  they 
are  of  two  essentially  different  kinds.  One 
kind  is  merely  the  want  of  the  data  neces- 
sary for  chronological  exactness.  But  the 
other  kind  of  difficulty  is  of  a  totally  differ- 
ent character,  and  embraces  dates  which 
are  very  exact  in  their  mode  of  expression, 
but  are  erroneous  and  contradictory.  (1.) 
When  we  sum  up  the  years  of  all  the 
reigns  of  the  kings  of  Israel  as  given  in 
the  Books  of  Kings,  and  then  all  the  years 
of  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Judah  from 
the  1st  of  Rehoboam  to  the  6th  of  Heze- 
kiah, we  find  that,  instead  of  the  two  sums 
agreeing,  there  is  an  excess  of  19  or  20 
years  in  Judah;  the  reigns  of  the  latter 
amounting  to  261  years,  while  the  former 
make  up  only  242.  But  we  are  able  to  got 
somewhat  nearer  to  the  seat  of  this  disa- 
greement, because  it  so  happens  that  the 
parallel  histories  of  Israel  and  Judah  touch 
in  four  or  five  points  where  the  synchro- 
nisms are  precisely  marked.  These  points 
are,  (1)  at  the  simultaneous  accessions  of 
Jeroboam  and  Rehoboam ;  (2)  at  the  simul- 
taneous deaths  of  Jehorara  and  Ahaziah, 
or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  the  simultane- 
ous accessions  of  Jehu  and  Athaliah;  (3) 
at  the  15th  year  of  Amaziah,  which  was  the 
1st  of  Jeroboam  II.  (2  K.  >.iv.  17)  ;  (4)  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz,  which  was  contemporary 
with  some  part  of  Pekah's,  viz.,  according 
to  the  text  of  2  K.  xvi.  1,  the  three  first 
years  of  Ahaz  with  the  three  last  of  Pekah ; 
and  (5)  at  the  6th  of  Hezekiah,  which  was 
the  9th  of  Hoshea.  Beginning  with  the 
sub-period  which  commences  with  the  dou- 
ble accession  of  Rehoboam  and  Jeroboam, 
a".:d  closes  with  the  double  death  of  Aha- 
ziah and  Jehoram,  we  find  that  the  six 
reigns  in  Judah  make  up  95  years,  and  the 
eight  reigns  in  Israel  make  up  98  years. 
Here  there  is  an  excess  of  3  years  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  which  may,  however, 
be  readily  accounted  for  by  the  frequent 
changes  of  dynasty  there,  and  the  proba- 
bility of  fragments  of  years  being  reckoned 
as  whole  years,  thus  causing  the  same  year 
to  be  reckoned  twice  over.  Beginning, 
again,  at  the  double  accession  of  Athaliah 
and  Jehu,  we  have  in  Judah  7 -|- 40 -f-  14  first 
years  of  Amaziah  =  61,  to  correspond  with 
28  -h  17  -f-  16  =  61,  ending  with  the  last 
year  of  Jehoash  in  Israel.  Starting  again 
with  the  15th  of  Amaziah  =  1  Jeroboam 
II.,  we  have  15  -{-  52  -f  16  -f  3  =  86  (to 
the  3d  year  of  Ahaz),  to  correspond  with 
41-f-l-fl0-f-2  4-20  =  74  (to  the  close 
of  Pekah's  reign),  where  we  at  once  detect 
a  deficiency  on  the  part  of  Israel  of  (86  — 
74  =  )  12  years,  if  at  least  the  3d  of  Ahaz 
really  corresponded  with  the  20th  of  Pekah. 
And  lastly,  starting  with  the  year  follow- 
ing that  last  named,  we  have  13  last  years 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OP 


329 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OP 


of  Ahaz  4-  7  first  of  Hczekiah  =  20,  to 
correspond  with  the  9  years  of  Hoshea, 
wliere  we  find  another  deficiency  in  Israel 
of  11  years.  The  discrepance  of  12  years 
first  occurs  in  the  third  period.  We  are 
told  in  2  K.  xv.  8  that  Zachariah  began  to 
reign  in  the  38th  of  Uzziah,  and  (xiv.  23) 
that  his  father  Jeroboam  began  to  reign  in 
the  15th  of  Amaziah.  Jeroboam  must, 
therefore,  have  reigned  52  or  53  years,  not 
41 ;  for  the  idea  of  an  interregnum  of  11  or 
12  years  between  Jeroboam  and  his  son 
Zachariah  is  absurd.  But  the  addition  of 
these  12  years  to  Jeroboam's  reign  exactly 
equalizes  tlie  period  in  the  two  kingdoms, 
which  would  thus  contain  86  years.  As 
regards  the  discrepance  of  11  years  in  the 
last  period,  notliing  can  in  itself  be  more 
probable  than  that  either  during  some  part 
of  Pekah's  lifetime,  or  after  his  death,  a 
period,  not  included  in  the  regnal  years 
of  either  Pekah  or  Hoshea,  should  have 
elapsed,  wlien  there  was  either  a  state  of 
anarchy,  or  the  government  was  adminis- 
tered by  an  Assyrian  officer.  (2.)  Turn- 
ing next  to  the  other  class  of  difficulties 
mentioned  above,  the  following  instances 
will  perhaps  be  thought  to  justify  the  opin- 
ion that  the  dates  in  these  books  which  are 
intended  to  establish  a  precise  chronology 
are  the  work  of  a  much  later  hand  or 
hands  than  the  books  themselves.  The 
date  in  1  K.  vi.  1  is  one  which  is  obviously 
intended  for  strictly  chronological  pur- 
poses. If  correct,  it  would,  taken  in  con- 
junction with  the  subsequent  notes  of  time 
in  the  Books  of  Kings,  supposing  them  to 
be  correct  also,  give  to  a  year  the  length 
of  the  time  from  the  Exodus  to  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity,  and  establish  a  perfect 
connection  between  sacred  and  profane 
history.  But  so  little  is  this  the  case, 
that  this  date  is  quite  irreconcilable  with 
Egyptian  history,  and  is,  as  stated  above, 
by  almost  universal  consent  rejected  by 
chronologists,  even  on  purely  Scriptural 
grounds.  This  date  is  followed  by  pre- 
cise synchronistic  definitions  of  the  par- 
allel reigns  of  Israel  and  Judah,  the  effect 
of  whidi  would  be,  and  must  have  been 
designed  to  be,  to  supply  the  want  of  ac- 
curacy in  stating  the  length  of  the  reigns 
without  reference  to  the  odd  months.  But 
these  synchronistic  definitions  are  in  con- 
tinual discord  with  tlie  statement  of  tlie 
length  of  reigns.  According  to  1  K.  xxii. 
61,  Ahaziah  succeeded  Ahab  in  the  17th 
year  of  Jehoshaphat.  But  according  to 
the  statement  of  the  length  of  Ahab's  reign 
in  xvi.  29,  Ahab  died  in  the  18th  of  Jehosh- 
aphat; while  according  to  2  K.  i.  17,  Je- 
horam  the  son  of  Ahaziah  succeeded  his 
brother  (after  his  2  years'  reign)  in  the 
second  year  of  Jehoram  the  son  of  Je- 
hoshaphat, though,  according  to  the  length 
of  the  reigns,  he  must  have  succeeded  in 


the  18th  or  19th  of  Jehoshaphat  (see  2  K. 
iii.  1),  who  reigned  in  all  25  yeiirs  (xxii. 
42).  [Jehoram.]  As  regards  Jehoram 
the  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  the  statements  are 
so  contradictory  that  Archbishop  Ussher 
actually  makes  three  distinct  beginnings  to 
his  regnal  era.  From  the  lengtli  of  Ama- 
ziah's  reign,  as  given  2  K.  xiv.  2,  17,  23,  it 
is  manifest  that  Jeroboam  II.  began  to 
reign  in  the  15th  year  of  Amaziah,  and 
that  Uzziah  began  to  reign  in  the  IGth  of 
Jeroboam.  But  2  K.  xv.  1  places  the 
commencement  of  Uzziah's  reign  in  the 
27th  of  Jeroboam,  and  the  accession  of 
Zachariah  =  the  close  of  Jeroboam's  reign, 
in  the  38th  of  Uzziah,  statements  utterly 
contradictory  and  irreconcilable.  Other 
grave  chronological  difficulties  seem  to 
have  their  source  in  the  same  erroneous 
calculations  on  tlie  part  of  the  Jewish 
chronologist. —  The  peculiarities  of  diction, 
in  tlie  Books  of  Kings,  and  other  features  in 
their  literary  history,  may  be  briefly  dis- 
posed of.  On  the  whole  the  peculiarities 
of  diction  in  these  books  do  not  indicate  a 
time  after  the  captivity,  or  towards  the  close 
of  it,  but  on  the  contrary  point  pretty  dis- 
tinctly to  the  age  of  Jeremiah.  The  gen- 
eral character  of  the  language  is,  most  dis- 
tinctly, that  of  the  time  before  the  Babylon- 
ish captivity.  Authorship. — As  regards  the 
authorship  of  the  books,  but  little  difficulty 
presents  itself.  The  Jewish  tradition,  which 
ascribes  them  to  Jeremiah,  is  borne  out  by 
the  strongest  internal  evidence,  in  addition 
to  that  of  the  language.  The  last  chapter, 
especially  as  compared  with  the  last  chap- 
ter of  the  Chronicles,  bears  distinct  traces 
of  having  been  written  by  one  who  did  not 
go  into  captivity,  but  remained  in  Judaea 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple.  This 
suits  Jeremiah.  The  events  singled  out 
for  mention  in  the  concise  narrative  are 
precisely  those  of  which  he  had  personal 
knowledge,  and  in  which  he  took  special 
interest.  The  writer  in  Kings  has  nothing 
more  to  tell  us  concerning  the  Jews  or 
Chaldees  in  the  land  of  Judah,  which  ex- 
actly agrees  with  the  hypothesis  that  he  is 
Jeremiah,  who  we  know  was  carried  down 
into  Egypt  with  the  fugitives.  In  fact,  the 
date  of  the  writing  and  the  position  of  the 
writer  seem  as  clearly  marked  by  the  ter- 
mination of  the  narrative  at  xxv.  26,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The 
annexation  of  this  chapter  to  the  writings 
of  Jeremiah  so  as  to  form  Jer.  Iii.  (with 
the  additional  clause  contained  28-30)  is 
an  evidence  of  a  very  ancient,  if  not  a  con- 
temporary belief,  that  Jeremiah  was  the 
author  of  it.  Going  back  to  the  xxivth 
chapter,  we  find  in  ver.  14  an  enumeration 
of  the  captives  taken  with  Jchoiachin  iden- 
tical with  that  in  Jer.  xxiv.  1 ;  in  ver.  13,  a 
reference  to  the  vessels  'of  the  Temple 
precisely  similar  to  that  in  Jer.  xxvii.  18- 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OP 


330 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OF 


20,  xxviii.  3,  6.  Brief  as  the  narrative  is, 
it  brings  out  all  the  chief  points  in  the  po- 
litical events  of  the  time  which  we  know 
were  much  in  Jeremiah's  mind ;  and  yet, 
which  is  exceedingly  remarkable,  Jeremiah 
is  never  once  named  (as  he  is  in  2  Chr. 
xxxvi.  12,  21),  although  the  manner  of  the 
writer  is  frequently  to  connect  the  suffer- 
ings of  Judah  with  their  sins  and  their 
neglect  of  the  Word  of  God,  2  K.  xvii. 
13,  seq.,  xxiv.  2,  3,  &c.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  acknowledged  that  as  regards  Je- 
lioiakim's  reign,  and  especially  the  latter 
part  of  it,  and  the  way  in  which  he  came 
by  his  death,  the  narrative  is  much  more 
meagre  than  one  would  have  expected  from 
a  contemporary  writer,  living  on  the  spot. 
But  exactly  the  same  paucity  of  informa- 
tion is  found  in  those  otherwise  copious 
notices  of  contemporary  events  with  which 
Jeremiah's  prophecies  are  interspersed. 
When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  writer 
of  2  K.  was  a  contemporary  writer,  and, 
if  not  Jeremiah,  must  have  had  indepen- 
dent means  of  information,  this  coincidence 
will  have  great  weight.  Going  back  to  the 
reign  of  Josiah,  in  the  xxiii.  and  xxii.  chap- 
ters, the  connection  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  with  Manasseh's  transgressions, 
and  the  comparison  of  it  to  the  destruction 
of  Samaria,  ver.  26,  27,  lead  us  back  to 
xxi.  10-13,  and  that  passage  leads  us  to 
Jer.  vii.  15,  xv.  4,  xix.  3,  4,  &c.  The  par- 
ticular account  of  Josiah's  passover,  and  his 
other  good  works,  the  reference  in  ver.  24, 
25,  to  the  law  of  Moses,  and  the  finding  of 
the  Book  by  Hilkiah  the  priest,  with  the 
fuller  account  of  that  discovery  in  ch. 
xxii.j  exactly  suit  Jeremiah,  who  began 
his  prophetic  office  in  the  13th  of  Josiah ; 
whose  xith  chap,  refers  repeatedly  to  the 
book  thus  found;  who  showed  his  attach- 
ment to  Josiah  by  writing  a  lamentation 
on  his  death  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  25),  and  whose 
writings  show  how  much  he  made  use  of 
the  copy  of  Deuteronomy  so  found.  With 
Josiah's  reign  necessarily  cease  all  strong- 
ly marked  characters  of  Jeremiah's  author- 
ship. But  though  the  general  unity  and 
continuity  of  plan  lead  us  to  assign  the 
whole  history  in  a  certain  sense  to  one 
author,  yet  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  autiiorship  of  those  p'h.rts  of  the  history 
of  which  Jeremiah  was  not  an  eye-witness 

—  that  is,  of  all  before  the  reign  of  Josiah 

—  would  have  consisted  merely  in  select- 
ing, arranging,  inserting  the  connecting 
phrases,  and,  when  necessary,  slightly 
modernizing  the  old  histories  which  had 
been  drawn  up  by  contemporary  prophets 
through  the  whole  iieriod  of  time.  (See 
e.  g.  1  K.  xiii.  32.)  For,  as  regards  the 
sources  of  information,  it  may  truly  be 
said  that  we  have  the  narrative  of  contem- 
porary writers  throughout.  There  was  a 
regxilar  series  of  state-annals  both  for  the 


kingdom  of  Judah  and  for  that  of  Israel, 
which  embraced  the  whole  time  compre- 
hended in  the  Books  of  Kings,  or  at  least 
to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Johoiakira  (2 
K.  xxiv.  5).  These  annals  are  constantly 
cited  by  name  as  "the  Book  of  the  Acts  of 
Solomon"  (1  K.  xi.  41);  and  after  Solo- 
mon, "  the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah,  or,  Israel "  (e.  g.  1  K. 
xiv.  29,  XV.  7,  xvi.  5,  14,  20;  2  K.  x.  34, 
xxiv.  5,  &c.) ;  and  it  is  manifest  that  the 
author  of  Ivings  had  them  both  before  him, 
while  he  drew  up  his  history,  in  which  the 
reigns  of  the  two  kingdoms  are  harmo- 
nized, and  these  annals  constantly  ap- 
pealed to.  But,  in  addition  to  these  na- 
tional annals,  there  were  also  extant,  at 
the  time  that  the  Books  of  Kings  were 
compiled,  separate  works  of  the  several 
prophets  who  had  lived  in  Judah  and  Is- 
rael. Thus  the  acts  of  Uzziah,  written  by 
Isaiah,  were  very  likely  identical  with  the 
history  of  lus  reign  in  the  national  chroni- 
cles ;  and  part  of  the  history  of  Jlezekiah 
we  know  is  identicabin  the  Chronicles  and 
in  the  prophet.  The  chapter  in  Jeremiah 
relating  to  the  destruction  of  the  Temple 
(lii.)  is  identical  with  that  in  2  K.  xxiv., 
XXV.  Relation  of  the  Books  of  Kings  to 
tJwse  of  Chronicles.  —  It  is  manifest,  and  is 
universally  admitted,  that  the  former  is  by 
far  the  older  work.  The  language,  which 
is  quite  free  from  the  Persicisms  of  the 
Chronicles  and  their  late  orthography, 
clearly  points  out  its  relative  superiority 
in  regard  to  age.  Its  subject  also,  em- 
bracing the  kingdom  of  Israel  as  well  as 
Judah,  is  another  indication  of  its  com- 
position before  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was 
forgotten,  and  before  the  Jewish  enmity 
to  Samaria,  which  is  apparent  in  such  pas- 
sages as  2  Chr.  xx.  37,  xxv.,  and  in  those 
chapters  of  Ezra  (i.-vi.)  which  belong 
to  Chronicles,  was  brought  to  maturity. 
While  the  Books  of  Chronicles,  there- 
fore, were  written  especially  for  the  Jews 
after  their  return  from  Babylon,  the  Book 
of  Ivings  was  written  for  the  whole  of  Is- 
rael, before  their  common  national  exist- 
ence was  hopelessly  quenched.  Another 
comparison  of  considerable  interest  be- 
tween the  two  histories  may  be  drawn  in 
respect  to  the  main  design,  that  design 
having  a  marked  relation  botli  to  the  indi- 
vidual station  of  the  supposed  writers,  and 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  their  coun- 
try at  the  time  of  their  writing.  Jeremiah 
was  himself  a  prophet.  He  lived  while  the 
prophetic  office  was  in  full  vigor,  in  his 
own  person,  in  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  and 
many  others,  both  true  and  false.  Accord- 
ingly, we  find  in  the  Books  of  Kings  great 
prominence  given  to  the  prophetic  office. 
Ezra,  on  the  contrary,  was  only  a  priest. 
In  his  days  the  prophetic  office  had  wholly 
fallen  into  abeyance.    That  evidence  of  the 


KINGS,  BOOKS  OF 


831 


KIRIOTH 


Jews  being  the  people  of  God,  which  con- 
sisted in  the  presence  of  prophets  among 
tiiem,  was  no  more.  But  to  the  men  of  liis 
generation,  the  distinctive  mark  of  the  con- 
tinuance of  God's  favor  to  their  race  was 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem, 
the  restoration  of  the  daily  sacrifice  and  the 
Leviticiil  worship,  and  the  wonderful  and 
providential  renewal  of  the  Mosaic  institu- 
tions. The  chief  instrument,  too,  for  pre- 
serving the  Jewish  remnant  from  absorption 
into  the  mass  of  Heathenism,  and  for  main- 
taining their  national  life  till  the  coming  of 
Messiah,  was  the  maintenance  of  the  Tem- 
ple, its  ministers,  and  its  services.  Hence 
we  see  at  once  that  the  chief  care  of  a  good 
and  enlightened  Jew  of  the  age  of  Ezra  — 
and  all  the  more  if  he  were  himself  a  priest 
—  would  naturally  be  to  enhance  the  value 
of  the  Levitical  ritual,  and  the  dignity  of 
the  Levitical  caste.  And  in  compiling  a 
history  of  the  past  glories  of  his  race,  he 
would  as  naturally  select  such  passages  as 
especially  bore  upon  the  sanctity  of  the 
priestly  office,  and  showed  the  deep  concern 
taken  by  their  ancestors  in  all  that  related 
to  the  honor  of  God's  House,  and  the  sup- 
port of  his  ministering  servants.  Hence  the 
Levitical  character  of  the  Books  of  Chroni- 
cles, and  the  presence  of  several  detailed  nar- 
ratives not  found  in  the  Books  of  Kings,  and 
the  more  frequent  reference  to  the  Mosaic 
institutions,  may  most  naturally  and  simply 
be  accounted  for,  without  resorting  to  the 
absurd  hypothesis  that  the  ceremonial  law 
was  an  invention  subsequent  to  the  captiv- 
ity. (2  Chr.  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi.,  compared 
with  2  K.  xviii.,  is  perhaps  as  good  a  speci- 
men as  can  be  selected  of  the  distinctive 
epirit  of  the  Chronicles.  See  also  2  Chr. 
xxvi.  16-21,  compared  with  2  K.  xv.  5 ;  2 
Chr.  xi.  13-17,  xiii.  9-20,  xv.  1-15,  xxiii.  2 
-8,  compared  with  2  K.  xi.  5-9,  and  vers. 
18,  19,  compared  with  ver.  18,  and  many 
other  pjissages.)  Moreover,  upon  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  sacred  writers  were  influenced 
by  natural  feelings  in  their  selection  of  their 
materials,  it  seems  most  appropriate  that 
while  the  prophetical  writer  in  Kings  deals 
very  fully  with  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  in 
which  the  prophets  were  much  more  illus- 
trious than  in  Judah,  the  Levitical  writer, 
on  the  contrary,  should  concentrate  all  his 
thoughts  round  Jerusalem,  where  alone  the 
Levitical  caste  had  all  its  power  and  func- 
tions, and  should  dwell  upon  all  the  instan- 
ces preserved  in  existing  muniments  of  the 
deeds  and  even  the  minutest  ministrations 
of  the  priests  and  Levites,  as  well  as  of  their 
faithfulness  and  sufferings  in  the  cause  of 
truth.  from  the  comparison  of  parallel 
narratives  in  the  two  books,  it  appears  that 
the  results  are  precisely  what  would  natu- 
rally arise  from  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  The  writer  of  the  Chronicles,  having 
the  Books  of  Kings  before  him,  made  those 


books  to  a  great  extent  the  basis  of  liis  own- 
But  also  having  his  own  personal  views, 
predilections,  and  motives  in  writing,  com- 
posing for  a  different  age,  and  for  people 
under  very  different  circumstances ;  and, 
moreover,  having  before  him  the  original 
authoiities  from  which  the  Books  of  Kings 
were  compiled,  as  well  as  soiije  others,  he 
naturally  re-arranged  the  older  narrative 
as  suited  his  purpose  and  liis  taste.  He 
gave  in  full  passages  wJiich  the  other  had 
abridged,  inserted  what  had  been  wholly 
omitted,  omitted  some  things  which  the  other 
had  inserted,  including  neai-ly  everything  re- 
lating to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  showed 
the  color  of  his  own  mind,  not  only  in  the 
nature  of  the  passages  which  he  selected 
from  the  ancient  documents,  but  in  the  re- 
flections which  he  frequently  adds  upon  the 
events  which  he  relates,  and  possibly  also 
in  the  turn  given  to  some  of  tlie  speeches 
which  he  records.  The  last  point  for  our 
consideration  is  the  place  of  these  books  in 
the  Canon,  and  the  references  to  them  in 
the  N.  T.  Their  canonical  authority  having 
never  been  disputed,  it  is  needless  to  bring 
forward  the  testimonies  to  their  authentici- 
ty which  may  be  found  in  Joscphus,  Euse- 
bius,  Jerome,  Augustine,  &c.  They  are 
reckoned  among  the  Prophets,  in  the 
threefold  division  of  the  Holy  Scriptures ; 
a  position  in  accordance  with  the  supposi- 
tion that  they  were  compiled  by  Jeremiah, 
and  contain  the  narratives  of  the  differ- 
ent prophets  in  succession.  They  are  fre- 
quently cited  by  our  Lord  and  by  the 
Apostles. 

Kir  is  mentioned  by  Amos  (ix.  7)  as  the 
land  from  which  the  Syrians  (Aramaeans) 
were  once  "brought  up;"  i.e.  apparently 
as  the  country  where  they  had  dwelt  before 
migrating  to  the  region  north  of  Palestine. 
May  not  Kir  be  a  variant  for  Kish  or  Kush 
(Cush),  and  represent  the  eastern  Ethiopia, 
the  Cissia  of  Herodotus  ? 

Kir-har'asetli  (2  K.  iii.  25),  Kir- 
ha'resh  (Is.  xvi.  ii),  Kir-har'eseth 
(Is.  xvi.  7),  Kir-he'res  (Jer.  xlviii.  31, 
36).  These  four  names  are  all  applied  to 
one  place,  probably  Kir-Moab. 

Kir'iah.,  apparently  an  ancient  or  ar- 
chaic word,  meaning  a  city  or  town.  It 
may  be  compared  to  the  word  "  burg  "  or 
"  bury  "  in  our  own  language.  Closely  re- 
lated to  Kiriah  is  Kereth,  apparently  a 
Phoenician  form,  which  occurs  occasionally 
(Job.  xxix.  7;  Pro  v.  viii.  3).  This  is  fa- 
miliar to  us  in  the  Latin  garb  of  Cunim^o, 
and  in  the  Parthian  and  Armenian  names 
Cilia,  Tigrano-  Certa.  As  a  proper  name 
it  appears  in  the  Bible  under  the  forms  of 
Kerioth,  Kartah,  Kartan ;  besides  those  im- 
mediately following. 

Kiriatha'im.    [Kiejathaim.] 

Kir'ioth,  a  place  in  Moab,  the  palaces 
of  which  were  threatened  by  Amos  with  de- 


KIRJATH 


832 


KISHON,  THE  EIVER 


Btructionby  fire  (Am.  ii.  2)  ;  unless  indeed 
the  word  means  simply  "the  cities,"  which 
is  probably  the  case  also  in  Jer.  xlviij.  4. 

Kir'jath.,  the  last  of  ^e  cities  enumer- 
ated as  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(Josh,  xviii.  28),  probably  identical  with 
tiie  better  known  place  Kirjatu-Jearim. 

Kirjatha'im..  1.  On  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  one  of  the  places  which  were  taken 
possession  of  and  rebuilt  by  the  Reubenites, 
and  had  fresh  names  conferred  on  them 
(Num.  xxxii.  37,  and  see  38),  the  first  and 
last  of  which  are  known  with  some  tolerable 
degree  of  certainty  (Josh.  xii.  19).  It  ex- 
isted in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  1,  23) 
and  Ezekiel  (xxv.  9  —  in  these  three  pas- 
Biiges  the  A.  V.  gives  the  name  Kiriathaisi). 
By  Eusebius  it  appears  to  have  been  well 
known.  He  describes  it  as  a  village  en- 
tirely of  Christians,  10  miles  west  of  Mede- 
ba,  "  close  to  the  Baris."  2.  A  town  in 
Naphtali  not  mentioned  in  the  original  lists 
of  the  possession  allotted  to  the  tribe  (see 
Josh.  xix.  32-39),  but  inserted  in  the  list  of 
cities  given  to  the  Gershonite  Levites,  in  1 
Chr.  (vi.  76),  in  place  of  Kaktan  in  the 
parallel  catalogue,  Kartan  being  probably 
only  a  contraction  thereof. 

Kir'jath-ar'ba,  an  early  name  of  the 
city  wliich  after  the  conquest  is  generally 
known  as  Hebron  (Josh.  xiv.  15 ;  Judg.  i. 
10).  The  identity  of  Kirjath-Arba  with 
HeItou  is  constantly  asserted  (Gen.  xxiii. 
2,  XXXV.  27 ;  Josh.  xiv.  15,  xv.  13,  54,  xx. 
7,  xxi.  11). 

Kir'jath-a'rim,  an  abbreviated  form 
of  the  name  Kir.jath-Jearim,  which  oc- 
curs only  in  Ezr.  ii.  25. 

Kir'jath-ba'al.       [Kirjath-jearim.] 

Kir'jath-hu'zoth,  a  place  to  which 
Balak  accompanied  Balaam  immediately 
after  his  arrival  in  Moab  (Num.  xxii.  39), 
and  which  is  nowhere  else  mentioned.  It 
appears  to  have  lain  between  the  Arnon 
(  Wady  Mojeb)  and  Bamoth-Baal  (comp. 
ver.  36  and  41). 

Kir'jath-je'ariin,  first  mentioned  as 
one  of  the  four  cities  of  the  Gibeonites 
(Josh.  ix.  17)  :  it  next  occurs  as  one  of  the 
landmarks  of  the  northern  boundary  of 
Judah  (xv.  9),  and  as  the  point  at  which 
the  western  and  southern  boundaries  of 
Benjamin  coincided  (xviii.  14,  15)  ;  and  in 
the  two  last  passages  we  find  that  it  bore 
another,  perhaps  earlier,  name  —  that  of  the 
great  Canaanite  deity  Baal,  namely  Baalah 
and  Kirjath-Baal.  It  is  reckoned  among 
the  towns  of  Judah  (xv.  60).  It  is  included 
in  the  genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  50, 
52)  as  founded  by,  or  descended  from, 
Shobal,  the  son  of  Caleb-ben-Hur.  "  Be- 
hind Kirjath-jearim  "  the  band  of  Danites 
pitched  their  camp  before  their  expedition 
to  Mount  Ephraim  and  Laish,  leaving  their 
name  attaclied  to  the  spot  for  long  after 
(Judg.  xviii.  12).    [Mahaneh-dan.]    Hith- 


erto beyond  the  early  sanctity  implied  in 
its  "bearing  the  name  of  Baal,  there  is 
nothing  remarkable  in  Kirjath-jearim.  It 
was  no  doubt  this  reputation  for  sanctity 
I  which  made  the  people  of  Bethshemesh  ap- 
peal to  its  inhabitants  to  relieve  them  of  the 
Ark  of  Jehovah,  which  was  bringing  such 
calamities  on  their  untutored  inexperience 
(1  Sam.  vi.  20,  21).  In  this  high  place  the 
ark  remained  for  twenty  years  (vii.  2). 
At  the  close  of  that  time  Kirjath-jearim  lost 
its  sacred  treasure,  on  its  removal  by  David 
to  the  house  of  Obed-edom  the  Gittite  (1 
Chr.  xiii.  5,  6 ;  2  Chr.  i.  4 ;  2  Sam.  vi.  2, 
&c.).  To  Eusebius  and  Jerome  it  appears 
to  have  been  well  known.  They  describe 
it  as  a  village  at  the  ninth  mile  between 
Jerusalem  and  Diospolis  (Lydda).  These 
requirements  are  exactly  fulfilled  in  the 
modern  village  of  Kuriet-el-Enai  —  now 
usually  known  as  Abit  Gosh,  from  the  rob- 
ber-chief whose  head-quarters  it  was  —  on 
the  road  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem. 

Kir'jath-san'nah.    [Debir.] 

Kir'jath-se'pher  (Josh.  xx.  15,  16; 
Judg.  i.  11,  12).     [Debik.] 

Kir  of  Moab,  one  of  the  two  chief 
strongholds  of  Moab,  the  other  being  Ar  of 
Moab.  The  name  occurs  only  in  Is.  xv.  1, 
though  the  place  is  probably  referred  to 
under  the  names  of  Kir-heres,  Kir-hara- 
seth,  &c.  It  is  almost  identical  with  the 
name  Kerak,  by  which  the  site  of  an  im- 
portant city  in  a  high  and  very  strong 
position  at  the  S.  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea  is 
known  at  this  day.  Its  situation  is  truly 
remarkable.  It  is  built  upon  the  top  of  a 
steep  hill,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a 
deep  and  narrow  valley,  which  again  is 
completely  enclosed  by  mountains  rising 
higher  than  the  town,  and  overlooking  it 
on  all  sides.' 

Kish.  1.  The  father  of  Saul ;  a  Ben- 
jamite  of  the  family  of  Matri,  according  to  1 
Sam.  X.  21,  though  descended  from  Becher 
according  to  1  Chr.  vii,  8,  compared  with  1 
Sam.  ix.  1.  2.  Son  of  Jehiel,  and  uncle 
to  the  preceding  (1  Chr.  ix.  36).  3.  A 
Benjamite,  great-grandfather  of  Mordecai 
(Esth.  ii.  5).  4.  A  Merarite,  of  the  house 
of  Mahli,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  His  sons 
married  the  daughters  of  his  brother  Elea- 
zar  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  21,  22,  xxiv.  28,  29),  ap- 
parently about  the  time  of  King  Saul,  or 
early  in  the  reign  of  David,  since  Jeduthun 
the  singer  was  the  son  of  Kish  (1  Chr.  vi. 
44,  compared  with  2  Chr.  xxix.  11). 

Eisll'i,  a  Merarite,  and  father  or  ances- 
tor of  Ethan  the  minstrel  (1  Chr.  vi.  44). 

Kish.'ioil,  one  of  the  towns  on  the 
boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Josh. 
xix.  20),  which  with  its  suburbs  was  allot- 
ted to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi.  28 ;  A. 
V.  Kishon). 

Ki'shon,  The  River,  a  torrent  or 
winter  stream  of   central    Palestine,   the 


KISON 


333 


KOA 


scene  of  two  of  the  grandest  achievements 
of  Israelite  history  —  the  defeat  of  Sisera 
(Judg.  iv.),  and  the  destruction  of  the 
prophets  of  Baal  by  Elijah  (1  K.  xviii.  40). 
The  Nahr  Mukutia,  the  modern  represen- 
tative of  the  Kishon,  is  the  drain  by  which 
the  waters  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and 
of  the  mountains  which  enclose  that  plain, 
find  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean.  Like 
most  of  the  so-called  "  rivers  "  of  Pales- 
tine, the  perennial  stream  forms  but  a 
small  part  of  the  Kishon.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  its  upper  portion 
is  dry,  and  the  stream  confined  to  a  few 
miles  next  the  sea.  Thd  part  of  the  Ki- 
shon at  which  the  prophets  of  Baal  were 
slaughtered  by  Elijah  was  doubtless  close 
below  the  spot  on  Carmel  where  the  sacri- 
fice h^d  taken  place. 

Ki'son,  an  inaccurate  mode  of  repre- 
senting the  name  Kishon  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9). 

Xiss.  Kissing  the  lips  by  way  of  affec- 
tionate salutation  was  customary  amongst 
near  relatives  of  both  sexes,  both  in  Patri- 
archal and  in  later  times  (Gen.  xxix.  11; 
Cant.  viii.  1).  Between  individuals  of  the 
same  sex,  and  in  a  limited  degree  between 
those  of  different  sexes,  the  kiss  on  the 
cJieek  as  a  mark  of  respect  or  an  act  of 
salutation  has  at  all  times  been  customary 
in  the  East,  and  can  hardly  be  said  to  be 
extinct  even  in  Europe.  In  the  Christian 
Church  the  kiss  of  charity  was  practised 
not  only  as  a  friendly  salutation,  but  as  an 
act  symbolical  of  love  and  Christian  broth- 
erhood (Rom.  xvi.  IG;  1  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2 
Cor.  xiii.  12;  1  Thess.  v.  26;  1  Pet.  v.  14). 
It  was  embodied  in  the  earlier  Christian 
offices,  and  has  been  continued  in  some  of 
those  now  in  use.  Among  the  Arabs  the 
women  and  children  kiss  the  beards  of 
their  husbands  or  fathers.  The  superior 
returns  the  salute  by  a  kiss  on  the  fore- 
head. In  Egypt  an  inferior  kisses  the 
hand  of  a  superior,  generally  on  the  back, 
but  sometimes,  as  a  special  favor,  on  the 
palm  also.  To  testify  abject  submission, 
and  in  asking  favors,  the  feet  are  often 
kissed  instead  of  the  hand.  The  written 
decrees  of  a  sovereign  are  kissed  in  token 
of  respect ;  even  the  ground  is  sometimes 
Kissed  by  Orientals  in  the  fulness  of  their 
submission  (Gen.  xli.  40 ;  1  Sam.  xxiv.  8 ; 
Ps.  Ixxii.  9;  &c.).  Kissing  is  spoken  of  in 
Scripture  as  a  mark  of  respect  or  adoration 
to  idols  (1  K.  xix.  18;  Hos.  xiii.  2). 

Kite  (Heb.  ayydh).  The  Hebrew  word 
thus  rendered  occurs  in  three  passages, 
Lev.  xi.  14,  Deut.  xiv.  13,  and  Job  xxviii. 
7  :  in  the  two  former  it  is  translated  '•  kite  " 
in  the  A.  V.,  in  the  latter  "  vulture."  It  is 
enumerated  among  the  twenty  names  of 
birds  mentioned  in  Deut.  xiv,  (belonging 
for  the  most  part  to  the  order  Raptor cs), 
which  were  considered  unclean  by  the  Mo- 
saic I<aw,  and  forbidden  to  be  used  as  food 


by  the  Israelites.  The  allusion  in  Job 
alone  affords  a  clew  to  its  identification. 
The  deep  mines  in  the  recesses  of  '  the 
mountains  from  which  tlie  labor  of  man 
extracts  the  treasures  of  the  earth  are 
there  described  as  "a  track  which  the  bird 
of  prey  hath  not  known,  nor  hath  the  eye 
of  the  ayydh  looked  upon  it."  The  ayydh 
may  possibly  be  the  "  kite,"  but  there  is 
no  certainty  on  the  subject. 

Kitlx'lisll,  one  of  the  towns  of  Judah,  in 
the  Shefelah  or  lowland  (Josh.  xv.  40). 

Kit'ron,  one  of  the  towns  from  which 
Zebulun  did  not  expel  the  Canaanites 
(Judg.  i.  30).  In  the  Talmud  it  is  identi- 
fied with  "  Zippori,"  i.  e.  Sepphoris,  now 
Seffurieh. 

Kit'tim.  Twice  written  in  the  A.  V. 
for  CurrxiM  (Gen.  x.  4;  1  Chr.  i.  7). 

Kneading-troughis.    [Bread.] 

Enife.  l.  The  knives  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  of  other  nations  in  early  times, 
were  probably  only  of  hard  stone,  and  the 
use  of  the  flint  or  stone  knife  was  some- 
times retained  for  sacred  purposes  after 
the  introduction  of  iron  and  steel.  Herod- 
otus (ii.  86)  mentions  knives  both  of  iron 
and  of  stone  in  different  stages  of  the  same 
process  of  embalming.  The  same  may  per- 
haps be  said  to  some  extent  of  the  Jlebrews. 
2.  In  their  meals  the  Jews,  like  other  Ori- 
entals, made  little  use  of  knives,  but  they 
were  required  both  for  slaughtering  ani- 
mals either  for  food  or  sacrifice,  as  well  as 
cutting  up  the. carcass  (Lev.  vii.  33,  34, 
viii.  15,  20,  25,  ix.  13;  Num.  xviii.  18;  1 
Sam.  ix.  24,  &c.).  3.  Smaller  knives  were 
in  use  for  paring  fruit  (Joseph.),  and  for 
sharpening  pens  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23).  4.  The 
razor  was  often  used  for  Nazaritic  pur- 
poses, for  which  a  special  chamber  was 
reserved  in  the  Temple  (Num.  vi.  5,  9,  19; 
Ez.  V.  1;  &c.).  6.  The  pruning-hooks  of 
Is.  xviii.  5  were  probably  curved  knives. 
6.  The  lancets  of  the  priests  of  Baal  wer« 
doubtless  pointed  knives  (1  K.  xviii.  28). 

Enop.  A  word  employed  in  the  A.  V. 
to  translate  two  terms,  which  refer  to  some 
architectural  or  ornamental  object,  but 
which  have  nothing  in  common.  1.  Caph- 
tor.  Tlus  occurs  in  the  description  of  the 
candlestick  of  the  sacred  tent  in  Ex.  xxv. 
31-36,  and  xxxvii.  17-22.  2.  The  second 
term,  Peka'tm.,  is  found  only  in  1  K.  vi.  18, 
and  vii.  24.  The  word  no  doubt  signifies 
some  globular  thing  resembling  a  small 
gourd,  or  an  egg,  though  as  to  the  character 
of  the  ornament  we  are  quite  in  the  dark. 

Ko'a  is  a  word  which  occurs  only  in  Ez. 
xxiii.  23.  It  may  perhaps  designate  a 
place  otherwise  unknown,  which  we  must 
suppose  to  have  been  a  city  or  district  of 
Babylonia.  Or  it  may  be  a  common  noun, 
signifying  "  prince  "  or  "  nobleman,"  as  the 
Vulgate  takes  it,  and  some  of  the  Jewish 
interpreters. 


KOHATH 


834 


LACHISH 


KoTiatll,  second  of  the  three  sons  of 
Levi,  from  wliom  the  three  principal  divis- 
ions of  the  Levites  derived  their  origin  and 
their  name  (Gen.  xlvi.  11 ;  Exod.  vi.  16, 
18;  Num.  iii.  17;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  12,  &c.). 
Kohath  was  the  father  of  Amram,  and  he 
of  Moses  and  Aaron.  From  him,  there- 
fore, were  descended  all  the  priests ;  and 
hence  those  of  the  Kohathites  who  were 
not  priests  were  of  the  highest  rank  of  the 
Levites,  though  not  the  sons  of  Levi's  first- 
born. In  the  journeyings  of  the  Taber- 
nacle the  sons  of  Kohath  had  charge  of  the 
most  holy  portions  of  the  vessels  (Num. 
iv.).  It  appears  from  Ex.  vi.  18-22,  com- 
pared with  1  Chr.  xxiii.  12,  xxvi.  23-32, 
that  there  were  four  families  of  sons  of 
Kohath  —  Amramites,  Izharites,  Hebron- 
ites,  and  Uzzielites.  Of  the  personal  his- 
tory of  Kohath  we  know  nothing,  except 
that  he  came  down  to  Egypt  with  Levi  and 
Jacob  (Gen.  xlvi.  11),  that  his  sister  was 
Jochebed  (Ex.  vi.  20),  and  that  he  lived  to 
the  age  of  133  years  (Ex.  vi.  18). 

Eolai'ah.  1.  A  Benjamite  whose  de- 
scendants settled  in  Jerusalem  after  the 
return  from  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  7).  2. 
The  father  of  Ahab  the  false  prophet,  who 
was  burnt  by  the  king  of  Babylon  (Jer. 
xxix.  21).' 

Ko'rah..  1.  Third  son  of  Esau  by 
Aholibamah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  6,  14,  18 ;  1  Chr. 
i.  35).  He  was  born  in  Canaan  before 
Eiau  migrated  to  Mount  Seir  (xxxvi.  5-9), 
and  was  one  of  the  "  dukes  "  of  Edom.  2. 
Another  Edomitish  duke  of  this  name, 
sprung  from  Eliphaz,  Esau's  son  by  Adah 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  16).  3.  One  of  the  "  sons 
of  Hebron,"  in  1  Chr.  ii.  43.  4.  Son  of 
Izhar,  the  son  I^hath,  the  son  of  Levi. 
He  was  leader  of  the  famous  rebellion 
against  his  cousins  Moses  and  Aaron  in  the 
wilderness,  for  which  he  paid  the  penalty 
of  perishing  with  his  followers  by  an  earth- 
quake and  flames  of  fire  (Num.  xvi.,  xxvi. 
9-11).  The  particular  grievance  which 
rankled  in  the  mind  of  Korah  and  his  com- 
pany was  their  exclusion  from  the  office  of 
the  priesthood,  and  their  being  confined  — 
those  among  them  who  were  Levites  —  to 
the  inferior  service  of  the  tabernacle.  Ko- 
rah's  position  as  leader  in  this  rebellion 
was  evidently  the  result  of  his  personal 
character,  which  was  that  of  a  bold,  haugh- 
ty, and  ambitious  man.  From  some  cause 
which  does  not  clearly  appear,  the  children 
of  Korah  were  not  involved  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  their  father  (Num.  xxvi.  11).  Per- 
haps the  fissure  of  the  ground  which  swal- 
lowed up  the  tc^nts  of  Dathan  and  Abiram 
did  not  extend  beyond  those  of  the  Reu- 
benites.  From  ver.  27  it  seems  clear  that 
Korah  himself  was  not  with  Dathan  and 
Abiram  at  the  moment.  He  himself  was 
doiibtless  with  the  250  men  who  bare  cen- 
sers nearer  the  tabernacle  (ver.  19),  an'd 


perished  with  them  by  the  "  fire  from  Je- 
hovah "  which  accompanied  the  earthquake. 
In  the  N.  T.  (Jude  11)  Korah  is  coupled 
with  Cain  and  Balaam. 

Kor'ahite  (i  Chr.  ix.  19,  31),  Kor'- 
hite,  or  Kor'athite,  that  portion  of  the 
Kohathites  who  were  descended  from  Ko- 
rah, and  are  frequently  styled  by  the  synony- 
mous phrase  Sons  of  Korah.  They  were 
an  important  branch  of  the  singers  (2  Chr. 
XX.  19).  Hence  we  find  eleven  Psalms  (or 
twelve,  if  Ps.  43  is  included  under  the 
same  title  as  Ps.  42)  dedicated  or  assigned 
to  the  sons  of  Korah,  viz.  Ps.  42,  44-49,  84, 
85,  87,  88. 

Ko're.  1.  A  Korahite  ancestor  of  Shal- 
lum  and  Meshelemiah,  chief  porters  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  ix.  19,  xxvi.  1).  2. 
Son  of  Imnah,  a  Levite  in  the  rei^  of 
Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  14).  3.  In  the  A. 
V.  of  1  Chr.  xxvi.  19,  "the  sons  of  Kore  " 
(following  the  Vulg.  Core),  should  proper- 
ly be  "  the  sons  of  the  Korhite." 

Koz  (Ezr.  u.  61 ;  Neh.  iii.  4,  21)  =  Coz 
=  Hakkoz. 

Kushai'ah.  The  same  as  Kish  or 
KisHi,  the  father  of  Ethan  the  Merarite  (I 
Chr.  XV.  17). 


L. 


Iia'adah.,  the  son  of  Shelah,  and  grand- 
son of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  21). 

Ija'adan.  1.  An  Ephraimite,  ancestor 
of  Joshua  the  son  of  Nun  (1  Chr.  vii.  26). 
2.  The  son  of  Gershom,  elsewhere  called 
LiBNi  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  7,  8,  9;  xxvi.  21). 

La'Dan.  1.  Son  of  Betlmel,  brother  of 
Rebekah,  and  father  of  Leah  and  Rachel. 
The  elder  branch  of  the  family  remained 
at  Haran  when  Abraham  removed  to  the 
land  of  Canaan,  and  it  is  there  that  we 
first  meet  with  Laban,  as  taking  the  lead- 
ing part  in  the  betrothal  of  his  sister  Re- 
bekah to  her  cousin  Isaac  (Gen.  xxiv.  10, 
29-60,  xxvii.  43,  xxix.  4).  The  next  time 
Laban  appears  in  the  sacred  narrative  it  is 
as  the  host  of  his  nephew  Jacob  at  Haran 
(Gen.  xxix.  13,  14).  The  subsequent  trans- 
actions by  which  he  secured  the  valuable 
services  of  his  nephew  are  related  under 
Jacob.  2.  One  of  the  landmarks  named 
in  the  obscure  and  disputed  passage  Deut. 
i.  1.  The  mention  of  Hezeroth  has  perhaps 
led  to  the  only  conjecture  regarding  Laban 
of  which  the  writer  is  aware,  namely,  that  it 
is  identical  with  Libnah  (Num.  xxxiii.  20). 
The  Syriac  Peshito  understands  the  name 
as  Lebanon. 

Lacedemo'nians,  the  inhabitants  of 
Sparta  or  Laccdaemon,  with  wliom  the 
Jews  claimed  kindred  (1  Mace.  xii.  2,  5,  6, 
20,  21 ;  xiv.  20,  23;  xv.  23;  2  Mace.  v.  9). 

La'chish,  a  city  of  the  Amorites,theking 
of  which  joined  with  four   others,  at  the 


LAEL 


335 


LAMENTATIONS 


invitation  of  Adonizedek  king  of  Jerusa- 
lem, to  chastise  the  Gibeonites  for  their 
league  with  Israel  (Josh.  x.  3,  5).  They 
were  routed  by  Joshua  at  Bethhoron,  and 
the  king  of  Lachish  fell  a  victim  with  the 
others  under  the  trees  at  Makkedah  (ver. 
26).  The  destruction  of  the  town  shortly 
followed  the  death  of  the  king  (ver.  31-33). 
In  the  special  statement  that  the  attack 
lasted  two  days,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
other  cities  which  were  taken  in  one  (see 
ver.  35),  we  gain  our  first  glimpse  of  that 
strength  of  position  for  which  Lachish  was 
afterwards  remarkable.  Lachish  was  one 
of  the  cities  fortified  and  garrisoned  by  Re- 
hoboam  after  the  revolt  of  the  northern 
kingdom  (2  Chr.  xi.  9).  It  was  chosen  as 
a  refuge  by  Amaziah  from  the  conspirators 
who  threatened  liim  in  Jerusalem,  and  to 
whom  he  at  last  fell  a  victim  at  Lachish  (2 
K.  xiv.  19;  2  Chr.  xxv.  27).  In  the  reign 
of  Hezekiali,  it  was  one  of  the  cities  taken 
by  Sennacherib  when  on  his  way  from 
Phoenicia  in  Egypt.  This  siege  is  consid- 
ered by  Layard  and  Hincks  to  be  depicted 
on  the  slabs  found  by  the  former  in  one  of 
the  chambers  of  the  palace  at  Kouyunjik. 
But  though  the  Assyrian  records  appear  to 
assert  tlie  capture  of  Lachish,  no  statement 
is  to  be  found  either  in  the  Bible  or  Jose- 
phus  that  it  was  taken.  After  the  return 
from  captivity,  Lachish  with  its  surround- 
ing "'fields"  was  re-occupied  by  the  Jews 
(Neh.  xi.  30).  By  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
iu  the  Onomasticon,  Lachish  is  mentioned 
as  "  7  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  towards 
Daroma,"  i.  e.  towards  the  south. 

Ija'el,  the  father  of  Eliasaph  (Num.  iii. 
24). 

Xia'had,  son  of  Jahath,  one  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  2). 

Laha'i-ro'i,  The  Well.  In  this  form 
is  given  in  the  A.  V.  of  Gen.  xxiv.  62,  and 
xxv.  11,  the  name  of  the  famous  well  of 
Hagar's  relief,  in  the  oasis  of  verdure 
round  which  Isaac  afterwards  resided. 

Iiall'niain,  a  town  in  the  lowland  dis- 
trict of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  40). 

Lah'mi,  the  brother  of  Goliath  the  Git- 
tite,  slain  by  Elhanan  the  son  of  Zair,  or 
Zaor  (1  Chr.  xx.  5). 

Xia'ish.,  the  city  which  was  taken  by  the 
Danites,  and  under  its  new  name  of  Dan 
became  famous  as  the  northern  limit  of  the 
nation  (Judg.  xviii.  7,  14,  27,  29).  [Dan.] 
In  the  A.  V.  Laish  is  again  mentioned  in 
the  account  of  Sennacherib's  march  on  Je- 
rusalem (Is.  X.  36).  This  Laish  is  proba- 
bly the  small  village,  Laishah,  lying  be- 
tween Gallim  and  Anathoth,  and  of  which 
hitherto  no  traces  have  been  found. 

La'ish,  father  of  Phaltiel,  to  whom  Saul 
had  given  Miehal,  David's  wife  (1  Sam. 
xxv.  44;  2  Sam.  iii.  15). 

Lakes.     [Palestine.] 

La'kum,   properly  Lak'kum,  one  of 


the  places  which  formed  the  landmarks 
of  the  boundary  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
33). 

Iiambs  formed  an  important  part  of 
almost  every  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix.  38-41; 
Num.  xxviii.  9,  11,  xxix.  2,  13-40,  &c.). 
On  the  Paschal  Lamb,  see  Passover. 

La'mech,  properly  Lemech.  1.  The 
fifth  lineal  descendant  from  Cain  (Gen.  iv. 
18-24).  He  is  the  only  one  except  Enoch, 
of  the  posterity  of  Cain,  whose  history  is 
related  with  some  detail.  His  two  wives, 
Adah  and  Zillah,  and  his  daughter  Naamah, 
are,  with  Eve,  the  only  antediluvian  women 
whose  names  are  mentioned  by  Moses.  His 
three  sons,  Jabal,  Jubal,  and  Tubal-cain, 
are  celebrated  in  Scripture  as  authors  of 
useful  inventions.  The  remarkable  poem 
which  Lamech  uttered  has  not  yet  been  ex- 
plained quite  satisfactorily.  It  may  be  ren- 
dered, — 

Adah  and  Zillah,  hear  my  TOice  ; 

Ye  wives  of  Lamech,  give  ear  unto  my  speech  ; 

For  a  man  had  I  slain  for  smiting  me. 

And  a  youth  for  woundiiij?  nie. 

Surely  seven-fold  shall  Cain  be  avenged, 

But  Lamech  seventy  and  seven. 

It  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  Lamech's 
song  of  exultation  on  the  invention  of  the 
sword  by  his  son  Tubal-cain,  in  the  pos- 
session of  which  he  foresaw  a  great  advan- 
tage to  himself  and  his  family  over  any 
enemies.  2.  The  father  of  Noah  (Gen.  v. 
29). 

Lamentations  of  Jeremiah.    The 

Hebrew  title  of  this  book,  £cah,  is  taken, 
like  those  of  the  five  Books  of  Moses,  from 
the  Hebrew  word  with  which  it  opens.  The 
poems  included  in  this  collection  appear 
in  the  Hebrew  canon  with  no  name  at- 
tached to  them,  and  the/e  is  no  direct  ex- 
ternal evidence  that  they  were  written  by 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  earlier  than  the 
date  given  in  the  prefatory  verse  which 
appears  in  the  Scptuagint.  The  poems 
belong  unmistakably  to  the  last  days  of 
the  kingdom,  or  the  commencement  of 
the  exile.  They  are  written  by  one  who 
speaks,  with  the  vividness  and  intensity  of  an 
eye-witness,  of  the  misery  which  he  bewails. 
It  might  almost  be  enough  to  ask  who  else 
then  living  could  have  written  with  that 
imion  of  strong  passionate  feeling  and  en- 
tire submission  to  Jehovah  which  char- 
acterizes both  the  Lamentations  and  the 
Prophecy  of  Jeremiah.  The  evidences  of 
identity  are,  however,  stronger  and  more 
minute.  Assuming  this  as  sufficiently  es- 
tablished, there  come  the  questions  —  (1.) 
When,  and  on  what  occasion,  did  he  write 
it?  (2.)  In  what  relation  did  it  stand  to 
his  other  writings?  (3.)  What  light  does 
it  throw  on  his  personal  history,  or  on  that 
of  the  time  in  which  he  lived?  I.  The 
earliest  statement  on  tliis  |)oint  is  that  of 
Josephus  {Ant.  x.  5,  §  1).  |IIe  finds  among 
the  books  which  were  extant  in  his  own 


LAMENTATIONS 


336 


LAMP 


time  the  lamentations  on  the  death  of  Jo- 
siah,  which  are  mentioned  in  2  Chr.  xxxv. 
25.  As  there  are  no  traces  of  any  other 
poem  of  this  kind  in  the  later  Jewish  liter- 
ature, it  has  been  inferred,  naturally  enough, 
that  he  speaks  of  this.  Against  this  we  have 
to  set  (1)  the  tradition  on  the  other  side 
embodied  in  the  preface  of  the  Septuagint, 
(2)  the  contents  of  tffe  book  itself.  We 
look  in  vain  for  a  single  word  distinctive  of 
a  funeral  dirge  over  a  devout  and  zealous 
reformer  like  Josiah,  while  we  find,  step  by 
step,  the  closest  possible  likeness  between 
the  pictures  of  misery  in  the  Lamentations 
and  the  events  of  the  closing  years  of  the 
reign  of  Zedelciah.  At  what  period  after 
the  capture  of  the  city  the  prophet  gave 
tills  utterance  to  his  sorrow  we  can  only 
conjecture,  and  the  materials  for  doing  so 
with  any  probability  are  but  scanty.  II. 
The  book  consists  of  five  chapters,  each  of 
which,  however,  is  a  separate  poem,  com- 
plete in  itself,  and  having  a  distinct  sub- 
ject, but  brought  at  the  same  time  under  a 
plan  which  includes  them  all.  A  compli- 
cated alphabetic  structure  pervades  nearly 
the  whole  book.  (1.)  Ch.  i.,  ii.,  and  iv. 
contain  22  verses  each,  arranged  in  alpha- 
betic order,  each  verse  falling  into  three 
nearly  balanced  clauses ;  ii.  19  forms  an 
exception,  as  having  a  fourth  clause.  (2.) 
Ch.  iii.  contains  three  short  verses  under 
each  letter  of  the  alphabet,  the  initial  letter 
being  three  times  repeated.  (3.)  Ch.  v. 
contains  the  same  number  of  verses  as 
ch.  i.,  ii.,  iv.,  but  without  the  alphabetic 
order.  III.  Jeremiah  was  not  merely  a 
patriot-poet,  weeping  over  the  ruin  of  his 
country.  He  was  a  prophet  who  had  seen 
all  this  coming,  and  had  foretold  it  as  inev- 
itable. He  had  urged  submission  to  the 
Chaldaeans  as  the  only  mode  of  diminish- 
ing the  terrors  of  that  "day  of  the  Lord." 
All  feeling  of  exultation  in  which,  as  mere 
prophet  of  evil,  he  might  have  indulged 
at  the  fulfilment  of  his  forebodings,  was 
swallowed  up  in  deep,  overwhelming  sor- 
row. Yet  sorrow,  not  less  than  other 
emotions,  works  on  men  according  to 
their  characters,  and  a  man  with  Jere- 
miah's gifts  of  utterance  could  not  sit 
down  in  the  mere  silence  and  stupor  of  a 
hopeless  grief.  He  was  compelled  to  give 
expression  to  that  which  was  devouring  his 
heart  and  the  heart  of  his  people.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  five  poems  will  enable  us 
to  judge  how  far  each  stands  by  itself,  how 
fur  they  are  connected  as  parts  forming  a 
whole.  I.  The  opening  verse  strikes  the 
key-note  of  the  whole  poem.  That  which 
haunts  the  prophet's  mind  is  the  solitude 
in  which  he  finds  himself.  She  that  was 
"  ])rincess  among  the  nations  "  sits  "  sol- 
itary," "as  a  widow."  Mingling  with  this 
outburst  of  sorrow  there  are  two  thouglits 
characteristic  both  of  the  man  and  the  time. 


The  calamities  which  the  nation  suffers  are 
the  consequences  of  its  sins.  There  must 
be  the  confession  of  those  sins.  There 
is  also,  at  any  rate,  this  gleam  of  con- 
solation—  that  Judah  is  not  alone  in  her 
sufferings.  II.  As  the  solitude  of  the  city 
was  the  subject  of  the  first  lamentation,  so 
the  destruction  that  had  laid  it  waste  is 
that  which  is  most  conspicuous  in  the  sec- 
ond. III.  In  the  two  preceding  poems, 
Jeremiah  had  spoken  of  the  misery  and 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  third 
he  speaks  chiefly,  though  not  exclusively, 
of  his  own.  Here,  as  in  the  propliecies, 
we  find  a  Gospel  for  the  weary  and  heavy- 
laden.  IV.  It  might  seem,  at  first,  as  if 
the  fourth  poem  did  but  reproduce  the 
pictures  and  thoughts  of  the  first  and 
second.  Thus  come  before  us  once  again 
the  famine,  the  misery,  the  desolation, 
that  had  fallen  on  the  holy  city,  making 
all  faces  gather  blackness.  V.  One  great 
difference  in  the  fifth  and  last  section 
of  the  poem  has  been  already  pointed 
out.  It  obviously  indicates  either  a  de- 
liberate abandonment  of  the  alphabetic 
structure,  or  the  unfinished  character  of 
the  concluding  elegy.  There  are  perhaps 
few  portions  of  the  O.  T.  which  appear 
to  have  done  the  work  they  were  meant  to 
do  more  effectually  than  this.  The  book 
has  supplied  thousands  with  the  fullest 
utterance  for  their  sorrows  in  the  critical 
periods  of  national  or  individual  suffering. 
We  may  well  believe  that  it  sootlied  the 
weary  years  of  the  Babylonian  exile.  On 
the  ninth  day  of  the  month  of  Ab  (July-Au- 
gust), the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  were 
read,  year  by  year,  with  fasting  and  weep- 
ing, to  commemorate  the  misery  out  of 
which  the  people  had  been  delivered.  It 
enters  largely  into  the  order  of  the  Latin 
Church  for  the  services  of  Passion-week. 
The  LXX.  group  the  writings  connected 
with  the  name  of  Jeremiah  together,  but  the 
Book  of  Baruch  comes  between  tlie  prophe- 
cy and  the  Lamentation.  On  the  hypothesis 
of  some  writers  that  Jer.  Hi.  was  originally 
the  introduction  to  the  poem,  it  would  follow 
that  the  arrangement  of  the  Vulg.  and  the 
A.  V.  corresponds  more  closely  than  any 
other  to  that  which  we  must  look  on  as  thw 
original  one. 

iiamp.  1.  That  part  of  the  golden  can- 
dlestick belonging  to  the  Tabernacle  which 
bore  the  light ;  also  of  each  of  the  ten  can- 
dlesticks placed  by  Solomon  in  the  Temple 
before  the  Holy  of  Holies  (Ex.  xxv.  37 ;  1 
K.  vii.  49 ;  2  Chr.  iv.  20,  xiii.  1 1 ;  Zech.  iv. 
2).  The  lamps  were  lighted  every  evening, 
and  cleansed  every  morning  (Ex.  xxx.  7, 
8).  S.  A  torch  or  flambeau,  such  as  was 
carried  by  the  soldiers  of  Gideon  (Judg.  vii. 
16,  20;  comp.  xv.  4).  The  use  of  lamps  fed 
with  oil  in  marriage  processions  is  alluded 
to  in  the  parable  of  the  ten  virgins  (Matt. 


ii"'M'ilI' 


ff^'^^ 


LANCET 


337 


LATTICE 


Txv.  1).  Modern  Egyptian  lamps  consist 
of  small  glass  vessels  with  a  tube  at  the  bot- 
tom containing  a  cotton-wick  twisted  round 
a  piece  of  straw.  For  night-travelling,  a 
lantern  composed  of  waxed  cloth  strained 
over  a  sort  of  cylinder  of  wire-rings,  and  a 
top  and  bottom  of  perforated  copper.  This 
would,  in  format  least,  answer  to  the  lamps 
within  pitchers  of  Gideon. 


Egyptian  Lamp. 

Iiancet.  This  word  is  found  in  1  K. 
xviii.  28  only.  The  Hebrew  term  is  Romach, 
which  is  elsewhere  rendered,  and  appears 
to  mean,  a  javelin,  or  light  spear.  In  the 
original  edition  of  the  A.  V.  (1611)  the 
word  is  "lancers." 

Xiangnage.  [Tongues,  Confusion  of.] 

Lantern  occurs  only  in  John  xviii.  3. 
See  Did.  of  Ant.  art.  Latekna. 

Xiaodice'a,  a  town  in  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Asia,  situated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Maeander,  on  a  small  river  called  the 
Lycus,  with  Colossae  and  Hiekapolis  a 
few  miles  distant  to  the  west.  Built,  or 
rather  rebuilt,  by  one  of  the  Seleucid  mon- 
archs,  and  named  in  honor  of  his  wife,  Laod- 
icea  became  under  the  Roman  government 
a  place  of  some  importance.  Its  trade  was 
considerable :  it  lay  on  tlie  line  of  a  great 
road ;  and  it  was  the  seat  of  a  conventus. 
From  tlie  third  chapter  and  seventeenth 
verse  of  Revelation  we  should  gather  it  was 
a  place  of  great  wealth.  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Laodicea,  not,  however,  as 
it  would  seem,  througli  the  direct  agency  of 
St.  Paul.  We  have  good  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  when,  in  writing  from  Rome  to 
the  Christians  of  Colossae,  he  sent  a  greet- 
ing to  those  of  Laodicea,  he  had  not  per- 
sonally visited  either  place.  But  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  at  Ephesus  (Acts 
xviii.  19-xix.  41)  must  inevitably  have  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  churches  in  the 
neighboring  cities,  especially  where  Jews 
were  settled ;  and  there  were  Jews  in  Laod- 
icea. In  subsequent  times  it  became  a 
Christian  city  of  eminence,  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  and  a  meeting-place  of  councils. 
The  Mohammedan  invaders  destroyed  it ; 
and  it  is  now  a  scene  of  utter  desolation  : 
but  the  extensive  ruins  near  De7iislu  justify 
all  that  we  read  of  Laodicea  in  Greek  and 
Roman  writers.  One  Biblical  subject  of 
interest  is  connected  with  Laodicea.  From 
Col.  iv.  IC  it  appears  that  St.  Paul  wrote  a 
letter  to  this  place  when  he  wrote  the  letter 
to  Colossae.  The  question  arises  whether 
22 


we  can  give  any  account  of  this  Laodicean 
epistle.  Wieselor's  theory  is  tliat  the  Epistle 
to  Piiilemon  is  meant.  Another  view,  main- 
tained by  Paley  and  others,  is  that  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  is  intended. 
Ussher's  view  is  that  this  last  epistle  was  a 
circular  letter  sent  to  Laodicea  among  other 
places.  The  apocryphal  Epistola  ad  Lao- 
dicenses  is  a  late  and  clumsy  forgery. 

Xiaodice'ans,  the  inhabitants  of  Laod- 
icea (Col.  iv.  16;  Rev.  iii.  14). 

Xiap'idoth,  the  husband  of  Deborah  the 
prophetess  (Judg.  iv.  4). 

Lapwing  (Heb.  duciphath)  occurs  only 
in  Lev.  xi.  19,  and  in  the  parallel  passage 
of  Dent.  xiv.  18,  amongst  the  list  of  those 
birds  which  were  forbidden  by  the  law  of 
Moses  to  be  eaten  by  the  Israelites.  Com- 
mentators generally  agree  that  the  Hoopoe 
is  the  bird  intended.  The  hoopoe  is  not 
now  eaten  except  occasionally  in  those 
countries  where  it  is  abundantly  found  — 
Egypt,  France,  Spain,  &c.,  &c.  The  hcopoe 
is  an  occasional  visitor  to  England,  arriv- 
ing for  the  most  part  in  the  autumn.  Its 
cr?st  is  very  elegant ;  the  long  feathers  form- 
ing it  are  each  of  them  tipped  with  black. 

Lase'a  (Acts  xxvii.  8),  a  city  of  Crete, 
the  ruins  of  which  were  discovered  in  1856, 
a  few  miles  to  tlie  eastward  of  Fair  Havens. 

La'sha,  a  place  noticed  in  Gen.  x.  19 
as  marking  the  limit  of  the  country  of  the 
Canaanites.  It  lay  somewhere  in  the  south- 
east of  Palestine.  Jerome  and  other  writers 
identify  it  with  Callirhoii,  a  spot  famous  for 
hot  springs,  near  tlie  eastern  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

Xtasha'ron,  one  of  the  Canaanitc  towns 
whose  kings  were  killed  by  Joshua  (Josh. 
xii.  18). 

Ijatcliet,  the  thong  or  fastening  by 
which  the  sandal  was  attached  to  the  foot. 
It  occurs  in  the  proverbial  expression  in 
Gen.  xiv.  23,  and  is  there  used  to  denote 
something  trivial  or  worthless.  Another 
semi-proverbial  expression  in  Luke  iii.  16 
points  to  the  fact  that  the  office  of  bearing 
and  unfastening  the  shoes  of  great  person- 
ages fell  to  the  meanest  slaves. 

Xiatin,  the  language  spoken  by  the  Ro- 
mans, is  mentioned  only  in  John  xix.  20, 
and  Luke  xxiii.  38. 

Lattice.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of 
three  Hebrew  words.  1.  Eshn&b,  which 
occurs  but  twice,  Judg.  v.  28,  and  Prov. 
vii.  6,  and  in  the  latter  passage  is  translat- 
ed "  casement  "  in  the  A.  V.  In  both  in- 
stances it  stands  in  parallelism  with  "  win- 
dow." 2.  Kharaccim  (Cant.  ii.  9)  is  ap- 
parently synonymous  with  the  preceding, 
though  a  word  of  later  date.  3.  Sebdcdh, 
is  simply  "a  network"  placed  before  a 
window  or  balcony.  Perhaps  the  network 
through  which  Ahaziah  fell  and  received 
his  mortal  injury  was  on  the  parapet  of 
his  palace  (2  K.  i.  2). 


LAYER 


338 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


Laver.  1.  In  the  Tabernacle,  a  vessel 
of  brass  containing  water  for  the  priests  to 
wash  their  hands  and  feet  before  offering 
Eacrifice.  It  stood  in  the  court  between 
the  aUar  and  the  door  of  the  Tabernacle 
(Ex.  XXX.  19,  21.)  It  rested  on  a  basis, 
i.  e.  a  foot,  though  by  some  explained  to 
be  a  cover  of  copper  or  brass,  which,  as 
well  as  the  laver  itself,  was  made  from  the 
mirrors  of  the  women  who  assembled  at  the 
door  of  the  Tabernacle-court  (Ex.  xxxviii. 
8).  The  form  of  the  laver  is  not  specified, 
but  may  be  assumed  to  have  been  circular. 
Like'the  other  vessels  belonging  to  the  Tab- 
ernacle, it  was,  together  with  its  "foot," 
consecrated  with  oil  (Lev.  viii.  10,  11).  2. 
In  Solomon's  Temple,  besides  the  great 
molten  sea,  there  were  ten  lavers  of  brass, 
raised  on  bases  (1  K.  vii.  27,  39),  five  on 
the  N.  and  S.  sides  respectively  of  the 
court  of  the  priests.  Each  laver  contained 
40  of  the  measures  called  "bath."  They 
were  used  for  washing  the  animals  to  be 
offered  in  burnt-offerings  (2  Chr.  iv.  6). 
The  dimensions  of  the  bases  with  the  la- 
vers, as  given  in  the  Hebrew  text,  are  4 
cubits  in  length  and  breadth,  and  3  in 
height.  There  were  to  each  4  wheels  of 
li  cubit  in  diameter,  with  spokes,  &c.,  all 
cast  in  one  piece. 

Law.  The  word  is  properly  used,  in 
Scripture  as  elsewhere,  to  express  a  defi- 
nite commandment  laid  down  by  any  rec- 
ognized authority.  The  commandment  may 
be  general,  or  (as  in  Lev.  vi.  9,  14,  &c., 
■"  the  law  of  the  burnt-offering,"  &c.)  p.ar- 
ticular  in  its  bearing ;  the  authority  either 
human  or  divine.  But  when  the  word  is 
used  with  the  article,  and  without  any 
words  of  limitation,  it  refers  to  the  ex- 
pressed will  of  God,  and,  in  nine  cases  out 
oi  tea,  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  or  to  the  Pen- 
tateuch, of  which  it  forms  the  chief  por- 
tion. The  Hebrew  word,  tdr&h,  lays  more 
stress  on  its  moral  authority,  as  teaching 
the  truth,  and  guiding  in  the  right  way; 
the  Greek  nomas  (jouoc),  on  its  constrain- 
ing power,  as  imposed  and  enforced  by  a 
recognized  authority.  The  sense  of  the 
word,  however,  extends  its  scope,  and  as- 
sumes a  more  abstract  character  in  the 
writings  of  St.  Paul.  Nomas,  when  used 
by  him  with  the  article,  still  refers  in  gen- 
eral to  the  Law  of  Moses ;  but  when  used 
without  the  article,  so  as  to  embrace  any 
■manifestation  of  "  law,"  it  includes  all 
powers  which  act  on  the  will  of  man  by 
compulsion,  or  by  the  pressure  of  external 
motives,  whether  their  commands  be  or  be 
not  expressed  in  definite  forms.  The  oc- 
icasional  use  of  the  word  "  law "  (as  in 
Hom.  iii.  27,  "law  of  faith")  to  denote 
in  internal  principle  of  action,  does  not 
really  militate  against  the  general  rule.  It 
should  also  be  noticed  that  the  title  "the 
Law  "  is  occasionally  used  loosely  to  refer 


to  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  (as  in 
John  X.  34,  referring  to  Ps.  Ixxxii.  6 ;  in 
John  XV.  25,  referring  to  Ps.  xxxv.  19 ; 
and  in  1  Cor.  xiv,  21,  referring  to  Is. 
xxviii.    11,    12). 

Law  of  Moses.  It  will  be  the  object 
of  this  article  to  give  a  brief  analysis  of  its 
substance,  to  point  out  its  main  principles, 
and  to  explain  the  position  which  it  occu- 
pies in  the  progress  of  Divine  Revelation. 
In  order  to  do  this  the  more  clearly,  it 
seems  best  to  speak  of  the  Law,  1st,  in  re- 
lation to  the  past ;  2dly,  in  its  own  intrin- 
.sic  character;  and,  3dly,  in  its  relation  to 
the  future,  (i.)  (a.)  In  reference  to  the 
past,  it  is  all-important,  for  the  proper  un- 
derstanding of  the  Law,  to  remember  its 
entire  dejjendence  on  the  Abrahamic  Cave- 
nnnt,  and  its  adaptation  thereto  (see  Gal. 
iii.  17-24).  That  covenant  had  a  twofold 
character.  It  contained  the  "  spiritual 
promise  "  of  the  Messiah,  which  was  given 
to  the  Jews  as  representatives  of  the  whole 
human  race.  But  it  contained  also  the 
temporal  promises  subsidiary  to  the  for- 
mer. These  promises  were  special,  given 
distinctively  to  the  Jews  as  a  nation.  It 
follows  that  there  should  be  in  the  Law  a 
corresponding  duality  of  nature.  (6.)  The 
nature  of  this  relation  of  the  Law  to  the 
promise  is  clearly  pointed  out.  The  belief 
in  God  as  the  Redeemer  of  man,  and  the 
hope  of  His  manifestation  as  such  in  the 
person  of  the  Messiah,  involved  the  belief 
that  the  Spiritual  Power  must  be  superior 
to  all  carnal  obstructions,  and  that  there 
was  in  man  a  spiritual  element  which  could 
rule  his  life  by  communion  with  a  Spirit 
from  above.  But  it  involved  also  the  idea 
of  an  antagonistic  Power  of  Evil,  from 
which  man  was  to  be  redeemed,  existing 
in  eacl»  individual,  and  existing  also  in  the 
world  at  large,  (c.)  Nor  is  it  less  essen- 
tial to  remark  the  period  of  the  history 
at  which  it  was  given.  It  marked  and  de- 
termined the  transition  of  Israel  from  the 
condition  of  a  tribe  to  that  of  a  nation,  and 
its  definite  assumption  of  a  distinct  posi- 
tion and  office  in  the  liistory  of  the  world. 
((£.)  Yet,  though  new  in  its  general  con^ 
ception,  it  was  probably  not  wholly  new  in 
its  materials.  There  must  necessarily  have 
been,  before  the  law,  commandments  and 
revelations  of  a  fragmentary  character,  un- 
der which  Israel  had  hitherto  grown  up. 
So  far  therefore  as  they  were  consistent 
with  the  objects  of  the  Jewish  law,  the  cus- 
toms of  Palestine  and  the  laws  of  Egypt 
would  doubtless  be  traceable  in  the  Mosaic 
system,  (e.)  In  close  connection  with,  and 
almost  in  consequence  of,  this  reference  to 
antiquity,  we  find  an  accommodation  of  the 
Law  to  the  temper  and  circumstances  of 
the  Israelites,  to  which  our  Lord  refers  in 
the  case  of  divorce  (Matt.  xix.  7,  8)  as  ne- 
1  cessarily  interfering  with  its  absolute  per- 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


339 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


fection.  In  many  cases  it  rather  should  be 
said  tt)  guide  and  modify  existing  usages 
than  actually  to  sanction  them ;  and  the  ig- 
norance of  their  existence  may  lead  to  a 
conception  of  its  ordinances  not  only  erro- 
neous, but  actually  the  reverse  of  the  truth. 
Nor  is  it  less  noticeable  that  the  degree  of 
prominence,  given  to  each  part  of  the  Mo- 
saic system,  has  a  similar  reference  to  the 
period  at  which  the  nation  had  arrived. 
The  ceremonial  portion  is  marked  out  dis- 
tinctly and  with  elaboration ;  the  moral  and 
criminal  law  is  clearly  and  sternly  decisive ; 
even  the  civil  law,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  in- 
dividuals, is  systematic;  because  all  these 
were  called  for  by  the  past  growth  of  the 
nation,  and  needed  in  order  to  settle  and 
develop  its  resources.  But  the  political 
and  constitutional  law  is  comparatively  im- 
perfect; a  few  leading  principles  are  laid 
down,  to  be  developed  hereafter;  but  the 
law  is  directed  rather  tp  sanction  the  vari- 
ous powers  of  the  state  than  to  define  and 
balance  their  operations.  (/.)  In  close  con- 
nection with  this  subject  we  observe  also 
the  gradual  process  by  which  the  Law  was 
revealed  to  the  Israelites.  In  Ex.  xx.-xxiii., 
in  direct  connection  with  the  revelation 
from  Mount  Sinai,  that  which  may  be  called 
the  rough  outline  of  the  Mosaic  Law  is 
given  by  God,  solemnly  recorded  by  Moses, 
and  accepted  by  the  people.  In  Ex.  xxv.- 
xxxi.  there  is  a  similar  outline  of  the  Mo- 
saic ceremonial.  On  the  basis  of  these  it 
may  be  conceived  that  the  fabric  of  the 
Mosaic  system  gradually  grew  up  under  the 
requirements  of  the  time.  The  first  reve- 
lation of  the  Law  in  anything  like  a  perfect 
form  is  found  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy. 
Yet  even  then  the  revelation  was  not  final ; 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  prophets  to  amend 
and  explain  it  in  special  points  (Ez.  xviii.), 
and  to  bring  out  more  clearly  its  great  prin- 
ciples, (ii.)  In  giving  an  analysis  of  the 
substance  of  the  Law,  it  will  probably  be 
better  to  treat  it,  as  any  other  system  of 
laws  is  usually  treated,  by  dividing  it  into 
—  (I.)  Laws  Civil;  (II.)  Laws  Criminal; 
(III.)  Laws  Judicial  and  Constitutional; 
(IV.)  Laws  Ecclesiastical  and  Ceremonial. 

(I.)    LAWS  CIVIL. 

(A)  Of  Persons. 

(a)  Father  and  Son.  —  The  power  of  a 
Father  to  be  held  sacred ;  cursing,  or  smit- 
ing (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17;  Lev.  xx.  9),  or  stub- 
bom  and  wilful  disobedience,  to  be  con- 
sidered capital  crimes.  But  uncontrolled 
power  of  life  and  death  was  apparently 
refused  to  the  father,  and  vested  only  in 
the  congregation  (Deut.  xxi.  18-21).  Right 
of  the  first-horn  to  a  double  portion  of  the 
inheritance  not  to  be  set  aside  by  partiality 
(Deut.  xxi.  15-17).  Inheritance  hy  Daugh- 
ters to  be  allowed  in  default  of  sons,  pro- 


vided (Num.  xxvii.  6-8,  comp.  xxxvi.) 
that  heiresses  married  in  their  own  tribe. 
Daughters  unmarried  to  be  entirely  de- 
pendent on  their  father  (Num.  xxx.  3-5). 

(i)  Hdsband  and  Wife.  —  The  power 
of  a  Husband  to  be  so  great  that  a  wife 
could  never  be  sui  juris,  or  enter  inde- 
pendently into  any  engagement,  even  be- 
fore God  (Num.  xxx.  6-15).  A  widow  or 
divorced  wife  became  independent,  and  did 
not  again  fall  under  her  father's  power 
(ver.  9).  Divorce  (for  uncleanness)  al- 
lowed, but  to  be  formal  and  irrevocable 
(Deut.  xxiv.  1-4).  Marriage  within  cer- 
tain degrees  forbidden  (Lev.  xviii.,  &,c.). 
A  Slave  Wife,  whether  bought  or  captive, 
not  to  be  actual  property,  nor  to  be  sold ; 
if  ill-treated,  to  be  ipso  facto  free  (Ex.  xxi. 
7-9;  Deut.  xxi.  10-14).  Slander  against 
a  wife's  virginity  to  be  punished  by  fine, 
and  by  deprival  of  power  of  divorce ;  on 
the  other  hand,  ante-connubial  unclean- 
ness in  her  to  be  punished  by  death  (Deut. 
xxii.  13-21).  The  raising  up  of  seed  (Le- 
virate  law)  a  formal  right  to  be  claimed  by 
the  widow,  under  pain  of  infamy,  with  a 
view  to  preservation  of  families  (Deut. 
XXV.  5-10). 

(c)  Master  and  Slave.  —  Power  of 
Master  so  far  limited,  that  death  under 
actual  chastisement  was  punishable  (Ex. 
xxi.  20)  ;  and  maiming  was  to  give  liberty 
ipso  facto  (ver.  26,  27).  TJie  Hebrew  Slave 
to  be  freed  &i  the  sabbatical  year,*  and  pro- 
vided with  necessaries  (his  wife  and  chil- 
dren to  go  with  only  if  they  came  to  his 
master  with  him),  unless  by  his  own  for- 
mal act  he  consented  to  be  a  perpetual  slave 
(Ex.  xxi.  1-6;  Deut.  xv.  12-18).  In  any 
case,  it  would  seem,  to  be  freed  at  the 
jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.  10),  with  his  children. 
If  sold  to  a  resident  alien,  to  be  always  re- 
deemable, at  a  price  proportional  to  the 
distance  of  the  jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.  47-54). 
Foreign  Slaves  to  be  held  and  inherited  as 
property  forever  (Lev.  xxv.  45,  46)  ;  and 
fugitive  slaves  from  foreign  nations  not  to 
be  given  up  (Deut.  xxiii.  15). 

{d)  Strangers.  —  They  seem  never  to 
have  been  sui  juris,  or  able  to  protect  them- 
selves, and  accordingly  protection  and  kind- 
ness towards  them  are  enjoined  as  a  sacred 
duty  (Ex.  xxii.  21 ;  Lev.  xix.  33,  34). 

(B)  Law  of  Things. 

(a)  Laws  of  Land  (and  Property). — 
(1)  All  Land  to  be  the  property  of  God 
alone,  and  its  holders  to  be  deemed  His 
tenants  (Lev.  xxv.  23).  (2)  All  sold  Land 
therefore  to  return  to  its  original  owners 
at  the  jubilee,  and  the  price  of  sale  to  be 
calculated  accordingly ;  and  redemption  on 
equitable  terms  to  be  allowed  at  all  times 
(xxv.  25-27).     A  House  sold  to  be  rcdeem- 

*  The  difficulty  of  enforcing  this  law  is  seen  !n  Jer.  ^^cyiT* 
[8-16. 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


340 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


able  w  ithin  a  year ;  and,  if  not  redeemed, 
to  pass  away  altogether  (xxv.  29,  30).  But 
the  Houses  of  the  Levites,  or  those  in  un- 
walled  villages,  to  be  redeemable  at  all 
times,  in  the  same  way  as  land;  and  the 
Levitical  suburbs  to  be  inalienable  (xxv. 
31-34).  (3)  Land  or  Houses  sanctified,  or 
tithes,  or  unclean  firstlings  to  be  capable  of 
being  redeemed,  at  six  fifths  value  (calcu- 
lated according  to  the  distance  from  the 
jubilee-year  by  the  priest)  ;  if  devoted  by 
the  owner  and  unredeemed,  to  be  hallowed 
at  the  jubilee  forever,  and  given  to  the 
priests ;  if  only  by  a  possessor,  to  return  to 
the  owner  at  the  jubilee  (Lev.  xxvii.  14:-34). 
(4)  Inheritance. 


(1)  Sonii.        I 

(2)  Daughters.*       \ 

(3)  Brothers. 

(4)    Uncles  on  the  Father's  sirte. 

(5)  A'ext  Kinsmen,  generally. 

(b)  Laws  of  Debt.  —  (1)  All  Debts  (to 
an  Israelite  to  be  released  at  the  7th  (sab- 
batical) year ;  a  blessing  promised  to  obedi- 
ence, and  a  curse  on  refusal  to  lend  (Deut. 
XV.  1-11).  (2)  Usury  (from  Israelites) 
not  to  be  taken  (Ex.  xxii.  25-27;  Deut. 
xxiii.  19,  20).  (3)  Pledges  not  to  be  in- 
solently or  ruinously  exacted  (Deut.  xxiv. 
6,  10-13,  17,  18). 

(c)  Taxation.  —  (1)  Census-money,  a 
poll-tax  (of  a  half  shekel),  to  be  paid  for 
the  service  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxx.  12- 
16).  All  spoil  in  war  to  be  halved;  of  the 
combatant's  half,  one  five-hundredth,  of  the 
people's,  one  fiftieth,  to  be  paid  for  a 
"  heave-offering  "  to  Jehovah. 

(2)  Tithes,  (a)  Tithes  of  all  produce  to 
be  given  for  maintenance  of  the  Levites 
(Num.  xviii.  20-24).  (Of  this  one  tenth  to 
be  paid  as  a  heave-offering  for  maintenance 
of  the  priests  .  .  .  24-32.)  (^)  Second  Tithe 
to  be  bestowed  in  religious  feasting  and 
charity,  either  at  the  Holy  Place,  or  every 
3d  year  at  home  (?)  (Deut.  xiv.  22-28). 
(y)  Fi7-st  Fruits  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil  (at 
least  one  sixtieth,  generally  one  fortieth," 
for  the  priests)  to  be  offered  at  Jerusalem, 
with  a  solemn  declaration  of  dependence  on 
God  the  King  of  Israel  (Deut.  xxvi.  1-15; 
Num.  xviii.  12,  13).  Firstlings  of  clean 
beasts ;  the  redemption-money  (5  shekels) 
of  man,  and  (i  shekel,  or  1  shekel)  of  un- 
clean beasts,  to  be  given  to  the  priests  after 
sacrifice  (Num.  xviii.  15-18). 

(3)  Poor  Laws,  (a)  Gleanings  (in  field 
or  vineyard)  to  be  a  legal  right  of  the  poor 
(Lev.  xix.  9,  10;  Deut.  xxiv.  19-22).  {(i) 
Slight  Trespass  (eating  on  the  spot)  to  be 
allowed  as  legal  (Deut.  xxiii.  24,  25).  (y) 
Second  Tithe  (see  2  /?)  to  be  given  in  chari- 
ty. (S)  Wages  to  be  paid  day  by  day  (Deut. 
xxiv.  15). 

(4)  Maintenance  of  Priests  (Num.  xviii. 


•Heire»«e»  to  many  In  their  own  triiie  (Nam.  zzrii.  6- 


8-32).  (a)  Tenth  of  Levites'  Tithe.  (See 
2  a).  Qi)  The  heave  and  wave-offerings 
(breast  and  right  shoulder  of  all  peace- 
offerings),  (y)  The  meat  and  sin-offerings, 
to  be  eaten  solemnly,  and  only  in  the  holy 
place,  (c')  First  Fruits  and  redemption 
money.  (See  2  y).  {i^  Price  of  all  devoted 
things,  unless  specially  given  for  a  sacred 
service.  A  man's  service,  or  that  of  his 
household,  to  be  redeemed  at  50  shekels  for 
man,  30  for  woman,  20  for  boy,  and  10  for 
girl. 

(II.)  LAWS  CRIMINAL. 

(A)  Offences  against  God  (of  the  nature 
of  treason). 

1st  Command.  Acknowledgment  of  false 
gods  (Ex.  xxii.  20),  as  e.  g.  Molech  (Lev. 
XX.  1-5),  and  generally  all  idolatry  (Deut. 
xiii.,  xvii.  2-5). 

2d  Command.  Witchcraft  and  false 
prophecy  (Ex.  xxii.  18 ;  Deut.  xviii.  9-22 ; 
Lev.  xix.  31). 

3d  Command.  Blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv. 
15,  16). 

4th  Command.  Sabbath-breaking  (Num. 
XV.  32-36). 

Punishment  in  all  cases,  death  by  ston- 
ing. Idolatrous  cities  to  be  utterly  de- 
stroyed. 

(B)  Offences  against  Man. 

6th  Command.  Disobedience  to  or  curs- 
ing or  smiting  of  parents  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17 ; 
Lev.  XX.  9;  Deut.  xxi.  18-21),  to  be 
punished  by  death  by  stoning,  publicly  ad- 
judged and  inflicted ;  so  also  of  disobedience 
to  the  priests  (as  judges)  or  Supreme  Judge. 
Comp.  1  K.  xxi.  10-14  (Naboth) ;  2  Chr. 
xxiv.  21  (Zechariah). 

6th  Command.  (1)  Murder,  to  be  pun- 
ished by  death  without  sanctuary  or  re- 
prieve, or  satisfaction,  (Ex.  xxi.  12,  14; 
Deut.  xix.  11-13).  Death  of  a  slave, 
actually  under  the  rod,  to  be  punislied  (Ex. 
xxi.  20,  21).  (2)  Death  by  negligence,  to 
be  punished  by  death  (Ex.  xxi.  28-30). 
(3)  Accidental  Homicide:  the  avenger  of 
blood  to  be  escaped  by  flight  to  the  cities 
of  refuge  till  the  death  of  the  higli-priest 
(Num.  XXXV.  9-28;  Deut.  iv.  41-43;  xix. 
4-10).  (4)  Uncertain  Murder,  to  be  ex- 
piated by  formal  disavowal  and  sacrifice  by 
the  elders  of  the  nearest  city  (Deut.  xxi. 
1-9).  (5)  Assault  to  be  punislied  by  lex 
talionis,  or  damages  (Ex.  xxi.  18,  19,  22- 
25;  Lev.  xxiv.  19,  20). 

7th  Command.  (1)  Adultery  to  be  pun- 
ished by  death  of  both  offenders  ;  the  rape 
of  a  married  or  betrothed  woman,  by  death 
of  the  offender  (Deut.  xxii.  13-27).  (2) 
Eape  or  Seduction  of  an  unbetrothed  virgin, 
to  be  compensated  by  marriage,  with  dowry 
(50  shekels),  and  without  power  of  divorce ; 
or,  if  she  be  refused,  by  payment  of  full 
dowry  (Ex.  xxii.   16,  17;    Deut.  xxii.  28, 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


341 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


5J9).  (3)  Unlawful  Marriages  (incestu- 
ous, &c.),  to  be  punished,  some  by  death, 
some  by  childlessness  (Lev.  xx.). 

8th  Command.  (1)  Theft  to  be  punished 
by  fourfold  or  double  restitution;  a  noc- 
turnal robber  might  be  slain  as  an  outlaw 
(Ex.  xxii.  1-4).  (2)  Trespass  and  injury 
of  things  lent  to  be  compensated  (Ex.  xxiii. 
6-15).  (3)  Perv  ersion  of  Justice  (hy  hvVoQS, 
threats,  &c.),  and  especially  oppression  of 
strangers,  strictly  forbidden  (Ex.  xxii.  9, 
&c.).  (4)  Kidnapping  to  be  punished  by 
death  (Deut.  xxiv.  7). 

9th  Command.  False  Witness,  to  be 
punished  by  lex  talionis  (Ex.  xxiii.  1-3 ; 
Deut.  xix.  lG-21).  Slander  of  a  wife's 
chastity,  by  fine  and  loss  of  power  of  di- 
vorce (Deut.  xxii.  18,  19). 

A  fuller  consideration  of  the  tables  of  the 
Ten  Commandments  is  given  elsewhere. 
[Ten  Commandments.]  * 

(III.)   LAWS    JUDICIAL  AND    CON- 
STITUTIONAL. 

(A)     JORISDICTION. 

(a)  Local  Judges  (generally  Levites,  as 
more  skilled  in  the  Law)  appointed,  for 
ordinary  matters,  probably  by  the  people 
with  approbation  of  the  supreme  authority 
(as  of  Moses  in  the  wilderness)  (Ex.  xviii. 
25 ;  Deut.  i.  15-18)  through  all  the  land 
(Deut.  xvi.  18).  (Jb)  Appeal  to  the  Priests  (at 
the  holy  place),  or  to  the  judge ;  their 
Bentence  final,  and  to  be  accepted  under 
pain  of  death.  See  Deut.  xvii.  8-13  (comp. 
appeal  to  Moses,  Ex.  xviii.  2G).  (c)  Two 
witnesses  (at  least)  required  in  capital 
matters  (Num.  xxxv.  30;  Deut.  xvii.  G,  7). 
(d)  Punishment  (except  by  special  com- 
mand), to  be  personal,  and  not  to  extend  to 
the  family  (Deut.  xxiv.  16).  Stripes  al- 
lowed and  limited  (Deut.  xxv.  1-3),  so  as 
to  avoid  outrage  on  the  human  frame. 

All  this  would  be  to  a  great  extent  set 
aside  —  1st.  By  the  summary  jurisdiction 
of  the  king  (see  1  Sam.  xxii.  11-19  (Saul) 
2  Sam.  xii.  1-5,  xiv.  4-11 ;  1  K.  iii.  lG-28), 
which  extended  even  to  the  deposition  of  the 
high-priest  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17, 18;  1.  Iv.  ii.  26, 
27).  The  practical  diflBculty  of  its  being  car- 
ried out  is  seen  in  2  Sam.  xv.  2-6,  and  would 
lead  of  course  to  a  certain  delegation  of  his 
power.  2d.  By  the  appointment  of  the 
Seventy  (Num.  xi.  24-30)  with  a  solemn 
religious  sanction.  In  later  times  there 
was  a  local  Sanhedrim  of  23  in  each  city, 
and  two  such  in  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  the 
Great  Sanhedrim,  consisting  of  70  members, 
besides  the  president,  who  was  to  be  the 
high-priest  if  duly  qualified,  and  controlling 
even  the  king  and  high-priest.  The  members 
were  priests,  scribes  (Levites),  and  elders 
(of  other  tribes).  A  court  of  exactly  this  na- 
ture is  noticed,  as  appointed  to  supreme  pow- 
er by  Jehoshaphat.     (See  2  Chr.  xix.  8-11.) 


(B)  KoYAL  Power. 

The  King's  Power  limited  by  the  Law, 
as  written  and  formally  accepted  by  the 
king ;  and  directly  forbidden  to  be  despotic  • 
(Deut.  xvii.  14-20;  comp.  1  Sam  x.  25). 
Yet  he  had  power  of  taxation  (to  one  tenth)  ; 
and  of  compulsory  service  (1  Sam.  viii.  10- 
18)  ;  the  declaration  of  war  (1  Sam.  xi.),  &c. 
There  are  distinct  traces  of  a  "  mutual  con- 
tract" (2  Sam.  V.  3;  a  "league,"  2  K.  xi. 
17) ;  the  remonstrance  with  Rehoboam 
being  clearly  not  extraordinary  (1  K.  xii. 
1-6). 

T/ie  Princes  of  the  Congregation.  The 
heads  of  tlie  tribes  (see  Josh.  ix.  15)  seem 
to  have  had  authority  under  Joslma  to  act 
for  the  people  (comp.  1  Chr.  xxvii.  16-22 ; 
and  in  the  later  times  "  the  princes  of  Ju- 
dah  "  seem  to  have  had  power  to  control 
both  the  king  and  the  priests  (see  Jcr.  xxvi. 
10-24,  xxxviii.  4,  6,  &c.). 

(C)  Royal  Revenue. 

(1)  Tenth  of  produce.  (2)  Domain  land 
(1  Chr.  xxvii.  2C-29).  Note  confiscation 
of  criminal's  land  (1  K.  xxi.  15).  (3)  Bond 
service  (1  K.  v.  17,  18),  chiefly  on  foreign- 
ers (1  K.  ix.  20-22 ;  2  Chr.  ii.  16, 17).  (4) 
Flocks   and   herds  (1  Chr.   xxvii.   29-31). 

(5)  Tributes  Xs,\^s)    from   foreign   kings. 

(6)  Commerce;    especially  in   Solomon's 
time  (1  K.  x.  22,  29,  &c.). 

(IV.)   ECCLESIASTICAL   AND    CER- 
EMONIAL LAW. 

(A)  Law  of  Sacrifice  (considered  as  the 
sign  and  the  appointed  means  of  the 
union  with  God,  on  which  the  holiness 
of  the  people  depended). 

(1)  Ordinary  Sacrifices. 

(a)  The  whole  Burnt- Offering  (Lev.  1) 
of  the  herd  or  the  flock ;  to  be  offered 
continually  (Ex.  xxix.  38-42)  ;  and  the 
fire  on  the  altar  never  to  be  extin- 
guished (Lev.  vi.  8-13). 

(,«)   The  Meat-Offering  (Lev.  ii.,  vi.  14- 
23)  of  flour,  oil,  and  frankincense,  un-  » 
leavened,  and  seasoned  with  salt. 

(y)  The  Peace-Vffering  (Lev.  iii.,  vii. 
11-21)  of  the  herd  or  the  flock;  either 
a  thank-ofiering,  or  a  vow,  or  freewill 
offering. 

(^)  The  Sin- Offering,  or  Trespass^ 
Offering  (Lev.  iv.,  v.,  vi.). 

(a)  For  sins  committed  in  ignorance 
Lev.  iv.). 

(6)  For  vows  unwittingly  made  and 
broken,  or  uncleanness  unwittingly 
contracted  (Lev.  v.). 

(c)  For  sins  wittingly  committed  (Ley. 
vi.  1-7). 


»  Military  conquest  dinconrecred  by  the  prohibition  of 
the  use  of  hor8V8.  (See  Josh.  xi.  6.)  For  «ii  exoinple  of 
obedience  to  this  law  see  2  Sam.  viii.  i,  and  of  diaobadicnc* 
to  it  in  I K.  X.  26-29. 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


312 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


(2)    EXTBAOKDINAKT    SACRIFICES. 

(o)  At  the  Consecration  of  Priests  (Lev. 

viii.,  ix.). 
(/«)  At  the  Purification  of  Women  (Lev. 

xii.). 
(y)  At  the   Cleansing  of  Lepers   (Lev. 

xiii.,  xiv.). 
{S)   On  the    Great   Day  of  Atonement 

(Lev.  xvi.). 
(»)   On  the  great  Festivals  (Lev.  xxiil.). 

(B)  Law  of  Holiness  (arising  from  the 

union  with  God  through  sacrifice). 
(1)  Holiness  of  Persons. 
(«)    Holiness    of  the    whole   people    as 

"children  of  God"   (Ex.   xix.  6,  6; 

Lev.  xi.-xv.,  xvii.,  xviii. ;  Deut.  xiv. 

1-21),  shown  in 
(a)  The  Dedication  of  the  first-born  (Ex. 

xiii.  2,  12,  13,  xxii.  29,  30,  &c ;  and  the 

offering  of  all  firstlings  and  first-fruits 

(Deut.  xxvi.,  &c.). 
(6)  Distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  food 

(Lev.  xi. ;  Deut.  xiv.). 
(<r)  Provision  for  purification  (Lev.  xii., 

xiii.,  xiv.,  XV.;  Deut.  xxiii.  1-14). 

(d)  Laws  against  disfigurement  (Lev. 
xix.  27 ;  Deut.  xiv.  I ;  corap.  Deut. 
XXV.  2,  against  excessive  scourging). 

(e)  Laws  against  unnatural  marriages 
and  lusts  (Lev.  xviii.,  xx.). 

(/*)  Holiness  of  the  Priests  {and  Levites). 

(a)  Their  consecration  (Lev.  viii.,  ix. ; 
Ex.  xxix). 

(6)  Their  special  qualifications  and  re- 
strictions (Lev.  xxi.,  xxii.  1-9). 

(c)  Their  rights  (Deut.  xviii.  1-6 ;  Num. 
xviii.)  and  authority  (Deut.  xvii.  8-13). 

(2)  Holiness  of  Places  and  Things. 

(u)  The  Tabernacle  with  the  ark,  the 
vail,  the  altars,  the  laver,  the  priestly 
robes,  &c.  (Ex.  xxv.-xxviii.,  xxx.). 

(|S)  The  Holy  Place  chosen  for  the  perma- 
nent erection  of  the  tabernacle  (Deut. 
xii.,  xiv.,  22-29),  where  only  all  sacri- 
fices were  to  be  offered,  and  all  tithes, 
first-fruits,  vows,  &c.,  to  be  given  or 
eaten. 

(3)  Holiness  of  Times. 

(o)  The  Sabbath  (Ex.  xx.  9-11,  xxiii.  12, 
&c.). 

((«)  The  Sabbatical  Year  (Ex.  xxiii.  10, 
11;  Lev.  XXV.  1-7,  &c.). 

(y)  The  Tear  of  Jubilee  CLev.xxv.  8-16, 
&c.). 

{d)  The  Passover  (Ex.  xii.  3-27;  Lev. 
(xiii.  4-14). 

(«)  The  Feast  of  Weeks  (Pentecost)  (Lev. 
xxiii.  15,  &c.). 

(t)  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Lev. 
xxiii.  33-43). 

(>;)  The  Feast  of  Trumpets  (Lev.  xxiii. 
23-25). 

(6)  The  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xxiii. 
26-32,  &c.). 


Such  is  the  substance  of  the  Mosaic  Law. 
The  leading  principle  of  the  whole  is  its 
THEOCRATIC  CHARACTER,  its  reference  (that 
is)  of  all  action  and  thoughts  of  men  di- 
rectly and  immediately  to  the  will  of  God. 
It  follows  from  tliis,  that  it  is  to  be  regard- 
ed not  merely  as  a  law,  that  is,  a  rule  of 
conduct,  based  on  known  truth  and  ac- 
knowledged authority,  l.ut  also  as  a  Revela- 
tion of  God's  nature  and  His  dispensations. 
But  this  theocratic  character  of  the  law  de- 
pends necessarily  on  the  belief  in  God,  as 
not  only  the  Creator  and  Sustainer  of  the 
world,  but  as,  by  special  covenant,  the  head 
of  the  Jewish  nation.  Tliis  immediate  ref- 
erence to  God  as  their  King  is  clearly  seen 
as  the  groundwork  of  their  whole  polity. 
From  this  theocratic  nature  of  the  law  fol- 
low important  deductions  with  regard  to  (a) 
the  view  which  it  takes  of  political  society ; 
(i)  the  extent  of  the  scope  of  the  law ;  (c) 
the  penalties  by  which  it  is  enforced;  and 
(d)  the  character  which  it  seeks  to  impress 
on  the  people,  (a.)  The  Mosaic  Law  seeks 
the  basis  of  its  polity,  first,  in  the  absolute 
sovereignty  of  God,  next  in  the  relation- 
ship of  each  individual  to  God,  and  through 
God  to  his  countrymen.  It  is  clear  that 
such  a  doctrine,  wliile  it  contradicts  none 
of  the  common  theories,  yet  lies  beneath 
them  all.  (6.)  The  law,  as  proceeding  di- 
rectly from  God,  and  referring  directly  to 
Him,  is  necessarily  absolute  i?i  its  suprem- 
acy and  unlimited  in  its  scope.  It  is  su- 
preme over  the  governors,  as  being  only 
the  delegates  of  the  Lord,  and  therefore  it 
is  incompatible  witli  any  despotic  authority 
in  them.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  supreme 
over  the  governed,  recognizing  no  inhe- 
rent rights  in  the  individual,  as  prevailing 
against  or  limiting  the  law.  It  regulated 
the  whole  life  of  an  Israelite.  His  actions 
were  rewarded  and  punished  with  great 
minuteness  and  strictness ;  and  that  ac- 
cording to  the  standard,  not  of  their  conse- 
quences, but  of  their  intrinsic  morality.  His 
religious  worship  was  defined  and  enforced 
in  an  elaborate  and  unceasing  ceremonial, 
(c.)  Tlie  penalties  and  rewards  by  which 
the  law  is  enforced  are  such  as  depend  on 
the  direct  theocracy.  With  regard  to  indi- 
vidual actions,  it  may  be  noticed  that,  as 
generally  some  penalties  are  inflicted  by 
the  subordinate,  and  some  only  by  the  su- 
preme authority,  so  among  the  Israelites 
some  penalties  came  from  the  hand  of  man, 
some  directly  from  the  providence  of  God. 
The  bearing  of  this  principle  on  the  inquiry 
as  to  the  revelation  of  a  future  life,  in  the 
Pentateuch,  is  easily  seen.  The  sphere  of 
moral  and  religious  action  and  thought  to 
which  the  law  extends  is  beyond  the  cogni- 
zance of  human  laws,  and  the  scope  of 
their  ordinary  penalties,  and  is  therefore 
left  by  them  to  the  retribution  of  God's  in- 
scrutable justice,  which,  being  but  imper- 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


343 


LAW  OF  MOSEb 


fectly  seen  here,  is  contemplated  especially 
as  exercised  in  a  future  state.  Hence  arises 
the  expectation  of  a  direct  revelation  of  this 
future  state  in  the  Mosaic  Law.  Such  a 
revelation  is  certainly  not  given.  The  truth 
seems  to  be  that,  in  a  law  which  appeals 
directly  to  God  himself  for  its  authority  and 
its  sanction,  there  cannot  be  that  broad  line 
of  demarcation  between  this  life  and  the 
next,  which  is  drawn  for  those  whose  power 
is  limited  by  the  grave.  (cZ.)  But  perhaps 
the  most  important  consequence  of  the  the- 
ocratic nature  of  the  law  was  the  peculiar 
character  of  goodness  which  it  sought  to 
impress  on  the  people.  The  Mosaic  Law, 
beginning  with  piety,  as  its  first  object,  en- 
forces most  emphatically  the  purity  essen- 
tial to  those  who,  by  their  union  with  God, 
have  recovered  the  hope  of  intrinsic  good- 
ness, while  it  views  righteousness  and  love 
rather  as  deductions  from  these  than  as  in- 
dependent objects.  The  appeal  is  not  to 
any  dignity  of  human  nature,  but  to  the 
obligations  of  communion  with  a  Holy  God. 
The  subordination,  therefore,  of  this  idea 
also  to  the  religious  idea  Is  enforced ;  and 
so  long  as  the  due  supremacy  of  the  latter 
was  preserved,  all  other  duties  would  find 
their  places  in  proper  harmony.  But  the 
usurpation  of  that  supremacy  in  practice 
by  the  idea  of  personal  and  national  sanc- 
tity was  that  which  gave  its  peculiar  color 
to  the  Jewish  character.  It  is  evident  that 
this  characteristic  of  the  Israelites  would 
tend  to  preserve  the  seclusion  which,  under 
God's  providence,  was  intended  for  them, 
and  would  in  its  turn  be  fostered  by  it. 
—  In  considering  the  relation  of  the  Law 
to  the  future,  it  is  important  to  be  guided 
by  the  general  principle  laid  down  in  Heb. 
vii.  19,  "  The  Law  made  nothing  perfect." 
This  principle  will  be  applied  in  different 
degrees  to  its  bearing  («)  on  the  after-his- 
tory of  tlie  Jewish  commonwealth  before 
the  coming  of  Christ ;  (6)  on  the  coming  of 
our  Lord  Himself;  and  (c)  on  the  dispensa- 
tion of  the  Gospel,  (a.)  To  that  after- 
history  the  Law  was,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
key.  It  was  indeed  often  neglected,  and 
even  forgotten ;  yet  still  it  formed  the  stan- 
dard from  which  the  people  knowingly 
departed,  and  to  which  they  constantly  re- 
turned; and  to  it  therefore  all  which  was 
peculiar  in  their  national  and  individual 
character  was  due.  Its  direct  influence 
was  probably  greatest  in  the  periods  be- 
fore the  establishment  of  the  kingdom, 
and  after  the  Babylonish  captivity.  The 
last  act  of  Joshua  was  to  bind  the  Israel- 
ites to  it  as  the  charter  of  tlieir  occupa- 
tion of  the  conquered  land  (Josh.  xxiv. 
24-27)  ;  and,  in  the  semi-anarchical  period 
of  the  Judges,  the  Law  and  the  Tabernacle 
were  the  only  centres  of  anything  like 
national  unity.  The  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  was  due  to  an  impatience  of  this 


position,  and  a  desire  for  a  visible  and  per« 
sonal  centre  of  authority,  much  the  same 
in  nature  as  that  which  plunged  them  so 
often  in  idolatry.  In  the  kingdom  of  Is- 
rael, after  the  separation,  the  deliberate 
rejection  of  the  leading  principles  of  the 
Law  by  Jeroboam  and  his  successors  was 
the  beginning  of  a  gradual  declension  into 
idolatry  and  heathenism.  But  in  the  king- 
dom of  Judah  the  very  division  of  the 
monarchy  and  consequent  diminution  of 
its  splendor,  and  the  need  of  a  principle  to 
assert  against  the  superior  material  power 
of  Israel,  brought  out  the  Law  once  more 
in  increased  honor  and  influence.  Far 
more  was  this  the  case  after  the  captivity. 
The  loss  of  the  independent  monarchy,  and 
the  cessation  of  prophecy,  both  combined 
to  throw  the  Jews  back  upon  the  Law  alone, 
as  their  only  distinctive  pledge  of  nation- 
ality, and  sure  guide  to  truth.  This  love 
for  the  Law,  rather  than  any  abstract 
patriotism,  was  the  strength  of  the  Mac- 
cabaean  struggle  against  the  Syrians,  and 
the  success  of  that  struggle,  entlironing  a 
Levitical  power,  deepened  the  feeling  from 
which  it  sprang.  The  Law  thus  became 
the  moulding  influence  of  the  Jewish  char- 
acter. The  Pharisees,  truly  representing 
the  chief  strength  of  the  people,  systema- 
tized this  feeling.  Against  this  idolatry  of 
the  Law  there  were  two  reactions.  The 
first  was  that  of  the  Sadducees  ;  one  which 
had  its  basis  in  the  idea  of  a  higher  love 
and  service  of  God,  independent  of  the 
Law  and  its  sanctions.  The  other,  that  of 
the  EssENES,  was  an  attempt  to  burst  the 
bonds  of  the  formal  law,  and  assert  its  ideas 
in  all  fulness,  freedom,  and  purity.  (5.) 
The  relation  of  the  Law  to  the  advent  of 
Christ  is  also  laid  down  clearly  by  St.  Paul. 
The  law  was  the  ila/^uyojyo?  tig  XniOTuv, 
the  servant  (that  is),  whose  task  it  was  to 
guide  the  child  to  tlie  true  teacher  (Gal.  iii. 
24);  and  Christ  was  "the  end  "or  object 
"  of  the  Law"  (Kom.  x.  4).  As  being  sub- 
sidiary to  the  promise,  it  had  accomplished 
its  purpose  when  the  promise  was  fulfilled. 
In  its  national  aspect  it  had  existed  to  guard 
the  faith  in  the  theocracy.  The  chief  liin- 
derance  to  that  faith  had  been  the  diffi- 
culty of  realizing  the  invisible  presence  of 
God,  and  of  conceiving  a  communion  with 
the  infinite  Godhead  whjch  should  not  crush 
or  absorb  the  finite  creature.  This  diflficulty 
was  now  to  pass  away  forever,  in  the  In- 
carnation of  the  Godhead  in  One  truly  and 
visibly  man.  In  its  individual,  or  what  is 
usually  called  its  "moral"  aspect,  the 
Law  bore  equally  the  stamp  of  transitori- 
ness  and  insulficiency.  It  had  declared  the 
authority  of  truth  and  goodness  over  man's 
will,  and  taken  for  granted  in  man  the  ex- 
istence of  a  spirit  which  could  recognize 
that  authority;  but  it  had  done  no  more. 
Its  presence  had,  therefore,  detected  tha 


LAWYER 


344 


LAZARUS 


existence  and  the  sinfulness  of  sin,  as  alien 
alike  to  God's  will  and  man's  true  nature ; 
but  it  had  also  brought  out  with  more  vehe- 
ment and  desperate  antagonism  the  power 
of  sin  dwelling  in  man  as  fallen  (Rom.  vii. 
7-25).  The  relation  of  the  Law  to  Christ 
in  its  sacrificial  and  ceremonial  aspect,  will 
be  more  fully  considered  elsewhere.  [Sac- 
KiFiCE.]  (c.)  The  question  has  been  fre- 
quently discussed  how  far  the  Mosaic  Law 
has  any  obligation  or  existence  under  the 
dispensation  of  the  Gospel.  As  a  means  of 
justification  or  salvation,  it  ought  never  to 
have  been  regarded,  even  before  Clirist; 
it  needs  no  proof  to  show  that  still  less  can 
tliis  be  so  since  He  has  come.  But  yet 
the  question  remains  whether  it  is  binding 
on  Christians,  even  when  they  do  not  de- 
pend on  it  for  salvation.  It  seems  clear 
enough,  that  its  formal  coercive  authority 
as  a  whole  ended  with  the  close  of  tlie 
Jewish  di.apensation.  It  referred  through- 
out to  the  Jewish  covenant,  and  in  many 
points  to  the  constitution,  tlie  customs,  and 
even  the  local  circumstances  of  the  people. 
That  covenant  was  preparatory  to  the  Chris- 
tian, in  which  it  is  now  absorbed ;  those 
customs  and  observances  have  passed  away. 
It  follows,  by  the  very  nature  of  the  case, 
that  the  formal  obligation  to  the  Law  must 
have  ceased  with  the  basis  on  which  it  is 
grounded.  But  what  then  becomes  of  the 
declaration  of  our  Lord,  that  He  came  "  not 
to  destroy  the  Law,  but  to  perfect  it,"  and 
that "  not  one  jot  or  one  tittle  of  it  shall  pass 
away  "  ?  what  of  the  fact,  consequent  upon 
it,  that  the  Law  has  been  reverenced  in  all 
Christian  churches,  and  had  an  important 
influence  on  much  Christian  legislation? 
The  explanation  of  the  apparent  contra- 
«liction  lies  in  the  difference  between  posi- 
tive and  moral  obligation.  To  apply  this 
principle  practically  there  is  need  of  much 
study  and  discretion,  in  order  to  distinguish 
what  is  local  and  temporary  from  wliat  is 
universal,  and  what  is  mere  external  form 
from  what  is  the  essence  of  an  ordinance. 

Lawyer.  The  title  "  lawyer  "  is  gener- 
ally supposed  to  be  equivalent  to  the  title 
"  scribe,"  both  on  account  of  its  etymolo- 
gical meaning,  and  also  because  the  man, 
who  is  also  called  a  "  lawyer  "  in  Matt, 
xxii.  35  and  Luke  x.  25,  is  called  "  one  of 
the  scribes  "  in  Mark  xii.  28.  If  the  com- 
mon reading  in  Luke  xi.  44,  45,  46,  be  cor- 
rect, it  will  be  decisive  against  this.  By 
tlie  use  of  the  word  vnuixCg  (Tit.  iii.  9)  as  a 
simple  adjective,  it  seems  more  probable 
that  the  title  "  scribe  "  was  a  legal  and  offi- 
cial designation,  but  that  the  name  ivfiiaC? 
was  properly  a  mere  epithet  signifying  one 
"  learned  in  the  law,"  and  only  used  as  a 
title  in  common  parlance  (comp.  the  use  of 
it  in  Tit.  iii.  13,  "  Zenas  the  lawyer  "). 
Laying  on  of  Hands.  [Baptism.] 
Laz'arUB,  another  form  of  the  Hebrew 


name  Eleazar.  1.  Lazarus  of  Bethany, 
the  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary  (John  xi. 
1).  All  that  we  know  of  him  is  derived 
from  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  and  that  re- 
cords little  more  than  the  facts  of  his  death 
and  resurrection ;  but  we  may,  with  at  least 
some  measure  of  probability,  fill  up  these 
scanty  outlines.  (1.)  The  language  of 
John  xi.  1,  implies  that  the  sisters  were  the 
better  known.  Lazarus  is  "  of  Betiiany, 
of  the  village  of  Mary  and  her  sister  Mar- 
tha." Fiom  this,  and  from  the  order  of 
the  three  names  in  John  xi.  5,  we  may  rea- 
sonably infer  that  Lazarus  was  the  youngest 
of  the  family.  (2.)  In  Luke  x.  38  and 
John  xii.  1,  2,  a  feast  is  given  to  Jesus  by 
Martha  and  Mary ;  but  in  Matt.  xxvi.  6, 
Mark  xiv.  3,  the  same  feast  appears  as  oc- 
curring in  "  the  house  of  Simon  the  leper." 
A  leper,  as  such,  would  have  been  com- 
pelled to  lead  a  separate  life,  and  certainly 
could  not  have  given  a  feast  and  received  a 
multitude  of  guests.  Among  the  conjectu- 
ral explanations  which  have  been  given  of 
this  difference,  the  hypothesis  that  this  Si- 
mon was  the  father  of  the  two  sisters  and 
of  Lazarus,  that  he  iiad  been  smitten  with 
leprosy,  and  that  actual  death,  or  the  civil 
death  that  followed  on  his  disease,  had  left 
his  cliildren  free  to  act  for  themselves,  is  at 
least  as  probable  as  any  other,  and  has 
some  support  in  early  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tions. (3.)  All  the  circumstances  of  John 
xi.  and  xii.  point  to  wealth  and  social  po- 
sition above  the  average.  (4.)  A  compari- 
son of  Matt.  xxvi.  (J,  Mark  xiv.  3,"  with 
Luke  vii.  36,  44,  suggests  another  conjec- 
ture that  harmonizes  with  and  in  part  ex- 
plains the  foregoing.  If  Simon  the  leper 
were  also  the  Pharisee,  it  would  explain 
the  fact  just  noticed  of  the  friendship  be- 
tween the  sisters  of  Lazarus  and  the  mem- 
bers of  that  party  in  Jerusalem.  It  would 
follow  on  this  assumption  that  tlie  Pharisee, 
whom  we  thus  far  identify  with  the  father 
of  Lazarus,  was  probably  one  of  the  mem- 
bers of  that  sect,  sent  down  from  Jerusalem 
to  watch  the  new  teacher.  (5.)  One  other 
conjecture  may  yet  be  hazarded.  There 
are  some  coincidences  which  suggest  the 
identification  of  Lazarus  with  the  young 
ruler  that  liad  great  possessions,  of  Matt, 
xix.,  Mark  x.,  Luke  xviii.  The  age  (Matt, 
xix.  20,  22)  agrees  with  what  has  been  be- 
fore inferred  (see  above,  1),  as  does  the  faot 
of  wealth  above  the  average  with  what  we 
know  of  the  condition  of  the  family  at  Beth- 
any (see  2).  If  the  father  were  an  influ- 
ential Pharisee,  if  there  were  ties  of  some 
kind  uniting  the  family  with  that  bod3 ,  it 
would  be  natural  enough  that  the  son,  even 
in  comparative  youth,  should  occupy  the 
position  of  a  "  ruler."  But  further,  it  is 
of  this  rich  young  man  that  St.  Mark  uses 
the  emphatic  word  ("Jesus,  beholding  him, 
loved  him  ")  which  is  used  of  no  others  ia 


LAZAKUS 


345 


LEAD 


the  Gospel-history,  save  of  the  beloved 
apostle  and  of  Lazarus  and  liis  sisters  (John 
xi.  5).  Combining  these  inferences  then, 
we  get  an  insight  into  one  aspect  of  the  life 
of  the  Divine  Teacher  and  Friend,  full  of 
living  interest.  The  village  of  Bethany 
and  its  neighborhood  were  a  frequent  re- 
treat from  the  controversies  and  tumults  of 
Jerusalem  (John  xviii.  2;  Luke  xxi.  37, 
xxii.  39).  At  some  time  or  other  one  house- 
hold, wealthy,  honorable,  belonging  to  the 
better  or  Is  icodemus  section  of  the  Phari- 
sees (see  above,  1,  2,  3)  learns  to  know  and 
reverence  him.  Disease  or  death  removes 
the  father  from  the  scene,  and  the  two  sis- 
ters are  left  with  their  younger  brother  to 
do  as  they  think  right.  In  them  and  in  the 
brother  over  whom  they  watch,  He  finds 
that  which  is  worthy  of  His  love.  But  two 
at  least  need  an  education  in  the  spiritual 
life.  A  few  weeks  pass  away,  and  then 
comes  the  sickness  of  John  xi.  One  of 
the  sharp  malignant  fevers  of  Palestine 
cuts  off  the  life  that  was  so  precious.  The 
Bisters  know  how  truly  the  Divine  Friend 
has  loved  him  on  whom  their  love  and  their 
hopes  centred.  They  send  to  Him  in  the 
belief  that  tlie  tidings  of  the  sickness  will  at 
once  drawHimtotliem  (Johnxi.  3).  Slowly, 
and  in  words  which  (though  afterwards 
understood  otherwise)  must  at  the  time  have 
seemed  to  the  disciples  those  of  one  upon 
whom  the  truth  came  not  at  once  but  by  de- 
grees. He  prepares  them  for  the  worst.  "This 
sickness  is  not  unto  death  "  —  "  Our  friend 
Lazarus  sleepeth  "  —  "  Lazarus  is  dead." 
The  work  which  He  was  doing  as  a  teach- 
er or  a  healer  (John  x.  41,  42)  in  Bethab- 
ara,  or  the  other  Bethany  (John  x.  40  and 
i.  28),  was  not  interrupted,  and  continues 
for  two  days  after  the  message  reaches 
Him.  Then  comes  the  journey,  occupying 
two  days  more.  Wlien  He  and  His  disci- 
ples come,  three  days  have  passed  since  the 
burial.  Tiie  friends  from  Jerusalem,  chief- 
ly of  the  Pharisee  and  ruler  class,  are 
there  with  their  consolations.  The  sisters 
receive  the  Prophet,  each  according  to  her 
character.  His  sympathy  with  their  sorrow 
leads  Him  also  to  weep.  Then  comes  the 
work  of  might  as  tlie  answer  of  the  prayer 
which  the  Son  offers  to  the  Father  (John 
xi.  41,  42).  Tlie  stone  is  rolled  away  from 
the  mouth  of  the  rock-chamber  in  which 
the  body  had  been  placed.  "  He  that  was 
dead  came  forth,  bound  hand  and  foot  with 
grave-clothes ;  and  his  face  was  bound 
about  with  a  napkin."  One  scene  more 
meets  us,  and  then  the  life  of  the  family 
which  has  come  before  us  with  such  daylight 
clearness  lapses  again  into  obscurity.  In 
the  house  which,  though  it  still  bore  the 
father's  name  (sup.  1),  was  the  dwelling  of 
the  sisters  and  the  brother,  there  is  a  sup- 
per, and  Lazarus  is  there,  and  Martha 
Berves,  no  louger  jealously,  a.nd  Mary  pours 


out  her  love  in  the  costly  offering  of  the 
spikenard  ointment,  and  finds  herself  once 
^gain  misjudged  and  hastily  condemned. 
After  this  all  direct  knowledge  of  Lazarus 
ceases.  The  resurrection  of  Lazarus  is 
recorded  only  by  St.  John.  The  writers 
of  the  first  three  Gospels  confined  them- 
selves, as  by  a  deliberate  plan,  to  the  mira- 
cles wrought  in  Galilee  (that  of  the  blind 
man  at  Jericho  being  the  only  exception). 
2.  The  name  of  a  poor  man  in  the  well- 
known  parable  of  Luke  xvi.  19-31.  The 
name  of  Lazarus  has  been  perpetuated  in 
an  institution  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
leper  of  the  Middle  Ages  appears  as  a  Laz- 
zaro.  Among  the  orders,  half  military  and 
half  monastic,  of  the  12th  century,  was  one 
which  bore  the  title  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
Lazarus  (a.  d.  1119),  whose  special  work 
it  was  to  minister  to  the  lepers,  first  of  Syr- 
ia, and  afterwards  of  Europe.  The  use  of 
lazaretto  and  lazar-hovse  for  the  leper-hos- 
pitals then  founded  in  all  parts  of  Western 
Christendom,  no  less  than  that  of  lazzarone 
for  the  mendicants  of  Italian  towns,  are  in- 
dications of  the  effect  of  the  parable  upon 
the  mind  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  thence  upon  its  later  speech. 

Ijead,  one  of  the  most  common  of  met- 
als, found  generally  in  veins  of  rocks, 
though  seldom  in  a  metallic  state,  and  most 
commonly  in  combination  with  sulphur.  It 
was  early  known  to  the  ancients,  and  the 
allusions  to  it  in  Scripture  indicate  that  the 
Hebrews  were  well  acquainted  with  its  uses. 
The  rocks  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sinai 
yielded  it  in  large  quantities,  and  it  was 
found  in  Egypt.  That  it  was  common  in 
Palestine  is  shown  by  the  expression  in 
Ecclus.  xlvii.  18  (comp.  1  K.  x.  27).  It 
was  among  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites 
which  the  children  of  Israel  brought  with 
them  to  the  plains  of  Moab,  after  their  re- 
turn from  the  slaughter  of  the  tribe  (Num. 
xxxi.  22).  The  ships  of  Tarshish  supplied 
the  market  of  Tyre  with  lead,  as  with  other 
metals  (Ez.  xxvii.  12).  Its  heaviness,  to 
which  allusion  is  made  in  Ex.  xv.  10,  and 
Ecclus.  xxii.  14,  caused  it  to  be  used  for 
weights,  which  were  cither  in  the  form  of  a 
round  flat  cake  (Zech.  v.  7),  or  a  rough 
unfashioned  lump  or  "stone"  (ver.  8); 
stones  having  in.  ancient  times  served  the 
purpose  of  weights  (comp.  Prov.  xvi.  11). 
In  modern  metallurgy  lead  is  used  with  tin 
in  the  composition  of  solder  for  fastening 
metals  together.  That  the  ancient  Hebrews 
were  acquainted  with  the  use  of  solder  is 
evident  from  Isaiah  xli.  7.  No  hint  is 
given  as  to  the  composition  of  the  solder- 
but  in  all  probability  lead  was  one  of  the 
materials  employed,  its  usage  for  such  a 
purpose  being  of  great  antiquity.  In  Job 
xix.  24  the  allusion  is  supposed  to  be  to  the 
practice  of  carving  inscriptions  upon  stone, 
and  pouring  molten  lead  inti  >  the  cavitiei 


LEAF 


346 


LEBANON 


ot  the  letters,  to  render  them  le^ble,  and 
at  the  same  time  preserve  them  from  the 
action  of  the  air.  In  modern  metallurgy 
lead  is  employed  for  the  purpose  of  purify- 
ing silver  from  other  mineral  products. 
The  alloy  is  mixed  with  lead,  exposed  to 
fusion  upon  an  earthen  vessel,  and  submit- 
ted to  a  blast  of  air.  By  this  means  the 
dross  is  consumed.  This  process  is  called  the 
cupelling  operation,  with  which  the  descrip- 
tion in  Ez.  xxii.  18-22  accurately  coincides. 

Ijeaf,  Leaves.  The  word  occurs  in  the 
A.  V.  either  in  the  singular  or  plural  num- 
ber in  three  different  senses.  1.  Leaf  of 
a  tree.  The  olive-leaf  is  mentioned  in  Gen. 
viii.  11.  Fig-leaves  formed  the  first  cov- 
ering of  our  parents  in  Eden.  The  barren 
fig-tree  (Matt.  xxi.  19 ;  Mark  xi.  13)  on  the 
road  between  Bethany  and  Jerusalem  "  had 
on  it  nothing  but  leaves."  The  oak-leaf  is 
mentioned  in  Is.  i.  30,  and  vi.  13.  The  right- 
eous are  often  compared  to  green  leaves 
(Jer.  xvii.  8).  The  ungodly,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  "as  an  oak  whose  leaf  fadetli " 
(Is.  i.  30).  In  Ez.  xlvii.  12,  Rev.  xxii.  1,  2, 
there  is  probably  an  allusion  to  some  tree 
whose  leavjes  were  used  by  the  Jews  as  a 
medicine  or  ointment;  indeed,  it  is  very 
likely  that  many  plants  and  leaves  were  thus 
made  use  of  by  them,  as  by  the  old  English 
herbalists.  2.  Leaves  of  doors.  The  He- 
brew word,  which  occurs  very  many  times 
in  the  Bible,  and  which  in  1  K.  vi.  32  (mar- 
gin) and  34  is  translated  "  leaves  "  in  the 
A.  v.,  signifies  beams,  ribs,  sides,  &c.  3. 
Leaves  of  a  book  or  roll  occurs  in  this  sense 
only  in  Jer.  xxxvi.  23.  The  Hebrew  word 
(literally  doors)  would  perhaps  be  more 
correctly  translated  columns. 

Le  ah,  the  daughter  of  Laban  (Gen. 
xxix.  16).  The  dulness  or  weakness  of  her 
eyes  was  so  notable,  that  it  is  mentioned  as 
a  contrast  to  the  beautiful  form  and  appear- 
ance of  her  younger  sister  Rachel.  Her 
faflier  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity 
which  the  local  marriage-rite  afforded  to 
pass  her  off  in  her  sister's  stead  on  the  un- 
conscious bridegroom,  and  excused  himself 
to  Jacob  by  alleging  that  the  custom  of  the 
country  forbade  the  younger  sister  to  be 
given  first  in  marriage.  Jacob's  preference 
of  Rachel  grew  into  hatred  of  Leah,  after 
he  had  married  both  sisters.  Leah,  how- 
ever, bore  Lo  him  in  quick  succession  Reu- 
ben, Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  then  Issachar, 
Zebulun,  and  Dinah,  before  Rachel  had  a 
child.  She  died  some  time  after  Jacob 
reached  the  south  country  in  which  his 
father  Isaac  lived.  She  was  buried  in  the 
family  grave  in  Machpelah  (ch.  xlix.  31). 

I/easiug,  "  falsehood."  This  word  is 
retained  in  the  A.  V.  of  Ps.  iv.  2,  v.  6,  from 
the  older  English  versions ;  but  the  Hebrew 
word  of  which  it  is  the  rendering  is  else- 
where almost  uniformly  translated  "lies" 
(Ps.  xl.  i,  Iviii.  3,  &c.). 


Leather.  The  notices  of  leather  in  the 
Bible  are  singularly  few ;  indeed  the  word 
occurs  but  twice  in  the  A.  V.,  and  in  each 
instance  in  reference  to  the  same  object,  a 
girdle  (2  K.  i.  8  ;  Matt.  iii.  i).  There  are, 
however,  other  instances  in  which  the  M'ord 
"  leather  "  might  with  propriety  be  substi- 
tuted for  "skin"  (Lev.  xi.  32,  xiii.  48; 
Num.  xxxi.  20). 

Leaven.  Various  substances  were 
known  to  have  fermenting  qualities;  but 
the  ordinary  leaven  consisted  of  a  lump  of 
old  dough  in  a  high  state  of  fermentation, 
which  was  inserted  into  the  mass  of  dough 
prepared  for  baking.  The  use  of  leaven 
was  strictly  forbidden  in  all  offerings  made 
to  the  Lord  by  fire.  It  is  in  reference  to 
these  prohibitions  that  Amos  (iv.  5)  iron- 
ically bids  the  Jews  of  his  day  to  "  offer  r. 
sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  tttV/i  leaven."  In 
other  instances,  where  the  offering  was  to 
be  consumed  by  the  priests,  and  not  on  the 
altar,  leaven  might  be  used.  Various  ideas 
were  associated  with  the  prohibition  of 
leaven  in  the  instances  above  quoted.  But 
the  most  prominent  idea,  and  the  one  which 
applies  equally  to  all  the  cases  of  pro- 
hibition, is  connected  with  the  corruption 
which  leaven  itself  had  undergone,  and 
which  it  communicated  to  bread  in  the  pro- 
cess of  fermentation.  It  is  to  this  property 
of  leaven  that  our  Saviour  points  when  he 
speaks  of  the  "  leaven  (i.  e.  the  corrupt 
doctrine)  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the  Sad- 
ducees  "  (Matt.  xvi.  6)  ;  and  St.  Paul,  when 
he  speaks  of  the  "  old  leaven  "  (1  Cor.  v.  7). 

Leb'ana,  one  of  the  Nethinim  whose 
descendants  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii.  48).     He  is  called 

Leb'anah.  in  Ezr.  ii.  45. 

Leb'anon,  a  mountain  range  in  the 
north  of  Palestine.  The  name  Lebanon 
signifies  "white,"  and  was  applied  either 
on  account  of  the  snow,  which,  during  a 
great  part  of  the  year,  covers  its  whole 
summit,  or  on  account  of  the  white  color  of 
its  limestone  cliffs  and  peaks.  It  is  the 
"white  mountain"  —  the  Mont  Blanc  of 
Palestine.  Lebanon  is  represented  in  Scrip- 
ture as  lying  upon  the  northern  border  of 
the  land  of  Israel  (Deut.  i.  7,  xi.  24 ;  Josh, 
i.  4).  Two  distinct  ranges  bear  this  name. 
They  run  in  parallel  lines  from  S.  W.  to 
N.  E.  for  about  90  geog.  miles,  enclosing 
between  them  a  long  fertile  vallej'  from  5 
to  8  miles  wide,  anciently  called  Coele- 
Syria.  The  western  range  is  the  "Liba- 
nus"  of  the  old  geographers,  and  the  Leba- 
non of  Scripture.  The  eastern  range  was 
called  "  Anti-Libanus  "  by  geographers, 
and  "Lebanon  toward  the  sun-rising" 
by  the  sacred  writers  (Josh.  xiii.  5).  1. 
Lebanon  —  the  western  range  —  commences 
on  the  south  of  the  deep  ravine  of  the 
Litdny,  the  ancient  river  Leontes,  which 
drains  the  valley  of  Coele-Syria.  and  falls 


LEBANON 


347 


LEEKS 


into  the  Mediterranean  five  miles  north  of 
Tyre.  It  runs  N.  E.  in  a  straight  line  par- 
allel to  the  coast,  to  the  opening  from  the 
Mediterranean  into  the  plain  of  Emesa, 
called  in  Scripture  the  "  Entrance  of  Ha- 
math  "  (Num.  xxxiv.  8).  Here  Nahr  el- 
Kel>ir  —the  ancient  river  Eleutherus  — 
swrseps  round  its  northern  end,  as  the 
Leontes  does  round  its  southern.  The 
averf^e  elevation  of  the  range  is  from  6000 
to  8000  ft. ;  but  two  peaks  rise  considerably 
higher.  On  the  summits  of  both  these 
peaks  the  snow  remains  in  patches  during 
the  whole  summer.  The  line  of  cultivation 
runs  along  at  the  height  of  about  6000  ft. ; 
and  below  this  the  features  of  the  western 
slopes  are  entirely  diiferent.  The  rugged 
limestone  banks  are  scantily  clothed  with 
the  evergreen  oak,  and  the  sandstone  with 
pines ;  while  every  available  spot  is  care- 
fully cultivated.  The  cultivation  is  won- 
derful, and  shows  what  all  Syria  might  be 
if  under  a  good  government.  Fig-trees 
cling  to  the  naked  rock ;  vines  are  trained 
along  narrow  ledges ;  long  ranges  of  mul- 
berries, on  terraces  like  steps  of  stairs, 
cover  the  more  gentle  declivities ;  and 
dense  groves  of  olives  fill  up  the  bot- 
toms of  the  glens.  Hundreds  of  vil- 
lages are  seen  —  here  built  amid  laby- 
rinths of  rocks,  there  clinging  like  swallows' 
nests  to  the  sides  of  clifls ;  while  convents, 
no  less  numerous,  are  perched  on  the  top 
of  every  peak.  The  vine  is  still  largely 
cultivated  in  every  part  of  the  mountain. 
Lebanon  also  abounds  in  olives,  figs,  and 
mulberries ;  while  some  remnants  exist  of 
the  forests  of  pine,  oak,  and  cedar,  which 
formerly  covered  it  (1  K.  v.  6 ;  Ps.  xxix.  5 ; 
Is.  xiv.  8 ;  Ezr.  iii.  7).  Considerable  num- 
bers of  wild  beasts  still  inhabit  its  retired 
glens  and  higher  peaks ;  the  writer  has  seen 
jackals,  hyenas,  wolves,  bears,  and  pan- 
thers (2  K.  xiv.  9 ;  Cant.  iv.  8 ;  Hab.  ii.  17). 
Along  the  base  of  Lebanon  runs  the  irreg- 
ular plain  of  Phoenicia ;  nowhere  more  than 
two  miles  wide,  and  often  interrupted  by 
bold  rocky  spurs,  that  dip  into  the  sea. 
The  main  ridge  of  Lebanon  is  composed 
of  Jura  limestone,  and  abounds  in  fossils. 
Long  belts  of  more  recent  sandstone  run 
along  the  western  slopes,  which  is  in  places 
largely  impregnated  with  iron.  Lebanon 
was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Hivites  and 
Giblites  (Judg.  iii.  3 ;  Josh.  xiii.  5,  6).  The 
whole  mountain  range  was  assigned  to  the 
Israelites,  but  was  never  conquered  by  them 
(Josh.  xiii.  2-6;  Judg.  iii.  1-3).  During 
the  Jewish  monarchy  it  appears  to  have 
been  subject  to  the  Phoenicians  (1  K.  v. 
2-6;  Ezr.  iii.  7).  From  the  Greek  con- 
quest until  modern  times  Lebanon  had  no 
separate  history.  2.  Anti-Libanus,  —  The 
main  chain  of  Anti-Libanus  commences  in 
the  plateau  of  Bashan,  near  the  parallel  of 
Caesarea-Philippi,  runs  north  to  Hermon, 


and  then  north-east  in  a  straight  line  till  it 
sinks  down  into  the  great  plain  of  Emesa, 
not  far  from  the  site  of  Riblah.  Hermon 
is  the  loftiest  peak;  the  next  highest  is  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  site  of  Abila,  beside 
the  village  of  Blud&n,  and  has  an  elevation 
of  about  7000  feet.  The  rest  of  the  ridge 
averages  about  5000  ft. ;  it  is  in  general 
bleak  and  barren,  with  shelving  gi'ay  de- 
clivities, gray  cliffs,  and  gray  rounded  sum- 
mits. Here  and  there  we  meet  with  thin 
forests  of  dwarf  oak  and  juniper.  The 
western  slopes  descend  abruptly  into  the 
Bukd'a ;  but  the  features  of  the  eastern 
are  entirely  different.  Three  side  ridges 
here  radiate  from  Hermon,  like  the  ribs  of 
an  open  fan,  and  form  the  supporting  walls 
of  three  great  terraces.  Anti-Libanus  is 
only  once  distinctly  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
where  it  is  accurately  described  as  "Leba- 
non toward  the  sun-rising"  (Josh  xiii.  5). 
"  The  tower  of  Lebanon  which  looketb 
toward  Damascus  "  (Cant.  vii.  4)  is  doubt- 
less Hermon,  which  forms  the  most  striking 
feature  in  the  whole  panorama  round  that 
city. 

Leb'aoth.,  a  town  which  forms  one  of 
the  last  group  of  the  cities  of  "the  South" 
in  the  enumeration  of  the  possessions  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  32),  probably  identical 
with  Beth-lebaoth. 

Lebbae'us.  This  name  occurs  in  Matt. 
X.  3,  according  to  Codex  D  (Bezae)  of  the 
sixth  century,  and  in  the  receive*  Text. 
In  Mark  iii.  18,  it  is  substituted  in  a  few 
unimportant  MSS.  for  Thaddacus.  [Jude.] 

Lieb'onah,,  a  place  named  in  Judg.  xxi. 
19  only.  Lebonah  has  survived  to  our  times 
under  the  almost  identical  form  of  el-Lub- 
han.  It  lies  to  the  west  of,  and  close  to, 
the  Nablus  road,  about  eight  miles  north  of 
Beitin  (Bethel),  and  two  from  Seilun  (Shi- 
loh). 

Xie'cah,  a  name  mentioned  in  the  gene- 
alogies of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  21  only)  as 
one  of  the  descendants  of  Shelah,  the  third 
son  of  Judah  by  the  Canaanitess  Bath-shua. 

Leech.     (Horse-Leech.) 

Iieeks  (Heb.  chdtsir).  The  word  chdt- 
str,  which  in  Num.  xi.  6  is  translated  leeks, 
occurs  twenty  times  in  the  Hebrew  text. 
The  Hebrew  term,  which  properly  denotes 
grass,  is  derived  from  a  root  signifying  "  to 
be  green,"  and  may  therefore  stand  in  this 
passage  for  any  green  food,  lettuce,  endive, 
&c. ;  it  would  thus  be  applied  somewhat 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  use  the  term 
"  greens ;  "  yet  as  the  chdtsir  is  mentioned 
together  with  onions  and  garlic  in  the  text, 
and  as  the  most  ancient  versions  unani- 
mously understand  leeks  by  the  Hebrew 
word,  we  may  be  satisfied  with  our  own 
translation.  There  is,  however,  another 
and  a  very  ingenious  interpretation  of 
chdtsir,  first  proposed  by  Hengstenberg, 
and  received  by  Dr.  Kitto  (^Pictor.  Bible, 


LEES 


348 


LEPER 


Num.  xi.  5),  which  adopts  a  more  literal 
translation  of  the  original  word,  for,  says 
Dr.  Kitto,  "  among  the  wonders  in  the  nat- 
ural history  of  Egypt,  it  is  mentioned  by 
travellers  that  the  common  people  there  eat 
with  special  relish  a  kind  of  grass  similar 
to  clover."  This  plant  (of  which  the  scien- 
tific name  is  Trigonellafoenum  Graecum)  is 
similar  to  clover,  but  its  leaves  more  point- 
ed, and  great  quantities  of  it  are  eaten  by 
the  people.  The  leek  is  too  well  known  to 
need  description.  Its  botanical  name  is 
Allium  porrum. 

Lees.  The  Hebrew  shemer  bears  the 
radical  sense  of  preservation,  and  was  ap- 
plied to  "lees  "  from  the  custom  of  allow- 
ing the  wine  to  stand  on  the  lees  in  order 
that  its  color  and  body  might  be  better  pre- 
served. Hence  the  expression  "wine  on 
the  lees,"  as  meaning  a  generous,  full- 
bodied  liquor  (Is.  xxv.  6).  Before  the 
wine  was  consumed,  it  was  necessary  to 
strain  off  the  lees;  such  wine  was  then 
termed  "well  refined"  (Is.  xxv.  6).  To 
drink  the  lees,  or  "  dregs,"  was  an  expres- 
sion for  the  endurance  of  extreme  punish- 
mert  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8). 

Legion,  the  chief  subdivision  of  the 
Roman  army,  containing  about  GOOO  infan- 
try, with  a  contingent  of  cavalry.  The 
term  does  not  occur  in  the  Bible  in  its  pri- 
mary sense,  but  appears  to  have  been 
adopted,  in  order  to  express  any  large 
nuniberj  wit',  the  accessory  ideas  of  order 
and  subordination  (Matt.  xxvi.  63 ;  Mark 
V.9). 

Leliabim,  occurring  only  in  Gen.  x. 
13,  the  name  of  a  Mizraite  people  or  tribe. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  the  same 
as  the  ReBU  or  LeBU  of  the  Egyptian  in- 
scriptions, and  that  from  them  Libya  and  the 
Libyans  derived  their  name.  These  primi- 
tive Libyans  appear  to  have  inhabited  the 
northern  part  of  Africa  to  the  west  of  Egypt, 
though  latterly  driven  from  the  coast  by 
the  Greek  colonists  of  the  Cyrenaica. 

Le'hi,  a  place  in  Judah,  probably  on  the 
confines  of  the  Philistines'  country,  between 
it  and  the  cliff  Etam ;  the  scene  of  Sam- 
eon's  well-known  exploit  with  the  jawbone 
(Judg.  XV.  9, 14,  19).  It  contained  an  emi- 
nence —  Ramath-lehi,  and  a  spring  of  great 
and  lasting  repute  —  En-hak-kore.  It  may 
perhaps  be  identified  with  Beit-Likiyeh.  a 
village  about  2  miles  below  the  upper  Beth- 
horon. 

Lem'uel,  the  name  of  an  unknown  king 
to  whom  his  mother  addressed  the  pruden- 
tial maxims  contained  in  Prov.  xxxi.  1-9. 
The  Rabbinical  commentators  identified 
Lemuel  with  Solomon.  Others  regard  him 
as  king  or  chief  of  an  Arab  tribe  dwelling 
on  the  borders  of  Palestine,  and  elder 
brother  of  Agur,  whose  name  stands  at  the 
head  of  Prov.  xxx. 

Lentils  (Heb.  'dddshtm).     The  word 


occurs  in  the  four  following  passages:  — 
Gen.  xxv.  34,  2  Sam.  xvii.  28,  xxiii.  11, 
and  Ez.  iv.  9.  There  are  three  or  four 
kinds  of  lentils,  all  of  which  are  still  much 
esteemed  in  those  countries  where  they  are 
grown,  viz.  the  South  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  Africa;  the  red  lentil  is  still  a  favor- 
ite article  of  food  in  the  East ;  it  is  a  small 
kind,  the  seeds  of  which,  after  being  decor- 
ticated, are  commonly  sold  in  tlie  baZaars 
of  India.  The  modern  Arabic  name  of  this 
plant  is  identical  with  the  Hebrew ;  it  is 
known  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  Syria,  &c.,  by 
the  name  'Adas.  Lentil  bread  is  still  eat- 
en by  the  poor  of  Egypt. 

Leopard  (Heb.  nAmir')  is  invariably 
given  by  the  A.  V.  as  the  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  word,  which  occurs  in  the  seven 
following  passages: — Is.  xi.  6;  Jer.  v.  6, 
xiii.  23 ;  Dan.  vii.  6 ;  Hos.  xiii.  7 ;  Cant, 
iv.  8 ;  Hab.  i.  8.  Leopard  occurs  also  in 
Ecclus.  xxviii.  23,  and  in  Rev.  xiii.  2.  From 
Cant.  iv.  8,  we  learn  that  the  hilly  ranges 
of  Lebanon  were  in  ancient  times  frequent- 
ed by  these  animals.  They  are  now  not  un- 
commonly seen  in  and  about  Lebanon,  and 
the  southern  maritime  mountains  of  Syria. 
Under  the  name  ndmer,  wliich  means 
"  spotted,"  it  is  not  improbable  that  another 
animal,  namely,  the  cheetah  (Gtteparda 
jubata),  may  be  included;  which  is  tamed 
by  the  Mohammedans  of  Syria,  who  employ 
it  in  hunting  the  gazelle. 

Leper,  Leprosy.  The  predominant 
and  characteristic  form  of  leprosy  in  Scrip- 
ture is  a  white  variety,  covering  either  the 
entire  body,  or  a  large  tract  of  its  surface, 
which  has  obtained  the  name  of  lepra  Mo- 
saica.  Such  were  the  cases  of  Moses, 
Miriam,  Naaman,  and  Gehazi  (Ex.  iv.  6 ; 
Num.  xii.  10;  2  K.  v.  1,  27;  comp.  Lev. 
xiii.  13).  But,  remarkably  enough,  in  the 
Mosaic  ritual-diagnosis  of  the  disease  (Lev. 
xiii.,  xiv.),  this  kind,  when  overspreading 
the  whole  surface,  appears  to  be  regarded 
as  "clean"  (xiii.  12,  13,  16,  17).  The 
Egyptian  bondage,  with  its  studied  degra- 
dations and  privations,  and  especially  the 
work  of  the  kiln  under  an  Egyptian  sun, 
must  have  had  a  frightful  tendency  to  gen- 
erate this  class  of  disorders ;  hence  Mane- 
tho  asserts  tliat  the  Egyptians  drove  out 
the  Israelites  as  infected  with  leprosy  —  a 
strange  reflex,  perhaps,  of  tlie  Mooaic  nar- 
rative of  the  "  plagues  "  of  Egypt,  yet  prob- 
ably also  containing  a  germ  of  truth.  The 
sudden  and  total  change  of  fi>.  d,  air,  dwell- 
ing, and  mode  of  life,  caused  by  the  Exodus, 
to  this  nation  of  newly-emancipated  slaves, 
may  possibly  have  had  a  further  tendency 
to  produce  skin-disorders,  and  severe  re- 
pressive measures  may  have  been  required 
in  the  desert-moving  camp  to  secure  the 
public  health,  or  to  allay  the  panic  of  infec- 
tion. Hence  it  is  possible  tliat  many,  per- 
haps most  of  this  repertory  of  symptoms 


LEPER 


349 


LEVIATHAN 


may  have  disappeared  with  the  period  of 
the  Exodus,  and  the  snow-white  form, 
which  liad  pre-existed,  may  alone  have 
ordinarily  continued  in  a  later  age.  But 
it  is  observable  that,  amongst  these  Leviti- 
cal  symptoms,  the  scaling,  or  peeling  off 
of  the  surface,  is  nowhere  mentioned,  nor 
is  theie  any  expression  in  the  Hebrew  text 
which  points  to  exfoliation  of  the  cuticle. 
The  principal  morbid  features  are  a  rising 
or  swelling,  a  scab  or  baldness,  and  a 
bright  or  white  spot  (xiii.  2).  But  espe- 
cially a  white  swelling  in  the  skin,  with  a 
change  of  the  hair  of  the  part  from  the 
natural  black  to  white  or  yellow  (3,  4,  10, 

20,  25,  30),  or  an  appearance  of  a  taint 
going  "  deeper  than  the  skin,"  or  again, 
"raw  flesh"  appearing  in  the  swelling  (10, 
14,  15),  were  critical  signs  of  pollution. 
The  mere  swelling,  or  scab,  or  bright  spot, 
was  remanded  for  a  week  as  doubtful  (4, 

21,  26,  31),  and  for  a  second  such  period, 
if  it  had  not  yet  pronounced  (5).  If  it 
then  spread  (7,  22,  27,  35),  it  was  decided 
as  polluting.  But  if  after  the  second  peri- 
od of  quarantine  the  trace  died  away  and 
showed  no  symptom  of  spreading,  it  was 
a  mere  scab,  and  the  patient  was  adjudged 
clean  (G,  23,  34).  This  tendency  to  spread 
seems  especially  to  have  been  relied  on. 
A  spot  most  innocent  in  all  other  respects, 
if  it  "spread  much  abroad,"  was  unclean; 
whereas,  as  before  remarked,  the  man  so 
wholly  overspread  with  the  evil  that  it 
could  find  no  farther  range,  was  on  the 
contrary  "  clean  "  (12,  13).  Tliese  two 
opposite  criteria  seem  to  show,  that  whilst 
the  disease  manifested  activity,  the  Mosaic 
law  imputed  pollution  to  and  imposed  seg- 
regation on  the  sufferer,  but  that  the 
point  at  which  it  might  be  viewed  as  hav- 
ing run  its  course  was  the  signal  for  his 
readmission  to  communion.  It  is  clear 
that  the  leprosy  of  Lev.  xiii.,  xiv.,  means 
any  severe  disease  spreading  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  in  the  way  described,  and 
80  shocking  of  aspect,  or  so  generally  sus- 
pected of  infection,  that  public  feeling 
called  for  separation.  —  It  is  now  undoubt- 
ed that  the  "leprosy"  of  modern  Syria, 
and  which  has  a  wide  range  in  Spain, 
Greece,  and  Norway,  is  the  Elephantiasis 
Graecorum.  It  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
home  by  the  crusaders  into  the  various 
countries  of  Western  and  Northern  Eu- 
rope. It  certainly  was  not  the  distinctive 
white  leprosy,  nor  do  any  of  the  described 
symptoms  in  Lev.  xiii.  point  to  elephanti- 
asis. "  White  as  snow  "  (2  K.  v.  27)  would 
be  as  inapplicable  to  elephantiasis  as  to 
small-pox.  —  There  remains  a  curious  ques- 
tion as  regards  the  leprosy  of  garments  and 
houses.  Some  have  thought  garments  worn 
by  leprous  patients  intended.  This  class- 
ing of  garments  and  house-walls  with  the 
human  epidermis,  as  leprous,  has  moved 


the  mirth  of  some,  and  the  wonder  of 
others.  Yet  modern  science  has  estab- 
lished what  goes  far  to  vindicate  the  Mo- 
saic classification  as  more  philosophical 
than  such  cavils.  It  is  now  known  that 
there  are  some  skin-diseases  which  origi- 
nate in  an  acarus,  and  others  which  pro- 
ceed from  a  fungus.  In  these  we  may 
probably  find  the  solution  of  the  paradox. 
The  analogy  between  the  insect  which  freta 
the  human  skin  and  that  which  frets  the 
garment  that  covers  it,  between  the  fun- 
gous growth  that  lines  the  crevices  of  the 
epidermis,  and  that  which  creeps  in  the 
interstices  of  masonry,  is  close  enough 
for  the  purposes  of  a  ceremonial  law.  It 
is  manifest  also  that  a  disease  in  the  hu- 
man subject  caused  by  an  acarus  or  by  a 
fungus  would  be  certainly  contagious,  since 
the  propagative  cause  could  be  transferred 
from  person  to  person. 

Le'shem,  another  form  of  Laish,  after- 
wards Dan,  occurring  in  .Josh.  xix.  47. 

Letu'shim,  the  name  of  the  second  of 
the  sons  of  Dedan,  son  of  Jokshan  (Gen 
XXV.  3). 

Ileum 'mim,  the  name  of  the  third  of 
the  descendants  of  Dedan,  son  of  Jokshan, 
Gen.  XXV.  3,  being  in  the  plural  form,  like 
his  brethren,  Asshurim  and  Letushim. 

Le'vi.  1.  The  name  of  the  third  son  of 
Jacob  by  his  wife  Leah.  The  name,  de- 
rived from  Idvdh,  "  to  adhere,"  gave  utter- 
ance to  the  hope  of  the  mother  that  the  af- 
fections of  her  husband,  which  had  hitherto 
rested  on  the  favored  Rachel,  would  at  last 
be  drawn  to  her.  "  This  time  will  my  hus- 
band be  joined  unto  me,  because  I  have 
borne  him  three  sons  "  (Gen.  xxix.  34). 
The  new-born  child  was  to  be  a  fresh  link 
binding  the  parents  to  each  other  more 
closely  than  before.  Levi,  with  his  brother 
Simeon,  avenged  with  a  cruel  slaughter  the 
outrage  of  their  sister  Dinah.  [Dinah.] 
Levi,  with  his  three  sons,  Gershon,  Kohath, 
Merari,  went  down  to  E^jypt  with  his  father 
Jacob  (Gen.  xlvii.  11).  When  Jacob's 
death  draws  near,  and  the  sons  are  gathered 
round  him,  Levi  and  Simeon  hear  the  old 
crime  brought  up  again  to  receive  its  sen- 
tence. They,  no  less  than  Reuben,  the  in- 
cestuous first-born,  had  forfeited  the  privi- 
leges of  their  birthright  (Gen.  xlix.  5-7). 
[Levites.]  2.  Son  of  Mclchi,  one  of  the 
near  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  in  fact  the 
great-grandfather  of  Joseph  (Luke  iii.  24). 
3.  A  more  remote  ancestor  of  Christ,  son 
of  Simeon  (Luke  iii.  29).  4.  Son  of  Al- 
phaeus  (Mark  ii.  14;  Luke  v.  27,  29). 
[Matthew.] 

Levi'athan  occurs  five  times  in  the 
text  of  the  A.  V.,  and  once  in  the  margin 
of  Job  iii.  8,  where  the  text  has  "  mourn- 
ing." In  the  Hebrew  Bible  the  word  livy' 
athan,  which  is,  with  the  foregoing  excep- 
tion, always  left  untranslated  in  the  A.  V., 


LEVIS 


350 


LEVITES 


is  found  only  in  the  following  passages : 
Job  iii.  8,  xli.  1;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  14,  oiv.  2G;  Is. 
xxvii.  1.  In  the  margin  of  Job  iii.  8,  and 
text  of  Job  xli,  1,  the  crocodile  is  most 
clearly  the  animal  denoted  by  the  Hebrew- 
word.  Ps.  Ixxiv.  14  also  clearly  points  to 
tills  same  saurian.  The  context  of  Ps.  civ. 
26  seems  to  show  that  in  this  passage 
the  name  represents  some  animal  of  the 
whale  tribe ;  but  it  is  somewhat  uncertain 
what  animal  is   denoted  in   Is.   xxvii.   1. 


Crocodile  of  the  Nile  (C.  vulgarit). 

As  th^ terra  leviathan  is  evidently  used  in 
no  limited  sense,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  "  leviathan  the  piercing  serpent,"  or 
"  leviathan  the  crooked  serpent,"  may  de- 
note some  species  of  the  great  rock-snakes 
which  are  common  in  South  and  West 
Africa. 

Le'vis,  improperly  given  as  a  proper 
name  in  1  Esd.  ix.  14.  It  is  simply  a  corrup- 
tion of  "  the  Levite  "  in  Ezr.  x.  15. 

Le'vites.  The  analogy  of  the  names 
of  the  other  tribes  of  Israel  would  lead  us 
to  include  under  these  titles  the  whole 
tribe  that  traced  its  descent  from  Levi. 
The  existeoce  of  another  division,  how- 
ever, within  the  tribe  itself,  in  the  higher 
office  of  the  priesthood  as  limited  to  "  the 
sons  of  Aaron,"  gave  to  the  common  form, 
in  this  instance,  a  peculiar  meaning.  Most 
frequently  the  Levites  are  distinguished,  as 
such,  from  the  priests  (1  K.  viii.  4 ;  Ezr. 
ii.  70;  John  i.  19,  «S;c.),  and  this  is  the 
meaning  which  has  perpetuated  itself. 
Sometimes  the  word  extends  to  the  whole 
tribe,  the  priests  included  (Num.  xxxv.  2 ; 
Josh.  xxi.  3,  41 ;  Ex.  vi.  25 ;  Lev.  xxv.  32, 
&c.).  Sometimes  again  it  is  added  as  an 
epithet  of  the  smaller  portion  of  the  tribe, 
and  we  read  of  "  the  priests  the  Levites  " 
(Josh.  iii.  3;  Ez.  xliv.  15).  The  history 
of  the  tribe  and  of  the  functions  attached 
to  its  several  orders  is  essential  to  any 
right  apprehension  of  the  history  of  Israel 
as  a  people.  It  will  fall  naturally  into  four 
great  periods.  I.  The  time  of  the  Exodus. 
—  There  is  no  trace  of  the  consecrated 
character  of  the  Levites  till  the  institution 
of  an  hereditary  priesthood  in  the  family 
of  Aaron,  during  the  first  withdrawal  of 


Moses  to  the  solitude  of  Sinai  (xs  dii.  1). 
The  next  extension  of  the  idea  of  the 
priesthood  grew  out  of  the  terrible  crisis 
of  Ex.  xxxii.  The  tribe  stood  forth,  sepa- 
rate and  apart,  recognizing  even  in  this 
stern  work  the  spiritual  as  higher  than  the 
natural.  From  this  time  they  occupied  a 
distinct  position.  The  tribe  of  Levi  was  to 
take  the  place  of  that  earlier  priesthood  of 
the  first-born  as  representatives  of  the  ho- 
liness of  the  people.  As  the  Tabernacle 
was  the  sign  of  the  presence  among  the 
people  of  their  unseen  King,  so  the  Levites 
were,  among  the  other  tribes  of  Israel,  as 
the  royal  guard  that  waited  exclusively  on 
Him.  When  the  people  were  at  rest  they 
encamped  as  guardians  round  the  sacred 
tent  (Num.  i.  51,  xviii.  22).  When  on  the 
march  no  hands  but  theirs  might  strike  the 
tent  at  the  commencement  of  the  day's 
journey,  or  carry  the  parts  of  its  structure 
during  it,  or  pitch  the  tent  once  again  when 
they  halted  (Num.  i.  51).  It  was  obvious- 
ly essential  for  such  a  work  that  there  should 
be  a  fixed  assignment  of  duties ;  and  now 
accordingly  we  meet  with  the  first  out- 
lines of  the  organization  which  afterwards 
became  permanent.  The  division  of  the 
tribe  ijito  the  three  sections  that  traced 
their  descent  from  the  sons  of  Levi,  formed 
the  groundwork  of  it.  The  work  wliich 
they  all  had  to  do  required  a  man's  full 
strength,  and  therefore,  though  twenty  was 
the  starting-point  for  military  service 
(Num.  i.),  they  were  not  to  enter  on  their 
active  service  till  they  were  thirty  (Num. 
iv.  23,30,  35).  At  fifty  they  were  to  be 
free  from  all  duties  but  those  of  superin- 
tendence (Num.  viii.  25,  26).  The  Kohath- 
ites,  as  nearest  of  kin  to  the  priests,  held 
from  the  first  the  highest  offices.  They 
were  to  bear  all  the  vessels  of  the  sanctu- 
ary, the  ark  itself  included  (Num.  iii.  31, 
iv.  15 ;  Deut.  xxxi.  25),  after  the  priests  had 
covered  them  with  the  dark-blue  cloth  which 
was  to  hide  tliem  from  all  profane  gaze. 
The  Gershonites  had  to  carry  the  tent- 
hangings  and  curtains  (Num.  iv.  22-26). 
The  heavier  burden  of  the  boards,  bars,  and 
pillars  of  the  tabernacle  fell  on  the  sons  of 
Merari.  The  Levites  were  to  have  no  ter- 
ritorial possessions.  In  place  of  them  they 
were  to  receive  from  the  others  the  tithes 
of  the  produce  of  the  land,  from  which 
they,  in  their  turn,  offered  a  tithe  to  the 
priests,  as  a  recognition  of  their  higher  con- 
secration (Num.  xviii.  21,  24,  26;  Neh.  x. 
37).  When  tlie  wanderings  of  the  people 
should  be  over  and  the  tabernacle  have  a 
settled  place,  great  part  of  the  labor  that  had 
fallen  on  them  would  come  to  an  end,  and 
they  too  would  need  a  fixed  abode.  Dis- 
tinctness and  diff'usion  were  both  to  be 
secured  by  the  assignment  to  the  whole 
tribe  of  forty-eight  cities,  with  an  outlying 
"  suburb  "  (Num.  xxxv.  2)  of  meadow-land 


1.EV1TES 


351 


LEVITICUS 


for  the  pasturage  of  their  flocks  and  herds. 
The  reverence  of  the  people  for  them  was 
to  be  heightened  by  the  selection  of  six  of 
these  as  cities  of  refuge.  Through  the 
whole  land  the  Levites  were  to  take  the 
place  of  the  old  household  priests,  sharing 
in  all  festivals  and  rejoicings  (Deut.  xii.  19, 
xiv.  2G,  27,  xxvi.  11).  Every  third  year 
they  were  to  have  an  additional  share  in 
the  produce  of  the  land  (Deut.  xiv.  28, 
xxvi.  12).  To  "  the  priests  the  Levites" 
was  to  belong  the  office  of  preserving, 
transcribing,  and  interpreting  the  law 
(Deut.  xvii.  9-12,  xxxi.  26).  II.  The  pe- 
riod of  the  Judges.  —  The  successor  of 
Moses,  tliough  belonging  to  another  tribe, 
did  faithfully  all  that  could  be  done  to  con- 
Tert  this  idea  into  a  reality.  The  subrais- 
sion  of  the  Gibeonites  enabled  hira  to  re- 
lieve the  tribe-divisions  of  Gershon  and 
Merari  of  the  most  burdensome  of  their 
duties.  The  conquered  Hivites  became 
"  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  " 
f©r  the  house  of  Jehovah  and  for  the  con- 
gregation (Josh.  ix.  27).  As  soon  as  the 
conquerors  had  advanced  far  enough  to 
proceed  to  a  partition  of  the  country,  the 
forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  to  them. 
III.  Tlie  Monarchy.  —  The  rule  of  Samu- 
el, himself  a  Levite,  tended  to  give  them 
the  position  of  a  ruling  caste.  The  reign 
of  Saul,  in  its  later  period,  was  the  asser- 
tion of  a  self-willed  power  against  the 
priestly  order.  The  reign  of  David,  how- 
ever, wrought  the  change  from  persecution 
to  honor.  When  his  kingdom  was  estab- 
lished, there  came  a  fuller  organization  of 
the  whole  tribe.  Their  position  in  relation 
to  the  priesthood  was  once  again  definitely 
recognized.  When  the  ark  was  carried  up 
to  its  new  resting-place  in  Jerusalem,  their 
claim  to  be  the  bearers  of  it  was  publicly 
acknowledged  (I  Chr.  xv.  2).  In  the  pro- 
cession which  attended  the  ultimate  con- 
veyance of  the  ark  to  its  new  resting-place 
the  Levites  were  conspicuous,  wearing  their 
linen  epliods,  and  appearing  in  their  new 
character  as  minstrels  (1  Chr.  xv.  27,  28). 
In  the  worship  of  the  tabernacle  under  Da- 
vid, as  afterwards  in  tliat  of  the  Temple, 
we  may  trace  a  development  of  the  simpler 
arrangements  of  the  wilderness  and  of 
Shiloh.  The  Levites  were  the  gatekeepers, 
vergers,  sacristans,  choristers  of  the  cen- 
tral sanctuary  of  the  nation.  They  were, 
in  the  language  of  1  Chr.  xxiii.  24-32,  to 
which  we  may  refer  as  almost  the  locus 
dassicus  on  this  subject,  "to  wait  on  the 
sons  of  Aaron  for  the  service  of  the  house 
of  Jehovah,  in  the  courts,  and  the  cham- 
bers, and  the  purifying  of  all  holy  things." 
This  included  the  duty  of  providing  "  for 
the  shew-bread,  and  the  fine  flour  for  meat- 
offering, and  for  the  unleavened  bread." 
They  were,  besides  this,  "  to  stand  every 
morning  to  thank  and  praise  Jehovah,  and 


likewise  at  even."  They  were  lastly  "  to 
offer  "  —  i.  e.  to  assist  the  priest  in  offering 
—  "all  burnt-sacrifices  to  Jehovah  in  the 
sabbaths  and  on  the  set  feasts."  They 
lived  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in 
their  own  cities,  and  came  up  at  fixed  peri- 
ods to  take  their  turn  of  work  (1  Chr.  xxv., 
xxvi.).  The  education  which  the  Levites 
received  for  their  peculiar  duties,  no  less 
than  tJieir  connection  more  or  less  intimate 
with  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  would 
tend  to  make  them  the  teachers  of  the 
others,  the  transcribers  and  interpreters  of 
the  Law,  the  chroniclers  of  the  times  in 
which  they  lived.  We  have  some  striking 
instances  of  their  appearance  in  tliis  new 
character.  The  two  books  of  Chronicles 
bear  unmistakable  marks  of  having  been 
written  by  men  whose  interests  were  all 
gathered  round  the  services  of  the  Temple, 
and  who  were  familiar  with  its  records.  The 
revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  policy  pur- 
sued by  Jeroboam,  led  to  a  great  change  in 
the  position  of  the  Levites.  They  were  the 
witnesses  of  an  appointed  order  and  of  a 
central  worship.  He  wished  to  make  the 
priests  the  creatures  and  instruments  of  the 
king,  and  to  establish  a  provincial  and  di- 
vided worship.  The  natural  result  was,  that 
they  left  the  cities  assigned  to  them  in  the 
territory  of  Israel,  and  gathered  round  the 
metropolis  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xi.  13,  14).  In 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  they  were,  from  thia 
time  forward,  a  powerful  body,  politically, 
as  well  as  ecclesiastically.  IV.  After  the 
Captivity.  —  On  the  return  from  Babylon, 
the  Levites  take  their  old  places  in  the  Tem- 
ple and  in  the  villages  near  Jerusalem  (Neh, 
xii.  29),  and  are  present  in  full  array  at  the 
great  feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Wall. 
The  two  prophets  who  were  active  at  the 
time  of  the  Return,  Haggai  and  Zechariah, 
if  they  did  not  belong  to  the  tribe,  helped  it 
forward  in  the  work  of  restoration.  The 
last  prophet  of  the  O.  T.  sees,  as  part  of  his 
vision  of  the  latter  days,  the  time  when  the 
Lord  "  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi  "  (Mai, 
iii.  8).  During  the  period  that  followed  the 
Captivity  they  contributed  to  the  formation 
of  the  so-called  Great  Synagogue.  They, 
with  the  priests,  formed  the  majority  of  the 
permanent  Sanhedrim,  and  as  such  had  a 
large  share  in  the  administration  of  justice 
even  in  capital  cases.  They  take  no  prom- 
inent part  in  the  Maccabaean  struggles, 
though  they  must  have  been  present  at  the 
great  purification  of  the  Temple.  They  ap- 
pear but  seldom  in  the  history  of  the  N.  T. 
Where  we  meet  with  their  names  it  is  aa 
the  type  of  a  formal  heartless  worship, 
without  sympathy  and  without  love  (Luke 
X.  32).  The  mention  of  a  Levite  of  Cyprus 
in  Acts  iv.  36  shows  that  the  changes  of  the 
previous  century  had  carried  that  tribe  also 
into  "  the  dispersed  among  the  Gentiles." 
Levit'icus.      The  Book,  which   is   so 


LIBANUS 


352 


LIEUTENANTS 


called  because  it  relates  principally  to  the 
Levites  and  Priests,  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing principal  sections  :  I.  The  laws 
touching  sacrifices  (chap,  i.-vii.).  II.  An 
historical  section  containing,  first,  the  con- 
secration of  Aaron  and  his  sons  (chap, 
viii.) ;  next,  his  first  offering  for  himself 
and  his  people  (chap,  ix.)  ;  and  lastly,  the 
destruction  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons 
of  Aaron,  for  their  presumptuous  offence 
(chap.  X.).  III.  The  laws  concerning  pu- 
rity and  impurity,  and  the  appropriate 
sacrifices  and  ordinances  for  putting  away 
impurity  (chap,  xi.-xvi.).  IV.  Laws  chief- 
ly intended  to  mark  the  separation  between 
Israel  and  the  heathen  nations  (chap,  xvii.- 
XX.).  V.  Laws  concerning  the  priests 
(xxi.,  xxii.),  and  certain  holy  days  and 
festivals  (xxiii.,  xxv.),  together  with  an 
episode  (xxiv.).  The  section  extends  from 
chap.  xxi.  1  to  xxvi.  2.  VI.  Promises  and 
threats  (xxvi.  2-46).  VII.  An  appendix 
containing  the  laws  concerning  vows 
(xxvii.).  Integrity.  —  This  is  very  gener- 
ally admitted.  Those  critics  even  who  are 
in  favor  of  different  documents  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch assign  nearly  the  whole  of  this  book 
to  one  writer,  the  Elohist,  or  author  of  the 
original  document.  According  to  Knobel 
the  only  portions  which  are  not  to  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Elohist  are  —  Moses'  rebuke 
of  Aaron  because  the  goat  of  the  sin-offer- 
ing had  been  burnt  (x.  16-20) ;  the  group 
of  laws  in  chap,  xvii.-xx. ;  certain  addi- 
tional enactments  respecting  the  Sabbath 
and  the  Feast  of  Weeks  and  of  Tabernacles 
(xxiii.,  part  of  ver.  2,  and  ver.  3,  ver.  18, 
19,  22,  39-44) ;  the  punishments  ordained 
for  blasphemy,  murder,  &c.  (xxiv.  10-23)  ; 
the  directions  respecting  the  Sabbatical  year 
(xxv.  18-22),  and  the  promises  andwarnings 
contained  in  chap.  xxvi.  We  must  not  quit 
this  book  without  a  word  on  what  may  be 
called  its  spiritual  meaning.  That  so  elab- 
orate a  ritual  looked  beyond  itself  we  can- 
not doubt.  It  was  a  prophecy  of  things  to 
come ;  a  shadow  whereof  the  substance  was 
Christ  and  His  kingdom.  We  may  not  al- 
ways be  able  to  say  what  the  exact  relation 
is  between  the  type  and  the  antitype.  But 
we  cannot  read  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
and  not  acknowledge  that  the  Levitical 
priests  "  served  the  pattern  and  type  of 
heavenly  things"  —  that  the  sacrifices  of 
the  law  pointed  to  and  found  their  interpre- 
tation in  tlie  Lamb  of  God  —  that  the  ordi- 
nances of  outward  purification  signified  the 
true  inner  cleansing  of  the  heart  and  con- 
science from  dead  woi'ks  to  serve  the  living 
God.  One  idea  moreover  penetrates  the 
■whole  of  this  vast  and  burdensome  ceremo- 
nial, and  gives  it  a  real  glory  even  apart 
from  any  prophetic  significance.  Holiness 
is  its  character. 

Lib'anus.    [Lebanok.] 

Libertines.     This  word,  which  occurs 


once  only  in  the  N.  T.  (Acts  vi.  9),  is  the 
Latin  Libertini,  that  is,  "  freedmcn."  They 
were  probably  Jews  who,  having  been  taken 
prisoners  by  Pompey  and  other  Roman  gen- 
erals in  the  Syrian  wars,  had  been  reduced 
to  slavery,  and  had  afterwards  been  eman- 
cipated, and  returned,  permanently  or  for 
a  time,  to  the  country  of  their  fathers. 

Ijib'nall.  1.  A  city  which  lay  in  the 
south-west  part  of  the  Holy  Land,  taken  by 
Joshua  immediately  after  the  rout  of  Beth- 
horon.  It  belonged  to  the  maritime  low- 
land of  Judah,  among  the  cities  of  which 
district  it  is  enumerated  (Josh.  xv.  42).  It 
was  appropriated  with  its  "  suburbs"  to  the 
priests  (Josh.  xxi.  13;  1  Chr.  vi.  57).  In 
the  reign  of  Jehorara  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat 
it  "  revolted  "  from  Judah  at  the  same  time 
with  Edom  (2  K.  viii.  22;  2  Chr.  xxi.  10). 
On  completing  or  relinquishing  the  siege 
of  Lachish  —  which  of  the  two  is  not  quite 
certain  —  Sennacherib  laid  siege  to  Libnah 
(2  K.  xix.  8;  Is.  xxxvii.  8).  It  was  the 
native  place  of  Ilamutal,  or  Hamital,  the 
queen  of  Josiah,  and  mother  of  Jehoahaz 
(2  K.  xxiii.  31)  and  Zedekiah  (xxiv.  18; 
Jer.  lii.  1).  Its  exact  site  is  uncertain.  2. 
One  of  the  stations  at  which  the  Israelites 
encamped,  on  their  journey  between  the 
wilderness  of  Sinai  and  Kadcsh  (Num. 
xxxiii.  20,  21) ;  and  the  only  conjecture 
which  appears  to  have  been  made  concern- 
ing it  is,  that  it  was  identical  with  Laban, 
mentioned  in  Deut.  i.  1. 

Lib'ni.  1.  The  eldest  son  of  Gershon, 
the  son  of  Levi  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num.  iii.  18; 
1  Chr.  vi.  17,  20),  and  ancestor  of  the  fami- 
ly of  the  Libnites.  2.  The  son  of  Mahli, 
or  Mahali,  son  of  Merari  (1  Chr.  vi.  29),  as 
the  Text  at  present  stands.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  he  is  the  same  with  the  pre- 
ceding, and  that  something  lias  been  omit- 
ted (comp.  ver.  29  with  20,  42). 

Lib'ya  occurs  only  in  Acts  ii.  10,  in  the 
periphrasis  "  the  parts  of  Libya  about 
Cyrene,"  which  obviously  means  tiie  Cyre- 
naica.  The  name  Libya  is  applied  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  to  tlie  African 
continent,  generally,  however,  excluding 
Egypt. 

Xjice  (Heb.  cinnim,  cinndm).  This  word 
occurs  in  the  A.  V.  only  in  Ex.  viii.  16-18, 
and  in  Ps.  cv.  31 ;  both  of  which  passages 
have  reference  to  the  third  great  plague  of 
Egypt.  The  Hebrew  word  has  given  occa- 
sion to  whole  pages  of  discussion.  Some 
commentators,  and  indeed  modern  writers 
generally,  suppose  that  gnats  are  tlie  ani- 
mals intended  by. the  original  word;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Jewish  Rabbis, 
Josephus,  and  others,  are  in  favor  of  the 
translation  of  the  A.  V.  Upon  the  whole  it 
appears  that  there  is  not  sufficient  authority 
for  departing  from  the  translation  of  the 
A.  V. 

Lieutenants.     The  Hebrew   achash- 


LIGN  ALOES 


353 


LINEN 


dm-pan  was  the  official  title  of  the  satraps 
or  viceroys  who  governed  the  provinces 
of  the  Persian  empire ;  it  is  rendered 
"  lieutenant "  in  Esth.  iii.  12,  viii.  9,  ix.  3 ; 
Ezr.  viii.  ZQ.,  and  "  prince  "  in  Dan.  iii.  2, 
vi.  1,  &c, 

Lign  Aloes.     [Aloes.] 

Ijigure  (Heb.  Ushem),  a  precious  stone 
mentioned  in  Ex.  xxviii.  19,  xxxix.  12,  as 
the  first  in  the  third  row  of  the  high-priest's 
breastplate.  It  is  impossible  to  say,  with 
any  certainty,  whafstone  is  denoted  by  the 
Hebrew  term  ;  but  perhaps  tourmaline,  or 
more  definitely  the  red  variety  known  as 
rubeJlite  has  better  claims  than  that  of  any 
other  mineral.  Rubcllite  is  a  hard  stone, 
and  used  as  a  gem,  and  is  sometimes  sold 
for  red  sapphire. 

Lik'hi,  a  Manassite,  son  of  Shemida, 
the  son  of  Manasseh  (1  Chr.  vii.  19). 

Lily  (Heb.  shushdn,  shdshanndh) .'  Al- 
though there  is  little  doubt  that  the  Hebrew 
word  denotes  some  plant  of  the  lily  species, 
it  is  by  no  means  certain  what  individual 
of  this  class  it  especially  designates.  If  the 
shushdn  or  shoshanndh  of  the  O.  T.  and 
the  xoUor  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  be 
identical,  which  there  seems  no  reason  to 
doubt,  the  plant  designated  by  these  terms 
must  have  been  a  conspicuous  object  on  the 
shores  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  (Matt.  vi. 
28 ;  Luke  xii.  27) ;  it  must  have  flourished 
in  the  deep  broad  valleys  of  Palestine  (Cant. 
ii.  1),  among  the  thorny  shrubs  (ib.  ii.  2) 
and  pastures  of  the  desert  (ib.  ii.  16,  iv.  5, 
vi.  3),  and  must  have  been  remarkable  for 
its  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth  (Hos.  xiv. 
6;  Ecclus.  xxxix.  14).  That  its  flowers 
were  brilliant  in  color  would  seem  to  be  in- 
dicated in  Matt.  vi.  28,  where  it  is  compared 


LIUum  Chalcedonicuin. 


with  the  gorgeous  robes  of  Solomon ;  and 
that  this  color  was  scarlet  or  purple  is  im- 
plied in  Cant.  v.  13.     There  appears  to  be 
23 


no  species  of  lily  which  so  completely 
answers  all  these  requirements  as  the 
Lilium  Chalcedonicum,  or  Scarlci  Mar- 
tagon,  which  grows  in  profusion  in  the 
Levant.  But  direct  evidence  on  the  point 
is  still  to  be  desired  from  tlie  observation 
of  travellers.  —  The  Phoenician  architects 
of  Solomon's  temple  decorated  the  capitals 
of  the  columns  with  "lily-work,"  that  is, 
with  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  lily  (1  K.  vii.), 
corresponding  to  the  lotus-headed  capitals 
of  Egyptian  architecture.  The  rim  of  the 
"brazen  sea"  was  possibly  wrought  in  the 
form  of  the  recurved  margin  of  a  lily  flower 
(1  K.  vii.  26). 

Ijiine.  This  substance  is  noticed  only 
three  times  in  the  Bible,  viz.  in  Deut. 
xxvii.  2,  4  (A.  V.  "plaister"),  in  Is.  xxxiii. 
12,  and  in  Am.  ii.  1. 

Linen.  1.  As  Egypt  was  the  great  cen- 
tre of  the  linen  manufacture  of  antiquity, 
it  is  in  connection  with  that  country  that 
we  find  the  first  allusion  to  it  in  the  Bible. 
Joseph,  when  promoted  to  the  dignity  of 
ruler  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  was  arrayed 
"in  vestures  oi fine  linen"  {sh6sh,  marg. 
"  silk,"  Gen.  xli.  42),  and  among  the  ofler- 
ings  for  the  tabernacle  of  the  tilings  which 
the  Israelites  had  brought  out  of  Egypt 
were  "  blue,  and  purple,  and  scarlet,  and 
fine  linen"  (Ex.  xxv.  4,  xxxv.  6).  2.  But 
in  Ex.  xxviii.  42,  and  Lev.  vi.  10,  the 
drawers  of  the  priests  and  their  flowing 
robes  are  said  to  be  of  lijien  (bad) ;  and 
the  tunic  of  the  high-priest,  his  girdle  and 
mitre,  wliich  he  wore  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment, were  made  of  the  same  material 
(Lev.  xvi.  4).  From  a  comparison  of  Ex. 
xxviii.  42  with  xxxix.  28  it  seems  clear  that 
bad  and  shSsh  were  synonymous.  8.  Biits, 
always  translated  "  fine  linen,"  except  2 
Chr.  V.  12,  is  apparently  a  late  word,  and 
probably  the  same  with  the  Greek  j^i'ffffo;,  by 
which  it  is  represented  by  the  LXX.  It 
was  used  for  the  dresses  of  the  Levite-. 
choir  in  the  temple  (2  Chr.  v.  12),  for  the- 
loose  upper  garment  worn  by  kings  over  the- 
close-fitting  tunic  (1  Chr.  xv.  27),  and  for 
the  vail  of  the  temple,  embroidered  by  the- 
skill  of  the  Tyrian  artificers  (2  Chr.  iii.  14)^ 
The  dress  of  the  rich  man  in  the  parable  was 
purple  and  fine  linen  ((ii'oaug,  Luke  xvi.. 
19).  "Fine  linen,"  with  purple  and  silk,, 
is  enumerated  in  Eev.  xviii.  12  as  among 
the  merchandise  of  the  mystical  Babylon.. 
4,  6.  Eifin  (Prov.  vii.  16)  and  sdditt' 
(Judg.  xiv.  12,  13)  also  signify  linen.  But 
the  general  term  which  included  all  those 
already  mentioned  was  ptshteh,  which  was 
employed — like  our  "  cotton"  —  to  denote 
not  only  the  flax  (Judg.  xv.  14),  or  raw 
material  from  which  the  linen  was  made, 
but  also  the  plant  itself  (Josh.  ii.  6),  and 
the  manufacture  from  it.  It  is  generally 
opposed  to  wool,  as  a  vegetable  product  to 
an  animal  (Lev.  xiii.  47,  48,  52,  r.9 ;  Deut. 


LINTEL 


354 


LOAN 


xxii.  11;  Prov.  xxxi.  13;  Hos.  ii.  5,  9), 
and  was  used  for  nets  (Is.  xix.  9),  gir- 
dles (Jer.  xiii.  1),  and  measuring-lines 
(Ez.xl.  3),  as  well  as  for  the  dress  of  the 
priests  (Ez.  xliv.  17,  18). 

Lintel.  The  beam  which  forms  the 
upper  part  of  the  framework  of  a  door. 
Gesenius  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  in 
the  singular  it  denotes  the  whole  projecting 
framework  of  a  door  or  gateway.  In  the 
plural  it  is  applied  to  denote  the  projections 
along  the  front  of  an  edifice  ornamented 
•with  columns  or  palm-trees,  and  with  re- 
cesses or  intercolumniations  between  them 
sometimes  filled  up  by  windows. 

Li'nus,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  known  to 
St.  Paul  and  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv.  21), 
who  was  tiie  first  bishop  of  Eome  after  the 
apostles. 

Lion.  At  present  lions  do  not  exist  in 
Palestine ;  but  they  must  in  ancient  times 
have  been  numerous.  The  names  Lebaoth 
(Josh.  XV.  32),  Beth-Lebaoth  (Josh.  xix. 
6),  Arieh  (2  K.  xv.  25),  arid  Laish  (Judg. 
xviii.  7;  1  Sam.  xxv.  44),  were  probably 
derived  from  the  presence  of  or  connection 
with  lions,  and  point  to  the  fact  that  they 
were  at  one  time  common.  They  had  their 
lairs  in  the  forests  which  have  vanished 
with  them  (Jer.  v.  6,  xii.  8;  Am.  iii.  4),  in 
the  tangled  brushwood  (Jer.  iv.  7,  xxv.  38 ; 
Job  xxxviii.  40),  and  in  tlie  caves  of  the 
mountains  (Cant.  iv.  8;  Ez.  xix.  9;  Nah. 
ii.  12).  The  canebrake  on  the  banks  of 
the  Jordan,  the  "pride"  of  the  river,  was 
their  favorite  haunt  (Jer.  xlix.  19,  1.  44; 
Zech.  xi.  3).  The  lion  of  Palestine  was  in 
all  probability  the  Asiatic  variety,  described 
by  Aristotle  and  Pliny  as  distinguished  by 
its  short  curly  mane,  and  by  being  shorter 
and  rounder  in  shape,  like  the  sculptured 
lion  found  at  Arban.  It  was  less  daring 
than  the  longer  named  species,  but  when 
driven  by  hunger  it  not  only  ventured  to 
attack  the  flocks  in  the  desert  in  presence 
of  the  shepherd  (Is.  xxxi.  4 ;  1  Sam.  xvii. 
34),  but  laid  waste  towns  and  villages  (2 
K.  xvii.  25,  26;  Prov.  xxii.  13,  xxvi.  13), 
and  devoured  men  (1  K.  xiii.  24,  xx.  36 ;  2 
K.  xvii.  25 ;  Ez.  xix.  3,  6).  The  shepherds 
sometimes  ventured  to  encounter  the  lion 
single-handed  (1  Sam.  xvii.  34) ;  and  the 
vivid  figure  employed  by  Amos  (iii.  12), 
the  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  was  but  the  tran- 
Bcript  of  a  scene  which  he  must  have  often 
witnessed.  At  other  times  they  pursued 
the  animal  in  large  bands,  raising  loud 
shouts  to  intimidate  him  (Is.  xxxi.  4),  and 
drive  him  into  the  net  or  pit  they  had  pre- 
pared to  catch  him  (Ez.  xix.  4,  8).  Be- 
naiah,  one  of  David's  heroic  body-guard, 
had  distinguished  himself  by  slaying  a  lion 
in  his  den  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20).  The  kings 
of  Persia  had  a  menagerie  of  lions  (Dan. 
vi.  7,  &c.).  When  captured  alive  they 
were  put  in  a  cage  (Ez.  xix.  9),  but  it  does 


not  appear  that  they  were  tamed.  The 
strength  (Judg.  xiv.  18;  Prov.  xxx.  30;  2 
Sam.  i.  23),  courage  (2  Sam.  xvii.  10; 
Prov.  xxviii.  1;  Is.  xxxi.  9;  Nah.  ii.  11), 
and  ferocity  (Gen.  xlix.  9;  Num.  xxiv.  4) 
of  the  lion  were  proverbial.  The  "lion- 
faced  "  warriors  of  Gad  were  among  David's 
most  valiant  troops  (1  Chr.  xii.  8);  and  the 
hero  Judas  Maccabaeusis  described  as  "like 
a  lion,  and  like  a  lion's  whelp  roaring  for 
his  prey"  (1  Mace.  iii.  4).  Among  the 
Hebrews,  and  throughout  the  O.  T.,  the 
lion  was  the  achievement  of  the  princely 
tribe  of  Judah,  while  in  the  closing  book  of 
the  canon  it  received  a  deeper  significance 
as  the  emblem  of  Him  who  "prevailed  to 
open  the  book  and  loose  the  seven  seals 
thereof"  (Rev.  v.  5).  On  the  other  hand 
its  fierceness  and  cruelty  rendered  it  an 
appropriate  metaphor  for  a  fierce  and  ma- 
lignant enemy  (Ps.  vii.  2,  xxii.  21,  Ivii.  4 ; 
2  Tim.  iv.  17),  and  hence  for  the  arch-fiend 
himself  (1  Pet.  v.  8).  The  figure  of  the 
lion  was  employed  as  an  ornament  both  in 
arcliitecture  and  sculpture. 

Liz'ard  (Heb.  letAAh,  Lev.  xi.  30). 
Lizards  of  various  kinds  abound  in  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  Arabia.  The  lizard  denoted 
by  the  Hebrew  word  is  probably  the  Fan- 
Foot  Lizard  {Ptyodactylus  Gecko),  which 
is  common  in  Egypt  and  in  parts  of  Arabia, 
and  perhaps  is  also  found  in  Palestine.  It 
is  reddish  brown,  spotted  with  white.     The 


The  Fan-Foot  Uzard  {Ptf/odaetyha  (Teeito). 

Geckos  live  on  insects  and  worms,  which 
they  swallow  whole.  They  derive  their 
name  from  the  peculiar  sound  which  some 
of  the  species  utter. 

Lo-arn'mi,  t.  e.  "not  my  people,"  the 
figurative  name  given  by  the  prophet  Hosea 
to  his  second  son  by  Gomer,  the  daughter 
of  Diblaim  (Hos.  i.  9),  to  denote  the  rejec- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  Jehovah, 
Its  significance  is  explained  in  ver.  9,  10. 

Loan.  The  Law  strictly  forbade  any 
interest  to  be  taken  for  a  loan  to  any  poor 
person,  and  at  first,  as  it  seems,  even  in  the 
case  of  a  foreigner ;  but  this  prohibition  was 
afterwards  limited  to  the  Hebrews  only, 
from  whom,  ei  whatever  rank,  not  onlv 


LOAVES 


355 


LO-DEBAR 


was  no  ustiry  on  any  pretence  to  be  ex- 
acted, but  relief  to  the  poor  by  way  of 
loan  was  enjoined,  and'excuses  for  evading 
this  duty  were  forbidden  (Ex.  xxii.  25 ; 
Lev.  XXV.  35,  37 ;  Deut.  xv.  3,  7-10,  xxiii. 
19,  20).  As  commerce  increased,  the  prac- 
tice of  usury,  and  so  also  of  suretyship, 
grew  up ;  but  the  exaction  of  it  from  a  He- 
brew appears  to  have  been  regarded  to  a 
late  period  as  discreditable  (Prov.  vi.  1,  i, 
xi.  15,  xvii.  18 ;  xx.  16,  xxii.  26 ;  Ps.  xv.  5, 
xxvii.  13;  Jer.  xv.  10;  Ez.  xviii.  13,  xxii. 
12).  Systematic  breach  of  the  law  in  this 
respect  was  corrected  by  Nehemiah  after 
the  return  from  captivity  (Neh.  v.  1.,  13). 
The  money-changers,  who  had  seats  and 
tables  in  the  Temple,  were  traders  whose 
profits  arose  chiefly  from  the  exchange  of 
money  with  those  who  came  to  pay  their 
annual  half-shekel.  The  Jewish  law  did 
not  forbid  temporary  bondage  in  the  case 
of  debtors,  but  it  forbade  a  Hebrew  debtor 
to  be  detained  as  a  bondsman  longer  than 
the  7th  year,  or  at  farthest  the  year  of  Ju- 
bilee (Ex.  xxi.  2 ;  Lev.  xxv.  39,  42 ;  Deut. 
XV.  9). 

Loaves.     [Bread.] 

Lock.  Where  European  locks  have 
not  been  introduced,  the  locks  of  Eastern 
houses  are  usually  of  wood,  and  consist  of 
a  partly  hollow  bolt  from  14  inches  to  2  feet 
long  for  external  doors  or  gates,  or  from  7 
to  9  inches  for  interior  doors.  The  bolt 
passes  through  a  groove  in  a  piece  attached 
to  the  door  into  a  socket  in  the  door-post. 

IiOCUSt,  a  well-known  insect,  which 
commits  terrible  ravages  on  vegetation  in 
the  countries  which  it  visits.  In  the  Bible 
there  are  frequent  allusions  to  locusts ;  and 
there  are  nine  or  ten  Hebrew  words  which 
are  supposed  to  denote  different  varieties 
or  species  of  this  family.  The  most  de- 
structive of  the  locust  tribe  that  occur  in  the 
Bible  lands  are  the  Oedipoda  migratoria 
and  the  Acridium  peregrinum,  and  as  both 
these  species  occur  in  Syria  and  Arabia, 
&c.,  it  is  most  probable  that  one  or  other  is 
denoted  in  those  passages  which  speak  of 
the  dreadful  devastations  committed  by 
these  insects.    Locusts  occur  in  great  num- 


Locnit  {Oedipoda  misp-atoria). 


bers,  and  sometimes  obscure  the  sun  (Ex. 
X.  15 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  23 ;  Judg.  vi.  5,  vii.  12 ; 
Joel  ii.  10;  Nah.  iii.  15).  Their  voracity 
is  alluded  to  in  Ex.  x.  12,  15;  Joel  i.  4,  7, 
12,  and  ii.  3 ;  Deut.  xxviii.  38 ;  Ps.  Ixxviii. 
46,  cv.  34;  Is.  xxxiii.  4.  They  are  com- 
pared to  horses  —  Joel  ii.  4;  Rev.  ix.  7. 


They  make  a  fearful  noise  in  their  flight 
(Joel  ii.  5;  Rev.  ix.  9).  They  have 
no  king  (Prov.  xxx.  27).  Their  irre- 
sistible progress  is  referred  to  in  Joel  ii. 
8,  9.  They  enter  dwellings,  and  devour 
even  the  woodwork  of  houses  (Ex.  x.  6; 
Joel  ii.  9,  10).  They  do  not  fly  in  the  night 
(Nah.  iii.  17).  The  sea  destroys  the  great- 
er number  (Ex.  x.  19;  Joel  ii.  20).  Their 
dead  bodies  taint  the  air  (Joel  ii.  20).  The 
flight  of  locusts  is  thus  described  by  M. 
Olivier  (  Voyage  dans  V Empire  Othoman, 
ii.  424)  :  "  With  the  burning  south  winds 
(of  Syria)  there  come  from  the  interior  of 
Arabia  and  from  the  most  southern  parts 
of  Persia  clouds  of  locusts  (^Acridium  pere- 
grinurn),  whose  ravages  to  these  countries 
are  as  grievous  and  nearly  as  sudden  as 
those  of  the  heaviest  hail  in  Europe.  We 
witnessed  them  twice.  It  is  difficult  to  ex- 
press the  effect  produced  on  us  by  the  sight 
of  the  whole  atmosphere  filled  on  all  sides 
and  to  a  great  height  by  an  innumerable 
quantity  of  these  insects,  whose  flight  was 
slow  and  uniform,  and  whose  noise  resem- 
bled that  of  rain :  the  sky  was  darkened, 
and  the  light  of  the  sun  considerably  weak- 
ened. In  a  moment  the  terraces  of  the 
houses,  the  streets,  and  all  the  fields  were 
covered  by  these  insects,  and  in  two  days 
they  had  nearly  devoured  all  the  leaves  of 
the  plants.  Happily  they  lived  but  a  short 
time,  and  seemed  to  have  migrated  only  to 
reproduce  themselves  and  die ;  in  fact,  near- 
ly all  those  we  saw  the  next  day  had  paired, 
and  the  day  following  the  fields  were  cov- 
ered with  their  dead  bodies."  The  A.  V. 
is  clearly  in  error  in  translating  this  word 
"  beetle ;  "  it  occurs  only  in  Lev.  xi.  22,  but 
it  is  clear  from  the  context  that  it  denotes 
some  species  of  winged  insect  which  the 
Israelites  were  allowed  to  use  as  food.  Lo- 
custs were  used  as  food  (Lev.  xi.  21,  22; 
Matt.  iii.  4;  Mark  i.  6).  There  are  differ- 
ent ways  of  preparing  locusts  for  food : 
sometimes  they  are  ground  and  pounded, 
and  then  mixed  with  flour  and  water  and 


Ixjcurt  {Jicfiditun  Pci  tfft  6iwn). 


made  into  cakes,  or  they  are  salted  and  then 
eaten ;  sometimes  smoked ;  boiled  or  roast- 
ed ;  stewed,  or  fried  in  butter.  From  ig- 
norance of  ftiis  fact,  some  persons  have 
erroneously  asserted  that  the  locusts  which 
formed  part  of  the  food  of  the  Baptist  were 
not  the  insect  of  that  name,  but  the  long 
sweet  pods  of  the  locust-tree,  "  St.  John's 
bread,"  as  the  monks  of  Palestine  call  iU 

Lod.     [Lydda.] 

Lo'-debar,  a  place  named  with  Maha* 


LODGE 


856 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


naim,  Rogelim,  and  other  trans-Jordanic 
towns  (2  Sam.  xrii.  27),  and  therefore  no 
doubt  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan.  It 
was  the  native  place  of  Machir-ben-Ammiel 
(ix.  4,  5). 

IiOdge,  To.  This  word  in  the  A.  V. 
—  with  one  exceptior.  only  —  is  used  to 
translate  the  Hebrew  verb  lun  or  Hn,  which 
has,  at  least  in  the  narrative  portions  of 
the  Bible,  almost  invariably  the  force  of 
*'  passing  the  night." 

Log.     [Weights  and  Measukes.] 

Lo'iS,  the  grandmother  of  Timothy, 
and  doubtless  the  mother  of  his  mother 
Eunice  (2  Tim.  i.  5).  It  seems  likely  that 
Lois  had  resided  long  at  Lystra ;  and  al- 
most certain  that  from  her,  as  well  as  from 
Eunice,  Timothy  obtained  his  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  (2  Tim. 
iii.  15). 

Looking-glasses.    [Mirbors.] 

Lord.     [God.] 

Lord's  Day,  The  (v  KvQiaxii  'HfitQa, 
Rev.  i.  10  only),  the  weekly  festival  of  our 
Lord's  resurrection,  and  identified  with 
"  the  first  day  of  the  week,"  or  "  Sunday," 
of  every  age  of  the  Church.  Scripture 
6ays  very  little  concerning  this  day.  But 
that  little  seems  to  indicate  that  the  divine- 
ly inspired  apostles,  by  their  practice  and 
by  their  precepts,  marked  the  first  day  of 
the  week  as  a  day  for  meeting  together  to 
break  bread,  for  communicating  and  receiv- 
ing instruction,  for  laying  up  offerings  in 
store  for  charitable  purposes,  for  occupa- 
tion in  holy  thought  and  prayer.  The 
first  day  of  the  week  so  devoted  seems  also 
to  have  been  the  day  of  the  Lord's  Resur- 
rection. The  Lord  rose  on  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  and  appeared,  on  the  very  day  of 
His  rising,  to  His  followers  on  five  distinct 
occasions  —  to  Mary  Magdalene,  to  the 
other  women,  to  the  two  disciples  on  the 
road  to  Emmaus,  to  St.  Peter  separately, 
to  ten  Apostles  collected  together.  After 
eight  days,  that  is,  according  to  the  ordi- 
nary reckoning,  on  the  first  day  of  the  next 
week,  He  appeared  to  the  eleven.  On  the 
day  of  Pentecost,  which  in  that  year  fell 
on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  "they  were 
all  with  one  accord  in  one  place,"  had  spir- 
itual gifts  conferred  on  them,  and  in  their 
turn  began  to  communicate  those  gifts,  as 
accompaniments  of  instruction,  to  others. 
At  Troas  (Acts  xx.  7),  many  years  after 
the  occurrence  at  Pentecost,  when  Chris- 
tianity had  begun  to  assume  something  like 
a  settled  form,  St.  Luke  reccyds  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances.  St.  Paul  and  his 
companions  arrived  there,  and  "  abode 
seven  days,  and  upon  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  when  the  disciples  came  together  to 
break  bread,  Paul  preached  unto  them." 
In  1  Cor.  xvi.  1,  2,  that  same  St.  Paul 
writes  thus  :  "  Now  concerning  the  collec- 
tion for  the  saints,  as  I  have  given  order  to 


the  churches  in  Galatia,  even  so  do  ye. 
Upon  the  first  day  of  the  week,  let  every 
one  of  you  lay  by  liim  in  store,  as  God 
hath  prospered  him,  that  there  be  no  gath- 
erings when  I  come."  In  Heb.  x.  25,  the 
correspondents  of  the  writer  are  desired 
"  not  to  forsake  the  assembling  of  them- 
selves together,  as  the  manner  of  some  is, 
but  to  exhort  one  another,"  an  injunction 
which  seems  to  imply  that  a  regular  day 
for  such  assembling  existed  and  was  well 
known;  for  otherwise  no  rebuke  would  lie. 
And  lastly,  in  the  passage  given  above,  St. 
John  describes  himself  as  being  in  the 
Spirit  "  on  the  Lord's  Day."  Taken  sepa- 
rately, perhaps,  and  even  all  together,  these 
passages  seem  scarcely  adequate  to  prove 
that  the  dedication  of  the  first  day  of  the 
week  to  the  purposes  above  mentioned  was 
e  matter  of  apostolic  institution,  or  even 
of  apostolic  practice.  But  it  may  be  ol)- 
served,  that  it  is  at  any  rate  an  extraordi- 
nary coincidence,  that  almost  immediately 
we  emerge  from  Scripture,  we  find  the  same 
day  mentioned  in  a  similar  manner,  and 
directly  associated  with  the  Lord's  Resur- 
rection; that  it  is  an  extraordinary  fact 
that  we  never  find  its  dedication  questioned 
or  argued  about,  but  accepted  as  something 
equally  apostolic  with  Confirmation,  with 
Infant  Baptism,  with  Ordination,  or  at  least 
spoken  of  in  the  same  way.  The  results  of 
our  examination  of  the  principal  writers 
of  the  two  centuries  after  the  death  of  St. 
John  are  as  follows.  The  Lord's  Day  (a 
name  wliich  has  now  come  out  more  prom- 
inently, and  is  connected  more  explicitly 
with  our  Lord's  resurrection  than  before) 
existed  during  these  two  centuries  as  a  part 
and  parcel  of  apostolical,  and  so  of  Scriptur- 
al Christianity.  It  was  never  defended,  for 
it  was  never  impugned,  or  at  least  only  im- 
pugned as  other  things  received  from  the 
apostles  were.  It  was  never  confounded 
with  the  Sabbath,  but  carefully  distinguished 
from  it.  Religiously  regarded,  it  was  a 
day  of  solemn  meeting  for  the  Holy  Eucha- 
rist, for  united  prayer,  for  instruction,  for 
alms-giving.     [Sabbath.] 

Lord's  Supper  {Kvt,,axoy  Stinrov). 
The  words  which  thus  describe  the  great 
central  act  of  the  worship  of  the  Christian 
Church  occur  but  in  one  single  passage  of 
the  N.  T.  (1  Cor.  xi.  20).  I.  It  was  institut- 
ed on  that  night  when  Jesus  and  his  disci- 
ples met  together  to  eat  the  Passover  (Matt. 
xxvi.  19;  Mark  xiv.  16;  Luke  xxii.  13). 
The  Paschal  feast  was  kept  by  the  Jews  of 
that  period  in  the  following  order.  (1) 
The  members  of  the  company  that  were 
joined  for  this  purpose  met  in  the  evening 
and  reclined  on  couches  (comp.  Matt.  xxvi. 
20;  Luke  xxii.  14;  and  John  xiii.  23,  25). 
The  head  of  the  household,  or  celebrant, 
began  by  a  form  of  blessing  "for  the  day 
and  for  the  wine,"  pronounced  over  a  cup,  of 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


357 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


which  he  and  the  others  then  drank.  (2)  All 
who  were  present  then  washed  their  hands ; 
this  also  having  a  special  benediction.  (3) 
The  table  was  then  set  out  with  the  paschal 
lamb,  unleavened  bread,  bitter  herbs,  and 
the  dish  known  as  Charoseth,  a  sauce  made 
of  dates,  figs,  raisins,  and  vinegar,  and  de- 
signed to  commemorate  the  mortar  of 
their  bondage  in  Egypt.  (4)  The  cele- 
brant first,  and  then  the  others,  dipped  a 
portion  of  the  bitter  herbs  into  the  Charo- 
seth and  ate  them.  (5)  The  dishes  were 
then  removed,  and  a  cup  of  wine  again 
brought.  Then  followed  an  interval  which 
was  allowed  theoretically  for  the  questions 
that  might  be  asked  by  children  or  prose- 
lytes, who  were  astonished  at  such  a 
strange  beginning  of  a  feast,  and  the  cup 
was  passed  round  and  drunk  at  the  close 
of  it.  (6)  The  dishes  being  brought  on 
again,  the  celebrant  repeated  the  com- 
memorative words  which  opened  what  was 
strictly  the  paschal  supper,  and  pronounced 
a  solemn  thanksgiving,  followed  by  Ps. 
cxiii.  and  cxiv,  (7)  Then  came  a  second 
washing  of  the  hands,  with  a  short  form  of 
blessing  as  before,  and  the  celebrant  broke 
one  of  the  two  loaves  or  cakes  of  un- 
leavened bread,  and  gave  thanks  over  it. 
All  then  took  portions  of  the  bread,  and 
dipped  them,  together  with  the  bitter  herbs. 
Into  the  Charoseth,  and  so  ate  them.  (8) 
After  this  they  ate  the  flesh  of  the  paschal 
lamb,  with  bread,  &c.,  as  they  liked;  and 
after  another  blessing,  a  third  cup,  known 
especially  as  the  "cup  of  blessing,"  was 
handed  round.  (9)  This  was  succeeded 
by  a  fourth  cup,  and  the  recital  of  Ps. 
cxv.-cxviii.  followed  by  a  prayer,  and  this 
was  accordingly  known  as  the  cup  of  the 
Hallel,  or  of  the  Song.  (10)  There  might 
be,  in  conclusion,  a  fifth  cup,  provided  that 
the  "gr^t  Hallel"  (possibly  Psalms  cxx.- 
cxxxviii.)  was  sung  over  it.  —  Comparing 
the  ritual  thus  gathered  from  Rabbinic 
writers  with  the  N.  T.,  and  assuming 
that  it  represents  substantially  the  com- 
mon practice  of  our  Lord's  time,  and  that 
the  meal  of  which  He  and  His  disciples 
partook,  was  either  the  passover  itself,  or 
an  anticipation  of  it,  conducted  according 
to  the  same  rules,  we  are  able  to  point, 
though  not  with  absolute  certainty,  to  the 
points  of  departure  which  the  old  practice 
presented  for  the  institution  of  the  new. 
To  (1)  or  (3),  or  even  to  (8),  we  may  re- 
fer the  first  words  and  the  first  distribution 
of  the  cup  (Luke  xxii.  17,  18)  ;  to  (2)  or 
(7),  the  dipping  of  the  sop  of  John  xiii.  26; 
to  (7),  or  to  an  interval  during  or  after  (8), 
the  distribution  of  the  bread  (Matt.  xxvi. 
26;  Mark  xiv.  22;  Luke  xxii.  19;  1  Cor. 
xi.  23,  24);  to  (9)  or  (10)  ("after  sup- 
per," Luke  xxii.  20)  the  thanksgiving,  and 
distribution  of  the  cup,  and  the  hymn  with 
which  the  whole  was  ended.  —  The  narra< 


tives  of  the  Gospels  show  how  strongly  the 
disciples  were  impressed  with  the  words 
which  had  given  a  new  meaning  to  the  old 
familiar  acts.  They  leave  unnoticed  all 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Passover,  except 
those  which  had  thus  been  transferred  to 
the  Christian  Church  and  perpetuated  in 
it.  Old  things  were  passing  away,  and  all 
things  becoming  new.  They  had  looked 
on  the  bread  and  the  wine  as  memorials  of 
the  deliverance  from  Egypt.  They  were 
now  told  to  partake  of  them  "  in  remem- 
brance "  of  their  Master  and  Lord.  The 
festival  had  been  annual.  No  rule  was 
given  as  to  the  time  and  frequency  of  the 
new  feast  that  thtis  supervened  on  the  old, 
but  the  command,  "  Do  this  as  oft  as  ye 
drink  it"  (1  Cor.  xi.  25),  suggested  the 
more  continual  recurrence  of  that  wliicli 
was  to  be  their  memorial  of  one  whom  they 
would  wish  never  to  forget.  The  words, 
"  This  is  my  body,"  gave  to  the  unleavened 
bread  a  new  character.  They  had  been 
prepared  for  language  that  would  other- 
wise have  been  so  startling,  by  the  teach- 
ing of  John  (vi.  32-58),  and  they  were  thus 
taught  to  see  in  the  bread  that  was  broken 
the  witness  of  the  closest  possible  union 
and  incorporation  with  their  Lord.  The 
cup  which  was  "  the  new  testament  in  Hia 
blood,"  would  remind  them,  in  like  man- 
ner, of  the  wonderful  pAphecy  in  which 
that  new  covenant  had  been  foretold  (Jer. 
xxxi.  31-34).  II.  In  the  account  given  by 
the  writer  of  the  Acts  of  the  life  of  the  first 
disciples  at  Jerusalem,  a  prominent  place 
is  given  to  this  act,  and  to  the  phrase  which 
indicated  it.  He  describes  the  baptized 
members  of  the  Church  as  continuing 
steadfast  in  or  to  the  teaching  of  the  apos- 
tles, in  fellowship  with  them  and  with  each 
other,  and  in  breaking  of  bread  and  in 
prayers  (Acts  ii.  42).  We  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  this  implies  that  the  chief  actual 
meal  of  each  day  was  one  in  which  they 
met  as  brothers,  and  which  was  either 
preceded  or  followed  by  the  more  sol- 
emn commemorative  acts  of  the  breaking 
of  the  bread  and  the  drinking  of  the 
cup.  It  will  be  convenient  to  anticipate 
the  language  and  the  thoughts  of  a  some- 
what later  date,  and  to  say  that,  appar- 
ently, they  thus  united  every  day  the 
Agape  or  feast  of  Love  with  the  celebration 
of  the  Eucharist.  It  would  be  natural  that 
in  a  society  consisting  of  many  thousand 
members  there  should  be  many  places  of 
meeting.  The  congregation  assembling  in 
each  place  would  come  to  be  known  as  "  the 
Church  "  in  this  or  that  man's  house  (Rom. 
xvi.  5,  23 ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  19 ;  Col.  iv.  15 ; 
Philem.  ver.  2).  When  they  met,  the  place 
of  honor  would  naturally  be  taken  by  one 
of  the  apostles,  or  some  elder  representing 
him.  It  would  belong  to  him  to  pronounce 
the  blessing  and  thanksgiving,  with  which 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


358 


LOT 


tlie  meals  of  devout  Jews  always  began  and 
ended.  The  bread  (unless  the  converted 
Jews  were  to  think  of  themselves  as  keeping 
a  perpetual  passover)  wDuld  be  such  as  they 
habitually  used.  The  wine  (probably  the 
common  red  wine  of  Palestine,  Prov.  xxiii. 
31)  would,  according  to  their  usual  practice, 
be  mixed  with  water.  At  some  time,  before 
or  after  the  meal  of  which  they  partook  as 
such,  the  bread  and  the  wine  would  be  given 
with  some  special  form  of  words  or  acts,  to 
indicate  its  character.  New  converts  would 
need  some  explanation  of  the  meaning  and 
origin  of  the  observance.  "What  would  be 
80  fitting  and  so  much  in  harmony  with  the 
precedents  of  the  Paschal  feast  as  the  nar- 
rative of  what  had  passed  on  the  night  of  its 
institution  (1  Cor.  xi.  23-27)  ?  With  this 
there  would  naturally  be  associated  (as  in 
Acts  ii.  42)  prayers  for  themselves  and  oth- 
ers. Their  gladness  would  show  itself  in  the 
psalms  and  hymns  with  which  they  praised 
God  (Heb.  ii.  46,  47;  James  v.  13).  The 
analogy  of  the  Passover,  the  general  feeling 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  practice  of  tlie  Essenes 
may  possibly  have  suggested  ablutions,  par- 
tial or  entire,  as  a  preparation  for  the  feast 
(Heb.  s.  22;  John  xiii.  1-15).  At  some 
point  in  the  feast  those  who  were  present, 
men  and  women  sitting  ai^art,  would  rise  to 
«alute  each  othgr  with  the  "holy  kiss"  (1 
Cor.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor. -xiii.  12).  The  next 
traces  that  meet  us  are  in  1  Cor.,  and  the 
fact  that  we  find  them  is  in  itself  significant. 
The  commemorative  feast  has  not  been 
confined  to  the  personal  disciples  of  Christ, 
or  the  Jewish  converts  whom  they  gathered 
round  them  at  Jerusalem.  The  title  of  the 
"cup  of  blessing"  (1  Cor.  x.  16)  has  been 
imported  into  the  Greek  Church.  The 
synonyme  of  "  the  cup  of  the  Lord"  (1  Cor. 
X.  21)  distinguishes  it  from  the  other  cups 
that  belonged  to  the  Agap^,  or  Love-feast. 
The  word  "fellowship"  is  passing  by  de- 
grees into  the  special  signification  of  "  Com- 
munion." The  apostle  refers  to  his  own 
office  as  breaking  the  bread  and  blessing 
the  cup  (1  Cor.  x.  16).  The  table  on  which 
the  bread  was  placed  was  the  Lord's  Table. 
But  the  practice  of  the  Agap6,  as  well  as 
the  observance  of  the  commemorative  feast, 
had  been  transferred  to  Corinth,  and  this 
called  for  a  special  notice.  E  vils  had  sprung 
up  which  had  to  be  checked  at  once.  The 
meeting  of  friends  for  a  social  meal,  to 
■which  all  contributed,  was  a  sufficiently  fa- 
miliar practice  in  the  common  life  of  Greeks 
of  this  period ;  and  the  club- feasts  were  as- 
sociated with  plans  of  mutual  relief  or  char- 
ity to  the  poor.  The  Agape  of  the  new 
society  would  seem  to  them  to  be  such  a 
feast,  and  hence  came  a  disorder  that  alto- 
gether frustrated  the  object  of  the  Church 
in  instituting  it.  What  was  to  be  the  rem- 
edy for  this  terrible  and  growing  evil  St. 
Paul  does  not  state  explicitly.    He  reserves 


formal  regulations  for  a  later  personal  vis- 
it. In  the  mean  time  he  gives  a  rule  which 
would  make  the  union  of  the  Agap6  and 
the  Lord's  Supper  possible  without  the  risk 
of  profanation.  They  were  not  to  come 
even  to  the  former  with  the  keen  edge  of 
appetite.  They  were  to  wait  till  all  were 
met,  instead  of  scrambling  tumultuously  to 
help  themselves  (1  Cor.  xi.  33,  34).  In  one 
point,  however,  the  custom  of  the  Church 
of  Corinth  differed  apparently  from  that  of 
Jerusalem.  The  meeting  for  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  no  longer  daily  (1  Cor.  xi.  20, 
33).  The  directions  given  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  2 
suggest  the  constitution  of  a  celebration  on 
the  first  day  of  the  week.  The  meeting  at 
Troas  is  on  the  same  day  (Acts  xx.  7).  A 
change  gradually  takes  place.  The  Lord's 
Supper  is  separated  from  the  Agap^,  and  the 
latter  finally  dies  out.  The  morning  celebra- 
tion of  the  Supper  takes  the  place  of  the  even- 
ing. In  Acts  XX.  11  we  have  an  example  of 
the  way  in  which  the  transition  may  have 
been  effected.  The  disciples  at  Troas  meet 
together  to  break  bread.  The  hour  is  not 
definitely  stated,  but  the  fact  that  St.  Paul's 
discourse  was  protracted  till  past  midnight, 
and  the  mention  of  the  many  lamps,  indicate 
a  later  time  than  that  commonly  fixed  for 
the  Greek  (JtrTnoj-.  Then  came  the  teach- 
ing and  the  prayers,  and  then,  towards  early 
dawn,  the  breaking  of  bread,  which  consti- 
tuted the  Lord's  Supper,  and  for  which  they 
were  gathered  together.  If  this  midnight 
meeting  may  be  taken  as  indicating  a  com- 
mon practice,  originating  in  reverence  for 
an  ordinance  which  Christ  had  enjoined,  we 
can  easily  understand  how  the  next  step 
would  be  to  transfer  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist  permanently  to  the  morning  hour, 
to  which  it  had  gradually  been  approxi- 
mating. 

Ijo-rulia'mall,  t.  e.  "the  ulicompas- 
sionated,"  the  name  of  the  daughter  of  Ho- 
sea  the  prophet,  given  to  denote  the  utterly 
ruined  condition  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
(Hos.  i.  6). 

Lot,  the  son  of  Haran,  and  therefore 
the  nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  27,  31). 
His  sisters  were  Milcah  the  wife  of  Nahor, 
and  IscAH,  by  some  identified  with  Sarah. 
Haran  died  before  the  emigration  of  Te- 
rah  and  his  family  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
(ver.  28),  and  Lot  was  therefore  born  there. 
He  removed  with  the  rest  of  his  kindred 
to  Charran,  and  again  subsequently  with 
Abraham  and  Sarai  to  Canaan  (xii.  4,  5). 
With  them  he  took  refuge  in  Egypt  from  a 
famine,  and  with  them  returned,  first  to  the 
"  South"  (xiii.  1),  and  then  to  their  origi- 
nal settlement  between  Bethel  and  Ai  (ver. 
3,  4).  But  the  pastures  of  the  hills  of 
Bethel,  which  had  with  ease  contained  the 
two  strangers  on  their  first  arrival,  were  not 
able  any  longer  to  bear  them,  so  much  had 
their  possessions  of  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle 


LOT 


359 


LUCIUS 


increased.  Accordingly  they  separated, 
Lot  choosing  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  advancing  as  far  as  Sodom  (Gen. 
xiii.  10  -14).  The  next  occurrence  in  the 
life  of  I/Ot  is  his  capture  by  the  four  kings 
of  the  East,  and  his  rescue  by  Abram  (Gen. 
xiv.).  For  details  see  Abraham.  The 
last  scene  preserved  to  us  in  the  history  of 
Lot  is  too  well  known  to  need  repetition. 
He  is  still  living  in  Sodom  (Gen.  xix.).  But 
in  the  midst  of  the  licentious  corruption  of 
that  city,  he  preserves  some  of  the  delight- 
ful characteristics  of  his  wandering  life,  his 
fervent  and  chivalrous  hospitality  (xix.  2, 
8),  the  unleavened  bread  of  the  tent  of  the 
wilderness,  the  water  for  the  feet  of  the 
wayfarers,  affording  his  guests  a  reception 
identical  with  that  which  they  had  experi- 
enced that  very  morning  in  Abraliam's  tent 
on  the  heights  of  Hebron  (comp.  xviii.  3, 
C).  His  deliverance  from  the  guilty  and 
condemned  city  points  the  allusion  of  St. 
Peter  (2  Pet.  ii.  6-9).  Where  Zoar  was 
situated,  in  which  he  found  a  temporary 
refuge  during  the  destruction  of  the  other 
cities  of  the  plain,  we  do  not  know  with 
absolute  certainty.  The  end  of  Lot's  wife 
is  commonly  treated  as  one  of  the  difficul- 
ties of  the  Bible.  But  it  surely  need  not 
be  so.  It  cannot  be  necessary,  as  some 
have  done,  to  create  the  details  of  the  story 
where  none  are  given.  On  these  points  the 
record  is  silent.  The  value  and  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  story  to  us  are  contained 
in  the  allusion  of  Christ  (Luke  xvii.  32). 
Later  ages  have  not  been  satisfied  so  to  leave 
the  matter,  but  have  insisted  on  identifying 
the  *'  pillar"  with  some  one  of  the  fleeting 
forms  which  the  perishable  rock  of  the 
south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  constantly 
assuming  in  its  process  of  decomposition 
and  liquefaction.  From  the  incestuous  in- 
tercourse between  Lot  and  his  two  daugh- 
ters sprang  the  nations  of  Moab  and  Am- 
mon. 

IiOt.  The  custom  of  deciding  doubtful 
questions  by  lot  is  one  of  great  extent  and 
high  antiquity.  The  religious  estimate  of 
them  may  be  gathered  from  Prov.  xvi.  33. 
The  following  historical  or  ritual  instances 
are  —  1.  Choice  of  men  for  an  invading 
force  (Judg.  i.  1,  xx.  10).  2.  Partition  (a) 
of  the  soil  of  Palestine  among  the  tribes 
(Num.  xxvi.  55;  Josh,  xviii.  10;  Acts  xiii. 
19).  (6)  of  Jerusalem;  i,  e.  probably  its 
spoil  or  captives  among  captors  (Obad.  11)  ; 
of  the  land  itself  in  a  similar  way  (1  Mace, 
iii.  36).  (c)  Apportionment  of  possessions, 
or  spoil,  or  of  prisoners,  to  foreigners  or 
captors  (Joel  iii.  3 ;  Nah.  iii.  10 ;  Matt, 
xxvii.  35).  3.  (a)  Settlement  of  doubtful 
questions  (Prov.  xvi.  33,  xviii.  18).  (6)  A 
mode  of  divination  among  heathens  by 
means  of  arrows,  two  inscribed,  and  one 
without  mark  (Hos.  iv.  12;  Ez.  xxi.  21). 
(c)  Detection  of  a  criminal  (^Josh.  vii.  14, 


18).  (d)  Appointment  of  persons  to  offices 
or  duties,  as  above  in  Achan's  case,  (e) 
Selection  of  the  scape-goat  on  tiie  Day  of 
Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.  8,  10).  4.  The  use 
of  words  heard  or  passages  chosen  at  ran^ 
dom  from  Scripture.  ' 

Lo'tan,  the  eldest  son  of  Seir  the  Ho- 
rite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  22,  29 ;  1  Chr.  i.  33, 
39). 

Lots,  Feast  of.    [Pdkim.] 

Love-feasts  (Jude  12,  and  2  Pet.  ii. 
13.)     [Lord's   Supper.] 

Lu'biin,  a  nation  mentioned  as  contrib- 
uting, together  with  Cushites  and  Sukkiim, 
to  Sliishak's  army  (2  Chr.  xii.  3)  ;  and  ap- 
parently as  forming  with  Cushites  the  bulk 
of  Zerah's  army  (xvi.  8),  spoken  of  by  Na- 
hura  (iii.  9)  with  Put  or  Phut,  as  helping 
No-Amon  (Thebes),  of  which  Cush  and 
Egypt  were  the  strength;  and  by  Daniel 
(xi.  43)  as  paying  court  with  the  Cushites 
to  a  conqueror  of  Egypt  or  the  Egyptians. 
Upon  the  Egyptian  monuments  we  find 
representations  of  a  people  called  Rbbo,  or 
Lebu,  who  correspond  to  the  Lubira,  and 
who  may  be  placed  on  the  African  coast  to 
the  westward  of  Egypt,  perhaps  extending* 
far  beyond  the  Cyrenaica." 

Lu'cas  (Philem.  24).     [Lukb.] 

Lu'eifer,  found  in  Is.  xiv.  12,  coupled 
with  the  epithet  "  son  of  the  morning," 
clearly  signifies  a  "bright  star,"  and  prob- 
ably what  we  call  the  morning  star.  In 
this  passage  it  is  a  symbolical  representa- 
tion of  the  king  of  Babylon,  in  his  splen- 
dor and  in  his  fall.  Its  application,  from 
St.  Jerome  downwards,  to  Satan  in  his  fall 
from  heaven,  arises  probably  from  the  fact 
that  the  Babylonian  Empire  is  in  Scripture 
represented  as  the  type  of  tyrannical  and 
self-idolizing  power,  and  especially  con- 
nected with  the  eninire  of  the  Evil  One  in 
the  Apocalypse.     ^ 

Lu'cius.  1.  A  Roman  consul  who  is 
said  to  have  written  the  letter  to  Ptolemy 
(Euergetes),  which  assured  Simon  I.  of  the 
protection  of  Rome  (cir.  b.  c.  139-8;  I 
Mace.  XV.  10,  15-24).  The  whole  form  of 
the  letter  shows  that  it  cannot  be  an  accu- 
rate copy  of  the  original  document.  The 
imperfect  transcription  of  the  name  has  led 
to  the  identification  of  Lxicius  with  throe 
distinct  persons  —  (1.)  [Lucius]  Furiua 
Philus,  who  was  not  consul  till  b.  c.  136, 
and  is  therefore  at  once  excluded.  (2.) 
Lucius  Caecilius  Metellus  Calvus,  who  was 
consul  in  b.  c.  142.  (3.)  Lucius  may  per- 
haps be  identified  with  Lucius  Calpurnius 
Piso,  who  was  consul  b.  c.  139.  —  2.  A  kins- 
man or  fellow-tribesman  of  St.  Paul  (Rom 
xvi.  21),  by  whom  he  is  said  by  tradition  to 
have  been  ordained  bishop  of  tlie  clmrch  of 
Cenchreae.  He  is  thought  by  some  to  be 
the  same  with  Lucius  of  Cyrene.  —  3.  Ltr- 
cics  OF  Cyrene  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
N.  T.  in  company  with  Barnabas,  Simeon, 


LUD 


360 


LUKE,  GOSPEL  OF 


called  Niger,  Manaen,  and  Saul,  who  are 
described  as  prophets  and  teachers  of  the 
church  at  Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  1).  Whether 
Lucius  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  is 
quite  a  matter  of  conjecture  ;  but  it  is  high- 
ly probable  that  he  formed  one  of  the  con- 
gregation to  whom  St.  Peter  preached  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10);  and 
there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that  he  was 
one  of  "  the  men  of  Cyrene  "  who,  being 
"  scattered  abroad  upon  the  persecution 
that  arose  about  Steplien,"  went  to  Antioch 
preaching  the  Lord  Jesus  (Acts  xi.  19,  20). 
It  is  commonly  supposed  that  Lucius  is 
the  kinsman  of  St.  Paul,  mentioned  by  that 
Apostle  as  joining  with  him  in  his  salutation 
to  the  Eoman  brethren  (Rom.  xvi.  21). 

IiUd,  the  fourth  name  in  the  list  of  the 
children  of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22;  corap.  1 
Chr.  i.  17),  supposed  to  have  been  the  an- 
cestor of  the  Lydians. 

Lu'dim  (Gen.  x.  13;  1  Chr.  i.ll),  a 
Mizraite  people  or  tribe.  From  their  posi- 
tion at  the  head  of  tlie  list  of  the  Mizraites, 
it  is  probable  that  the  Ludim  were  settled 
to  the  west  of  Egypt,  perhaps  fartlier  than 
.any  other  Mizraite  tribe.  Lud  and  the 
Ludim  are  mentioned  in  four  passages  of 
the  prophets  (Is.  Ixvi.  19 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ez. 
xxvii.  10,  xxxviii.  6).  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  but  one  nation  is  intended  in 
these  passages,  and  it  seems  that  the  pre- 
ponderance of  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the 
Mizraite  Ludim. 

Lu'hith,  The  Ascent  of,  a  place  in 
Moab,  occurs  only  in  Is.  xv.  5,  and  the  par- 
allel passage  of  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  5).  In 
the  days  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome  it  was 
still  known,  and  stood  between  Areopolis 
(Rabbath-Moab)  and  Zoar. 

Luke,  or  Lu'oas,  is  an  abbreviated  form 
of  Lucanus.  It  is  no^to  be  confounded 
with  Lucius  (Acts  xiiw^l ;  Rom.  xvi.  21), 
which  belongs  to  a  different  person.  The 
name  Luke  occurs  three  times  in  the  N.  T. 
(Col.  iv.  14;  2  Tim.  iv.  11;  Philem.  24), 
and  probably  in  all  three,  the  third  evangel- 
ist is  tlie  person  spoken  of.  Combining  the 
traditional  element  with  the  scriptural,  we 
are  able  to  trace  the  following  dim  outline 
of  the  Evangelist's  life.  He  was  born  at 
Antioch  in  Syria,  and  was  taught  the  science 
of  medicine.  The  well-known  tradition 
that  Luke  was  also  a  painter,  and  of  no 
mean  skill,  rests  on  the  authority  of  late 
writers.  He  was  not  born  a  Jew,  for  he  is 
not  reckoned  among  them  "  of  the  circum- 
cision "  by  St.  Paul  (comp.  Col.  iv.  11  with 
ver.  14).  The  date  of  his  conversion  is  un- 
certain. He  joined  St.  Paul  at  Troas,  and 
shared  his  journey  into  Macedonia.  The 
isudden  transition  to  the  first  person  plural 
fio  Acts  xvi.  9,  is  most  naturally  explained, 
»itfir  all  the  objections  that  have  been  urged, 
hy  supposing  that  Luke,  the  writer  of  the 
AstSf  lyrmed  one  of  St.  Paul's  company 


from  this  point.  As  far  as  Philippi  the 
Evangelist  journeyed  with  the  Apostle.  The 
resumption  of  the  third  person  on  Paul's 
departure  from  that  place  (xvii.  1)  would 
show  that  Luke  was  now  left  behind.  Dur- 
ing the  rest  of  St.  Paul's  second  missionary 
journey  we  hear  of  Luke  no  more.  But  on 
the  third  journey  the  same  indication  re- 
minds us  that  Luke  is  again  of  the  company 
(Acts  XX.  5),  having  joined  it  apparently  at 
Philippi,  where  he  had  been  left.  With  the 
Apostle  he  passed  through  Miletus,  Tyre, 
and  Caesarea  to  Jerusalem  (xx.  o,  xxi.  18). 
Between  the  two  visits  of  Paul  to  Plulippi 
seven  years  had  elapsed  (a.  d.  51  to  a.  d. 
58),  which  the  Evangelist  may  have  spent 
in  Philippi  and  its  neighborhood,  preach- 
ing the  Gospel.  There  remains  one  pas- 
sage, which,  if  it  refers  to  St.  Luke,  nmst 
belong  to  this  period.  "  We  have  sent  with 
him "  (i.  e.  Titus)  *'  the  brother  whose 
praise  is  in  the  gospel  throughout  all  the 
churches  "  (2  Cor.  viii.  18).  The  subscrip- 
tion of  the  Epistle  sets  forth  that  it  was 
"written  from  Philippi,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
by  Titus  and  Lucas,"  and  it  is  an  old  opinion 
that  Luke  was  the  companion  of  Titus,  al- 
though he  is  not  named  in  the  body  of  the 
Epistle.  If  this  be  so,  we  are  to  suppose 
that  during  the  "three  months  "  of  Paul's 
sojourn  at  Philippi  (Acts  xx.  3)  Luke  was 
sent  from  that  place  to  Corinth  on  this 
errand.  He  again  appears  in  the  company 
of  Paul  in  the  memorable  journey  to  Rome 
(Acts  xxvii.  1).  He  remained  at  his  side 
during  his  first  imprisonment  (Col.  iv.  14 ; 
Philem.  24)  ;  and  if  it  is  to  be  supposed  that 
the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  was  written 
during  the  second  imprisonment,  then  the 
testimony  of  that  Epistle  (iv.  11)  shows  tliat 
he  continued  faithful  to  the  Apostle  to  the 
end  of  his  afflictions.  After  the  death  of 
St.  Paul,  the  acts  of  his  faithful  companion 
are  hopelessly  obscure  to  us.  In  the  well- 
known  passage  of  Epiphanius,  we  find  that 
Luke,  receiving  the  commission  to  preach 
the  Gospel,  preaches  first  in  Dalmatia  and 
Gallia.  As  to  his  age  and  death,  there  is 
the  utmost  uncertainty.  He  probably  diea 
a  martyr,  between  a.  d.  75  and  a.  d.  100. 

Luke,  Gospel  of.  The  third  Gospel 
is  ascribed,  by  the  general  consent  of  an- 
cient Christendom,  to  "  the  beloved  phy- 
sician," Luke,  the  friend  and  companion  oi 
the  Apostle  Paul.  I.  Date  of  the  Gospel 
of  Luke.  —  From  Acts  i.  1,  it  is  clear  that 
the  Gospel  described  as  "the  former  trea 
tise"  was  written  before  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles ;  but  how  much  earlier  is  uncer- 
tain. Perh.aps  it  was  written  at  Caesarea 
during  St.  Paul's  imprisonment  there,  a.  d. 
58-60.  II.  Place  where  the  Gospel  was 
written.  —  If  the  time  has  been  rightly 
indicated,  the  place  would  be  Caesarfja. 
Other  suppositions  are,  that  it  was  com- 
posed in  Achaia  and  the  region  of  Boeoti» 


LUKE,  GOSPEL  OF 


361 


LYCAONIA 


(Jerome),  in  Alexandria  (Syriac  version). 
in  Rome  (Ewald,  &c.),  in  Acliaia  and 
Macedonia  (Hilgenfeld),  and  Asia  Minor 
(K<5stlin).  It  is  impossible  to  verify  these 
traditions  and  conjectures.  III.  Origin 
of  the  Gospel.  —  The  preface,  contained  in 
the  first  four  verses  of  the  Gospel,  describes 
the  object  of  its  writer.  Here  are  several 
facts  to  be  observed.  There  were  many 
narratives  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  current  at 
the  early  time  when  Luke  wrote  liis  Gospel. 
Tlie  ground  of  fitness  for  the  task  St.  Luke 
places  in  his  having  carefully  followed  out 
the  whole  course  of  events  from  the  begin- 
ning. He  does  not  claim  the  character  of 
an  eye-witness  from  the  first ;  but  possibly 
he  may  have  been  a  witness  of  some  part 
of  our  Lord's  doings.  The  ancient  opinion, 
that  Luke  wrote  his  Gospel  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Paul,  rests  on  the  authority  of 
Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  Origen,  and  Eusebius. 
The  two  first  assert  that  we  have  in  Luke 
the  Gospel  preached  by  Paul ;  Origen  calls 
it  "  the  Gospel  quoted  by  Paul,"  alluding 
to  Rom.  ii.  16;  and  Eusebius  refers  Paul's 
words,  "  according  to  my  Gospel  "  (2  Tim. 
ii.  8),  to  that  of  Luke,  in  which  Jerome 
concurs.  The  language  of  tlie  prefece  is 
against  the  notion  of  any  exclusive  in- 
fluence of  St.  Paul.  The  four  verses  could 
not  have  been  put  at  the  head  of  a  his- 
tory composed  under  the  exclusive  guid- 
ance of  Paul  or  of  any  one  apostle,  and  as 
little  could  they  have  introduced  a  gospel 
6imply  communicated  by  another.  The 
truth  seems  to  be  that  St.  Luke,  seeking 
information  from  every  quarter,  sought  it 
from  the  preaching  of  his  beloved  master, 
St.  Paul;  and  the  apostle  in  his  turn  era- 
ployed  the  knowledge  acquired  from  other 
sources  by  his  disciple.  Upon  the  question 
whether  Luke  made  use  of  the  Gospels  of 
Matthew  and  Mark,  see  Gospels.  IV.  Pur- 
pose for  which  the  Gospel  was  written.  — 
The  Evangelist  professes  to  write  that 
Theophilus  "might  know  the  certainty  of 
those  things  wherein  he  had  been  instruct- 
ed "  (i.  4).  This  Theopliilus  was  probably 
a  native  of  Italy,  and  perliaps  an  inhabitant 
of  Rome,  for  in  tracing  St.  Paul's  journey 
to  Rome,  places  which  an  Italian  might  be 
supposed  not  to  know  are  described  minute- 
ly (Actsxxvii.  8, 12,  IG)  ;  but  when  he  comes 
to  Sicily  and  Italy  this  is  neglected.  Hence 
it  would  appear  that  the  person  for  whom 
Luke  wrote  in  the  first  instance  was  a  Gen- 
tile reader ;  and  accordingly  we  find  traces 
in  the  Gospel  of  a  leaning  towards  Gentile 
rather  than  Jewish  converts.  V.  Lan- 
guage and  Style  of  the  Gospel. —  It  has  nev- 
er been  doubted  that  the  Gospel  was  written 
in  Greek.  Whilst  Hebraisms  are  frequent, 
classical  idioms  and  Greek  compound  words 
abound.  The  number  of  words  used  by 
Luke  only  is  unusually  great,  and  many  of 
them  ara  compound  word^  for  which  there 


is  classical  authority.  On  comparing  the 
Gospel  with  the  Acts  it  is  found  that  the 
style  of  the  latter  is  more  pure  and  free 
from  Hebrew  idioms.  VI.  Integrity  of 
the  Gospel  —  the  first  two  Cliapters.  —  The 
Gospel  of  Luke  is  quoted  by  Justin  Martyr 
and  by  the  author  of  the  Clementine  Homi- 
lies. The  silence  of  the  Apostolic  fathers 
only  indicates  that  it  was  admitted  into  the 
Canon  somewhat  late,  which  was  probably 
the  case.  The  result  of  the  Marcion  con- 
troversy is,  as  we  have  seen,  that  our  Gos- 
pel was  in  use  before  a.  d.  120.  A  special 
question,  however,  has  been  raised  about 
the  first  two  chapters.  But  there  is  no  real 
ground  for  distinguishing  between  the  first 
two  chapters  and  the  rest. 

liUnaticS.  This  word  is  used  twice  in 
the  N.  T.  (Matt.  iv.  24,  xvii.  15).  It  is 
evident  that  the  word  itself  refers  to  some 
disease,  affecting  both  the  body  and  the 
mind,  which  might  or  might  not  be  a  sign 
of  possession.  By  the  description  of  Mark 
ix.  17-26,  it  is  concluded  that  this  diseaso 
was  epilepsy. 

IjUZ.  It  seems  impossible  to  discovei 
with  precision  whether  Luz  and  Bethel  rep- 
resent one  and  the  same  town  —  the  former 
the  Canaanite,  the  latter  the  Hebrew  name 
— or  whether  they  were  distinct  places, 
though  in  close  proximity.  The  latter  is 
the  natural  inference  from  two  of  the  pas- 
sages in  which  Luz  is  spoken  of  (Gen. 
xxviii.  19;  Josh.  xvi.  2,  xviii.  13).  Other 
passages,  however,  seem  to  speak  of  the 
two  as  identical  (Gen.  xxxv.  6 ;  Judg.  i.  23). 
The  most  probable  conclusion  is,  that  tlie 
two  places  were,  during  the  times  preceding 
the  conquest,  distinct,  Luz  being  the  city 
and  Bethel  the  pillar  and  altar  of  Jacob ; 
that  after  tlie  destruction  of  Luz  by  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  the  town  of  Bethel  arose. 
2.  When  the  original  Luz  was  destroyed, 
through  the  treachery  of  one  of  its  inhab- 
itants, the  man  who  had  introduced  the 
Israelites  into  the  town  went  into  the  "  land 
of  the  Hittites  "  and  built  a  city,  which  he 
named  after  the  former  one  (Judg.  i.  26). 
Its  situation,  as  well  as  that  of  the  "  land  of 
the  Hittites,"  has  never  been  discovered, 
and  is  one  of  the  favorite  puzzles  of  Scrip- 
ture geographers. 

Lycao'jlia,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor. 
Erom  what  is  said  in  Acts  xiv.  11  of  "  the 
speech  of  Lycaonia,"  it  is  evident  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  district,  in  St.  Paul's  day, 
spoke  something  very  different  from  ordi- 
nary Greek.  Whether  tliis  language  waa 
some  Syrian  dialect,  or  a  corrupt  form  of 
Greek,  has  been  much 'debated.  The  fact 
that  the  Lycaonians  were  familiar  with  the 
Greek  mythology  is  consistent  with  either 
supposition.  Lycaonia  is  for  the  most  part 
a  dreary  plain,  bare  of  trees,  destitute  of 
fresh  water,  and  with  several  salt  lakes. 
After  the  provincial  system  of  Rome  had 


LYCIA 


362 


LYSIAS 


embraced  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
boundaries  of  the  provinces  were  varia,ble ; 
and  Lycaonia  was,  politically,  sometimes 
in  Cappadocia,  sometimes  in  Galatia.  It  is 
interesting  to  see  these  rude  country  peo- 
ple, when  Paul  and  Barnubas  worked  mir- 
acles among  them,  rushing  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  strangers  were  Mercury  and  Ju- 
piter, whose  visit  to  this  very  neighborhood 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Ovid's  most 
charming  stories  (Ovid,  Metam.  viii.  626). 
Nor  can  we  fail  to  notice  how  admirably  St. 
Paul's  address  on  the  occasion  was  adapted 
to  a  simple  and  imperfectly  civilized  race 
(xiv.  15-17).  This  was  at  Ltstka,  in  the 
heart  of  the  country.  Farther  to  the  east 
was  Derbe  (ver.  6) ,  not  far  from  the  chief 
pass  which  leads  up  through  Taurus,  from 
CiLiciA  and  the  coast,  to  the  central  table- 
land. At  the  western  limit  of  Lycaonia 
was  IcoNiUM  (ver.  1),  in  the  direction  of 
Antioch  in  PisiDiA.  A  good  Roman  road 
intersected  the  district  along  the  line  thus 
indicated.  On  St.  Paul's  first  missionary 
journey  he  traversed  Lycaonia  from  west 
to  east,  and  then  returned  on  his  steps 
(ver.  21;  see  2  Tim.  iii.  11).  On  the 
second  and  third  journeys  he  entered  it 
from  tire  east ;  and  after  leaving  it,  travelled 
in  the  one  case  to  Troas  (Acts  xvi.  1-8),  in 
the  other  to  Ephesus  (Acts  xviii.  23,  xix.  1). 

Lyc'ia  is  the  name  of  that  south-west- 
ern region  of  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor 
which  is  immediately  opposite  the  island 
of  Rhodes.  The  Lycians  were  incorporat- 
ed in  the  Persian  Empire,  and  their  ships 
were  conspicuous  in  the  great  war  against 
the  Greeks  (Herod,  vii.  91,  92).  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Lycia  was 
included  in  the  Greek  Seleucid  kingdom, 
and  was  a  part  of  the  territory  which  the 
Romans  forced  Antiochus  to  cede.  It  was 
not  till  the  reign  of  Claudius  that  Lycia  be- 
came part  of  the  Roman  provincial  system. 
At  first  it  was  combined  with  Pamphylia. 
Such  seems  to  have  been  the  condition  of 
the  district  when  St.  Paul  visited  the 
Lycian  towns  of  Pataka  (Acts  xxi.  1),  and 
Myra  (Acts  xxvii.  5).  At  a  later  period  of 
the  Roman  empire  Lycia  was  a  separate 
province,  with  Myra  for  its  capital. 

Iiyd'da,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
(Acts  ix.  32,  35,  38),  which  appears  in  the 
Hebrew  records  as  Lod,  a  town  of  Benja- 
min, founded  bv  Shamed  or  Shamer  (1 
Chr.  viii.  12 ;  Ezr.  ii.  33 ;  Neh.  vii.  37,  xi. 
35).  It  is  still  called  Lidd  or  Ludd,  and 
stands  in  part  of  the  great  maritime  plain 
which  anciently  bore  the  name  of  Sharon. 
It  is  9  miles  from  Joppa,  and  is  the  first 
town  on  the  northernmost  of  the  two  roads 
between  that  place  and  Jerusalem.  The 
watercourse  outside  the  town  is  said  still 
to  bear  the  name  of  Ahi-Butrus  (Peter), 
in  memory  of  the  Apostle.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  Vespasian,  and  was  probably 


not  rebuilt  till  the  time  of  Hadrian,  whAi 
it  received  the  name  of  Diospolis.  When 
Eusebius  wrote  (a.  d.  320-330)  Diospolis 
was  a  well-known  and  nmch-froquented 
town.  The  modern  town  is,  for  a  Mcham- 
niedan  place,  busy  and  prosperous. 

Lyd'ia,  a  maritime  province  in  the  west 
of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  by  Mysia  on  the 
N.,  Phrygia  on  the  E.,  and  Caria  on  tlie  S. 
The  name  occurs  only  in  1  Mace.  viii.  8 
(the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.  in  Ez.  xxx.  5 
being  for  Ludim) ;  it  is  there  enumerated 
among  the  districts  which  the  Romans  took 
away  from  Antiochus  the  Great  after  the 
battle  of  Magnesia  in  b.  c.  190,  and  trans- 
ferred to  Eumenes  II.  king  of  Pergamus. 
For  the  connection  between  Lydia  and  the 
Lud  and  Ludim  of  the  O.  T.,  see  Ludim. 
Lydia  is  included  in  the  "  Asia  "  of  the  N.  T. 

Zjyd'ia,  the  first  European  convert  of 
St.  Paul,  and  afterwards  his  hostess  during 
his  first  stay  at  Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  14,  15, 
also  40).  She  was  a  Jewish  proselyte  at 
the  time  of  the  Apostle's  coming;  and  it 
was  at  the  Jewish  Sabbath-worship  by  the 
side  of  a  stream  (ver.  13)  that  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel  reached  her  heart.  Her 
native  place  was  Thyatira,  in  the  province 
of  Asia  (ver.  14;  Rev.  ii.  18).  Thyatira  was 
famous  for  its  dyeing- works ;  and  Lydia  waa 
connected  with  this  trade,  either  as  a  seller 
of  dye,  or  of  dyed  goods.  We  infer  that 
she  was  a  person  of  considerable  wealth. 

Iiysa'nias,  mentioned  by  St.  Luke  in 
one  of  his  chronological  passages  (iii.  1) 
as  being  tetrarch  of  Abilene  (i.  e.  the 
district  round  Abila)  in  the  13th  year  of 
Tiberius,  at  the  time  when  Herod  Antipas 
was  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  and  Herod  Philip 
tetrarch  of  Ituraea  and  Trachonitis. 

Lys'ias,  a  nobleman  of  the  blood-royal 
(1  Mace.  iii.  32;  2  Mace.  xi.  1),  who  was 
intrusted  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (cir. 
B.  c.  166)  with  the  government  of  southern 
Syria,  and  the  guardianship  of  his  son 
Antiochus  Eupator  (1  Mace.  iii.  32;  2 
Mace.  X.  11).  He  carried  on  the  war 
against  Judas  Maccabaeus.  After  the  death 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (b.  c.  164),  Lysias 
assumed  the  government  as  guardian  of 
his  son,  who  was  yet  a  child  (1  Mace.  vi. 
17).  The  war  against  the  Jews  was  re- 
newed; and  Lysias  was  besieging  Jerusa- 
lem when  he  received  tidings  of  the  ap- 
proach of  Philip,  to  whom  Antiochus  had 
transferred  the  guardianship  of  the  prince 
(1  Mace.  vi.  18;  2  Mace.  xiii.).  He  de- 
feated Philip  (b.  c.  163),  and  was  supported 
at  Rome;  but  in  the  next  year,  together 
with  his  ward,  fell  into  the  hands  of  De- 
metrius Soter,  who  put  them  botli  to  death 
(1  Mace.  vii.  2-4;  2  Mace.  xiv.  2). 

Lys'ias,  Clau'dius,  "  cliief  captain  of 
the  band,"  that  is,  tribune  of  the  Roman  co- 
hort, who  rescued  St.  Paul  from  the  hands 
of  the  infuriated  mob  at  Jerusalem,  and 


LYSIMACHUS 


368 


MAASEIAH 


sent  liim  under  a  guard  to  Felix,  the  gov- 
ernor or  proconsul  of  Caesarea  (Acts  xxi. 
31,  scq.,  xxiii.  26,  xxiv.  7). 

Lysim'aehus.  1.  "A  son  of  Ptole- 
maeus  of  Jerusalem,"  the  Greek  translator 
of  the  book  of  Esther  (corap.  Esth.  ix.  20). 
2.  A  brother  of  the  high-priest  Menelaus, 
rho  was  left  by  him  as  his  deputy  during 
his  absence  at  the  court  of  Antiochus.  He 
fell  a  victim  to  the  fury  of  the  people  (2 
Mace.  iv.  29-42). 

Lys  tra  has  two  points  of  interest  in 
connection  respectively  with  St.  Paul's  first 
and  second  missionary  journeys,  (1)  as  the 
place  where  divine  honors  were  offered  to 
him,  and  where  he  was  presently  stoned 
(Acts  xiv.)  ;  (2)  as  the  home  of  his  chosen 
companion  and  fellow-missionary  Timothe- 
U8  (Acts  xvi.  1).  Lystra  was  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  great  plain  of  Lycaonia ; 
and  its  site  may  be  identified  with  the  ruins 
called  Bin-hir-Kilisseh,  at  the  base  of  a 
conical  mountain  of  volcanic  structure, 
»«»med  the  Karadagh. 


M. 


Ma'acah.  1.  The  mother  of  Absalom, 
also  called  Maachah  (2  Sam.  iii.  3).  2. 
Maacah,  and  (in  Chr.)  Maachah.  A 
small  kingdom  in  close  proximity  to  Pales- 
tine, which  appears  to  have  lain  outside 
Argob  (Deut.  iii.  14)  and  Bashan  (Josh, 
xii.  5).  ^hese  districts,  probably  answer- 
ing to  Wq  Lejah  and  Jaul&n  of  modern 
Syria,  occupied  the  space  from  the  Jordan 
on  the  west  to  Salcah  on  the  east  and 
Mount  Hermon  on  the  north.  Maacah 
must  therefore  be  placed  somewhere  to 
the  east  of  the  Lejah.  The  Ammonite 
war  was  the  only  occasion  on  which  the 
Maacatliites  came  into  contact  with  Israel, 
when  their  king  assisted  the  Ammonites 
against  Joab  with  a  force  which  he  led 
himself  (2  Sam.  x.  6,  8;  1  Chr.  xix.  7). 

Ma'adiata..  1.  The  daughter  of  Nahor 
by  his  concubine  Reumah  (Gen.  xxii.  24). 
2.  The  father  of  Achish,  who  was  king  of 
Gath  at  the  beginning  of  Solomon's  reign 
(1  K.  ii.  39).  3.  The  daughter,  or  more 
probably  granddaughter,  of  Absalom,  named 
after  his  mother ;  the  third  and  favorite  wife 
of  Rehoboam,  and  mother  of  Abijah  (1  K. 
XV.  2;  2  Chr.  xi.  20-22).  The  mother  of 
Abijah  is  elsewhere  called  "  Michaiah,  the 
daughter  of  Uriel  of  Gibeah  "  (2  Chr.  xiii. 
3).  It  is  probable  that  "  Michaiah  "  is  the 
error  of  a  transcriber,  and  that  "  Maa- 
chah "  is  the  true  reading  in  all  cases.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  her  grandson  Asa  she  oc- 
cupied at  the  court  of  Judah  the  high 
position  of  "King's  Mother"  (eomp.  1  K. 
il.  19),  which  has  been  compared  with  that 
of  the  Sultana  Valide  in  Turkey.     It  may 


be  that  at  Abijah's  death,  after  a  short  reign 
of  three  years,  Asa  was  left  a  minor,  and 
Maachah  acted  as  regent,  like  Athaliah 
under  similar  circumstances.  If  tliis  con- 
jecture be  correct,  it  would  serve  to  ex- 
plain the  influence  by  which  she  promoted 
the  practice  of  idolatrous  worship.  4.  The 
concubine  of  Caleb  the  son  of  Hezron  (1 
Chr.  ii.  48).  5.  The  daughter  of  Talmai 
king  of  Geshur,  and  mother  of  Absalom  (1 
Chr.  iii.  2)  ;  also  called  Maacah  in  A.  V. 
of  2  Sam.  iii.  3.  6.  The  wife  of  Machir 
the  Manassite  (1  Chr.  vii.  15,  16).  7.  The 
wife  of  Jehiel,  father  or  founder  of  Gibeon 
(1  Chr,  viii.  29,  ix.  35).  8.  The  father  of 
Hanan,  one  of  the  heroes  of  David's  body- 
guard (1  Chr.  xi.  43).  9.  A  Simeonite, 
father  of  Shephatiah,  prince  of  his  tribe  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  16). 

Maach'athi,  and  Maach'athites, 
The.  Two  words  which  denote  the  in- 
habitants of  the  small  kingdom  of  Maa- 
chah (Deut.  iii.  14;  Josh.  xii.  5,  xiii.  11, 
13).  Individual  Maachathites  were  not 
unknown  among  the  warriors  of  Israel  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  34 ;  Jer.  xl.  8 ;  2  K.  xxv.  23). 

Maada'i,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bani,  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  34). 

Maadi'ah,  one  of  the  priests,  or  fam- 
ilies of  priests,  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  and  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  5)  ;  elsewhere 
(vcr.  17)  called  Moadiah. 

Maa'i,  one  of  the  Bene-Asaph  who  took 
part  In  the  solemn  musical  service  by  which 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  was  dedicated  after 
it  had  been  rebuilt  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii. 
36.) 

Maal'eh-acrablbim,  the  full  form  of 
the  name  (Josh.  xv.  3)  wliich  in  its  other 
occurrences  is  given  in  the  A.  V.  as  "the 
ascent  of,  or  the  going  up  to,  Akrabbim." 
[Akrabbim.] 

Ma'arath.,  one  of  the  towns  of  Judah, 
in  the  district  of  the  mountains  (Josh.  xv. 
58).  The  places  which  occur  in  company 
with  it  have  been  identified  at  a  few  miles 
to  the  north  of  Hebron,  but  Maarath  has 
hitherto  eluded  observation. 

Maasei'ah.  The  name  of  four  persons 
who  had  married  foreign  wives  in  the  time 
of  Ezra.  1.  A  descendant  of  Jeshua  the 
priest  (Ezr.  x.  18).  2.  A  priest,  of  the  sons 
of  Harim  (Ezr.  x.  21).  3.  A  priest,  of  the 
sons  of  Pashur  (Ezr.  x.  22).  4.  One  of 
the  laymen,  a  descendant  of  Pahath-Moab 
(Ezr.  X.  30).  5.  The  father  of  Azariah, 
one  of  the  priests  from  the  oasis  of  the 
Jordan,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  rebuild- 
ing the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  23). 
6.  One  of  those  who  stood  on  the  right 
hand  of  Ezra  when  he  read  the  law  to  the 
people  (Neh.  viii.  4).  7.  A  Levite  who 
assisted  on  the  same  occasion  (Neh.  viii. 
7).  8.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  people 
whose  descendants  signed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  25).    8.  Son  of 


MAASIAI 


364 


MACCABEES,  THE 


Baruch  and  descendant  of  Pharez,  the  son 
of  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  5).  10-  A  Benjamite, 
ancestor  of  Sallu  (Neh.  xi.  7).  11.  Two 
priests  of  this  name  are  mentioned  (Neh. 
xii.  41,  42)  as  taking  part  in  tlie  musical 
service  which  accompanied  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Ezra.  One 
of  them  is  probably  the  same  as  No.  6.  12. 
Father  of  Zephaniah,  who  was  a  priest  in 
the  reign  of  ZeJ-kiah  (Jer.  x.xi.  1,  xxix. 
25,  xxxvii.  3).  13.  The  father  of  Zede- 
kiah  the  false  prophet  (Jer.  xxix.  21).  14. 
One  of  the  Levites  of  the  second  rank,  ap- 
pointed by  David  to  sound  •'  with  psalteries 
on  Alaraoth"  (1  Clir.  xv,  18,  20).  15. 
The  son  of  Adaiah,  and  one  of  the  captains 
of  hundreds  in  the  reign  of  Joash  king  of 
Judah  (2  Chr.  xxiii.  1).  16.  An  officer 
of  high  rank  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah  (2  Chr. 
xxvi.  11).  He  was  probably  a  Levite  (comp. 
1  Chr.  xxiii.  4),  and  engaged  in  a  semi- 
military  capacity.  17.  The  "  king's  son," 
killed  by  Zichri  the  Ephraimitish  hero  in 
the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Pekah  king  of 
Israel,  during  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chr. 
xxviii.  7).  18.  The  governor  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxiv. 
8).  19.  The  son  of  Shallum,  a  Levite  of 
high  rank  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer. 
XXXV.  4;  comp.  1  Chr.  ix.  19).  20.  A 
priest;  imoestor  of  Baruch  and  Seraiah, 
the  sons  of  Neriah  (Jer.  xxxii.  12,  li.  59). 

Maasi'ai,  a  priest  who  after  the  return 
from  Babylon  dwelt  in  Jerusalem  (1  Chr. 
ix.  12). 

Ma'ath,  son  of  Mattathias  in  the  geneal- 
og^-  of  Jesus  Clirist  (Luke  iii.  26). 

Ma'az,  son  of  Ram,  the  first-born  of 
Jerahmecl  (1  Chr.  ii.  27). 

Maazi'ah.  1.  One  of  the  priests  who 
signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  CNeh. 
X.  8).  2.  A  priest  in  the  reign  of  David, 
head  of  the  twenty-fourth  course  (1  Chr. 
xxiv,  18). 

Maccabees,  The.  This  title,  which 
was  originally  the  surname  of  Judas,  one 
of  the  sons  of  Mattathias,  was  afterwards 
extended  to  the  heroic  family  of  which  he 
was  one  of  the  noblest  representatives. 
The  original  term  Maccahi  was  probably 
formed  from  Makkdbdh,  "  a  hammer,"  giv- 
ing a  sense  not  unUke  that  in  which  Charles 
Martel  derived  a  surname  from  his  favorite 
weapon.  Although  the  name  Maccabees  has 
gained  the  widest  currency,  that  of  As- 
monaeans,  or  Hasmonaeans,  is  the  proper 
name  of  tlie  family,  which  is  derived  from 
Cashmon,  great-grandfather  of  Mattathias. 
1.  The  causes  of  the  Maccabaean  war  are 
pointed  out  under  Antiochus  IV.  (1  Mace. 
V.  62).  The  standard  of  independence  was 
first  raised  by  Mattathias,  a  priest  of  the 
course  of  Joiarib,  which  was  the  first  of  the 
twenty- four  courses  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  7),  and 
consequently  of  the  noblest  blood.  He 
seems,  however,  to  have  been  already  ad- 


vanced in  years  when  the  rising  was  made, 
and  he  did  not  long  survive  the  fatigues 
of  active  service.  He  died  b.  c.  166,  and 
"was  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  fathers 
at  Modin."  2.  Mattathias  himself  named 
Judas  —  apparently  his  third  son  —  as  liis 
successor  in  directing  the  war  of  indepen- 
dence (1  Mace.  ii.  66).  The  energy  and 
skill  of  "  THE  Maccabee,"  as  Judas  is  of- 
ten called  in  2  Mace,  fully  justified  his 
father's  preference.  After  gaining  several 
victories  over  the  other  generals  of  Anti- 
ochus, and  defeating  Lysias,  wliom  Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes  left  in  the  government  of 
the  Palestinian  provinces,  Judas  was  able 
to  occupy  Jerusalem,  except  the  *'  tower  " 
(1  Mace.  vi.  18,  19),  and  purified  the 
Temple  (1  Mace.  iv.  36,  41-53)  on  the  25th 
of  Cisleu,  exactly  three  years  after  its  prof- 
anation (1  Mace.  i.  59).  The  accession 
of  Demetrius  brought  with  it  fresh  troubles 
to  the  patriot  Jews.  A  large  party  of  their 
countrymen,  with  Alcimcs  at  their  head, 
gained  the  ear  of  the  king,  and  he  sent 
Nicanor  against  Judas.  Nicanor  was  de- 
feated, first  at  Capharsalama,  and  again  in 
a  decisive  battle  at  Adasa,  near  to  the 
glorious  field  of  Bethhoron  (b.  c.  161)  on  the 
13th  Adar  (1  Mace.  vii.  49 ;  2  Mace.  xv. 
36),  where  he  was  slain.  This  victory  was 
the  greatest  of  Judas's  successes,  and  practi- 
cally decided  the  question  of  Jewish  inde- 
pendence, but  it  was  followed  by  an  un- 
expected reverse.  A  new  invasion  under 
Bacchides  took  place.  Judas  was  able 
only  to  gather  a  small  force  to  meet  the 
sudden  danger.  Of  this  a  larglli|)art  de- 
serted him  on  the  eve  of  the  battle ;  but  the 
courage  of  Judas  was  unshaken,  and  he  fell 
at  Eleasa,  the  Jewish  Thermopylae,  fight- 
ing at  desperate  odds  against  the  invaders. 
His  body  was  recovered  by  his  brothers, 
and  buried  at  Modin  "in  the  sepulchre 
of  his  fathers  "  (b.  c.  161).  3.  After  the 
death  of  Judas  the  patriotic  party  seems  to 
have  been  for  a  short  time  wholly  dis- 
organized, and  it  was  only  by  the  pressure 
of  unparalleled  sufferings  that  they  were 
driven  to  renew  the  conflict.  For  this 
purpose  they  offered  the  command  to  Jona- 
than, surnamed  Apphus  (the  wary),  the 
youngest  son  of  Mattatliias.  After  two  or 
three  campaigns  Bacchides  accepted  terms 
which  Jonathan  proposed;  and  upon  liis 
departure  Jonathan  "judged  the  people  at 
Michmash"  (1  Mace.  ix.  73),  and  gradually 
extended  his  power.  The  claim  of  Alex- 
ander Balas  to  the  Syrian  crown  gave  a 
new  importance  to  Jonathan  and  his  ad- 
herents. The  success  of  Alexander  led  to 
the  elevation  of  Jonathan,  who  assumed 
the  high-priestly  office  (1  Mace.  x.  21) ; 
and  not  long  after  he  placed  the  king  under 
fresh  obligations  by  the  defeat  of  Apol- 
lonius,  a  general  of  the  younger  Demetrius 
(1  Mace.  X.).    After  the  death  of  Alex- 


MACCABEES,  THE 


3G5 


MACCALEES,  BOOKS  OF 


ander,  Jonathan  attached  himself  to  Anti- 
ochus  VI.  He  at  last  fell  a  victim  to  the 
treachery  of  Tryphon,  who  put  him  to 
death  b.  c.  144  (1  Mace.  xi.  8-xii.  4).  4. 
As  soon  as  Simon,  the  last  remaining  broth- 
er of  the  Maccab<aean  family,  heard  of  the 
detention  of  Jonathan  in  Ptolemais  by  Try- 
phon, he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
patriot  party.  He  made  overtures  to  De- 
metrius II.  (b.  c.  143),  which  were  favor- 
ably received,  and  the  independence  of  the 
J(i)»s  was  at  length  formally  recognized. 
The  long  struggle  was  now  triumpliantly 
ended,  and  it  remained  only  to  reap  the 
fruits  of  victory.  This  Simon  hastened  to 
do.  The  prudence  and  wisdom  for  which 
.  he  was  already  distinguished  at  the  time  of 
his  father's  death  (1  Mace.  ii.  65),  gained 
for  the  Jews  the  active  support  of  Rome  (1 
Mace.  XV.  16-21),  in  addition  to  the  con- 
firmation of  earlier  treaties.  After  settling 
the  external  relations  of  the  new  state  upon 
a  sure  basis,  Simon  regulates  its  internal 
administration.  With  two  of  his  sons  he 
was  murdered  at  Dok  by  Ptolemaeus,  b.  c. 
135  (1  Mace.  xvi.  11-16).  5.  The  treason 
of  Ptolemaeus  failed  in  its  object.  Johan- 
nes Hyrcanos,  one  of  the  sons  of  Simon, 
escaped  from  the  plot  by  which  his  life  was 
threatened,  and  at  once  assumed  the  govern- 
ment (b.  c.  135).  At  first  he  was  hard 
pressed  by  Antiochus  Sidetes,  and  only 
able  to  preserve  Jerusalem  on  condition  of 
dismantling  the  fortifications  and  submitting 
to  a  tribute,  B.  c.  133.  He  reduced  Idu- 
maea,  confirmed  the  alliance  with  Rome, 
and  at  length  succeeded  in  destroying  Sama- 
ria, the  hated  rival  of  Jerusalem,  b.  c.  109. 
The  external  splendor  of  his  government 
was  marred  by  the  growth  of  internal  divis- 
ions ;  but  John  escaped  the  fate  of  all  the 
older  members  of  his  family,  and  died  in 
peace,  b.  c.  106-5.  His  eldest  son  Aristo- 
bulus  I.,  who  succeeded,  was  the  first  who 
assumed  the  kingly  title,  though  Simon  had 
enjoyed  the  fulness  of  the  kingly  power. 
The  great  outlines  of  the  Maccabaean  con- 
test, which  are  somewhat  hidden  in  the 
annals  thus  briefly  epitomized,  admit  of 
being  traced  with  fair  distinctness.  The 
disputed  succession  to  the  Syrian  throne 
(B.C.  153)  was  the  political  turning-point 
of  the  struggle,  which  may  thus  be  divided 
into  two  great  periods.  During  the  first 
period  (b.  c. -168-153)  the  patriots  main- 
tained their  cause  with  varying  success 
against  the  whole  strength  of  Syria  :  during 
the  second  (b.  c.  153-139)  they  were  court- 
ed by  rival  factions,  and  their  independence 
was  acknowledged  from  time  to  time,  though 
pledges  given  in  time  of  danger  were  often 
broken  when  the  danger  was  over.  The 
war,  thus  brought  to  a  noble  issue,  if  less 
famous  is  not  less  glorious  tlian  any  of  those 
in  which  a  few  brave  men  have  successfully 
maintained  the  cause  of  fieedom or  religion 


against  overpowering  might.  For  it  is  not 
only  in  their  victory  over  external  diffi- 
culties that  the  heroism  of  the  Maccabees 
is  conspicuous ;  their  real  success  was  as 
much  imperilled  by  internal  divisions  as  by 
foreign  force.  The  view  of  the  Maccabaean 
war  which  regards  it  only  as  a  civil  and  not 
as  a  religious  conflict,  is  essentially  one- 
sided. If  there  were  no  other  evidence 
than  the  book  of  Daniel  —  whatever  opinion 
be  held  as  to  the  date  of  it  —  that  alone 
would  show  how  deeply  the  noblest  hopes 
of  the  theocracy  were  centred  in  the  success 
of  the  struggle.  When  the  feelings  of  the 
nation  were  thus  again  turned  with  fresh 
power  to  their  ancient  faith,  we  might  ex- 
pect that  there  would  be  a  new  creative 
epoch  in  the  national  literature ;  or,  if  the 
form  of  Hebrew  composition  was  already 
fixed  by  sacred  types,  a  prophet  or  psalmist 
would  express  the  thoughts  of  the  new  age 
after  the  models  of  old  time.  Yet  in  part 
at  least  the  leaders  of  Maccabaean  times  felt 
that  they  were  separated  by  a  real  chasm 
from  the  times  of  the  kingdom  or  of  the 
exile.  If  they  looked  for  a  prophet  in  the 
future,  they  acknowledged  that  the  spirit 
of  prophecy  was  not  among  them.  The 
volume  of  the  prophetic  writings  was  com- 
pleted, and,  as  far  as  appears,  no  one 
ventured  to  imitate  its  contents.  But  the 
Hagiographa,  though  they  were  already 
long  fixed  as  a  definite  collection,  were  not 
equally  far  removed  from  imitation.  The 
apocalyptic  visions  of  Daniel  served  as  a 
pattern  for  the  visions  incorporated  in  tlie 
book  of  Enoch ;  and  it  has  been  commonly 
supposed  that  the  Psalter  contains  com- 
positions of  the  Maccabaean  date.  This 
supposition,  which  is  at  variance  with  the 
best  evidence  which  can  be  obtained  on  the 
history  of  the  Canon,  can  only  be  received 
upon  the  clearest  internal  proof;  and  it 
may  well  be  questioned  whether  the  hy- 
pothesis is  not  as  much  at  variance  with 
sound  interpretation  as  with  the  history  of 
the  Canon. 

Maccabees,  Books  of.  Four  books 
wlwch  bear  the  common  title  of  "  Macca- 
bees" are  found  in  some  MSS.  of  the 
LXX.  Two  of  these  were  included  in 
the  early  current  Latin  versions  of  the 
Bible,  and  thence  passed  into  the  Vul- 
gate. As  forming  part  of  the  Vulgate 
they  were  received  as  canonical  by  the 
council  of  Trent,  and  retained  among  the 
apocrypha  hy  the  reformed  churches.  The 
two  other  books  obtained  no  such  wide 
circulation,  and  have  only  a  secondary 
connection  with  the  Maccabaean  history. 
1.  The  First  Book  of  Maccabees  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  patriotic  struggle, 
from  the  first  resistance  of  Mattatliias  to 
the  settled  sovereignty  and  death  of  Simon, 
a  period  of  thirty-three  years  (b.  c.  1G8- 
13.^}.     The  opening  cliapter  gives  a  shorj 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


363 


MACEDONIA 


summary  of  the  conqnests  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  "describes  at  greater  length  the 
oppression  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The 
great  subject  of  the  book  begins  with  the 
enumeration  of  the  Maccabaean  family  (ii. 
1-5),  which  is  followed  by  an  account  of 
the  part  which  the  aged  Mattathias  took  in 
rousing  and  guiding  the  spirit  of  his  coun- 
trymen (ii.  6-70).  The  remainder  of  the 
narrative  is  occupied  with  the  exploits  of 
his  five  sons.  Each  of  the  three  divisions 
into  which  the  main  portion  of  the  book 
thus  naturally  falls,  is  stamped  with  an 
individual  character  derived  from  its  spe- 
cial hero.  The  great  marks  of  trustwor- 
thiness are  everywhere  conspicuous.  Vic- 
tory and  failure  and  despondency  are,  on 
the  whole,  chronicled  with  the  same  candor. 
There  is  no  attempt  to  bring  into  open  dis- 
play the  working  of  Providence.  The  tes- 
timony of  antiquity  leaves  no  doubt  but 
that  the  book  was  first  written  in  Hebrew. 
Its  whole  structure  points  to  Palestine  as 
the  place  of  its  composition.  There  is, 
however,  considerable  doubt  as  to  its  date. 
Perhaps  we  may  place  it  between  b.  c.  120- 
100.  Tlie  date  and  person  of  the  Greek 
translator  are  wholly  undetermined.  2. 
The  Second  Book  of  Maccabees.  —  The 
history  of  the  Second  Book  of  the  Macca- 
bees begins  some  years  earlier  than  that  of 
the  First  Book,  and  closes  with  the  victory 
of  Judas  Maccabaeus  over  Nicanor.  It 
thus  embraces  a  period  of  twenty  years, 
from  B.C.  180  (?)  to  b.  c.  IGl.  For  the 
few  -events  noticed  during  the  earlier  years 
it  is  the  chief  authority ;  during  the  remain- 
der of  the  time  the  narrative  goes  over  the 
same  ground  as  1  Mace,  but  with  very  con- 
siderable differences.  The  first  two  chap- 
ters are  taken  up  by  two  letters  supposed 
to  be  addressed  by  the  Palestinian  to  the 
Alexandrine  Jews,  and  by  a  sketch  of  the 
author's  plan,  which  proceeds  without  any 
perceptible  break  from  the  close  of  the  sec- 
ond letter.  The  main  narrative  occupies 
the  remainder  of  the  book.  This  presents 
several  natural  divisions,  which  appear  to 
coincide  with  the  "  five  books  "  of  Jason 
on  which  it  was  based.  The  first  (c.  iii.) 
contains  the  liistory  of  Heliodorus  (cir.  B.  c. 
180).  The  second  (iv.-vii.)  gives  varied 
details  of  the  beginning  and  course  of  the 
great  persecution  (b.  c.  175-167).  The 
third  (viii.-x.  9)  follows  the  fortunes  of  Ju- 
das to  the  triumphant  restoration  of  the 
Temple  service  (b.  c.  166,  165).  The 
fourth  (x.  10-xiii.)  includes  the  reign  of 
Antiochus  Eupator  (b.  c.  164-162).  The 
fifth  (xiv.,  XV.)  records  the  treachery  of 
Alcimus,  the  mission  of  Nicanor,  and  the 
crowning  success  of  Judas  (b.  c.  162,  161). 
The  writer  himself  distinctly  indicates  the 
source  of  his  narrative  —  "  the  five  books 
of  Jason  of  Cyrene  "  (ii.  23),  of  which  he 
designed  to  furnish  a  short  and  agreeable 


epitome  for  the  benefit  of  those  whu  woula 
be  deterred  from  studying  the  larger  work. 
His  own  labor,  which  he  describes  in  strong 
terms  (ii.  26,  27;  comp.  xv.  38,39),  was 
entirely  confined  to  condensation  and  selec 
tion ;  all  investigation  of  detail  he  dcclarep 
to  be  the  peculiar  duty  of  the  original  his 
torian.  Of  Jason  himself  nothing  more  i<» 
known  than  may  be  gleaned  from  this  men- 
tion of  him.  The  district  of  Cyrene  was 
most  closely  united  with  that  of  Alexandria. 
In  both  the  predominance  of  Greek  lite*^- 
ture  and  the  Greek  language  was  absolute. 
The  work  of  Jason  must  therefore  have 
been  composed  in  Greek ;  and  the  style  of 
the  epitome  proves  beyond  doubt  that  the 
Greek  text  is  the  original.  It  is  scarcely 
less  certain  that  the  book  was  compiled  at 
Alexandria.  —  The  Second  Book  of  Mac- 
cabees is  not  nearly  so  trustworthy  as  the 
First.  In  the  Second  Book  the  ground- 
work of  facts  is  true,  but  the  dress  in  which 
the  facts  are  presented  is  due  in  part  at 
least  to  the  narrator.  It  is  not  at  all  im- 
probable that  the  error  with  regard  to  the 
first  campaign  of  Lysias  arose  from  tie 
mode  in  which  it  was  introduced  by  Jason 
as  a  prelude  to  the  more  important  meas- 
ures of  Lysias  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Eupator.  In  other  places  (as  very  obvi- 
ously in  xiii.  19,  ff".)  the  compiler  may  have 
disregarded  the  historical  dependence  of 
events  while  selecting  those  which  were 
best  suited  for  tlie  support  of  his  theme. 
The  latter  half  of  the  book  (cc.  viii.-x  v.) 
is  to  be  regarded  not  as  a  connected  .and 
complete  history,  but  as  a  series  of  special 
incidents  from  the  life  of  Judas,  illustrating 
the  providential  interference  of  God  in  be- 
half of  His  people,  true  in  substance,  but 
embellished  in  form.  3.  The  Third  Book 
OF  the  Maccabees  contains  the  history  of 
events  which  preceded  the  great  Macca- 
baean struggle,  beginning  with  b.  c.  217. 
4.  The  Fodrth  Book  of  Maccabees  con- 
tains a  rhetorical  narrative  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  Eleazar  and  of  the  "  Maccabaean 
family,"  following  in  the  main  the  same 
outline  as  2  Mace. 

Macedo'nia,  the  first  part  of  Europe 
which  received  the  Gospel  directly  from  St. 
Paul,  and  an  important  scene  of  his  subse- 
quent missionary  labors  and  those  of  his 
companions.  It  was  bounded  by  the  range 
of  Haenius  or  the  Balkan  northwards,  by 
the  chain  of  Pindus  westwards,  by  the  Cam- 
bunian  hills  southwards,  by  which  it  is  sep- 
arated from  Thessaly,  and  is  divided  on  the 
east  from  Thrace  by  a  less  definite  moun- 
tain-boundary running  southwards  from 
Haeraus.  Of  the  space  thus  enclosed,  two 
of  the  most  remarkable  physical  features 
are  two  great  plains,  one  watered  by  the 
Axius,  which  comes  to  the  sea  at  tlie  Ther- 
maic  gulf,  not  far  from  Thessalonica ;  the 
other  by  the  Strymon,  wfaNih,  afirer  passing 


MACEDONIAN 


367 


MADON 


near  Philippi,  flows  out  below  Amphipolis. 
Between  the  mouths  of  these  two  rivers  a 
remarkable  peninsula  projects,  dividing  it- 
self into  three  points,  on  the  farthest  of 
which  Mount  Athos  rises  nearly  into  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow.  Across  the  neck 
of  this  peninsula  St.  Paul  travelled  more 
than  once  with  his  companions.  This  gen- 
eral sketch  sufficiently  describes  the  Mace- 
donia which  was  ruled  over  by  Philip  and 
Alexander,  and  which  the  Romans  con- 
quered from  Perseus.  At  first  the  con- 
quered country  was  divided  by  Aemilius 
Paulus  into  four  districts.  This  division 
was  only  temporary.  The  whole  of  Mace- 
donia, along  with  Thessaly  anda  large  tract 
along  the  Adriatic,  was  made  one  province 
and  centralized  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
proconsul,  who  resided  at  Thessalonica. 
We  have  now  reached  the  definition  which 
corresponds  with  the  usage  of  the  term  in 
the  N.  T.  (Acts  xvi.  9,  10, 12,  &c.).  Three 
Roman  provinces,  all  very  familiar  to  us  in 
the  writings  of  St.  Paul,  divided  the  whole 
space  between  the  basin  of  the  Danube  and 
Cape  Matapan.  The  border  town  of  II- 
LYEicuM  was  Lissus  on  the  Adriatic.  The 
boundary  line  of  Achaia  nearly  coincided, 
except  in  the  western  portion,  with  that  of 
tlie  kingdom  of  modern  Greece,  and  ran  in 
an  irregular  line  from  the  Acroceraunian 
promontory  to  the  bay  of  Thermopylae  and 
the  north  of  Euboea.  By  subtracting  these 
two  provinces,  we  define  Macedonia.  The 
account  of  St.  Paul's  first  journey  through 
Macedonia  (Acts  xvi.  10-xvii.  15)  is  marked 
by  copious  detail  and  well-defined  inci- 
dents. At  the  close  of  this  journey  he  re- 
turned from  Corinth  to  Syria  by  sea.  On 
the  next  occasion  of  visiting  Europe, 
though  he  both  went  and  returned  through 
Macedonia  (Acts  xx.  1-6),  the  narrative  is 
a  very  slight  sketch,  and  the  route  is  left 
uncertain,  except  as  regards  Philippi.  The 
character  of  the  Macedonian  Christians  is 
set  before  us  in  Scripture  in  a  very  favor- 
able light.  The  candor  of  the  Bereans  is 
highly  commended  (Acts  xvii.  11);  the 
Thessalonians  were  evidently  objects  of  St. 
Paul's  peculiar  affection  (1  Thess.  ii.  8,  17- 
20,  iii.  10) ;  and  the  Philippians,  besides 
their  general  freedom  from  blame,  are 
noted  as  remarkable  for  their  liberality  and 
self-denial  (Phil.  iv.  10,  14-19 ;  see  2  Cor. 
ix.  2,  xi.  9). 

Macedo'nian  occurs  in  A.  V.  only  in 
Acts  xxvii.  2;  Esth.  xvi.  10,  14.  In  the 
other  cases  (Acts  xvi.  9,  xix.  29,  2  Cor.  ix. 
2,  4)  our  translators  render  it  "  of  Mace- 
donia." 

Mach'banai,  one  of  the  lion-faced  war- 
riors of  Gad,  who  joined  the  fortunes  of 
David  when  living  in  retreat  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chr.  xii.  13) 

Maeh'benah.  Sheva,  the  father  of 
Machbena,  is  named  in  the  genealogical  list 


of  Judah  as  the  offspring  of  Maachah,  the 
concubine  of  Caleb  ben-H*ezro«  (1  Chr.  ii. 
49). 

Ma'chi,  the  father  of  Geucl  the  Gadite, 
who  went  with  Caleb  and  Joshua  to  spy  out 
the  land  of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  15). 

Ma'chir.  1.  The  eldest  son  (Josh.  xvii. 
1)  of  the  patriarch  Manasseh  by  an  Ara- 
mite  or  Syrian  concubine  (1  Chr.  vii.  14). 
His  children  are  commemorated  as  having 
been  caressed  by  Joseph  before  his  death 
(Gen.  1.  23).  At  the  time  of  the  conquest 
the  family  of  Machir  had  become  very  pow- 
erful, and  a  large  part  of  the  country  on 
the  east  of  Jordan  was  subdued  by  them 
(Num.  xxxii.  39;  Deut.  iii.  15).  So  great 
was  their  power  that  the  name  of  Machir 
occasionally  supersedes  that  of  Manasseh. 
2.  The  son  of  Ammiel,  a  powerful  sheikh 
of  one  of  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes,  who 
rendered  essential  service  to  the  cause  of 
Saul  and  of  David  successively  —  in  each 
case  when  they  were  in  difficulty  (2  Sam. 
ix.  4,  5,  xvii.  27-29). 

Ma'chirites,  The,  the  descendants  of 
Machir  the  father  of  Gilead  (Num.  xxvi.  29). 

Machnade'bai,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ba- 
ni  who  put  away  his  foreign  wife  at  Ezra's 
command  (Ezr.  x.  40). 

Machpe'lah.    [Hebrox.] 

Mad'ai  (Gen.  x.  2)  is  usually  called  the 
third  son  of  Japhet,  and  tlie  progenitor  of 
the  Medes.  But  probably  all  that  is  in- 
tended is,  that  the  Medes,  as  well  as  the 
Gomerites,  Greeks,  Tabareni,  Moschi,  &c., 
descended  from  Japhet. 

Ma'dian,  Acts  vii.  29.     [MiDiAN.] 

Madman'nah,  one  of  the  towns  in  the 
south  district  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  31).  In 
the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  it  was 
called  MenoKs,  and  was  not  far  from  Gaza. 
The  first  stage  southward  from  Gaza  is  now 
el-MinyAy,  which  is  perhaps  the  modern 
representative  of  Menols,  and  therefore  of 
Madmannah. 

Mad'men.  a  place  in  Moab,  threatened 
with  destruction  in  the  denunciations  of 
Jeremiah  (xlviii.  2),  but  not  elsewhere 
named,  and  of  which  nothing  is  yet  known. 

Madme'nah.,  one  of  the  Benjamite  vil- 
lages north  of  Jerusale.n,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  were  frightened  away  by  the  ap- 
proach of  Sennacherib  along  the  northern 
road  (Is.  x.  31). 

Madness.  In  Scripture  "  madness  " 
is  recognized  as  a  derangement,  proceed- 
ing either  from  weakness  and  misdirection 
of  intellect,  or  from  ungovernable  violence 
of  passion.  In  one  passage  alone  (John  x. 
20)  is  madness  expressly  connected  with 
demoniacal  possession  by  the  Jews  in  their 
cavil  against  our  Lord;  in  none  is  it  re- 
ferred to  any  physical  causes. 

Ma'don,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of 
Canaan  before  the  conquest,  probably  in 
the  north.     Its  king  joined  Jabiu  and  \n» 


MAGBISH 


.%8 


MAGI 


confederates  in  their  attempt  against  Josh- 
ua at  the  \«iter8  of  Merom,  and  like  the 
rest  was  killed   (Josh.  xi.  1,  xii.  19). 

Mag'bish,  a  proper  name  in  Ezr.  ii.  30, 
but  wliether  of  a  man  or  of  a  place  is  doubt- 
ful ;  probably  the  latter,  as  all  the  names 
from  Ezr.  ii.  20  to  34,  except  Elara  andHa- 
rira,  are  names  of  places. 

Mag'dala.  Tlie  name  Magdala  does 
not  really  exist  in  the  Bible.  It  is  found  in 
the  received  Greek  text  and  the  A.  V.  of 
Matt.  XV.  39  only ;  but  the  chief  MSS.  and 
versions  exhibit  the  name  as  "  Magadan." 
Into  the  limits  of  Magadan  Christ  came  by 
boat,  over  the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  after 
His  miracle  of  feeding  the  four  thousand 
on  the  mountain  of  the  eastern  side  (Matt. 
XV.  39)  ;  and  from  thence,  after  a  short  en- 
counter with  the  Pliarisees  and  Sadducees, 
He  returned  in  the  same  boat  to  the  oppo- 
site shore.  In  the  present  text  of  the  par- 
allel narrative  of  St.  Mark  (viii.  10)  we 
find  the  "parts  of  Dalmanutha,"  on  the 
western  edge  of  the  lake  of  Gennesareth. 
The  Magdala,  which  conferred  her  name 
on  "  Mary  the  Magdal-ene,"  one  of  tlie 
numerous  Migdols,  i.  e.  towers,  which  stood 
in  Palestine,  was  probably  tlie  place  of  that 
name  wliich  is  mentioned  in  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  as  near  Tiberias,  and  this  again  is 
as  probably  the  modern  el-Mejdel,  a  miser- 
able little  Muslim  village,  on  the  water's- 
edge  at  the  south-east  corner  of  the  plain 
of  Gennesareth.  By  the  Jews  the  word 
megaddeld  is  used  to  denote  a  person  who 
platted  or  twisted  hair,  a  practice  then 
much  in  use  amongst  women  of  loose  char- 
acter. Magdalum  is  mentioned  as  between 
Tiberias  and  Capernaum,  as  early  as  by 
Willibald,  a.  d.  722. 

Mag'diel,  one  of  the  "  dukes  "  of  Edora, 
descended  from  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  43;  1 
Chr.  i.  54). 

Magi  (A.  V.  "wise  men").  I.  In  the 
Hebrew  text  of  the  O.  T.  the  word  occurs 
but  twice,  and  then  only  incidentally.  In 
Jer.  xxix.  3  and  13  we  meet,  among  the 
Chaldaean  officers  sent  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  Jerusalem,  one  with  the  name  or  title  of 
Rab-mag.  This  word  is  interpreted  as 
equivalent  to  chief  of  the  Magi.  Histori- 
cally the  Magi  are  conspicuous  chiefly  as  a 
Persian  religious  caste.  Herodotus  con- 
nects them  with  another  people  by  reckon- 
ing them  among  the  six  tribes  of  the  Medes 
(i.  101).  They  appear  in  his  history  of 
Astyages  as  interpreters  of  dreams  (i.  120), 
the- name  having  apparently  lost  its  ethno- 
logical and  acquired  a  caste  significance. 
But  as  they  appear  in  Jeremiah  among  the 
retinue  of  the  Chaldaean  king,  we  must 
suppose  Nebuchadnezzar's  conquests  led 
him  to  gather  round  him  the  wise  men  and 
religious  teachers  of  the  nations  which  he 
subdued,  and  that  thus  the  sacred  tribe  of 
the  Medes  rose   under  his   rule  to  favor 


and  power.  The  Magi  took  their  places 
among  "  the  astrologers  and  star-gazers  and 
monthly  prognosticators."  It  is  with  such 
men  that  we  have  to  think  of  Daniel  and 
his  fellow-exiles  as  associated.  Tlie  office 
which  Daniel  accepted  (Dan.  v.  11)  was 
probably  identical  with  that  of  the  Kab-mag 
who  first  came  before  us.  The  name  of  the 
Magi  does  not  meet  us  in  the  Biblical  ac- 
count of  the  Medo-Persian  kings.  II.  The 
word  presented  itself  to  the  Gre«ks  as  con- 
nected with  a  foreign  system  of  divination, 
and  it  soon  became  a  by-word  for  the  worst 
form  of  imposture.  This  is  the  predomi- 
nant meaning  of  the  word  as  it  appears  in 
the  N.  T.  The  noun  and  the  verb  derived 
from  it  are  used  by  St.  Luke  in  describing 
the  impostor,  who  is  therefore  known  dis- 
tinctively as  Simon  Magus  (Acts  viii.  9). 
Another  of  the  same  class  (Bar-jesus)  is 
described  (Acts  xiii.  8)  as  having,  in  his 
cognomen  Elymas,  a  title  which  was  equiv- 
alent to  Magus.  III.  In  one  memorable 
instance,  however,  the  word  retains  its  bet- 
ter meaning.  In  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew 
(ii.  1-12)  tlie  Magi  appear  as  "  wise  men  " 
—  properly  Magians  —  who  were  guided 
by  a  star  from  "the  East"  to  Jerusalem, 
where  they  suddenly  appeared  in  the  days 
of  Herod  the  Great,  inquiring  for  the  new- 
born king  of  the  Jews,  whom  tiicy  had  come 
to  worship.  As  to  the  country  from  which 
they  came,  opinions  v<ary  greatly ;  but  their 
following  the  guidance  of  a  star  seems  to 
point  to  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates, where  astronomy  was  early  culti- 
vated by  the  Chaldaeans.  The  religion  of 
Zoroaster  remaining  pure  from  the  grosser 
forms  of  idolatry  preserved  the  hope  of  a 
great  deliverer,  who  should  reform  the 
world,  and  establish  a  reign  of  universal 
peace.  That  some  tradition,  influenced 
possiby  by  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion,  went 
so  far  as  to  make  this  deliverer  a  "king  of 
the  Jews,"  seems  a  fair  inference  from  the 
direct  form  of  their  inquiry  for  Ilim.  As 
to  tlie  sign  which  guided  thein,  the  chief 
difficulties  have  arisen  from  tlie  attempt  to 
find  a  natural  explanation;  for  the  plain 
narrative  of  St.  Matthew  evidently  repre- 
sents it  as  a  miracle  vouchsafed  for  the  oc- 
casion. The  ingenious  conjecture  of  cer- 
tain astronomers  that  the  appearance  of  the 
star  was  caused  by  a  remarkable  conjunc- 
tion of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  is  now  exploded. 
The  approach  of  the  two  planets  was  not  at 
all  near  enough  for  them  to  be  mistaken  for 
a  single  star ;  nor  could  habitual  observers 
of  the  heavens  fail  to  recognize  the  positions 
of  such  well-known  planets.  Besides,  their 
"standing  over  the  place  where  the  young 
child  was,"  so  as  to  define  the  spot  on  tlie 
surface  of  the  earth,  is  utterly  inconceiva- 
ble. It  only  remains  for  us  to  be  content 
with  the  obvious  explanation  that  some  new 
luminary,  Avhcther   meteoric   or  celestial, 


MAGIC 


369 


MAGIC 


was  made  to  appear,  in  a  manner  distinct 
enough  to  the  eyes  of  practised  astronomers, 
expressly  to  guide  the  sages  on  their  way. 
Their  arrival  and  inquiries  threw  Jerusa- 
lem into  commotion.  With  his  usual  craft, 
Herod  summoned  the  Sanhedrim,  and  learnt 
that  the  Messiah  was  to  be  born  at  Beth- 
lehem. Having  inquired  from  the  Magi 
the  time  of  the  star's  appearance,  as  a  guide 
to  that  of  the  child's  birth,  he  professed  his 
desire  to  worship  the  newborn  king,  and 
sent  them  on  to  discover  his  abode.  The 
star  again  guided  them  over  the  five  miles 
from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem,  and  at  length 
stood  still  above  the  house  where  Jesus 
was.  They  paid  Him  their  willing  homage, 
and  presented  their  costly  gifts,  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  wealth  and  wisdom  of  the  Gen- 
tile world.  By  means  of  a  dream,  a  form 
of  divination  which  they  were  wont  to  follow 
with  implicit  faith,  they  were  warned  by 
God  not  to  return  to  Herod,  and  they  de- 
parted into  their  own  country  by  another 
route,  perhaps  by  Hebron  and  round  the 
southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  According 
to  a  late  tradition,  the  Magi  are  represented 
as  three  kings,  named  Caspar,  Melchior, 
and  Belthazar,  who  take  their  place  among 
the  objects  of  Christian  reverence,  and  are 
honored  as  the  patron  saints  of  travellers. 
Among  other  relics  supplied  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  market  which  the  devotion 
of  Helena  had  created,  the  bodies  of  the 
Magi  were  discovered  somewhere  in  the 
East,  were  brought  to  Constantinople,  were 
thence  transferred  to  Milan,  and  were  in 
1162  finally  deposited  in  the  cathedral  of 
Cologne,  where  the  shrine  of  the  Three 
I^ngs  is  shown  as  the  greatest  of  its  many 
treasures. 

Magic,  Magicians.  The  magical  arts 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible  are  those  practised 
by  the  Egyptians,  the  Canaanites,  and  their 
neighbors,  the  Hebrews,  the  Chaldaeans, 
and  probably  the  Greeks.  With  the  lowest 
race  magic  is  the  chief  part  of  religion. 
The  Nigritians,  or  blacks  of  this  race,  show 
this  in  their  extreme  use  of  amulets  and 
their  worship  of  objects  which  have  no  other 
value  in  their  eyes  but  as  having  a  sup- 
posed magical  character  through  the  influ- 
ence of  supernatural  agents.  With  the 
Turanians,  or  corresponding  whites  of  the 
same  great  family,  —  we  use  the  word 
white  for  a  group  of  nations  mainly  yellow, 
in  contradistinction  to  black,  —  incanta- 
tions and  witchcraft  occupy  the  same  place, 
shamanism  characterizing  their  tribes  in 
both  hemispheres.  The  ancient  Egyptians 
show  their  partly-Nigritian  origin  not  alone 
in  their  physical  characteristics  and  lan- 
guage, but  in  their  religion.  With  the 
She  mites  magic  takes  a  lower  place.  Among 
many  of  the  Shemite  peoples  there  linger 
the  remnants  of  a  primitive  fetishism.  Sa- 
cred trees  and  stones  are  reverenced  from 
Hi 


an  old  superstition,  of  which  they  do  not 
always  know  the  meaning,  derived  from  the 
nations  whose  place  they  have  taken.  The 
Hebrews  had  no  magic  of  their  own.  It 
was  so  strictly  forbidden  by  the  Law  that 
it  could  never  afterwards  have  had  any 
recognized  existence,  save  in  times  of  gen- 
eral heresy  or  apostasy,  and  the  same  waa 
doubtless  the  case  in  the  patriarchal  ages. 
The  magical  practices  which  obtained 
among  the  Hebrews  were  therefore  bor- 
rowed from  the  nations  around.  From  the 
first  entrance  into  the  Land  of  Promise 
until  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  we  have 
constant  glimpses  of  magic  practised  in 
secret,  or  resorted  to,  not  alone  by  the 
common,  but  also  by  the  great.  The  Tal- 
mud abounds  in  notices  of  contemporary 
magic  among  the  Jews,  showing  that  it 
survived  idolatry  notwithstanding  their 
original  connection,  and  was  supposed  to 
produce  real  effects.  The  Kur-an  in  like 
manner  treats  charms  and  incantations  as 
capable  of  producing  evil  consequences 
when  used  against  a  man.  It  is  a  distinc- 
tive characteristic  of  the  Bible  that  from 
first  to  last  it  warrants  no  such  trust  or 
dread,,.  In  examining  the  mentions  of  magic 
in  the  Bible,  we  must  keep  in  view  the  cu- 
rious inquiry  whether  there  be  any  reality 
in  the  art.  We  would  at  the  outset  protest 
against  the  idea,  once  very  prevalent,  that 
the  conviction  that  the  seen  and  unseen 
worlds  were  often  more  manifestly  in  con- 
tact in  the  Biblical  ages  than  now,  necessi- 
tates a  belief  in  the  reality  of  the  magic 
spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures.  The  theft 
and  carrying  away  of  Laban's  teraphjm  by 
Rachel,  seems  to  indicate  the  practice  of 
magic  in  Padan-aram  at  this  early  time. 
It  appears  that  Laban  attached  great  value 
to  these  objects,  from  what  he  said  as  to 
the  theft  and  his  determined  search  for 
them  (Gen.  xxxi.  19,  30,  32-35).  I'he 
most  important  point  is,  that  Laban  calls 
them  his  "gods"  (ibid.  30,32),  although 
he  was  not  without  belief  in  the  true  God 
(24,  49-53)  ;  for  this  makes  it  almost  cer- 
tain that  we  have  here  not  an  indication  of 
the  worship  of  strange  gods,  but  the  first 
notice  of  a  superstition  that  afterwards  ob- 
tained among  those  Israelites  who  added 
corrupt  practices  to  the  true  religion. 
The  derivation  of  the  name  teraphim  is 
extremely  obscure.  We  should  prefer,  if 
no  other  etymology  be  found,  to  suppose 
that  the  name  might  mean  "  dancers  "  or 
"  causers  of  dancing,"  with  reference  either 
to  primitive  nature-worship  or  its  magi- 
cal rites  of  the  character  of  shamanism, 
rather  than  that  it  signifies,  as  Gesenius 
suggests,  "  givers  of  pleasant  life."  There 
is  no  description  of  these  images ;  but  from 
the  account  of  Michal's  stratagem  to  de- 
ceive Saul's  messengers,  it  is  evident,  if 
only  one  image  be  there  meant,  as  is  very 


MAGIC 


370 


MAGIC 


probable,  that  they  were  at  least  sometimes 
of  the  size  of  a  man,  and  perhaps  in  the 
head  and  shoulders,  if  not  lower,  of  human 
shape,  or  of  a  similar  form  (1  Sam.  xix.  13 
-16).  The  worship  or  use  of  teraphim 
after  the  occupation  of  the  Promised  Land 
cannot  be  doubted  to  have  been  one  of  the 
corrupt  practices  of  those  Hebrews  who 
leant  to  idolatry,  but  did  not  abandon  their 
belief  in  the  God  of  Israel.  The  account  of 
Micah's  images  in  the  Book  of  Judges,  com- 
pared with  a  passage  in  Hosea  (iii.  4,  5), 
shows  our  conclusion  to  be  correct.  We  pass 
to  the  magical  use  of  teraphim.  By  the  Is- 
raelites they  were  consulted  for  oracular 
answers.  This  was  apparently  done  by  the 
Danites  who  asked  Micah's  Levite  to  in- 
quire as  to  the  success  of  their  spying  ex- 
pedition (Judg.  xviii.  5,  6).  In  later  times 
this  is  distinctly  stated  of  the  Israelites 
where  Zechariah  says,  "  For  the  Teraphim 
have  spoken  vanity,  and  the  diviners  have 
seen  a  lie,  and  have  told  false  dreams  "  (x. 
2).  The  only  account  of  the  act  of  divin- 
ing by  teraphim  is  in  a  remarkable  passage 
of  Ezekiel  relating  to  Nebuchadnezzar's 
advance  against  Jerusalem.  "  Also,  thou 
son  of  man,  appoint  thee  two  ways,  that 
the  sword  of  the  king  of  Babylon  may 
come  :  both  twain  [two  swords]  shall  come 
forth  out  of  one  land :  and  choose  thou  a 
place,  choose  [it]  at  the  head  of  the  way 
to  the  city.  Appoint  a  way,  that  the  sword 
may  come  to  Rabbath  of  the  Ammonites, 
and  to  Judah  in  Jerusalem  the  defenced. 
For  the  king  of  Babylon  stood  at  the  part- 
ing of  the  way,  at  the  head  of  the  two 
ways,  to  use  divination ;  he  shuffled  arrows, 
he  consulted  with  teraphim,  he  looked  in 
the  liver.  At  his  right  hand  was  the  divi- 
nation for  Jerusalem"  (xxi.  19-22).  The 
mention  together  of  consulting  teraphim 
and  looking  into  the  liver,  may  not  indicate 
that  the  victim  was  offered  to  teraphim  and 
its  liver  than  looked  into,  but  may  mean 
two  separate  acts  of  divining.  Before 
speaking  of  the  notices  of  the  Egyptian 
magicians  in  Genesis  and  Exodus,  there  is 
one  passage  that  may  be  examined  out  of 
the  regular  order.  Joseph,  when  his  breth- 
ren left  after  their  second  visit  to  buy  corn, 
ordered  his  steward  to  hide  his  silver  cup 
in  Benjamin's  sack,  and  afterwards  sent  him 
after  them,  ordering  him  to  claim  it,  thus  : 
"  [Is]  not  this  [it]  in  which  my  lord  drink- 
eth,  and  whereby  indeed  he  divineth  ? " 
(Gen.  xliv.  5).  Two  uses  of  cups  or  the  like 
for  magical  purposes  have  obtained  in  the 
East  from  ancient  times.  In  one  use  either 
the  cup  itself  bears  engraved  inscriptions, 
supposed  to  have  a  magical  influence,  or  it 
is  plain,  and  such  inscriptions  are  written 
on  its  inner  surface  in  ink.  In  both  cases 
water  poured  into  the  cup  is  drunk  by  those 
wishing  to  derive  benefit,  as,  for.  instance, 
the  cure  of  diseases,  from  the  inscriptions, 


which,  if  written,  are  dissolved.  This  use, 
in  both  its  forms,  obtains  among  the  Arabs 
in  the  present  day.  In  the  other  use  the 
cup  or  bowl  was  of  very  secondary  impor- 
tance. It  was  merely  the  receptacle  for 
water,  in  which,  after  the  performance  of 
magical  rites,  a  boy  looked  to  see  what 
the  magician  desired.  This  is  precisely 
the  same  as  the  practice  of  the  modern 
Egyptian  magicians,  where  the  difference 
that  ink  is  employed  and  is  poured  into  the 
palm  of  the  boy's  hand  is  merely  accidentjil. 
As  this  latter  use  only  is  of  the  nature  of 
divination,  it  is  probable  that  to  it  Joseph 
referred.  The  magicians  of  Egypt  are 
spoken  of  as  a  class  in  the  histories  of  Jo- 
seph and  Moses.  When  Pharaoh's  officers 
were  troubled  by  their  dreams,  being  in 
prison  they  were  at  a  loss  for  an  interpre- 
ter. Before  Joseph  explained  the  dreams 
he  disclaimed  the  power  of  interpreting 
save  by  the  Divine  aid,  saying,  "  [Do]  not 
interpretations  [belong]  to  God?  tell  me 
[them],  I  pray  you"  (Gen.  xl.  8).  In  like 
manner  when  Pharaoh  had  his  two  dreams 
we  find  that  he  had  recourse  to  those  who 
professed  to  interpret  dreams.  Joseph,  be- 
ing sent  for  on  the  report  of  the  chief  of 
the  cup-bearers,  was  told  by  Pharaoh  that 
he  had  heard  that  he  could  interpret  a 
dream.  From  the  expectations  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Joseph's  disavowals,  we  see 
that  the  interpretation  of  dreams  was  a 
branch  of  the  knowledge  to  which  the  an- 
cient Egyptian  magicians  pretended.  We 
again  hear  of  the  magicians  of  Egypt  in 
tiie  narrative  of  the  events  before  the  Exo- 
dus. They  were  summoned  by  Pharaoh  to 
oppose  Moses.  The  account  of  what  they 
effected  requires  to  be  carefully  examined, 
from  its  bearing  on  the  question  whether 
magic  bean  imposture.  We  read:  ".And 
the  Lord  spake  unto  Moses  and  unto  Aaron, 
saying.  When  Pharaoh  shall  speak  unto 
you,  saying,  Show  a  miracle  for  you :  then 
thou  shalt  say  unto  Aaron,  Take  thy  rod,  and 
cast  [it]  before  Pharaoh,  [and]  it  shall  be- 
come a  serpent."  It  is  then  related  that 
Aaron  did  thus,  and  afterwards :  "  Then 
Pharaoh  also  called  the  wise  men  and  the 
enchanters  :  now  they,  the  scribes  of  Egypt, 
did  so  by  their  secret  arts :  for  they  cast 
down  every  man  his  rod,  and  they  became 
serpents,  but  Aaron's  rod  swallowed  up 
their  rods"  (Ex.  vii.  8-12).  The  rods 
were  probably  long  staves  like  those  rep- 
resented on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  not 
much  less  than  the  height  of  a  man.  If 
the  word  used  mean  here  a  serpent,  the 
Egyptian  magicians  may  have  feigned  a 
change  :  if  it  signify  a  crocodile,  they  could 
scarcely  have  done  so.  The  names  by 
which  the  magicians  are  designated  are  to 
be  noted.  That  which  we  render  "  scribes  " 
seems  here  to  have  a  general  signification, 
including  wise  men  and  enchanters.    Tlie 


MAGIC 


371 


MAGIC 


last  term  is  more  definite  in  its  meaning, 
denoting  users  of  incantations.  On  the 
occasion  of  the  first  plague,  the  turning 
the  rivers  and  waters  of  Egypt  into  blood, 
the  opposition  of  the  magicians  again  oc- 
curs. "  And  the  scribes  of  Egypt  did  so 
by  their  secret  arts  "  (vii.  22).  When  the 
second  plague,  that  of  frogs,  was  sent,  the 
magicians  again  made  the  same  opposition 
(viii.  7).  Once  more  they  appear  in  the 
history.  The  plague  of  lice  came,  and  we 
read  that  when  Aaron  had  worked  the  won- 
der the  magicians  opposed  him  :  "  And  the 
scribes  did  so  by  their  secret  arts  to  bring 
forth  the  lice,  but  they  could  not :  so  there 
were  lice  upon  man  and  upon  beast.  And 
the  scribes  said  unto  Pharaoh,  This  [is] 
the  finger  of  God ;  but  Pharaoh's  heart  was 
hardened,  and  he  hearkened  not  unto  them, 
as  the  Lord  had  said"  (viii.  18,  19,  Heb. 
14,  15).  After  this  we  hear  no  more  of 
the  magicians.  All  we  can  gather  from 
the  narrative  is,  that  the  appearances  pro- 
duced by  them  were  sufficient  to  deceive 
Pharaoh  on  three  occasions.  —  The  Law 
contains  very  distinct  prohibitions  of  all 
magical  arts.  Besides  several  passages 
condemning  them,  in  one  place  there  is  a 
specification  which  is  so  full  that  it  seems 
evident  that  its  object  is  to  include  every 
kind  of  magical  art.  The  Israelites  are 
commanded  in  the  place  referred  to  not  to 
learn  the  abominations  of  the  peoples  of 
the  Promised  Land.  Then  follows  this 
prohibition :  "  There  shall  not  be  found 
with  thee  one  who  offereth  his  son  or  his 
daughter  by  fire,  a  practiser  of  divinations 
(JcSs&m  kesdmim),  a  worker  of  hidden  arts 
(jne'dnen),  an  augurer  (menachSsh^,  an 
enchanter  (jnecAssMpK),  or  a  fabricator  of 
charms  (chdber  chdber),  or  an  inquirer  by 
a  familiar  spirit  (shdtl  db),  or  a  wizard 
(yidde'dnt),  ot  a  consulter  of  the  dead 
(ddrSsh  el  Jiammithim) ."  It  is  added  that 
these  are  abominations,  and  that  on  ac- 
count of  their  practice  the  nations  of  Canaan 
were  to  be  driven  out  (Deut.  xviii.  9-14, 
esp.  10,  11).  The  history  of  Balaam  shows 
the  belief  of  some  ancient  nations  in  the 
powers  of  soothsayers.  When  the  Israel- 
ites had  begun  to  conquer  the  Land  of 
Promise,  Balak  the  king  of  Moab  and  the 
elders  of  Midian,  resorting  to  Pharaoh's 
expedient,  sent  by  messengers  with  "  the 
rewards  of  divination  in  their  hands " 
(Num.  xxii.  7)  for  Balaam  the  diviner 
(Josh.  xiii.  22),  whose  fame  was  known  to 
them  though  he  dwelt  in  Aram.  Balak's 
message  shows  what  he  believed  Balaam's 
powers  to  be  (Num.  xxii.  5,  6).  We  are 
told,  however,  that  Balaam,  warned  of  God, 
first  said  that  he  could  not  speak  of  him- 
self, and  then  by  inspiration  blessed  those 
whom  he  had  been  sent  for  to  curse.  The 
account  of  Saul's  consulting  the  witch  of 
Endor  is  the  foremost  place  in  Scripture  of 


those  which  refer  to  magic.  The  super- 
natural terror,  with  which  it  is  full,  cannot, 
however,  be  proved  to  be  due  to  this  art, 
for  it  has  always  been  held  by  sober  critics 
that  the  appearing  of  Samuel  was  permitted 
for  the  purpose  of  declati'ing  the  doom  of 
Saul,  and  not  that  it  was  caused  by  the  in- 
cantations of  a  sorceress.  As,  however, 
the  narrative  is  allowed  to  be  very  difficult, 
we  may  look  for  a  moment  at  the  evidence 
of  its  authenticity.  The  details  are  strictly 
in  accordance  with  the  age :  there  is  a  sim- 
plicity in  the  manners  described  that  is 
foreign  to  a  later  time.  The  circum- 
stances are  agreeable  with  the  rest  of  the 
history,  and  especially  with  all  we  know 
of  Saul's  character.  Here,  as  ever,  he  is 
seen  resolved  to  gain  his  ends  without 
caring  what  wrong  he  does  :  he  wishes  to 
consult  a  prophet,  and  asks  a  witch  to  call 
up  his  shade.  From  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  this  strange  history  we  have  no 
warrant  for  attributing  supernatural  power 
to  magicians.  Viewed  reasonably,  it  refers 
to  the  question  of  apparitions  of  the  dead 
as  to  which  other  places  in  the  Bible  leave 
no  doubt.  The  connection  with  magic 
seems  purely  accidental.  The  witch  is  no 
more  than  a  bystander  after  the  first :  she 
sees  Samuel,  and  that  is  all.  The  appa- 
rition may  have  been  a  terrible  fulfilment 
of  Saul's  desire,  but  this  does  not  prove 
that  the  measures  he  used  were  of  any 
power.  We  have  examined  the  narrative 
very  carefully,  from  its  detail  and  its  re 
markable  character :  the  result  leaves  the 
main  question  unanswered.  In  the  later 
days  of  the  two  kingdoms  magical  prac- 
tices of  many  kinds  prevailed  among  the 
Hebrews,  as  we  especially  learn  from  the 
condemnation  of  them  by  the  prophets. 
Every  form  of  idolatry  which  the  peo- 
ple had  adopted  in  succession  doubtless 
brought  with  it  its  magic,  which  seems  al- 
ways to  have  remained  with  a  strange  tena- 
city that  probably  made  it  outlive  the  false 
worship  with  which  it  was  connected. 
Ezekiel,  as  we  should  have  expected, 
affords  some  remarkable  details  of  the 
magic  of  his  time,  in  the  clear  and  forcible 
descriptions  of  his  visions.  From  him  we 
learn  that  fetishism  was  among  the  idol- 
atries which  the  Hebrews,  in  the  latest  days 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  had  adopted 
from  their  neighbors,  like  the  Romans  in 
the  age  of  general  corruption  that  caused 
the  decline  of  their  empire  (viii.  7-12). 
This  idolatry  was  probably  borrowed  from 
Egypt,  for  the  description  perfectly  an- 
swers to  that  of  the  dark  sanctuaries  of 
Egyptian  temples,  with  the  sacred  animals 
portrayed  upon  their  walls,  and  does  not 
accord  with  the  character  of  the  Assyrian 
sculptures,  where  creeping  things  are  not 
represented  as  objects  of  worship.  With 
this  low  form  of  idolatry  an  equally  low 


MAGOG 


372 


MAHANAIM 


kind  of  magic  obtained,  practised  by  proph- 
etesses, who  for  small  rewards  made  amu- 
lets by  which  the  people  were  deceived 
(xiii.  17  ad  fin.).  The  notice  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's divination  by  arrows,  where  it  is 
said  "  he  shuffled  arrows  "  (xxi.  21),  must 
refer  to  a  practice  the  same  as  or  similar  to 
the  kind  of  divination  by  arrows  called  El- 
Meysar,  in  use  among  the  pagan  Arabs, 
and  forbidden  in  the  Kur-An.  After  the 
Captivity  it  is  probable  that  the  Jews  grad- 
ually abandoned  the  practice  of  magic.  In 
the  N.  T.  we  read  very  little  of  magic. 
Our  Lord  is  not  said  to  have  been  opposed 
by  magicians,  and  the  Apostles  and  other 
early  teachers  of  the  Gospel  seem  to  have 
rarely  encountered  them.  Philip  the  dea- 
con, when  he  preached  at  Samaria,  found 
there  Simon,  a  famous  magician,  commonly 
known  as  Simon  Magus,  who  had  had  great 
power  over  the  people ;  but  he  is  not  said 
to  have  been  able  to  work  wonders,  nor, 
had  it  been  so,  is  it  likely  that  he  would 
have  soon  been  admitted  into  the  Church 
(viii.  9-24).  Our  examination  of  the  vari- 
ous notices  of  magic  in  the  Bible  gives  us 
this  general  result :  They  do  not,  as  far  as 
we  can  understand,  once  state  positively 
that  any  but  illusive  results  were  produced 
by  magical  rites.  They  therefore  afford  no 
evidence  that  man  can  gain  supernatural 
powers  to  use  at  his  will.  This  conse- 
quence goes  some  way  towards  showing 
that  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  no  snch 
thing  as  real  magic ;  for  although  it  is  dan- 
gerous to  reason  on  negative  evidence,  yet 
in  a  case  of  this  kind  it  is  especially  strong. 
[Divination;  Magi.] 

Ma'gOg.  In  Gen.  x.  2  Magog  appears 
as  the  second  son  of  Japheth  in  connection 
with  Gomer  (the  Cimmerians)  and  Madai 
(the  Medes)  :  in  Ez.  xxxviii.  2,  xxxix.  1,  6, 
it  appears  as  a  country  or  people  of  which 
Gog  was  the  prince,  in  coiy  unction  with 
Meshech  (the  Moschici),  Tubal  (the  Tiba- 
reni),  and  Rosh  (the  Roxolani).  In  the 
latter  of  these  senses  there  is  evidently  im- 
plied an  etymological  connection  between 
Gog  and  Ma-gog,  the  Ma  being  regarded 
by  Ezekiel  as  a  prefix  significant  of  a  coun- 
try. In  this  case  Gog  contains  the  original 
element  of  the  name,  which  may  possibly 
have  its  origin  in  some  Persian  root.  The 
notices  of  Magog  would  lead  us  to  fix  a 
northern  locality :  it  is  expressly  stated  by 
Ezekiel  that  he  was  to  come  up  from  "  the 
sides  of  the  north"  (xxxix.  2),  from  a 
country  adjacent  to  that  of  Togarmah  or 
Armenia  (xxxviii.  6),  and  not  far  from 
"  the  isles  "  or  maritime  regions  of  Europe 
(xxxix.  6).  The  people  of  Magog  further  ap- 
pear as  having  a  force  of  cavalry  (xxxviii. 
15),  and  as  armed  with  the  bow  (xxxix.  3). 
Erom  the  above  data,  we  may  conclude 
that  Magog  represents  the  important  race 
of  the  Scythians. 


I      Ma'gor-mis'sabib,   literally,  "terror 

I  on  every  side ;  "  the  name  given  by  Jere- 
miah  to  Pashur  the  priest,  when  he  smote 

I  him  and  put  him  in  the  stocks  for  proph- 
esying against  the  idolatry  of  Jerusalem 

!  (Jer.  XX.  3). 

Mag'piash,  one  of  the  heads  of  the  peo- 

!  pie  who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 

I  (Neh.   X.  20).     The  same  as  Magbish  in 

\  Ezr.  ii.  30. 

I     Ma'halah,  one  of  the  three  children  of 

'  Hammoleketh,  the  sister  of  Gilead  (1  Chr. 

I  vii.  18). 

I      Mahal'aleel.    1.  The  fourth  in  descent 

i  from  Adam,  according  to  the  Sethite  gene- 
alogy, and  son  of  Cainan  (Gen.  v.  12,  13, 

I  15-17;  1  Chr.  i.  2).  2.  A  descendant  of 
Perez,  or  Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah  (Neh. 
xi.  4). 

Ma'halath,  the  daughter  of  Ishmael, 
and  one  of  the  wives  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxviii. 
9). 

Ma'halath.,  one  of  the  eighteen  wives 
of  king  Rehoboam,  apparently  his  first  (2 
Chr.  xi.  18  only).  She  was  her  husband's 
Cousin,  being  the  daughter  of  king  David's 
son  Jerimoth. 

Ma'halatll,  the  title  of  Ps.  liii.,  and 
Ma'halath-lean'noth,  the  title  of  Ps. 
Ixxxviii.  The  meaning  of  these  words  is 
uncertain.  The  conjecture  is,  that  Maha- 
lath  is  a  guitar,  and  that  Leannoth  has 
reference  to  the  character  of  the  Psalm, 
and  might  be  rendered  *'  to  humble,  or 
afflict,"  in  which  sense  the  root  occurs  in 
ver.  7. 

Ma'hali,  Mahli,  the  son  of  Merari. 
His  name  occurs  in  the  A.  V.  but  once  in 
this  form  (Ex.  vi.  19). 

Mahana'im,  a  town  on  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  signifying  two  hosts  or  two  camps,  a 
name  given  to  it  by  Jacob,  because  he  there 
met  "  the  angels  of  God  "  (Gen.  xxxii.  1,  2). 
We  next  meet  with  it  in  the,records  of  the 
conquest  (Josh.  xiii.  26  and  29).  It  was 
within  the  territory  of  Gad  (Josh.  xxi.  38, 
89),  and  therefore  on  the  south  side  of  the 
torrent  Jabbok.  The  town  with  its  "  sub- 
urbs "  was  allotted  to  the  service  of  the 
Merarite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  39 ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  80).  From  some  cause  —  the  sanctity 
of  its  original  foundation,  or  the  strength 
of  its  position  —  Mahan.iim  had  become  in 
the  time  of  the  monarchy  a  place  of  mark 
(2  Sam.  ii.  9, 12,  iv.  6).  The  same  causes 
which  led  Abner  to  fix  Ishbosheth's  resi- 
dence at  Mahanaim  probably  induced  David 
to  take  refuge  there  when  driven  out  of  the 
western  part  of  his  kingdom  by  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  24;  IK.  ii.  8).  Mahanaim 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  Solomon's  commis- 
sariat officers  (1  K.  iv.  14) ;  and  it  is  al- 
luded to  in  the  Song  which  bears  his  name 
(vi.  13).  There  is  a  place  called  Mahneh 
among  the  villages  of  the  east  of  Jordan, 
though  its  exact  position  is  not  certain. 


MAHANEH-DAN 


373 


MALACHI 


Ma'haueh-dan  (the  "camp-of-Dan  "), 
the  position  of  which  is  specified  with  great 
precibion,  as  *'  behind  Kirjath-jearim  " 
(Judg.  xviii.  12),  and  as  "  between  Zorah 
and  Eshtaol  "  (xiii.  25). 

Mahar'ai  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  28 ;  1  Chr.  xi. 
30,  xxvii.  13),  an  inhabitant  of  Netophah  in 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  one  of  David's  cap- 
tains. 

Ma'hath.  1.  The  son  of  Amasai,  a 
Kohathite  of  the  house  of  Korah  (1  Chr.  vi. 
35).  2.  Also  a  Kohathite,  son  of  Amasai, 
hi  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  12). 
He  was  apparently  the  same  who  is  men- 
tioned 2  Chr.  xxxi.  13. 

Ma'havite,  The,  the  designation  of 
Eliel,  one  of  the  warriors  of  king  David's 
guard,  whose  name  is  preserved  in  the  cata- 
logue of  1  Chr.  only  (xi.  46). 

Mahaz'ioth,  one  of  the  14  sons  of  He- 
man  the  Kohathite  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4,  30). 

Ma'her-sha'lal-hash-baz,  i.  e.  has- 
ten-booty,  speed-spoil,  whose  name  was 
given  by  Divine  direction,  to  indicate  that 
Damascus  and  Samaria  were  soon  to  be 
plundered  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (Is.  viii. 
1-4). 

Mahlah,  the  eldest  of  the  five  daughters 
of  Zelophehad,  the  grandson  of  Manasseh 
(Num.  xxvii.  1-11). 

Mah'li.  1.  Son  of  Merari,  the  son  of 
Levi,  and  ancestor  of  the  family  of  the 
Mahlites  (Num.  iii.  20 ;  1  Chr.  vi.  19,  29, 
xxiv.  26).  2.  Son  of  Mushi,  and  grand- 
son of  Merari  (1  Chr.  vi.  47,  xxiii.  23,  xxiv. 
30). 

Mah'lon,  the  first  husband  of  Ruth. 
Hf  and  his  brother  Chilion  were  sons  of 
Elimelech  and  Naomi,  and  are  described 
as  "  Ephrathites  of  Bethlehem-judah  (Ruth 
i.  2,  5 ;  iv.  9,  10;  comp.  1  Sam.  xvii.  12). 

Ma'hol,  the  father  of  Ethan  the  Ez- 
rahite,  and  Heman,  Chalcol,  and  Darda, 
the  four  men  most  famous  for  wisdom  next 
to  Solomon  himself  (1  K.  iv.  31),  who  in  1 
Chr.  ii.  6  are  the  sons  and  immediate  de- 
scendants of  Zerah. 

Ma'kaz,  a  place,  apparently  a  town, 
named  once  only  (1  K.  iv.  9),  in  the  speci- 
fication of  the  jurisdiction  of  Solomon's 
commissariat  officer,  Ben-Dekar.  Makaz 
has  not  been  discovered. 

Maklie'loth,  a  place  only  mentioned 
in  Num.  xxxiii.  25  as  that  of  a  desert  en- 
campment of  the  IsraeUtes. 

Makke'dah,  a  place  memorable  in  the 
annals  of  the  conquest  of  Canaan  as  the 
scene  of  the  execution  by  Joshua  of  the  five 
confederate  kings  (Josh.  x.  10-30) .  It  un- 
questionably occurred  in  the  afternoon  of 
that  tremendous  day,  which  "  was  like  no 
day  before  or  after  it."  After  the  execution 
of  the  chiefs  Joshua  turns  to  the  town  itself. 
To  force  the  walls,  to  put  the  king  and  all 
the  ioliabitants  to  the  sword  (ver.  28),  is  to 


that  indomitable  energy,  still  fresh  after  the 
gigantic  labors  and  excitements  of  the  last 
twenty -four  hours,  the  work  of  an  hour  or 
two.  And  now  the  evening  has  arrived,  the 
sun  is  at  last  sinking, —  the  first  sun  that  has 
set  since  the  departure  from  Gilgal,  — and, 
the  tragedy  is  terminated  by  cutting  down 
the  five  bodies  from  the  trees,  and  restoring 
them  to  the  cave,  which  is  then  so  blocked 
up  with  stones  as  henceforth  never  again  to 
become  refuge  for  friend  or  foe  of  Israel. 
The  taking  of  Makkedah  was  the  first  in 
that  series  of  sieges  and  destructions  by 
which  the  Great  Captain  possessed  himself 
of  the  main  points  of  defence  throughout 
this  portion  of  the  country.  The  catalogue 
of  the  cities  of  Judah  in  Joshua  (xv.  41) 
place  it  in  the  maritime  plain,  but  its  site 
is  uncertain. 

Mak'tesh.,  a  place,  evidently  in  Jeru- 
salem, the  inhabitants  of  which  are  de- 
nounced by  Zephaniah  (i.  11).  Ewald 
conjectures  that  it  was  the  "  Phoenician 
quarter "  of  the  city.  The  meaning  of 
"  Maktesh  "  is  probably  a  deep  hollow,  lit- 
erally a  "  mortar."  This  the  Targum  iden- 
tifies with  the  torrent  Kedron. 

Mal'achi  (that  is,  the  angel  or  messen- 
ger of  Jehovah)  is  the  last,  and  is  therefore 
called  "  the  seal "  of  the  prophets,  and  his 
prophecies  constitute  the  closing  book  of 
the  canon.  Of  his  personal  history  nothing 
is  known.  That  Malachi  was  contemporary 
with  Nehemiah  is  rendered  probable  by  a 
comparison  of  ii.  8  with  Neh.  xiii.  15;  ii. 
10-16  with  Neh.  xiii.  23,  &c. ;  and  iii.  7-12 
with  Neh.  xiii.  10,  &c.  That  he  prophesied 
after  the  times  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  is 
inferred  from  his  omitting  to  mention  the 
restoration  of  the  Temple,  and  from  no 
allusion  being  made  to  him  by  Ezra.  The 
captivity  was  already  a  thing  of  the  long 
past,  and  is  not  referred  to.  The  existence 
of  the  Temple-service  is  presupposed  in  i. 
10,  iii.  1,  10.  The  Jewish  nation  had  still 
a  political  chief  (i.  8),  distinguished  by  the 
same  title  as  that  borne  by  Nehemiah  (Neh, 
xii.  26) .  Hence  we  may  conclude  that  Mal- 
achi delivered  his  prophecies  after  the  sec- 
ond return  of  Nehemiah  from  Persia  (Neh. 
xiii.  6),  and  subsequently  to  the  32d  year 
of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (b.  c.  420). 
From  the  striking  parallelism  between  the 
state  of  things  indicated  in  Malachi's  proph- 
ecies and  that  actually  existing  on  Nehe- 
miah's  return  from  the  court  of  Artaxerxes, 
it  is  on  all  accounts  highly  probable  that 
the  efforts  of  the  secular  governor  were  on 
this  occasion  seconded  by  the  preaching  of 
"  Jehovah's  messenger,"  and  that  Malachi 
occupied  the  same  position  with  regard  to 
the  reformation  under  Nehemiah,  which 
Isaiah  held  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  and 
Jeremiah  in  that  of  Josiah.  The  last  chap- 
ter of  canonical  Jewish  history  is  the  key 


MALCHAM 


374 


MANAEN 


lo  the  last  chapter  of  its  prophecy.  The 
whole  prophecy  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  sections,  in  the  first  of  which  Jehovah 
is  represented  as  the  loving  father  and  ruler 
of  His  people  (i.  2-ii.  9)  ;  in  the  second,  as 
the  supreme  God  and  Father  of  all  (ii.  10- 
16)  ;  and  in  the  third,  as  their  righteous  and 
final  Judge  (ii.  17-end).  The  prophecy  of 
Malachi  is  alluded  to  in  the  N.  T.  (comp. 
Mark  i.  2,  ix.  11,  12;  Luke  i.  17;  Rom. 
ix.  13). 

Mal'cham.  1.  One  of  the  heads  of 
the  fathers  of  Benjamin,  and  son  of  Shaha- 
raim  by  his  wife  Hodcsh  (1  Chr.  viii.  9). 
2.  The  idol  Molech,  as  some  suppose  (Zeph. 
i.  5).  The  word  literally  signifies  "  their 
king,"  as  the  margin  of  our  version  gives 
it,  and  is  referred  by  Gesenius  to  an  idol 
generally,  as  invested  with  regal  honors  by 
its  worshippers. 

Malchl'all.  1.  A  descendant  of  Ger- 
shom,  the  son  of  Levi,  and  ancestor  of 
Asaph  the  minstrel  (1  Chr.  vi.  40).  2.  One 
of  the  sons  of  Parosh,  who  had  married  a 
foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  25).  3.  Enumerated 
among  the  sons  of  Harim,  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  31).  4.  Son  of  Re- 
chab,  and  ruler  of  the  circuit  or  environs 
of  Bethhaccerem  (Neh.  iii.  14).  5.  "The 
goldsmith's  son,"  who  assisted  Nehemiah 
in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  31).  6.  One  of  the  priests  who  stood 
at  the  left  hand  of  Ezra  when  he  read  the 
law  to  the  people  in  the  street  before  the 
water-gate  (Neh.  viii.  4).  7-  A  priest,  the 
father  of  Pashur  =  Malchijah  1  (Neh.  xi. 
12;  Jer.  xxxviii.  1).  8.  The  son  of  Ham- 
xnelech  (or  "  the  king's  son,"  as  it  is  trans- 
lated in  1  K.  xxii.  26 ;  2  Chr.  xxviii.  7),  into 
whose  dungeon  or  cistern  Jeremiah  was 
cast  (Jer.  xxxviii.  6).  It  would  seem  that 
the  title  "king's  son"  was  official,  like  that 
of  "  king's  mother,"  and  applied  to  one  of 
the  royal  family,  who  exercised  functions 
somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Potiphar  in 
the  court  of  Pharaoh. 

Mal'chiel  (Gen.  xlvi.  17),  the  son  of 
Beriah,  the  son  of  Asher,  and  ancestor  of 
the  family  of  theMALCHiELixES  (Num.  xxvi. 
45).  In  1  Chr.  vii.  31  he  is  called  the 
father,  that  is,  founder,  of  Birzavith. 

Malchi'jah.  1.  A  priest,  the  father  of 
Pashur  (1  Chr.  ix.  12) ;  the  same  as  Mal- 
CHiAH  7,  and  Melchiah.  2.  A  priest,  chief 
of  the  fifth  of  the  twenty-four  courses  ap- 
pointed by  David  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  9).  3.  A 
layman  of  the  sons  of  Parosh,  who  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  25).  4.  Son,  that 
is,  descendant,  of  Harim  (Neh.  iii.  11).  5. 
One  of  the  priests  who  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  3).  6.  One  of 
the  priests  who  assisted  in  the  solemn  dedi- 
cation of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  42). 

MalcM'ram,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jeco- 
niah,  or  Jehoiachin  (1  Clir.  iii.  18). 


i  Mal'chi-shu'a,  one  of  the  sons  of  king 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49,  xxxi.  2;  1  Chr.  viii. 
33,  ix.  39). 

Mal'ch.us,  the  name  of  the  servant  of 
the  high-priest  whose  riglit  ear  Peter  cut 
off  at  the  time  of  the  Saviour's  apprelien- 
sion  in  the  garden  (Matt.  xxvi.  51 ;  Mark 
xiv.  47;  Luke  xxii.  49-51;  John  xviii.  10). 
He  was  the  personal  servant  of  the  high- 
priest,  and  not  one  of  the  bailiffs  or  appari- 
tors of  the  Sanhedrim.  It  is  noticeable 
that  Luke  the  physician  is  the  only  one  of 
the  writers  who  mentions  the  act  of  healing. 

Mal'eleel,  Mahalaleel,  the  son  of 
Cainan  (Luke  iii.  37 ;  Gen.  v.  12,  marg.). 

Mal'lothi,  a  Kohathite,  one  of  the  foui^ 
teen  sons  of  Heman  the  singer  (1  Chr.  xxv. 
4,  26). 

Mallows  (Job  XXX.  4).  By  the  Hebrew 
word  malluach  we  are  no  doubt  to  under- 
stand some  species  of  Orache,  and  in  all 
probability  the  AtripUx  halimus  of  botSr 
nists. 

Malluch.  1.  A  Levite  of  the  family 
of  Merari,  and  ancestor  of  Ethan  the  singer 
(1  Chr.  vi.  44).  2.  One  of  the  sons -of 
Bani  (Ezr.  x.  29),  and,  3.  One  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Harim  (Ezr.  x.  32),  who  had 
married  foreign  wives.  4.  A  priest  or  fam- 
ily of  priests  (Neh.  x.  4),  and,  5.  One  of 
the  "  heads  "  of  the  people  who  signed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  27).  6. 
One  of  the  families  of  priests  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  2) ;  probably 
the  same  as  No.  4. 

Mamai'as,  apparently  the  same  with 
Shemaiaii  in  Ezr.  viii.  16. 

Mam'mon  (Matt.  vi.  24;  Luke  xvi.  9), 
a  word  which  often  occurs  in  the  Chaldee 
Targums  of  Onkelos,  and  later  writers,  and 
in  the  Syriac  Version,  and  which  signifies 
"  riches."  It  is  used  in  St.  Matthew  as  a 
personification  of  riches. 

Mam're,  an  ancient  Amorite,  who  with 
his  brothers,  Eshcol  and  Aner  was  in  alli- 
ance with  Abram  (Gen.  xiv.  13,  24),  and 
under  the  shade  of  whose  oak-grove  the 
patriarch  dwelt  in  the  interval  between  his 
residence  at  Bethel  and  at  Beersheba  (xiii. 
18,  xviii.  1).  In  the  subsequent  chapters 
Mamre  is  a  mere  local  appellation  (xxiii. 
17,  19,  xxv.  9,  xlix.  30,  1.  13). 

Man.  Four  Hebrew  terms  are  ren- 
dered "  man"  in  the  A.  V.  1.  Adam.  The 
name  of  the  man  created  in  the  image  of 
God.  It  appears  to  be  derived  from  Adam, 
"  he  or  it  was  red  or  ruddy,"  like  Edom.  2. 
Ish,  "  man,","  woman,"  "  men."  3.  Geher, 
"  a  man,"  from  gdbar,  "to  be  strong," 
generally  with  reference  to  his  strength.  4. 
MSthim,  "  men,"  always  masculine.  Per- 
haps it  may  be  derived  from  the  root  mAth, 
"  he  died." 

Man'aen  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xiii.  1  as 
one  of  the  teachers  and  prophets  in  the 
church  at  Antioch  at  the  time  of  the  appoints 


MANAHATH 


375 


MANASSEH 


ment  of  Saul  and  Barnabas  as  missionaries 
to  the  heathen.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
brought  up  ((irrtgotpos)  with  Herod,  that  is, 
Herod  Antipas.  There  are  two  interpreta- 
tions of  oitTpocfio?  ;  one,  that  it  means  edu- 
cated with  another;  and  the  second,  that  it 
denotes  foster-brother,  brought  up  at  the 
same  breast,  so  that  Manaen's  mother  would 
have  been  also  Herod's  nurse. 

Man'ahatll,  a  place  named  in  1  Chr. 
viii.  6  only,  in  connection  with  the  geneal- 
ogies of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 

Man'ahath,  one  of  the  sons  of  Shobal, 
and  descendant  of  Sfcr  the  Horite  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  23;  1  Chr.  i.  40). 

Mana'hethites,  The.  "Half  the 
Manahethites  "  are  named  in  the  genealo- 
gies of  Judah  as  descended  from  Shobal, 
the  father  of  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Chr.  ii.  52), 
and  half  from  Salma,  the  founder  of  Beth- 
lehem (ver.  54). 

Manas'seh,  that  is,  forgetting,  the  eld- 
est son  of  Joseph,  by  his  wife  Asenath  (Gen. 
xli.  51,  xlvi.  20),  so  called  by  Joseph  be- 
cause "  God  hath-made-me-forget  all  my 
toil  and  all  my  father's  house."  Both  he 
and  Ephraim  were  bom  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  famine.  Whether  the 
elder  of  the  tw  o  sons  was  inferior  in  form 
or  promise  to  the  younger,  or  whether 
there  was  any  external  reason  to  justify  the 
preference  of  Jacob,  we  are  not  told. 
[Etheaim.]  The  position  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  during  the  march  to  Canaan  was 
with  Ephraim  and  Benjamin  on  the  west 
side  of  the  sacred  Tent.  The  chief  of  the 
tribe  at  the  time  of  the  census  at  Sinai  was 
Gamaliel  ben-Pedahzur,  and  its  numbers 
were  then  32,200  (Num.  i.  10,  35,  ii.  20,  21, 
vii.  54-59).  In  the  division  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land  half  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
settled  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  district 
embracing  the  hills  of  Gilead  with  their  in- 
accessible heights  and  impassable  ravines, 
and  the  almost  impregnable  tract  of  Argob 
(Josh.  xiii.  29-33).  Here  they  throve  ex- 
ceedingly, pushing  their  way  northward 
over  the  rich  plains  of  Jauldn  and  Jediir  to 
the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon  (1  Chr.  v.  23). 
But  they  gradually  assimilated  themselves 
to  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and 
on  them  descended  the  punishment  which 
was  ordained  to  be  the  inevitable  conse- 
quence of  such  misdoing.  They,  first  of 
all  Israel,  were  carried  away  by  Pul  and 
Tiglath-Pileser,  and  settled  in  the  Assyrian 
territories  (1  Chr.  v.  25,  26).  The  other 
half  tribe  settled  to  the  west  of  the  Jordan, 
north  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvii.).  For  fur- 
ther particulars  see  Ephraim. 

Manas'seh.  1.  The  thirteenth  king 
of  Judah,  son  of  Hezekiah  and  Hephzibah 
(2  K.  xxi  1),  ascended  the  throne  at  the 
age  of  12.  His  accession  was  the  signal 
for  an  entire  change  in  the  religious  admin- 
istration of  the    kingdom.     Idolatry  was 


again  established,  and  he  consecrated  idol- 
atrous altars  in  the  Sanctuary  itself  (2  Chr. 
xxxiii.  4).  Every  faith  was  tolerated  but 
tlie  old  faith  of  Israel.  This  was  aban- 
doned and  proscribed.  The  aged  Isaiah, 
according  to  the  old  Jewish  tradition,  was 
put  to  death.  [Isaiah.]  But  the  perse- 
cution did  not  stop  there.  It  attacked  the 
whole  order  of  the  true  prophets,  and  those 
who  followed  them.  Retribution  came  soon 
in  the  natural  sequence  of  events.  The 
Babylonian  alliance,  which  the  king  had 
formed,  bore  the  fruits  which  had  been  pre- 
dicted. The  rebellion  of  Merodach-Bala- 
dan  was  crushed,  and  then  the  wrath  of  the 
Assyrian  king  fell  on  those  who  had  sup- 
ported him.  Judaea  was  again  overrun 
by  the  Assyrian  arjpies,  and  this  time  the 
invasion  was  more  successful  than  that  of 
Sannacherib.  The  city  apparently  was 
taken.  The  king  himself  was  made  pris- 
oner and  carried  off  to  Babylon  in  the  22d 
year  of  his  reign,  according  to  a  Jewish  tra- 
dition. There  his  eyes  were  opened,  and 
he  repented,  and  his  prayer  was  heard,  and 
the  Lord  delivered  him  (2  Chr.  xxiii.  12, 13). 
The  period  that  followed  is  dwelt  upon  by 
the  writer  of  2  Chr.  as  one  of  a  great  change 
for  the  better.  The  compassion  or  death  of 
Esarhaddon  led  to  his  release,  and  he  re- 
turned after  some  uncertain  interval  of  time 
to  Jerusalem.  The  old  faith  of  Israel  was  no 
longer  persecuted.  Foreign  idolatries  were 
no  longer  thrust,  in  all  their  foulness,  into  the 
Sanctuary  itself.  The  altar  of  the  Lord 
was  again  restored,  and  peace-offerings  and 
thank-offerings  sacrificed  to  Jeliovah  (2 
Chr.  xxxiii.  15,  16).  But  beyond  this  the 
reformation  did  not  go.  The  other  facts 
known  of  Manasseh's  reign  connect  them- 
selves with  the  state  of  the  world  round 
him.  The  Assyrian  monarchy  was  totter- 
ing to  its  fall,  and  the  king  of  Judah  seems 
to  have  thought  that  it  was  still  possible 
for  him  to  rule  as  the  head  of  a  strong  and 
independent  kingdom.  He  fortified  Jeru- 
salem (2  Chr.  xxvii.  3),  and  put  captains 
of  war  in  all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah. 
There  was,  it  must  be  remembered,  a  spe- 
cial reason.  Egypt  was  become  strong  and 
aggressive  under  Psammitichus.  About 
this  time  we  find  the  thought  of  an  Egyptian 
alliance  again  beginning  to  gain  favor.  •The 
very  name  of  Manasseh's  son.  Anion,  iden- 
tical in  form  and  sound  with  that  of  the 
great  sun-god  of  Egypt,  is  probably  an  in- 
dication of  the  gladness  with  whicn  the  al- 
liance of  Psammitichus  was  welcomed.  As 
one  of  its  consequences,  it  involved  prob- 
ably the  supply  of  troops  from  Judah  to 
serve  in  the  armies  of  the  Egyptian  king. 
If  this  was  the  close  of  Manasseli's  reign, 
we  can  understand  how  it  was  that  on  his 
death  he  was  buried  as  Ahaz  had  been,  not 
with  the  burial  of  a  king,  in  the  sepulchres 
of  the  house  of  David,  but  in  the  garden  of 


MANASSES 


»76 


MANNA. 


Uzza  (2  K.  xxi.  26),  and  that  long  after- 
wards, in  spite  of  his  repentance,  the  Jews 
held  his  name  in  abhorrence.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Amon,  b.  c.  642.  Little 
is  added  by  later  tradition  to  the  O.  T.  nar- 
rative of  Manasseh's  reign.  The  prayer 
that  bears  his  name  in  the  Apocrypha  can- 
not be  considered  as  identical  with  that  re- 
ferred to  in  2  Chr.  xxxiii.  The  original  is 
extant  in  Greek,  and  is  probably  the  result 
of  an  attempt  to  work  out  the  hint  there 
supplied  rather  than  the  reproduction  of  an 
older  document.  2.  One  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Pahath-Moab,  who  in  the  days  of 
Ezra  had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x. 
30).  3.  One  of  the  laymen,  of  the  family 
of  Hashum,  who  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
at  Ezra's  command  (Ezr.  X.  33).  4.  In  the 
Hebrew  text  of  Judg.  jJviii.  30  the  name  of 
the  priest  of  the  graven  image  of  the  Danites 
is  given  as  "  Jonathan,  the  son  of  Gershom, 
the  son  of  Manasseh." 

Manas'^es.  1.  Maxasseh,  king  of 
Judah  (Matt.  i.  10),  to  whom  the  apocryphal 
prayer  is  attributed.  2.  Manasseh,  the  son 
of  Joseph  (Rev.  vii.  6). 

Manasses,  The  Prayer  of.  The 
repentance  and  restoration  of  Manasseh  (2 
Chr.  xxxiii.  12,  ff.)  furnished  the  subject 
of  many  legendary  stories.  "  His  prayer 
unto  his  God"  was  still  preserved  "in  the 
book  of  the  kings  of  Israel"  when  the 
Chronicles  were  compiled  (2  Chr.  xxxiii. 
18),  and,  after  this  record  was  lost,  the  sub- 
ject was  likely  to  attract  the  notice  of  later 
writers.  "  The  Prayer  of  Manasseh,"  which 
is  found  in  some  MSS.  of  the  LXX.,  is  the 
work  of  one  who  has  endeavored  to  express, 
not  without  true  feeling,  the  thoughts  of  the 
repentant  king. 

Manas'sites,  The,  that  is,  the  members 
of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh.  The  word  occurs 
but  thrice  in  the  A.  V.,  viz.  Deut.  iv.  43 ; 
Judg.  xii.  4 ;  and  2  K.  x.  33. 

Mandrakes  (Heb.  duddtm)  are  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  xxx.  14,  15,  16,  and  in  Cant, 
vii.  13.  From  the  former  passage  we  learn 
that  they  were  found  in  the  fields  of  Meso- 
potamia, where  Jacob  and  his  wives  were 
at  one  time  living,  and  tliat  the  fruit  was 
gathered  "  in  the  days  of  wheat-harvest," 
i.  c.  in  May.  From  Cant.  vii.  13  we  learn 
thatjthe  plant  in  question  was  strong-scent- 
ed, and  that  it  grew  in  Palestine.  The 
translation  in  the  A.  V.  is  probably  correct. 
It  has  been  objected  that  the  mandrake  is 
far  from  odoriferous,  the  whole  plant  being, 
in  European  estimation  at  all  events,  very 
fetid.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  well 
known  tliat  the  mandrakes  are  prized  by 
the  Arabs  for  their  odor,  and  that  Orien- 
tals set  an  especial  value  on  strongly-smell- 
ing things  that  to  more  delicate  European 
senses  are  unpleasing.  That  the  fruit  was 
fit  to  be  gathered  at  the  time  of  wheat-har- 
Test  is  clear  from  the  testimony  of  several 


travellers.  Schultze  found  mandrake-ap- 
ples on  the  15th  of  May.  Hasselquist  saw 
them  at  Nazareth  early  in  May.  Dr.  Thom- 
son found  mandrakes  ripe  on  the  lower 


Tkm  Mamdnk*  (Atropa  Mwutraoora). 

ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Hermon  towards 
the  end  of  April.  The  mandrake  (^Atropa 
mandragora)  is  closely  allied  to  the  w^ll- 
known  deadly  nightshade  (.4.  belladonna), 
and  belongs  to  the  order  Solanaceae. 
Ma'neh.  [Weights  and  Measctres.] 
Manger.  This  word  occurs  only  in 
connection  with  the  birth  of  Christ  in  Luke 
ii.  7,  12,  16.  The  original  term  is  yorvij, 
which  is  found  but  once  besides  in  the  N.  T., 
viz.  Luke  xiii.  15,  where  it  is  rendered  by 
"stall."  The  word  in  classical  Greek  un» 
doubtedly  means  a  manger,  crib,  or  feeding 
trough ;  but  according  to  Schleusner  its 
real  signification  in  the  N.  T.  is  the  open 
court-yard,  attached  to  the  inn  or  khan,  into 
which  the  cattle  would  be  shut  at  night,  and 
where  the  poorer  travellers  might  unpack 
their  animals  and  take  up  their  lodging, 
when  they  were  either  by  want  of  room  or 
want  of  means  excluded  from  the  house. 

Manna  (Heb.  man).  The  most  impor- 
tant passages  of  the  O.  T.  on  tliis  topic  are 
the  following:  Ex.  xvi.  14-36;  Num.  xi. 
7-9;  Deut.  viii.  3,  16;  Josh.  v.  12;  Ps, 
Ixxviii.  24,  25 ;  Wisd.  xvi.  20,  21.  From 
these  passages  we  learn  that  the  rffani^ii 


MANNA 


377 


MANTLE 


came  every  morning  except  the  Sabbath, 
in  the  form  of  a  small  round  seed  resem- 
bling the  hoar  frost ;  that  it  must  be  gath- 
ered early,  before  the  sun  became  so  hot  as 
to  melt  it ;  that  it  must  be  gathered  every 
day  except  the  Sabbath ;  that  the  attempt 
to  lay  aside  for  a  succeeding  day,  except 
on  the  day  immediately  preceding  the  Sab- 
bat] i,  failed  by  the  substance  becoming 
wormy  and  offensive ;  that  it  was  prepared 
for  food  by  grinding  and  baking;  that  its 
taste  was  like  fresh  oil,  and  like  wafers 
made  with  honey,  equally  agreeable  to  all 
palates ;  that  the  whole  nation  subsisted 
upon  it  for  forty  years ;  that  it  suddenly 
ceased  when  they  first  got  the  new  corn 
of  the  land  of  Canaan ;  and  that  it  was  al- 
ways regarded  as  a  miraculous  gift  directly 
from  God,  and  not  as  a  product  of  nature. 
The  natural  products  of  the  Arabian  deserts 
and  other  Oriental  regions,  which  bear  the 
name  of  manna,  have  not  the  qualities  or 


TmmaHx  OtMeeL. 

uses  ascribed  to  the  manna  of  Scripture. 
The  manna  of  Scripture  we  regard  as 
wholly  miraculous,  and  not  in  any  respect 
a  product  of  nature.     The  Hebrew  word 


mdn,  by  which  this  substance  is  always 
designated  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  is 
the  neuter  interrogative  pronoun  (what?)  ; 
and  the  name  is  derived  from  the  inquiry 
(mdn  hu,  what  is  this?)  which  the  He- 
brews made  when  they  first  saw  it  upon 
the  ground.  The  substance  now  called 
manna  in  the  Arabian  desert  through  which 
the  Israelites  passed,  is  collected  in  the 
month  of  June  from  the  tarfa  or  tamarisk 
shrub  (Tamarix  gallica).  According  to 
Burckhardt  it  drops  from  the  thorns  on  the 
sticks  and  leaves  with  which  the  ground  is 
covered,  and  must  be  gathered  early  in  the 
day,  or  it  will  be  melted  by  the  sun.  The 
Arabs  cleanse  and  boil  it,  strain  it  through 
a  cloth,  and  put  it  in  leathern  bottles  ;  and 
in  this  way  it  can  be  kept  uninjured  for 
several  years.  They  use  it  like  honey  or 
butter  with  their  unleavened  bread,  but 
never  make  it  into  cakes  or  eat  it  by  it- 
self. The  manna  of  European  commerce 
comes  mostly  from  Calabria  and  Sicily.  It 
is  gathered  during  the  months  of  June  and 
July  from  some  species  of  ash  {Omus 
Europaea  and  Ornus  rotundifolid) ,  from' 
which  it  drops  in  consequence  of  a  punc- 
ture by  an  insect  resembling  the  locust, 
but  distinguished  from  it  by  having  a  sling 
under  its  body.  The  substance  is  fluid  at 
night,  and  resembles  the  dew,  but  in  the 
morning  it  begins  to  harden. 

Mano'ah,  the  father  of  Samson;  a 
Danite,  native  of  the  town  of  Zorah  (Judg. 
xiii.  2).     [Samson.] 

Manslayer.  The  cases  of  manslaugh- 
ter mentioned  appear  to  be  a  sufficient 
example  of  the  intention  of  the  lawgiver. 
a.  Death  by  a  blow  in  a  sudden  quarrel 
(Num.  XXXV.  22).  b.  Death  by  a  stone  or 
missile  thrown  at  random  (ib.  22,  23).  c. 
By  the  blade  of  an  axe  flying  from  its  han- 
dle (Deut.  xix.  6).  d.  Whether  the  case 
of  a  person  killed  by  falling  from  a  roof 
unprovided  with  a  parapet  involved  the 
guUt  of  manslaughter  on  the  owner,  is  not 
clear;  but  the  law  seems  intended  to  pre- 
vent the  imputation  of  malice  in  any  such 
ease,  by  preventing  as  far  as  possible  the 
occurrence  of  the  fact  itself  (Deut.  xxii. 
8).  In  all  these  and  the  like  cases  the 
manslayer  was  allowed  to  retire  to  a  city 
of  refuge.  Besides  these  the  following  may 
be  mentioned  as  cases  of  homicide,  a.  An 
animal,  not  known  to  be  vicious,  causing 
death  to  a  human  being,  was  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  regarded  as  unclean.  But  if  it 
was  known  to  be  vicious,  the  owner  also 
was  liable  to  fine,  and  even  death  (Ex.  xxi. 
28,  31).  h.  A  thief  overtaken  at  night  in 
the  act  might  lawfully  be  put  to  death,  but 
if  the  sun  had  risen  the  act  of  kilhng  him 
was  to  be  regarded  as  murder  (Ex.  xziL 
2,  3). 

Mantle,  the  word  employed  m  the  A. 
V.  to  translate  no  less  than  four  Hebrew 


MAOCH 


378 


MARK 


tenns,  entirely  distinct  and  independent 
both  in  derivation  and  meaning.  1.  S'mt- 
cah.  This  word  occurs  but  once,  viz. 
Judg.  iv.  18,  where  it  denotes  the  thing 
with  which  Jael  covered  Sisera.  2.  Meil. 
(Rendered  "mantle"  in  1  Sam.  xv.  27, 
xxviii.  14;  Ezr.  ix.  3,  5,  &c.).  This  word  is 
in  other  passages  of  the  A.  V.  rendered 
"coat,"  "cloak,"  and  "robe."  3.  Ma'a- 
tdphdh  (Is.  iii.  22  only).  Apparently  some 
article  of  a  lady's  dress.  4.  Addereth  (ren- 
dered "mantle"  in  1  K.  xix.  13,  19;  2  K. 
ii.  8,  13,  14 ;  elsewhere  "  garment "  and 
"robe").  By  it,  and  it  only,  is  denoted 
the  cape  or  wrapper  which,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  strip  of  skin  or  leather  round 
his  loins,  formed,  as  we  have  every  reason 
to  believe,  the  sole  garment  of  the  prophet 
Elijah.  It  was  probably  of  sheepskin,  such 
as  is  worn  by  the  modern  dervishes. 

Ma'och,  the  father  of  Achish,  king  of 
Gath,  with  whom  David  took  refuge  (1 
Sam.  xxvii.  2). 

Ma' on,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  in  tlie  district  of  the  mountains 
(Josh.  XV,  55).  Its  interest  for  us  lies  in 
its  connection  with  David  (1  Sam.  xxiii. 
24,  25).  The  name  of  Maon  still  exists  in 
Main,  a  lofty  conical  hill,  south  of,  and 
about  7  miles  distant  from,  Hebron. 

Ma'onites,  The,  a  people  mentioned 
in  one  of  the  addresses  of  Jehovah  to  the 
repentant  Israelites  (Judg.  x.  12).  The 
name  agrees  with  that  of  a  people  residing 
in  the  desert  far  south  of  Palestine,  else- 
where in  the  A.  V.  called  Meuunim.  The 
reading  of  the  LXX.  —  "  Midian  "  — is  re- 
markable as  being  found  in  both  the  great 
MSS.,  and  having  on  that  account  a  strong 
claim  to  be  considered  as  the  reading  of 
the  ancient  Hebrew  text. 

Ma  ra,  the  name  which  Naomi  adopted 
in  the  exclamation  forced  from  her  by  the 
recognition  of  her  fellow-citizens  at  Beth- 
lehem (Ruth  i.  20),  "Call  me  not  Naomi 
(pleasant),  but  call  me  Mara  (bitter),  for 
Shaddai  hath  dealt-very-bitterly  (hamer) 
with  me." 

Ma'rah.,  that  is,  bitterness,  a  place  which 
lay  in  the  wilderness  of  Shur  or  Etham, 
three  days'  journey  distant  (Ex.  xv.  23,  24, 
Num.  xxxiii.  8)  from  the  place  at  which 
the  Israelites  crossed  the  Red  Sea,  and 
where  was  a  spring  of  bitter  water,  sweet- 
ened subsequently  by  the  casting  in  of  a 
tree  which  "the  Lord  showed"  to  Moses. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  Moses  made  use 
of  the  berries  of  the  plant  Ghitrktid.  Howa- 
rah,  distant  16i  hours  from  Ayoun  Mousa, 
has  been  by  many  identified  with  it,  appar- 
ently because  it  is  the  bitterest  water  in  the 
neighborhood. 

Mar'alah,  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  (Josh, 
xix.  11). 

Maranath'a,  an  ezpreeslon  used  bj  St. 


Paul  at  the  conclusion  of  his  First  Epistle  t» 
the  Corinthians  (xvi.  22).  It  is  a  Grecised 
form  of  the  Aramaic  words  mdran  &thd, 
"  our  Lord  cometh." 

Marble.  The  Heb.  shSsh,  the  generic 
term  for  marble,  may  probably  be  taken  to 
mean  almost  any  shining  stone.  The  so- 
called  marble  of  Solomon's  architectural 
works,  which  Josephus  calls  ki6o?  Xtvxis, 
may  thus  have  been  limestone.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  Herod,  both  in  the  Temple 
and  elsewhere,  employed  Parian  or  other 
marble.  The  marble  pillars  and  tesserae 
of  various  colors  of  the  palace  at  Susa  came 
doubtless  from  Persia  itself  (Esth.  i.  6). 

Mareheshvan.    [Months.] 

Mar'cus,  the  Evangelist  Mark  (Col.  iv. 
10;  Philem.  24;  1  Pet.  v.  13).     [Mark.] 

Mar'eshah,  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah 
in  the  district  of  the  Shefelah  or  low  coun- 
try (Josh.  XV.  44).  It  was  one  of  the  cities 
fortified  and  garrisoned  by  Rehoboam  after 
the  rupture  with  the  northern  kingdom  (2 
Chr.  xi.  8).  It  is  mentioned  once  or  twice 
in  the  history  of  the  Maccabaean  struggles 
(1  Mace.  V.  66;  2  Mace.  xii.  35).  About 
110  B.  c.  it  was  taken  from  the  Idumaeans 
by  John  Hyrcanus.  It  was  in  ruins  in  the 
4th  century,  when  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
describe  it  as  in  the  second  mile  from  Eleu- 
theropolis.  S.  S.  W.  of  Beiijibrin  —  in  all 
probability  Eleutheropolis  —  and  a  little 
over  a  Roman  mile  therefrom,  is  a  site 
called  Marask,  which  is  very  possibly  tlie 
representative  of  the  ancient  Mareshah. 

Mark.  Mark  the  Evangelist  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  "  John  wliose  surname 
was  Mark"  (Acts  xii.  12,  25).  John  was 
the  Jewish  name,  and  Mark  (Marcus),  a 
name  of  frequent  use  among  the  Romans, 
was  adopted  afterwards,  and  gradually  su- 
perseded the  other.  Jolm  Mark  was  the 
son  of  a  cerUvin  Marj',  who  dwelt  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  was  therefore  probably  born  in 
that  city  (Acts  xii.  12).  He  was  the  cousin 
of  Barnabas  (Col.  iv.  10).  It  was  to  Mary's 
house,  as  to  a  familiar  haunt,  tiiat  Peter 
came  after  his  deliverance  from  prison 
(Acts  xii.  12),  and  there  found  "  many 
gathered  together  praying ;  "  and  probably 
John  Mark  was  converted  by  Peter  from 
meeting  him  in  his  mother's  house,  for  he 
speaks  of  "Marcus  my  son"  (1  Pet.  v. 
13).  The  theory  that  he  was  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples  is  without  any  warrant. 
Another  theory,  that  an  event  of  the  night 
of  our  Lord's  betrayal,  related  by  Mark 
alone,  is  one  that  befell  himself,  must  not 
be  so  promptly  dismissed  (Mark  xiv.  51, 
52).  The  detail  of  facts  is  remarkably 
minute ;  the  name  only  is  wanting.  The 
most  probable  view  is,  that  St.  Mark  sup- 
pressed his  own  name,  whilst  telling  a  story 
which  he  had  the  best  means  of  knowing. 
Anxious  to  work  for  Christ,  he  went  witli 
Paul  and  Barnabas  as  their  " minister"  on 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


379 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


their  first  journey ;  but  at  Perga>  he  turned 
back  (Acts  xii.  25,  xiii.  13).  On  the  second 
journey  Paul  would  not  accept  him  again 
as  a  companion,  but  Barnabas  his  kinsman 
was  more  indulgent;  and  thus  he  became 
tie  cause  of  the  memorable  "  sharp  con- 
tention "  between  them  (Acts  xv.  36-40). 
Whatever  was  the  cause  of  Mark's  vacilla- 
tion, it  did  not  separate  him  forever  from 
Paul,  for  we  find  liim  by  the  side  of  that 
Apostle  in  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome 
(Col.  iv.  10;  Pliilem.  24).  In  the  former 
place  a  possible  journey  of  Mark  to  Asia  is 
spoken  of.  Somewhat  later  he  is  with  Peter 
at  Babylon  (1  Pet.  v.  13).  On  his  return 
to  Asia  he  seems  to  have  been  with  Timothy 
at  Ephesus  wlien  Paul  wrote  to  him  during 
his  second  imprisonment  (2  Tim.  iv.  11). — 
The  relation  of  Mark  to  Peter  is  of  great 
importance  for  our  view  of  his  Gospel. 
Ancient  writers  with  one  consent  make  the 
Evangelist  the  Interpreter  of  the  Apostle 
Peter.  Some  explain  this  word  to  mean 
that  the  office  of  Mark  was  to  translate  into 
the  Greek  tongue  the  Aramaic  discourses 
of  the  Apostle  ;  whilst  others  adopt  the  more 
probable  view  that  Mark  wrote  a  Gospel 
which  conformed  more  exactly  than  the 
others  to  Peter's  preaching,  and  thus  *'  in- 
terpreted "  it  to  the  church  at  large.  The 
report  that  Mark  was  the  companion  of 
Peter  at  Rome,  is  no  doubt  of  great  anti- 
quity. Senton  a  mission  to  Egypt  by  Peter, 
Mark  there  founded  the  church  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  preached  in  various  places,  then 
returned  to  Alexandria,  of  which  church  he 
was  bishop,  and  suflPered  a  martyr's  death. 
But  none  of  these  later  details  rest  on  sound 
authority. 

Mark,  Gospel  of.  The  characteristics 
of  this  Gospel,  the  shortest  of  the  four  in- 
spired records,  will  appear  from  the  discus- 
Bion  of  the  various  questions  that  have  been 
raised  about  it.  I.  Sources  of  this  Gospel. — 
The  tradition  that  it  gives  the  teaching  of 
Peter  rather  than  of  the  rest  of  the  Apostles, 
has  been  alluded  to  above.  Moreover  there 
are  peculiarities  in  the  Gospel  which  are 
best  explained  by  the  supposition  that  Peter 
in  some  way  superintended  its  composition. 
Whilst  Mark  goes  over  the  same  ground 
for  the  most  part  as  the  other  Evangelists, 
and  especially  Matthew,  there  are  many 
facts  thrown  in  which  prove  that  we  are 
listening  to  an  independent  witness.  Thus 
the  humble  origin  of  Peter  is  made  known 
through  him  (i.  16-20),  and  his  connection 
with  Capernaum  (i.  29) ;  he  tells  us  that 
Levi  was  "the  son  of  Alphaeus  "  (ii.  14), 
that  Peter  was  the  name  given  by  our  Lord 
to  Simon  (iii.  16),  and  Boanerges  a  sur- 
name added  by  Him  to  the  names  of  two 
others  (iii.  17) ;  he  assumes  the  existence 
of  another  body  of  disciples  wider  than  the 
Twelve  (ui.  82,  iv.  10,  36,  viii.  34,  xiv.  51, 
52)  :  we  owe  to  him  the  name  of  Jairus  (v. 


22),  the  word  "carpenter"  applied  to  ou» 
Lord  (vi.  3),  the  nation  of  the  "  Syrophoe- 
nician "  woman  (vii.  26) ;  he  substitutes 
Dalmanutha  for  the  "  Magdala"  of  Matthew 
(viii.  10) ;  he  names  Bartimaeus  (x.  46) ; 
he  alone  mentions  that  our  Lord  would  not 
suffer  any  man  to  carry  any  vessel  through 
the  Temple  (xi.  16),;  and  that  Simon  of 
Cyrene  was  the  father  of  Alexander  and 
Rufus  (xv.  21).  All  these  are  tokens  of  an 
independent  writer,  different  from  Matthew 
and  Luke,  and  in  the  absence  of  other  tra- 
ditions it  is  natural  to  look  to  Peter.  II. 
Relation  of  Mark  to  Matthew  and  Lxike.  — 
Tlie  results  of  criticism  as  to  the  relation 
of  the  three  Gospels  are  somewhat  humili- 
ating. Up  to  this  day  three  views  are  main- 
tained with  equal  ardor :  (a)  that  Mark's 
Gospel  is  the  original  Gospel  out  of  which 
the  other  two  have  been  developed ;  (6) 
that  it  was  a  compilation  from  the  other  two, 
and  therefore  was  written  last ;  and  (c)  that 
it  was  copied  from  that  of  Matthew,  and 
forms  a  link  of  transition  between  the  other 
two.  It  is  obvious  that  they  refute  one  an- 
other ;  the  same  internal  evidence  suffice* 
to  prove  that  Mark  is  the  first,  and  the  last 
and  the  intermediate.  Let  us  return  to  th( 
facts,  and,  taught  by  these  contradictiont 
what  is  the  worth  of  "internal  evidence,'' 
let  us  carry  our  speculations  no  further  than 
the  facts.  The  Gospel  of  Mark  contains 
scarcely  any  events  that  are  not  recited  by 
the  others.  There  are  verbal  coincidences 
with  each  of  the  others,  and  sometimes  pe- 
culiar words  from  both  meet  together  in  the 
parallel  place  in  Mark.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  unmistakable  marks  of  indepen- 
dence. The  hypothesis  which  best  meets 
these  facts  is,  that  whilst  the  matter  common 
to  all  three  Evangelists,  or  to  two  of  them, 
is  derived  from  the  oral  teaching  of  the 
Apostles,  which  they  had  purposely  reduced 
to  a  common  form,  our  Evangelist  writes  a* 
an  independent  witness  to  the  truth,  and  nc 
as  a  compiler ;  and  that  the  tradition  thu 
the  Gospel  was  written  under  the  sanction 
of  Peter,  and  its  matter  in  some  degree 
derived  from  him,  is  made  probable  by  the 
evident  traces  of  an  eye-witness  in  many 
of  the  narratives.  III.  This  Gospel  writ- 
ten primarily  for  Gentiles.  —  The  Evan- 
gelist scarcely  refers  to  the  O.  T.  in  his 
own  person.  The  word  Law  does  not  once 
occur.  The  genealogy  of  our  Lord  is  like- 
wise omitted.  Other  matters  interesting 
chiefly  to  the  Jews  are  likewise  omitted; 
such  as  the  references  to  the  O.  T.  and  Law 
in  Matt.  xii.  5-7,  the  reflections  on  the 
request  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  for  a 
sign.  Matt.  xii.  38-45 ;  the  parable  of  the 
king's  son.  Matt.  xxii.  1-14 ;  and  the  awful 
denunciation  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees 
in  Matt,  xxiii.  Explanations  are  given  ia 
some  places  which  Jews  could  not  require; 
thus,  Jordan  is  a  "river"    (Mark  i.  5,. 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


380 


MARRIAGE 


Matt.  iii.  6)  ;  the  Pharisees,  &c.,  "  used  to 
fast"  (Markii.  18;  Matt.  ix.  14),  and  other 
customs  of  theirs  are  described  (Mark  vii. 
1-4 ;  Matt.  xv.  1,  2)  ;  "  the  time  of  figs  was 
yet,"  I.  e.  at  the  season  of  the  Passover 
(Mark  xi.  13 ;  Matt.  xxi.  19)  ;  the  Saddu- 
cees'  worst  tenet  is  mentioned  (Mark  xii. 
18)  ;  the  Mount  of  Olives  is  "  over  against 
the  temple  "  (Mark  xiii.  3  ;  Matt.  xxiv.  3)  ; 
at  the  Passover  men  eat  "  unleavened 
bread"  (Mark  xiv.  1,  12;  Matt.  xxvi.  2, 
17),  and  explanations  are  given  which  Jews 
would  not  need  (Mark  xv.  6,  16,  42 ;  Matt, 
xxvii.  15,  27,  57).  From  the  general  testi- 
mony of  these  and  other  places,  whatever 
may  be  objected  to  an  inference  from  one  or 
other  amongst  them,  there  is  little  doubt  but 
that  the  Gospel  was  meant  for  use  in  the 
first  instance  amongst  Gentiles.  IV.  Time 
when  the  Gospel  was  written.  —  This  is  un- 
certain. It  is  not  likely  that  it  dates  before 
the  reference  to  Mark  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians  (iv.  10),  where  he  is  only  intro- 
duced as  a  relative  of  Barnabas,  as  if  this 
were  his  greatest  distinction ;  and  this 
epistle  was  written  about  a.  d.  62.  On  the 
other  hand  it  was  written  before  the  de- 
etruction  of  Jerusalem  (xiii.  13,  24-30,  33, 
&c.).  Probably,  therefore,  it  was  written 
between  a.  d.  63  and  70.  V.  Place  where 
the  Gospel  was  written.  —  The  place  is  as 
uncertain  as  the  time.  Clement,  Eusebius, 
Jerome,  and  Epiphanius,  pronounce  for 
Rome,  and  many  moderns  take  the  same 
view.  Chrj'sostom  thinks  Alexandria ;  but 
thib  is  not  confirmed  by  other  testimony. 
VI.  Language.  —  The  Gospel  was  written 
in  Greek ;  of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt  if 
ancient  testimony  is  to  weigh.  Baronius 
indeed,  on  the  authority  of  an  old  Syriac 
translation,  asserts  that  Latin  wiis  the  ori- 
ginal language.  VII.  Genuiiieness  of  the 
Gospel.  —  All  ancient  testimony  makes 
Mark  the  author  of  a  certain  Gospel,  and 
that  this  is  the  Gospel  which  has  come  down 
to  us,  there  is  not  the  least  historical  ground 
for  doubting.  Owing  to  the  very  few  sec- 
tions peculiar  to  Mark,  evidence  from  pa- 
tristic quotation  is  somewhat  difficult  to  pro- 
duce. Justin  Martyr,  however,  quotes  ch. 
ix.  44,  46,  48,  xii.  30,  and  iii.  17,  and 
Irenaeus  cites  both  the  opening  and  closing 
words  (iii.,  x.  6)  — an  important  testimony 
in  any  case,  but  doubly  so  from  the  doubt 
that  has  been  cast  on  the  closing  verses 
(xvi.  9-19).  With  the  exception  of  these 
few  verses  the  genuineness  of  the  Gospel  is 
placed  above  the  reach  of  reasonable  doubt. 
VIII.  Style  and  Diction.  —  The  purpose 
of  the  Evangelist  seems  to  be  to  place  before 
us  a  vivid  picture  of  the  earthly  acts  of 
Jesus,;  The  style  is  peculiarly  suitable  to 
this.  He  uses  the  present  tense,  instead  of 
♦he  narrative  aorist,'  almost  in  every  chap- 
ter. Precise  and  minute  details  as  to  per- 
sons, places,  and  numbers,  aboimd  in  the 


narrative.  All  these  tend  to  give  force  and 
vividness  to  the  picture  of  the  human  life 
of  our  Lord.  On  the  other  side,  the  facts 
are  not  very  exactly  arranged.  Its  concise- 
ness sometimes  makes  this  Gospel  more  ob- 
scure than  the  others  (i.  13,  ix.  5,  6,  iv.  10- 
34).  Many  peculiarities  of  diction  may  be 
noticed;  amongst  them  the  following:  1. 
Hebrew  (Aramaic)  words  are  used,  but  ex- 
plained for  Gentile  readers  (iii.  17,  22,  v. 
41,  vii.  11,  34,  ix.  43,  x.  46,  xiv.  36,  xv.  22, 
34).      2.   Latin  words  are   very   frequent. 

3.  Unusual  words  or  phrases  are  found  here. 

4.  Diminutives  are  frequent.  5.  The  sub- 
stantive is  often  repeated  instead  of  the  pro- 
noun; as  (to  cite  from  ch.  ii.  only)  ii.  16, 
18,  20,  22,  27,  28.  6.  Negatives  are  accu- 
mulated for  the  sake  of  emphasis  (vii.  12, 
ix.  8,  xii.  34,  xv.  5,  i.  44).  7.  Words  are 
often  added  to  adverbs  for  the  sake  of  em- 
phasis (ii.  20,  V.  5,  vi.  25,  also  vii.  21,  viii. 
4,  X.  20,  xiii.  29,  xiv.  30,  43).  8.  The  same 
idea  is  often  repeated  under  another  ex- 
pression, as  i.  42,  ii.  25,  viii.  15,  xiv.  68, 
&c.  9.  And  sometimes  the  repetition  is 
effected  by  means  of  the  opposite,  as  in  i. 
22,  44,  and  many  other  places.  10.  Some- 
times emphasis  is  given  by  simple  reitera- 
tion, as  in  ii.  15,  19.  11.  The  elliptic 
use  of  t'la,  like  that  of  oVioi?  in  classical 
writers,  is  found,  v.  23.  12.  The  word 
iittQoyrav  is  used  twenty-flve  times  in  this 
Gospel.  13.  lnst&&^  oi avfi^ovJiiuv  iau^axnv 
of  Matt.  Mark  has  avfifSovXhjv  noitir,  iii.  6, 
XV.  1,  14.  There  are  many  words  peculiar 
to  Mark.  The  diction  of  Mark  presents  the 
difficulty  that  whilst  it  abounds  in  Latin 
words,  and  in  expressions  that  recall  Latin 
equivalents,  it  is  still  much  more  ak'n  to 
the  Hebraistic  diction  of  Matthew  than  to 
the  purer  style  of  Luke.  IX.  Contents  of 
the  Gospel,  —  Though  this  Gospel  has  little 
historical  matter  which  is  not  shared  with 
some  other,  it  would  be  a  great  error  to 
suppose  that  the  voice  of  Mark  could  have 
been  silenced  without  injury  to  the  divine 
harmony.  It  is  the  history  of  the  war  of 
Jesus  against  sin  and  evil  in  the  world  dur- 
ing the  time  that  He  dwelt  as  a  Man  among 
men.  Its  motto  might  well  be,  as  Lange 
observes,  those  words  of  Peter :  "  How 
God  anointed  Jesus  of  Nazareth  with  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  with  power;  who  went 
about  doing  good,  and  healing  all  that  were 
oppressed  of  the  devil ;  for  God  was  with 
Him"  (Acts  X.  38). 

Ma'roth,  one  of  the  towns  of  the  west- 
ern lowland  of  Judah  whose  names  are  al- 
luded to  or  played  upon  by  the  prophet 
Micah  (i.  12). 

Marriage.  The  topics  which  this  sub- 
ject presents  to  our  consideration  in  con- 
nection with  BibUcal  literature  may  be  ar- 
ranged under  five  heads  :  I .  Its  origin 
and  history.  —  The  institution  of  marriage 
dates  from  the  time  of  man's  original  crea- 


MARRIAGE 


381 


MARRIAGE 


tion.  No  sooner  was  the  formation  of  wo- 
man effected,  than  Adam  recognized  in  that 
act  the  will  of  the  Creator  as  to  man's  social 
condition.  "  Therefore  shall  a  man  leave 
his  father  and  his  mother,  and  shall  cleave 
unto  his  wife :  and  they  shall  be  one 
flesh  "  (ii.  24).  From  these  words,  coupled 
with  the  circumstances  attendant  on  the 
formation  of  the  first  woman,  we  may 
evolve  the  following  principles :  (1)  The 
unity  of  man  and  wife,  as  implied  in  her 
being  formed  out  of  man,  and  as  expressed 
in  the  words  "  one  flesh  " ;  (2)  the  indis- 
solubleness  of  the  marriage  bond,  except 
on  the  strongest  grounds  (comp.  Matt.  xix. 
9)  ;  (3)  monogamy,  as  the  original  law  of 
marriage ;  (4)  the  social  equality  of  man 
and  wife ;  (5)  the  subordination  of  the  wife 
to  the  husband  (1  Cor.  xi.  8,  9 ;  1  Tim.  ii. 
13)  ;  and  (6)  the  respective  duties  of  man 
and  wife.  In  the  patriarchal  age  Polygamy 
prevailed  (Gen.  xvi.  4,  xxv.  1,  6,  xxviii.  9, 
xxix.  23,  28  ;  1  Chr.  vii.  14),  but  to  a  great 
extent  divested  of  the  degradation  which  in 
modern  times  attaches  to  that  practice.  Di- 
vorce also  prevailed  in  the  patriarchal  age, 
though  but  one  instance  of  it  is  recorded 
(Gen.  xxi.  14).  The  Mosaic  law  aimed  at 
mitigating  rather  than  removing  evils  which 
were  inseparable  from  the  state  of  society 
in  that  day.     Its  enactments  were  directed, 

(1)  to  the   discouragement  of  polygamy; 

(2)  to  obviate  the  injustice  frequently  con- 
sequent upon  the  exercise  of  the  rights  of 
a  father  or  a  master ;  (3)  to  bring  divorce 
under  some  restriction ;  and  (4)  to  enforce 
purity  of  life  during  the  maintenance  of 
tlie  matrimonial  bond.  In  the  post-Baby- 
lonian period  monogamy  appears  to  have 
become  more  prevalent  than  at  any  previ- 
ous time :  indeed  we  have  no  instance  of 
polygamy  during  this  period  on  record  in 
the  Bible,  all  the  marriages  noticed  being 
with  single  wives  (Tob.  i.  9,  ii.  11 ;  Susan, 
vers.  29,  63 ;  Matt,  xviii.  25 ;  Luke  i.  5 ; 
Acts  V.  1).  The  practice  of  polygamy  nev- 
ertheless still  existed ;  Herod  the  Great  had 
no  less  than  nine  wives  at  one  time.  The 
abuse  of  divorce  continued  unabated.  Our 
Lord  and  His  Apostles  re-established  the 
integrity  and  sanctity  of  the  marriage-bond 
by  the  following  measures :  (1)  by  the 
confirmation  of  the  original  charter  of 
marriage  as  the  basis  on  which  all  regula- 
tions were  to  be  framed  (Matt.  xix.  4,  5)  ; 
''^)  by  the  restriction  of  divorce  to  the  case 
of  fornication,  and  the  prohibition  of  re- 
marriage in  all  persons  divorced  on  improp- 
er grounds  (Matt.  v.  32,  xix.  9;  Rom.  vii. 
8;  1  Cor.  vii.  10,  11) ;  and  (3)  by  the  en- 
forcement of  moral  purity  generally  (Heb. 
xiii.  4,  &c.),  and  especially  by  the  formal 
condemnation  of  fornication,  which  appears 
to  have  been  classed  among  acts  morally 
indifferent  by  a  certain  party  in  the  Church 
(Acts  XV.  20).    II.  The  conditions  of  legal 


marriage  are  decided  by  the  prohibitions 
which  the  law  of  any  country  imposes  upon 
its  citizens.  In  the  Hebrew  commonwealth 
these  prohibitions  were  of  two  kinds,  ac- 
cording as  they  regulated  marriage  (i.)  be- 
tween an  Israelite  and  a  non-Israelite,  and 
(ii.)  between  an  Israelite  and  one  of  his 
own  community.  —  (i.)  The  prohibitions 
relating  to  foreigners  were  based  on  that 
instinctive  feeling  of  exclusiveness,  which 
forms  one  of  the  bonds  of  every  social 
body,  and  which  prevails  with  peculiar 
strength  in  a  rude  state  of  society.  The 
only  distinct  prohibition  in  the  Mosaic  law 
refers  to  the  Canaanites,  with  whom  the  Is- 
raelites were  not  to  marry,  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  lead  them  into  idolatry  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  16;  Deut.  vii.  3,4).  But  beyond 
this,  the  legal  disabilities  to  which  the 
Ammonites  and  Moabites  were  subjected 
(Deut.  xxiii.  3),  acted  as  a  virtual  bar  to 
intermarriage  with  them,  totally  prevent- 
ing the  marriage  of  Israelitish  women  with 
Moabites,  but  permitting  that  of  Israelites 
with  Moabite  women,  such  as  that  of  Mah- 
lon  with  Ruth.  The  prohibition  against 
marriages  with  the  Edomites  or  Egyptians 
was  less  stringent,  as  a  male  of  those  na- 
tions received  the  right  of  marriage  on  his 
admission  to  the  full  citizenship  in  the  thirc? 
generation  of  proselytism  (Deut.  xxiii.  7- 
8).  There  were  thus  three  grades  of  pro- 
hibition —  total  in  regard  to  the  Canaanites 
on  either  side ;  total  on  the  side  of  the 
males  in  regard  of  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites ;  and  temporary  on  the  side  of 
the  males  in  regard  of  the  Edomites  and 
Egyptians,  marriages  with  females  in  the 
two  latter  instances  being  regarded  as  legal. 
The  progeny  of  illegal  marriages  between 
Israelites  and  non-Israelites  was  described 
under  a  peculiar  term,  mamzSr,  (A.  V. 
"bastard";  Deut.  xxiii.  2).  (ii.)  The 
regulations  relative  to  marriage  between 
Israelites  and  Israelites  was  based  on  con- 
siderations of  relationship.  The  most  im- 
portant passage  relating  to  these  is  con- 
tained in  Lev.  xviii.  6-18,  wherein  we  have 
in  the  first  place  a  general  prohibition 
against  marriages,  between  a  man  and  the 
"  flesh  of  his  flesh,"  and  in  the  second  place 
special  prohibitions  against  marriage  with  a 
mother,  step-mother,  sister,  or  half-sister, 
whether  "  born  at  home  or  abroad,"  grand- 
daughter, aunt,  whether  by  consanguinity 
on  either  side,  or  by  marriage  on  the  fa- 
ther's side,  daughter-in-law,  brother's  wife, 
step-daughter,  wife's  mother,  step-grand- 
daughter, or  wife's  sister  during  the  lifetime 
of  the  wife.  An  exception  is  subsequently 
made  (Deut.  xxv.  5-9)  in  favor  of  marriage 
with  a  brother's  wife  in  the  event  of  his  hav- 
ing died  childless.  The  law  which  regu- 
lates this  has  been  named  the  "Levirate," 
from  the  Latin  levir,  "brother-in-law." 
The  first  instance  of  this  custom  occurs  iij 


MAERIAGE 


382 


MARRIAGE 


the  patriarchal  period,  where  Onan  is  called 
upon  to  marry  his  brother  Er's  widow  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  8).  The  Levirate  marriage  was  not 
peculiar  to  the  Jews ;  it  has  been  found  to 
exist  in  many  Eastern  countries,  particular- 
ly in  Arabia,  and  among  the  tribes  of  the 
Caucasus.  III.  The  modes  hy  which  mar- 
riage was  effected.  —  The  customs  of  the 
Hebrews  and  of  Oriental  nations  in  regard 
to  marriage,  differ  in  many  respects  from 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar.  In  the 
first  place,  the  choice  of  the  bride  devolved 
not  on  the  bridegroom  himself,  but  on  his 
relations  or  on  a  friend  deputed  by  the 
bridegroom  for  this  purpose.  The  consent 
of  the  maiden  was  sometimes  asked  (Gen. 
xxiv.  58) ;  but  this  appears  to  have  been 
subordinate  to  tlie  previous  consent  of  the 
father  and  the  adult  brothers  (Gen.  xxiv.  51, 
xxxiv.  11).  Occasionally  the  whole  busi- 
ness of  selecting  the  wife  was  left  in  the 
hands  of  a  friend.  The  selection  of  the  bride 
was  followed  by  the  espousal,  which  was  a 
formal  proceeding,  undertaken  by  a  friend 
or  legal  representative  on  the  part  of  the 
bridegroom,  and  by  the  parents  on  the  part 
of  the  bride ;  it  was  confirmed  by  oaths, 
and  accompanied  with  presents  to  the  bride. 
These  presents  were  described  by  different 
terms,  that  to  the  bride  by  mohar  (A.  V. 
"dowry"),  and  that  to  the  relations  by 
maiidn.  Thus  Shechem  offers  "  never  so 
much  dowry  and  gift"  (Gen.  xxxiv.  12), 
the  former  for  the  bride,  the  latter  for  the 
relations.  It  would  undoubtedly  be  ex- 
pected that  the  mohar  should  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  position  of  the  bride,  and 
that  a  poor  man  could  not  on  that  account 
afford  to  marry  a  rich  wife  (1  Sam.  xviii. 
23).  The  act  of  betrothal  was  celebrated 
by  a  feast,  and  among  the  more  modern 
Jews  it  is  the  custom  in  some  parts  for  the 
bridegroom  to  place  a  ring  on  the  bride's 
finger.  Some  writers  have  endeavored  to 
prove  that  the  rings  noticed  in  the  O.  T. 
(Ex.  XXXV.  22;  Is.  iii.  21)  were  nuptial 
rings,  but  there  is  not  the  slightest  evidence 
of  this.  The  ring  was  nevertheless  re- 
garded among  the  Hebrews  as  a  token  of 
fidelity  (Gen.  xli.  42),  and  of  adoption  into 
a  family  (Luke  xv.  22).  Between  the  be- 
trothal and  the  marriage  an  interval  elapsed, 
varying  from  a  few  days  in  the  patriarchal 
age  (Gen.  xxiv.  55),  to  a  full  year  for 
virgins  and  a  month  for  widows  in  later 
times.  During  this  period  the  bride-elect 
lived  with  her  friends,  and  all  commu- 
nication between  herself  and  her  future 
husband  was  carried  on  through  the  medium 
of  a  friend  deputed  for  the  purpose,  termed 
the  "  friend  of  the  bridegroom"  (John  iii. 
29).  She  was  now  virtually  regarded  as 
the  wife  of  her  future  husband.  Hence 
faithlessness  on  her  part  was  punishable 
with  death  (Deut.  xxii.  23, 24),  the  husband 
having,  however,  the  option  of  "putting  her 


away"  (Matt.  i.  19;  Deut.  xxiv.  1).  "We 
now  come  to  the  wedding  itself;  and  in  this 
the  most  observable  point  is,  that  there 
were  no  definite  religious  ceremonies  con- 
nected with  it.  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that 
some  formal  ratification  of  the  espousal 
with  an  oath  took  place,  as  implied  in  some 
allusions  to  marriage  (Ez.  xvi.  8 ;  Mai.  ii. 
14),  particularly  in  the  expression,  "the 
covenant  of  her  God"  (Prov.  ii.  17),  as 
applied  to  the  marriage  bond,  and  that  a 
blessing  was  pronounced  (Gen.  xxiv.  60; 
Ruth  iv.  11,  12),  sometimes  by  the  parents 
(Tob.  vii.  13).  But  the  essence  of  the 
marriage  ceremony  consisted  in  the  re- 
moval of  the  bride  from  her  father's  house 
to  that  of  the  bridegroom  or  his  father. 
The  bridegroom  prepared  himself  for  the 
occasion  by  putting  on  a  festive  dress,  and 
especially  by  placing  on  his  head  the  hand- 
some turban  described  by  the  term  peer 
(Is.  Ixi.  10;  A.  V.  "ornaments"),  and  a 
nu|)tial  crown  or  garland  (Cant.  iii.  11)  : 
he  was  redolent  of  myrrh  and  frankincense 
and  "  all  powders  of  the  merchant"  (Cant, 
iii.  6).  The  bride  prepared  herself  for  the 
ceremony  by  taking  a  bath,  generally  on 
the  day  preceding  the  wedding.  The 
notices  of  it  in  the  Bible  are  so  few  as  to 
have  escaped  general  observation  (Ruth  iii. 
3;  Ez.  xxiii.  40;  Eph.  v.  26,  27).  The 
distinctive  feature  of  the  bride's  attire  was 
the  "  veil "  —  a  light  robe  of  ample  dimen- 
sions, which  covered  not  only  the  face  but 
the  whole  person  (Gen.  xxiv.  65 ;  comp. 
xxxviii.  14,  15).  This  was  regarded  as  the 
symbol  of  her  submission  to  her  Imsband 
(1  Cor.  xi.  10).  She  also  wore  a  peculiar 
girdle,  named  kishshurim,  the  "attire" 
(A.  v.),  which  no  bride  could  forget  (Jer. 
ii.  32) ;  and  her  head  was  crowned  with  a 
chaplet,  which  was  again  so  distinctive  of 
the  bride,  that  the  Hebrew  term  call&hy 
"  bride,"  originated  from  it.  If  the  bride 
were  a  virgin,  she  wore  her  hair  flowing. 
Her  robes  were  white  (Rev.  xix.  8),  and 
sometimes  embroidered  with  gold  thread 
(Ps.  xlv.  13,  14),  and  covered  with  per- 
fumes (Ps.  xlv.  8)  :  she  was  further  decked 
out  with  jewels  (Is.  xlix.  18,  Ixi.  10 ;  Rev. 
xxi.  2),  When  the  fixed  hour  arrived, 
which  was  generally  late  in  the  evening, 
the  bridegroom  set  forth  from  his  house, 
attended  by  his  groomsmen  (A.  V.  "  com- 
panions," Judg.  xiv.  11;  "children  of  the 
bride-chamber,"  Matt.  ix.  15),  preceded  by 
a  band  of  musicians  or  singers  (Gen.  xxxi. 
27;  Jer.  vii.  34,  xvi.  9;  1  Mace.  ix.  39), 
and  accompanied  by  persons  bearing  flam- 
beaux (2  Esdr.  X.  2 ;  Matt.  xxv.  7 ;  com- 
pare Jer.  xxv.  10;  Rev.  xviii.  23,  "the 
light  of  a  candle").  Having  reached  the 
house  of  the  bride,  who  with  her  maidens 
anxiously  expected  his  arrival  (Matt.  xxv. 
6),  he  conducted  the  whole  party  back  to 
his  own  or  his  father's  house,  with  every 


MARRIAGE 


383 


MARS'  HILL 


demonstratiofl  of  gladness  (Ps.  xlv.  15). 
On  their  way  back  they  were  joined  by  a 
parly  of  maidens,  friends  of  the  bride  and 
bridegroom,  who  were  in  waiting  to  catch 
the  procession  as  it  passed  (Matt.  xxv.  6). 
The  inhabitants  of  tlie  place  pressed  out 
into  the  streets  to  watch  the  procession 
(Cant.  iii.  11).  At  the  house  a  feast  was 
prepared,  to  which  all  the  friends  and 
neighbors  were  invited  (Gen.  xxix.  22 ; 
Matt.  xxii.  1-10;  Luke  xiv.  8;  John  ii.  2), 
and  the  festivities  were  protracted  for 
seven,  or  even  fourteen  days  (Judg.  xiv. 
12;  Tob.  viii.  19).  The  guests  were  pro- 
Tided  by  the  host  with  fitting  robes  (Matt, 
xxii.  11),  and  the  feast  was  enlivened  with 
riddles  (Judg.  xiv.  12)  and  other  amuse- 
ments. The  bridegroom  now  entered  into 
direct  communication  with  the  bride,  and 
the  joy  of  the  friend  was  "fulfilled"  at 
hearing  the  voice  of  the  bridegroom  (John 
iii.  29)  conversing  with  her,  which  he  re- 
garded as  a  satisfactory  testimony  of  the 
success  of  his  share  in  the  work.  The  last 
act  in  the  ceremonial  was  the  conducting 
of  the  bride  to  the  bridal  chamber  (Judg. 
XT.  1 ;  Joel  ii.  16),  where  a  canopy  was 
prepared  (Ps.  xix.  5 ;  Joel  ii.  16).  The 
bride  was  still  completely  veiled,  so  that 
the  deception  practised  on  Jacob  (Gen. 
xxix.  23)  was  very  possible.  A  newly 
married  man  was  exempt  from  military 
service,  or  from  any  public  business  which 
might  draw  him  away  from  his  home,  for 
the  space  of  a  year  (Deut.  xxiv.  5) ;  a 
similar  privilege  was  granted  to  him  who 
was  betrothed  (Deut.  xx.  7).  IV.  The 
social  and  domestic  conditions  of  married 
life.  —  We  must  in  the  first  place  take 
into  account  the  position  assigned  to  women 
generally  in  their  social  scale.  There  is 
abundant  evidence  that  women,  whether 
married  or  unmarried,  went  about  with 
their  faces  unveiled  (Gen.  xii.  14,  xxiv.  16, 
65,  xxix.  11;  1  Sam.  i.  13).  Women  not 
unfrequently  held  important  offices.  They 
took  their  part  in  matters  of  public  interest 
(Ex.  XV.  20;  1  Sam.  xviii.  6,  7)  :  in  short, 
they  enjoyed  as  much  freedom  in  ordinary 
life  as  the  women  of  our  own  country.  If 
such  was  her  general  position,  it  is  certain 
that  the  wife  nmst  have  exercised  an  im- 
portant influence  in  her  own  home.  She 
appears  to  have  taken  her  part  in  family 
affairs,  and  even  to  have  enjoyed  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  independence  (2  K.  iv. 
8;  Judg.  iv.  18;  1  Sam.  xxv.  14,  &c.). 
In  the  N.  T.  the  mutual  relations  of  hus- 
band and  wife  are  a  subject  of  frequent 
exhortation  (Eph.  v.  22,  33;  Col.  iii.  18, 
19;  Tit.  ii.  4,  5;  1  Pet.  ui.  1-7).  The 
duties  of  the  wife  in  the  Hebrew  house- 
hold were  multifarious :  in  addition  to  the 
general  superintendence  of  the  domestic 
arrangements,  such  as  cooking,  from  which 
evea  womea  of  rank  were  not  exempted 


(Gen.  xviii.  6;  2  Sam.  xiii.  8),  and  the 
distribution  of  food  at  meal  times  (ProT. 
xxxi.  15),  the  manufacture  of  the  clothing 
and  the  various  textures  required  in  an 
Eastern  establishment  devolved  upon  her 
(Prov.  xxxi.  13,  21,  22),  and  if  she  yjere  a 
model  of  activity  and  skill,  she  produced  a 
surplus  of  fine  linen  shirts  and  girdles, 
which  she  sold,  and  so,  like  a  well-freighted 
merchant-ship,  brought  in  wealth  to  her 
husband  from  afar  (Prov.  xxxi.  14,  24). 
The  legal  rights  of  the  wife  are  noticed  in 
Ex.  xxi.  10,  under  the  three  heads  of  food, 
raiment,  and  duty  of  marriage  or  conju- 
gal right.  V.  The  allegorical  and  typi- 
cal allusions  to  marriage  have  exclusive 
reference  to  one  subject,  viz.,  to  exhibit  the 
spii-itual  relationship  between  God  and  his 
people.  The  earliest  form,  in  which  the 
image  is  implied,  is  in  the  expressions  "to 
go  a  whoring,"  and  "  whoredom,"  as  descrip- 
tive of  the  rupture  of  that  relationship  by 
acts  of  idolatry.  These  expressions  have  by 
some  writers  been  taken  in  their  primary 
and  literal  sense,  as  pointing  to  tiie  licentious 
practices  of  idolaters.  But  this  destroys 
the  whole  point  of  the  comparison,  and  is 
opposed  to  the  plain  language  of  Scripture. 
The  direct  comparison  with  marriage  is 
confined  in  the  O.  T.  to  the  prophetic 
writings,  unless  we  regard  the  Canticles  as 
an  allegorical  work.  In  the  N.  T.  the 
image  of  the  bridegroom  is  transferred 
from  Jehovah  to  Christ  (Matt.  ix.  15 ;  John 
iii.  29),  and  that  of  the  bride  to  the  Church 
(2  Cor.  xi.  2 ;  Rev.  xix.  7,  xxi.  2,  9,  xxii. 
17),  and  the  comparison  thus  established 
is  converted  by  St.  Paul  into  an  illustration 
of  the  position  and  mutual  duties  of  man 
and  wife  (Eph.  v.  23-32).  The  breach  of 
the  union  is,  as  before,  described  as  for- 
nication or  whoredom  in  reference  to  the 
mystical  Babylon  (Rev.  xvii.  1,  2,  5). 

Mars'  Hill,  the  Hill  of  Mars  or  Ares, 
better  known  by  the  name  of  Areopagus, 
of  which  the  Hill  of  Mars  or  Ares  is  a 
translation.  The  Areopagus  was  a  rocky 
height  in  Athens,  opposite  the  western  end 
of  the  Acropolis,  from  which  it  is  separated 
only  by  an  elevated  valley.  It  rises  grad- 
ually from  the  northern  end,  and  termi- 
nates abruptly  on  the  south,  over  against  the 
Acropolis,  at  which  point  it  is  about  fifty 
or  sixty  feet  above  the  valley  already  men- 
tioned. According  to  tradition  it  was  called 
the  Hill  of  Mars  (Ares),  because  this  god 
was  brought  to  trial  here  before  the  as- 
sembled gods  by  Neptune  (Poseidon),  on 
account  of  his  murdering  Halirrhothius, 
the  son  of  the  latter.  The  spot  is  memora- 
ble as  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Council 
of  Areopagus,  frequently  called  the  Upper 
Council,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred,  which  held  its  sittings  in 
the  valley  below  the  hill.  It  existed  as  a 
criminal  tribunal  before  tlie  time  of  Solon, 


MAESENA 


384 


MARY  MAGDALENE 


and  was  the  most  ancient  and  venerable 
of  all  the  Athenian  courts.  It  consisted 
of  all  persons  who  had  held  the  office  of 
Archon,  and  who  were  members  of  it  for 
life,  unless  expelled  for  misconduct.  It 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  not  only  in 
Athefls,  but  throughout  Greece.  Before 
the  time  of  Solon  the  court  tried  only 
cases  of  wilful  murder,  wounding,  poison, 
and  arson ;  but  he  gave  it  extensive  powers 
of  a  censorial  and  political  nature.  The 
Council  continued  to  exist  even  under  the 
Roman  emperors.  Its  meetings  were  held 
on  the  gouth-eastern  summit  of  the  rock. 
There  are  still  sixteen  stone  steps  cut  in  the 
rock,  leading  up  to  the  hill  from  the  valley 
of  the  Agora  below;  and  immediately 
above  the  steps  is  a  bench  of  stones  exca- 
vated in  the  rock,  forming  three  sides  of  a 
quadrangle,  and  facing  the  south.  Here 
the  Areopagites  sat  as  judges  in  the  open 
air.  On  the  eastern  and  western  side  is 
a  raised  block.  The  Areopagus  possesses 
peculiar  interest  to  the  Christian,  as  the  spot 
from  which  St.  Paul  delivered  his  mem- 
orable address  to  the  men  of  Athens  (Acts 
xvii.  22-31).  It  has  been  supposed  by  some 
commentators  that  St.  Paul  was  brought 
before  the  Council  of  Areopagus ;  but  there 
is  no  trace  in  tlie  narrative  of  any  judicial 
proceedings.  St.  Paul  "  disputed  daily  " 
in  the  "  market  "  or  Agora  (xvii.  17),  which 
was  situated  south  of  the  Areopagus  in  the 
valley  lying  between  this  hill  and  those  of 
the  Acropolis,  the  Pnyx  and  the  Museum. 
Attracting  more  and  more  attention,  "  cer- 
tain pliilosophers  of  the  Epicureans  and 
Stoics  "  brought  him  up  from  the  valley, 
probably  by  the  stone  steps  already  men- 
tioned, to  the  Areopagus  above,  that  they 
might  listen  to  him  more  conveniently. 
Here  the  philosophers  probably  took  their 
seats  on  tlie  stone  benches  usually  occu- 
pied by  the  members  of  the  Council,  while 
the  multitude  stood  upon  the  steps  and  in 
the  valley  below. 

Mar'sena,  one  of  the  seven  princes  of 
Persia,  "  wise  men  which  knew  the  times," 
which  saw  the  king's  face  and  sat  first  in 
the  kingdom  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Martha,  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and 
Mary.  [Lazarus.]  The  facts  recorded 
in  Luke  x.  and  John  xi.  indicate  a  cliarac- 
ter  devout  after  the  customary  Jewish  type 
of  devotion,  sharing  in  Messianic  hopes  and 
accepting  Jesus  as  the  Christ.  When  she 
first  comes  before  us  in  Luke  x.  38,  as  re- 
ceiving her  Lord  into  her  house,  she  loses 
the  calmness  of  her  spirit,  is  "  cumbered 
vith  much  serving,"  is  "  careful  and  trou- 
bled about  many  things."  She  needs  the 
reproof,  "  One  thing  is  needful;"  but  her 
love,  though  imperfect  in  its  form,  is  yet 
recognized  as  true,  and  she  too,  no  less 
than  Lazarus  and  Mary,  has  the  distinction 
of  being  one  whom  Jesus  loved  (John  xi.  3). 


Her  position  here,  it  may  be  noticed,  is  ob- 
viously that  of  the  elder  sister,  the  head  and 
manager  of  the  household.  In  the  supper 
at  Bethany  (John  xii.  2),  the  old  character 
shows  itself  still,  but  it  has  been  freed  from 
evil.  She  is  no  longer  "  cumbered,"  no 
longer  impatient.  Activity  has  been  calmed 
by  trust.  When  other  voices  are  raised 
against  her  sister's  overflowing  love,  hers 
is  not  heard  among  them. 

Mary  of  Cleophas.  So  in  A.  V., 
but  accurately  "  of  Clopas."  In  St.  John's 
Gospel  we  read  that  "  there  stood  by  the 
cross  of  Jesus  His  mother,  and  His  mother's 
sister,  Mary  of  Clopas,  and  Mary  Magda- 
lene "  (John  xix.  25).  The  same  group  of 
women  is  described  by  St.  Matthew  as  con- 
sisting of  "  Mary  Magdalene,  and  Mary  of 
James  and  Joses,  and  the  mother  of  Zebe- 
dee's  children  "  (Matt,  xxvii.  5G) ;  and  by 
St.  Mark,  as  "  Mary  Magdalene,  and  Mary 
of  James  the  Little  and  of  Joses,  and  Sa- 
lome "  (Mark  xv.  40).  Prom  a  comparison 
of  these  passages,  it  appears  that  Mary  of 
Clopas,  and  Mary  of  James  the  Little  and 
of  Joses,  are  the  same  person,  and  that 
she  was  the  sister  of  St.  Mary  the  Virgin. 
Mary  of  Clopas  was  probably  the  elder 
sister  of  the  Lord's  mother.  It  would  seem 
that  she  had  married  Clopas  or  Alphaeus 
while  her  sister  was  still  a  girl.  She  had 
four  sons,  and  at  least  three  daughters. 
The  names  of  the  daughters  are  unknown 
to  us  :  those  of  the  sons  are  James,  Joses, 
Jude,  Simon,  two  of  whom  became  enrolled 
among  the  twelve  apostles  [James],  and  a 
third  [Simon],  may  have  succeeded  his 
brother  in  the  charge  of  the  Church  of  Je- 
rusalem. Of  Joses  and  the  daughters  we 
know  noticing.  Mary  herself  is  brought 
before  us  for  the  first  time  on  the  day  of 
the  Crucifixion  —  in  the  parallel  passages 
already  quoted  from  St.  Matthew,  St. 
Mark,  and  St.  John.  In  the  evening  of 
the  same  day  we  find  her  sitting  desolately 
at  the  tomb  with  Mary  Magdalene  (Matt, 
xxvii.  61 ;  Mark  xv.  47),  and  at  the  dawn 
of  Easter  morning  she  was  again  there 
with  sweet  spices,  which  she  had  prepared 
on  the  Friday  night  (Matt,  xxviii.  1 ;  Mark 
xvi.  1;  Luke  xxiii.  56),  and  was  one  of 
those  who  had  "  a  vision  of  angels,  which 
said  that  He  was  alive  "  (Luke  xsiv.  23). 
These  are  all  the  glimpses  that  wc  have  of 
her.  Clopas  or  Alphaeus  is  not  mentioned 
at  all,  except  as  designating  Mary  and 
James.  It  is  probable  that  he  was  dead 
before  the  ministry  of  our  Lord  commenced, 
Joseph,  the  husband  of  St.  Mary  the  Vir- 
gin, was  likewise  dead ;  and  the  two  wid- 
owed sisters,  as  was  natural  both  for  com- 
fort and  for  protection,  were  in  the  custom 
of  living  together  in  one  house. 

Mary  Magdale'ne.  Different  expla- 
nations have  been  given  of  this  name ;  but 
the  most  natural  is,  that  she  came  from  the 


MARY  MAGDALENE 


385      MARY,  SISTER  OF  LAZARUS 


town  of  Magdala.  She  appears  before  us 
for  the  first  time  in  Luke  viii.  2,  among  the 
women  who  "  ministered  unto  Him  ot  their 
substance."  All  appear  to  have  oceupied  a 
position  of  comparative  wealth.  With  all 
the  chief  motive  was  that  of  gratitude  for 
their  deliverance  from  "  evil  spirits  and  in- 
firmities." Of  Mary  it  is  said  specially  that 
"  seven  devils  went  out  of  her,"  and  the 
number  indicates,  as  in  Matt.  xii.  45,  and 
t"ie  "  Legion  "  of  the  Gadarene  demoniac 
(Mark  v.  9),  a  possession  of  more  than  ordi- 
nary malignity.  This  life  of  ministration 
nmst  have  brought  Mary  Magdalene  into 
companionship  of  the  closest  nature  with 
Salome  the  mother  of  James  and  John 
(Mark  xv.  40),  and  even  also  with  Mary 
the  mother  of  the  Lord  (John  xix.  25). 
The  women  who  thus  devoted  themselves 
are  not  prominent  in  tlie  history  :  we  have 
no  record  of  their  mode  of  life  or  abode, 
or  hopes  or  fears,  during  the  few  momentous 
days  that  preceded  the  crucifixion.  They 
"  stood  afar  off,  beholding  these  things  " 
(Luke  xxiii.  49)  during  the  closing  hours 
of  the  Agony  on  the  Cross.  The  same 
close  association  which  drew  them  together 
there  is  seen  afterwards.  She  remains  by 
the  cross  till  all  is  over,  waits  tiU  the  body 
is  taken  down,  and  wrapped  in  the  linen 
cloth  and  placed  in  the  garden-sepulchre 
of  Joseph  of  Arimathea  (Matt,  xxvii.  61 ; 
Mark  xv.  47;  Luke  xxiii.  55).  Tlie  sab- 
bath that  followed  brought  an  enforced  rest, 
but  no  sooner  is  the  sunset  over  than  she, 
with  Salome  and  Mary  the  mother  of 
James,  "  bought  sweet  spices  that  they 
might  come  and  anoint"  the  body  (Mark 
xvi.  1).  The  next  morning  accordingly,  in 
the  earliest  dawn  (Matt,  xxviii.  1 ;  Mark 
xvi.  2)  they  come  with  Mary,  the  mother  of 
James,  to  the  sepulchre.  Mary  Magdalene 
had  been  to  the  tomb  and  had  found  it 
empty,  had  seen  the  "  vision  of  angels  " 
(Matt,  xxviii.  5;  Mark  xvi.  5).  Slie  went 
witli  her  cry  of  sorrow  to  Peter  and  John 
(John  XX.  1,  2).  But  she  returns  there. 
She  follows  Peter  and  John,  and  remains 
when  they  go  back.  The  one  thought  that 
fills  her  mind  is  still  that  the  body  is  not 
there  (John  xx.  13).  The  utter  stupor  of 
lier  grief  is  show  n  in  her  want  of  power  to 
recognize  at  first  either  the  voice  or  the 
form  of  tiie  Lord  to  whom  she  had  minis- 
tered (John  XX.  14,  15).  At  last  her  own 
name,  uttered  by  her  Lord,  recalls  her  to 
consciousness ;  and  then  follows  tiie  cry  of 
recognition,  with  the  strongest  word  of 
reverence  which  a  woman  of  Israel  could 
use,  *'  Rabboni,"  and  the  rush  forward  to 
cling  to  His  feet.  —  (1)  Mary  Magdalene 
has  become  the  type  of  a  class  of  repentant 
sinners ;  but  there  is  no  authority  for  iden- 
tifying her  with  the  "  sinner  "  who  anoints 
the  feet  of  Jesus  in  Luke  vii.  3G-50.  When 
the  name  of  Mary  Magdalene  appears  in 
25 


Luke  viii.  3  there  is  not  one  word  to  con- 
nect it  with  the  history  that  immediately 
precedes.  Never,  perhaps,  has  a  figment 
so  utterly  baseless  ol)tained  so  wide  an  ac- 
ceptance as  that  which  we  connect  with  the 
name  of  the  "  penitent  Magdalene."  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  the  chapter-heading  of 
tiie  A.  V.  of  Luke  vii.  siiould  seem  to  give 
a  quasi-authoritative  sanction  to  a  tradition 
so  utterly  uncertain,  and  that  it  should  have 
been  perpetuated  in  connection  with  a  great 
work  of  mercy.  (2)  It  has  also  been  be- 
lieved that  Mary  Magdalene  is  the  same  as 
the  sister  of  Lazarus.  But  this  supposition 
is  still  more  startling.  Not  one  single  cir- 
cumstance, except  that  of  love  and  rever- 
ence for  their  Master,  is  common.  The 
epitliet  Magdalene,  whatever  may  be  its 
meaning,  seems  chosen  for  the  express 
purpose  of  distinguishing  her  from  all  other 
Marys.  No  one  Evangelist  gives  the  slight- 
est hint  of  identity.  The  Gospels  record 
two  anointings  of  our  Saviour,  one  by  the 
''  sinner,"  in  some  city  unnamed  during  our 
Lord's  Galilean  ministry  (Luke  vii.),  the 
other  at  Bethany,  by  Mary,  the  sister  of 
Lazarus,  before  the  last  entry  into  Jerusa- 
lem (Matt.  xxvi. ;  Mark  xiv. ;  John  xii.). 
The  only  passage  adduced  in  favor  of  the 
supposition  that  in  these  two  narrations  one 
woman  is  intended,  is  John  xi.  2.  But  the 
words  which  we  find  tljere,  *'  It  was  that 
Mary  which  anointed  the  Lord  with  oint- 
ment   whose  brother  Lazarus  was 

sick,"  evidently  refer  by  anticipation  to  tlie 
history  which  was  about  to  follow  in  ch. 
xii.  Moreover  there  is  not  the  slightest 
trace  of  the  life  of  Mary  of  Bethany  ever 
having  been  one  of  open  and  flagrant  im- 
purity. 

Mary,  Mother  of  Mark.  The  woman 
known  by  this  description  must  have  been 
among  the  earliest  disciples.  We  learn 
from  Col.  iv.  10  that  she  was  sister  to  Bar- 
nabas, and  it  would  appear  from  Acts  iv.. 
37,  xii.  12,  that,  while  the  brother  gave  up. 
his  land  and  brought  the  proceeds  of  th& 
sale  into  the  common  treasury  of  the 
Church,  the  sister  gave  up  her  house  to  bfr 
used  as  one  of  its  chief  places  of  meeting.. 
The  fact  that  Peter  goes  to  that  house  on. 
his  release  from  prison,  indicates  that  there 
was  some  special  intimacy  (Acts  xii.  12) 
between  them,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the 
language  which  he  uses  towards  Mark  as 
being  liis  "son"  (1  Pet.  v.  13). 

Mary,  Sister  of  Lazarus.  She  and 
her  sister  Martlia  appear  in  Luke  x.  40,  as 
receiving  Christ  in  their  house.  Mary  sat 
listening  eagerly  for  every  word  that  fell 
from  the  Divine  Teacher.  She  had  chosen 
the  good  part,  tlie  life  that  has  f/)und  its 
unity,  the  "  one  thing  needful,"  in  rising 
from  the  earthly  to  the  heavenly,  no  longer 
distracted  by  the  "many  things"  of  earth. 
The  same  character  shows  itself  in  the  his- 


MARY  THE  VIRGIN 


386 


MARY  THE  VIRGIN 


tory  of  John  xi.  Her  grief  is  deeper,  but 
less  active.  Her  first  thought  when  she 
(sees  the  Teacher  in  vrliose  power  and  love 
she  had  trusted,  is  one  of  complaint.  But 
the  great  joy  and  love  which  her  brother's 
return  to  life  calls  up  in  her,  pour  them- 
selves out  in  larger  measure  than  had  been 
seen  beiore.  The  treasured  alabaster-box 
of  ointment  is  brought  forth  at  the  final 
feast  of  Bethany,  John  xii.  3.  [See  fur- 
ther, Mary  Magdalene.] 

Mary  the  Virgin,  the  mother  of  our 
Lord.  Tliere  is  no  person  perhaps  in  sa- 
cred or  in  profane  literature  around  whom 
so  many  legends  have  been  grouped  as  the 
Virgin  Mar^ ;  and  there  are  few  whose  au- 
thentic history  is  more  concise.  We  are 
wholly  ignorant  of  the  name  and  occupa- 
tion of  St.  Mary's  parents.  She  was,  like 
Joseph,  of  tlie  tribe  of  Judah,  and  of  the 
lineage  of  David  (Ps.  cxxxii.  II;  Luke  i. 
32;  Rom.  i.  3).  She  had  a  sister,  named, 
like  herself,  Mary  (Jolm  xix.  25),  and  she 
was  connected  by  marriage  (Luke  i.  36) 
with  Elizabeth,  who  was  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi  and  of  the  lineage  of  Aaron.  This  is 
all  that  we  know  of  her  antecedents.  Her 
betrothal  to  Joseph,  and  the  circumstances 
connected  with  her  becoming  the  mother 
of  our  Lord,  are  related  elsewhere.  [Jesus 
Christ.]  From  the  time  at  which  our 
Lord's  ministry  commenced,  St.  Mary  is 
withdrawn  almost  wholly  from  sight.  Four 
times  only  is  the  veil  removed.  These  four 
occasions  are  —  1;  The  marriage  at  Cana 
of  Galilee  (John  ii.).  2.  The  attempt 
which  she  and  his  brethren  made  "to  speak 
with  him"  (Matt.  xii.  46;  Mark  iii.  21  and 
31;  Luke  viii.  19).  3.  The  Crucifixion. 
4.  The  days  succeeding  the  Ascension 
(Acts  i.  14).  If  to  these  we  add  two  refer- 
ences to  her,  the  first  by  her  Nazarene  fel- 
low-citizens (Matt.  xiii.  54,  55 ;  Mark  vi. 
1-3),  the  second  by  a  woman  in  the  multi- 
tude (Luke  xi.  27),  we  have  specified 
every  event  known  to  us  in  her  life.  It 
is  noticeable  that,  on  every  occasion  of 
our  Lord's  addressing  her,  oi^.speaking  of 
her,  there  is  a  sound  of  reproof  in  His 
words,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  words 
spoken  to  her  from  the  cross.  1.  The 
marriage  at  Cana  in  Galilee  took  place  in 
the  three  months  whicli  intervened  between 
the  baptism  of  Christ  {yjd  the  passover  of 
the  year  27.  When  Jesus  was  found  by 
his  mother  and  Joseph  in  the  Temple  in 
the  year  8,  we  find  him  repudiating  the 
name  of  "father"  as  applied  to  Joseph 
(Luke  ii.  48,  49).  Now,  in  like  manner, 
at  His  first  miracle  which  inaugurates  His 
ministry,  He  solemnly  withdraws  himself 
from  the  authority  of  His  earthly  mother. 
■2.  Capernaum  (John  ii.  12)  and  Nazareth 
(Matt.  iv.  18,  xiii.  54;  Mark  vi.  1)  appear 
to  have  been  the  residence  of  St.  Mary  for 
a  considerable  period.     The  next  time  that 


she  is  brought  before  us  we  find  her  at  Ca 
pernaum.  It  is  the  autumn  of  tlie  year  28, 
more  than  a  year  and  a  half  after  the  mir 
acle  wrought  at  the  marriage-feast  in  Cana. 
Mary  was  still  living  with  her  sister,  and 
her  nephews  and  nieces,  James,  Joses,  Si- 
mon, Jude,  and  their  three  sisters  (Matt. 
xiii.  55) ;  and  she  and  they  heard  of  the 
toils  which  he  was  undergoing,  and  they 
understood  that  He  was  denying  himseii 
every  relaxation  from  his  labors.  Their 
human  affection  conquered  their  faith.  They 
therefore  sent  a  message,  begging  him  to 
allow  them  to  speak  to  Him.  Again  he 
reproves.  Again  he  refuses  to  admit  any 
authority  on  the  part  of  his  relatives,  or 
any  privilege  on  account  of  their  relation- 
ship. 3.  The  next  scene  in  St.  Mary's  life 
brings  us  to  the  foot  of  the  cross.  She  was 
standing  there  with  her  sister  Mary  and 
Mary  Magdalene,  and  Salome,  and  other 
women,  having  no  doubt  followed  her  Son 
as  she  was  able  throughout  the  terrible 
morning  of  Good  Friday.  It  was  about 
three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  he  was 
about  to  give  up  His  spirit.  Standing  near 
the  company  of  the  women  was  St.  John ; 
and,  with  almost  His  last  words,  Christ 
commended  His  mother  to  the  care  of  him 
who  had  borne  the  name  of  the  dfsciple 
whom  Jesus  loved.  "  Woman,  behold  thy 
son."  And  from  that  hour  St.  John  assures 
us  that  he  took  her  to  his  own  abode.  4.  A 
veil  is  drawn  over  her  sorrow  and  over  her 
joy  which  succeeded  that  sorrow.  Medi- 
aeval imagination  has  supposed,  but  Scrip- 
ture does  not  state,  that  her  Son  appeared 
to  Mary  after  his  resurrection  from  the 
dead.  She  was  doubtless  living  at  Jerusa- 
lem with  John,  cherished  with  the  tender- 
ness which  her  tender  soul  would  have 
specially  needed,  and  which  undoubtedly 
she  found  pre-eminently  in  St.  John.  We 
have  no  record  of  her  presence  at  the  As- 
cension, or  at  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  What  we  do  read 
of  her  is,  that  she  remained  steadfast  in 
prayer  in  the  upper  room  at  Jerusalem  with 
Mary  Magdalene  and  Salome,  and  those 
known  as  the  Lord's  brothers  and  the  apos- 
tles. This  is  the  last  view  that  we  have  of 
her.  Holy  Scripture  leaves  her  engaged  iii 
prayer.  From  this  point  forwards  we  know 
nothing  of  her.  It  is  probable  that  the  rest 
of  her  life  was  spent  in  Jerusalem  with  St. 
John.  According  to  one  tradition  the  be- 
loved disciple  would  not  leave  Palestine 
until  she  had  expired  in  his  arms.  Other 
traditions  make  her  journey  with  St.  John 
to  Ephesus,  and  there  die  in  extreme  old 
age.  The  character  of  St.  Mary  is  not 
drawn  by  any  of  the  Evangelists,  but  some 
of  its  lineaments  are  incidentally  manifested 
in  the  fragmentary  record  which  is  given 
of  her.  It  is  clear  from  St.  Luke's  account, 
though  without  any   such    intimation   we 


MARY  TIIE  VIRGIN 


387 


MARY 


might  rest  assured  of  the  fact,  that  her 
youth  had  been  spent  in  the  study  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  that  she  had  set  be- 
fore her  the  example  of  the  holy  women  of 
the  Old  Testament  as  her  model.  This 
would  appear  from  the  Magnifcat  (Luke  1. 
4G).  Her  faith  and  humility  exhibit  them- 
selves in  her  immediate  surrender  of  her- 
self to  the  Divine  will,  though  ignorant 
how  that  will  should  be  accomplished  (Luke 
i.  38)  ;  her  energy  and  earnestness,  in  her 
journey  from  Nazareth  to  Hebron  (Luke  i. 
89)  ;  her  happy  thankfulness,  in  her  song 
of  joy  (Luke  i.  48) ;  her  silent  musing 
thoughtfulness,  in  her  pondering  over  the 
shepherd's  visit  (Luke  ii.  19),  and  in  her 
keeping  her  Son's  words  in  her  heart  (Luke 
ii.  51),  though  she  could  not  fully  under- 
stand their  import.  In  a  word,  so  far  as 
St.  Mary  is  portrayed  to  us  in  Scripture, 
she  is,  as  we  should  have  expected,  the 
most  tender,  the  most  faithful,  humble,  pa- 
tient, and  loving  of  women,  but  a  woman 
still.  We  do  not  enter  into  the  theological 
bearings  of  the  worship  of  St.  Mary ;  but 
we  shall  have  left  our  task  incomplete  if  we 
do  not  add  a  short  historical  sketch  of  the 
origin,  progress,  and  present  state  of  the 
devotion  to  her.  What  was  its  origin? 
Certainly  not  the  Bible.  There  is  not  a 
word  there  from  which  it  could  be  inferred , 
nor  in  the  Creeds ;  nor  in  the  Fathers  of  the 
first  five  centuries.  Whence,  then,  did  it 
arise  ?  There  is  not  a  shadow  of  doubt  that 
the  origin  of  the  worship  of  St.  Mary  is  to 
be  found  in  the  apocryphal  legends  of  her 
birth  and  of  her  death.  In  these  we  may 
find  the  germ  of  what  afterwards  expanded 
into  its  present  portentous  proportions. 
Some  of  the  legends  of  her  birth  are  as 
early  as  the  2d  or  3d  century.  They  were 
the  production  of  the  Gnostics,  and  were 
unanimously  and  firmly  rejected  by  the 
Church  of  the  first  five  centuries  as  fabulous 
and  heretical.  Down  to  the  time  of  the 
Nestorian  controversy  the  cultus  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  would  appear  to  have  been 
wholly  external  to  the  Church,  and  to  have 
been  regarded  as  heretical.  But  the  Nesto- 
rian controversies  produced  a  great  change 
of  sentiment  in  men's  minds.  Nestorius 
had  maintained,  or  at  least  it  was  the  ten- 
dency of  Nestorianism  to  maintain,  not  only 
that  our  Lord  had  two  natures,  the  divine 
and  the  human  (which  was  right),  but  also 
that  he  was  two  persons,  in  such  sort  that 
the  child  born  of  Mary  was  not  divine,  but 
merely  an  ordinary  human  being,  until  the 
divinity  subsequently  united  itself  to  Him. 
This  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  in  the  year  431 ;  and  the  title 
fttoTojfof,.  loosely  translated  "Mother  of 
God,"  was  sanctioned.  The  object  of  the 
Council  and  of  the  Anti-Nestorians  was  in 
no  sense  to  add  honor  to  the  mother,  but 


to  maintain  the  true  doctrine  with  respect  to 
the  Son.  Nevertheless,  the  result  was  to 
magnify  the  mother,  and,  after  a  time,  at 
the  expense  of  the  Son.  The  legends  too 
were  no  longer  treated  so  roughly  as  before. 
The  Gnostics  were  not  now  objects  of 
dread.  Nestorians,  and  afterwards  Icono- 
clasts, were  objects  of  hatred.  From  this 
time  the  worship  of  St.  Mary  grew  apace. 
We  learn  the  present  state  of  the  religious 
regard  in  which  she  is  held  throughout 
the  south  of  Europe  from  St.  Alfonso  de' 
Liguori,  whose  every  word  is  vouched  for 
by  the  whole  weight  of  his  Church's  author- 
ity. Thus  in  the  worship  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  there  are  two  distinctly-marked  pe- 
riods. The  first  is  that  which  commences 
with  the  apostolic  times,  and  brings  us  down 
to  the  close  of  the  century  in  which  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  was  held,  during  which 
time  the  worship  of  St.  Mary  was  wholly 
external  to  the  Church,  and  was  regarded 
by  the  Church  as  heretical,  and  confined 
to  Gnostic  and  Collyridian  heretics.  The 
second  period  commences  with  the  6th  cen- 
tury, when  it  began  to  spread  within  the 
Church ;  and  in  spite  of  the  shock  given  it 
by  the  Reformation,  has  continued  to  spread, 
and  is  spreading  still.  The  legend  of  the 
Assumption  of  St.  Mary  first  appears  in  an 
insertion  (now  recognized  on  all  hands  to  be 
a  forgery)  in  Eusebius'  Chronicle,  to  the 
eff'ect  that  "  in  the  year  a.  d.  48  Mary  the 
Virgin  was  taken  up  into  heaven,  as  some 
wrote  that  they  had  had  it  revealed  to  them." 
Thus  the  legend  crept  into  the  Church  during 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries,  and  was  finally 
ratified  by  the  authority  both  of  Rome  and 
Constantinople.  The  sinlessness  of  St. 
Mary,  which  has  issued  in  the  dogma  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  was  likewise  of  late 
origin.  Down  to  the  close  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury the  sentiment  with  respect  to  her  was 
identical  with  that  which  is  expressed  by 
theologians  of  the  Church  of  England.  At 
this  time  the  change  of  mind  before  referred 
to,  as  originated  by  the  Nestorian  contro- 
versies, was  spreading  within  the  Church ; 
and  it  became  more  and  more  the  general 
belief  that  St.  Mary  was  preserved  from 
actual  sin  by  the  grace  of  God.  It  became 
almost  universal  in  the  12th  century.  It 
was  maintained  by  St.  Bernard  that  St. 
Mary  was  conceived  in  original  sin,  but  that 
before  her  birth  she  was  cleansed  from  it, 
hke  John  the  Baptist  and  Jeremiah.  This 
was  the  sentiment  of  the  13th  century. 
Early  in  the  14th  century  died  J.  Duns 
Scotus,  and  he  is  the  first  theologian  or 
schoolman  who  threw  out  as  a  possibility 
the  idea  of  an  Immaculate  Conception, 
which  would  exempt  St.  Mary  from  origi- 
nal as  well  as  actual  sin.  This  doctrine  was 
affirmed  by  the  Papal  decree  of  Dec.  8, 1854. 
Mary,  a  Roman  Christ'an  who  is  greeted 


MASCHIL 


383 


MATTHEW,  GOSPEL  OF 


by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
(xvi.  6)  as  having  toiled  hard  for  hira. 

Mas'chil.  The  title  of  thirteen  Psalms  : 
xxxii.,xlii.,xliv.,  xlv.,  lii.-lv.,  Ixxiv.,  Ixxviii., 
Ixxxviii.,  Ixxxix.,  cxlii.  Ewald  regards  Ps. 
xlvii.  7  (A.  V.  "  sing  ye  praises  with  un- 
derstanding;  "  Heb.  maschiV)  as  the  key  to 
the  meaning  of  Maschil,  which  in  his  opin- 
ion is  a  musical  term,  denoting  a  melody 
requiring  great  skill  in  its  execution. 

Mash,  one  of  the  sons  of  Aram  (Gen. 
X.  23).  In  1  Chr.  i.  17  the  name  appears 
as  Aleshech.  The  name  Mash  is  probably 
represented  by  the  Mons  Masius  of  classi- 
cal writers,  a  range  which  forms  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Mesopotamia,  between  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

Ma'shal.  The  same  as  Misheal  or 
Mishal  (1  Chr.  vi.  74). 

Mas'rekah,  an  ancient  place,  the  native 
spot  of  Samhih,  one  of  the  old  kings  of  the 
Edomites  (Gen.  xxxvi.  36;  1  Chr.  i.  47). 

Mas'sa,  a  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
14;  1  Chr.  i.  30).  His  descendants  were 
not  improbably  the  Masani,  placed  by  Ptol- 
emy in  the  east  of  Arabia,  near  the  borders 
of  Babylonia. 

Mas'sah,  i,  e.  "  temptation,"  a  name 
given  to  the  spot,  also  called  Meribah, 
where  the  Israelites  tempted  Jehovah  (Ex. 
xvi.  7;  Ps.  xcv.  8,  9;  Heb.  iii.  8). 

Masticll-tree  occurs  only  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha (Susan,  vcr.  54),  where  the  margin 
of  the  A.  V.  has  lentisk.  The  fragrant  resin 
known  in  the  arts  as  "  mastich,"  and  which 
is  obtained  by  incisions  made  in  the  trunk 
in  the  month  of  August,  is  the  produce  of 
this  tree,  whose  scientific  name  is  Pistachia 
lentiscus.  It  is  used  with  us  to  strengthen 
the  teeth  and  gums,  and  was  so  applied  by 
tlie  ancients,  by  whom  it  was  much  prized 
on  this  account,  and  for  its  many  supposed 
medical  virtues. 

Matliu'sala  =  Methuselah,  the  son 
of  Enoch  (Luke  iii.  37). 

Ma'tred,  a  daughter  of  Mezahab,  and 
mother  of  Mehetabel,  who  was  wife  of  Ha- 
dar  (or  Hadad)  of  Pan ,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  39 ;  1  Chr.  i.  50). 

Ma'tri,  a  family  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min, to  which  Saul  the  king  of  Israel  be- 
longed (1  Sam.  X.  21). 

Mat'tan.  1.  The  priest  of  Baal  slain 
before  his  altars  in  the  idol  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  K.  xi.  18;  2  Chr.  xxiii.  17).  He 
probably  accompanied  Athalia  from  Sama- 
ria. 2.  The  father  of  Shephatiah  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  1).      .  ^ 

Mat'tanah.,  a  station  in  the  latter  part 
of  tlie  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  (Num. 
xxi.  18,  19).  It  was  probably  situated  to 
the  S.  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Mattani'ah.  1.  The  original  name  of 
Zedekiah  king  of  Judah,  whicli  was  changec 
when  Nebuchadnezzar  placed  him  on  the 
throne    (2  K.  xxiv.    17).      2.    A  Levite 


singer  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  (1  Chr.  ix.  15). 
He  is  described  as  tl>c  son  of  Micah,  Micha 
(Neh.  xi.  17),  or  Michaiah  (Neh.  xii.  35), 
and  after  the  return  from  Babylon  lived  in 
tlie  villages  of  the  Netophathites  (1  Chr. 
ix.  16)  or  Netophathi  (Neh.  xii.  28),  which 
the  singers  had  built  in  the  neighbor] lood 
of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  29).  As  leader  of 
the  Temple  choir  after  its  restoration  (Neh. 
xi.  17,  xii.  8)  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  he 
took  part  in  the  musical  service  which  ac- 
companied the  dedication  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  25,  35).  We  find  hira 
among  the  Levites  of  the  second  rank, 
"  keepers  of  the  thresholds,"  an  office  which 
fell  to  the  singers  (comp.  1  Chr.  xv.  18, 
21).  3.  A  descendant  of  Asaph,  and  an- 
cestor of  Jahaziel  the  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xx.  14).  4.  One  of 
the  sons  of  Elam  (Ezr.  x.  26).  5.  One  of 
the  sons  of  Zattu  (Ezr.  x.  27).  6.  A  de- 
scendant of  Pahath-Moab  (Ezr.  x.  30). 
And,  7.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani  (Ezr.  x. 
37),  who  all  put  away  their  foreign  wives 
at  Ezra's  command.  8.  A  Levite,  father 
of  Zaccur,  and  ancestor  of  Hanan  the  under- 
treasurer  who  had  charge  of  the  offerings 
for  the  Levites  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  xiii.  13).  9.  One  of  the  fourteen 
sons  of  Heman,  whose  office  it  was  to  blow 
the  horns  in  the  Temple  service  as  appoint- 
ed by  David  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4,  16).  10.  A 
descendant  of  Asaph,  the  Levite  minstrel, 
who  assisted  in  the  purification  of  the  Tem- 
ple in  the  reign  of  llezekiali  (2  Chr.  xxix. 
13). 

Mattatlli'as.  1.  The  father  of  the 
Maccabees  (1  Mace.  ii.  1,  14,  16,  17,  19, 
a4,  27,  39,  45,  49,  xiv.  29).  2.  The  son  of 
Simon  Maccabaeus  who  was  treacherously 
murdered,  together  with  his  father  and 
brother,  in  the  fortress  of  Docus,  by  Ptole- 
meus  the  son  of  Abubus  (1  Mace.  xvi.  14). 
[Maccabees.] 

Mat'thew.  Matthew  the  Apostle  and 
Evangelist  is  the  same  as  Levi  (Luke  v. 
27-29)  the  son  of  a  certain  Alphacus  (Mark 
ii.  14).  His  call  to  be  an  apostle  is  related 
by  all  three  Evangelists  in  the  same  words, 
except  that  Matthew  (ix.  9)  gives  the  for- 
mer, and  Mark  (ii.  14)  and  Luke  (v.  27) 
the  latter  name.  The  publicans,  properly  so 
called  (pM&ZVca«i), were  persons  who  farmed 
the  Roman  taxes,  and  they  were  usually, 
in  later  times,  Roman  knights,  and  persons 
of  wealth  and  credit.  They  employed  un- 
der them  inferior  officers,  natives  of  the 
province  where  the  taxes  were  collected, 
called  properly  portitores,  to  which  class 
Matthew  no  doubt  belonged.  The  traditions 
respecting  the  later  life  of  St.  Matthew  are 
various;  but  nothing  whatever  is  really 
known. 

Matthew,  Gospel  of.  The  Gospel 
which  bears  the  name  of  St.  Matthew  was 
written  by  the  Apostle,  acjording  to   the 


MATTHEW,  GOSPEL  OF 


Bad 


MATTOCK 


testimony  of  all  antiquity.  I.  Language  in 
which  it  was  first  written.  —  Every  early 
writer  wlio  mentions  that  St.  Matthew  wrote 
a  Gospel  at  all  says  that  he  wrote  in  He- 
brew (that  is,  in  the  Syro-Chaklaic)  and  in 
Palestine  in  tlie  first  century.  Moreover 
every  early  writer  that  has  come  down  to 
us  uses  the  Greek  of  St.  Matthew,  and  this 
with  the  definite  recognition  that  it  is  a 
translation;  hence  we  may  be  sure  that  the 
Greek  copj'  belongs  to  the  Apostolic  age, 
having  been  thus  authoritatively  used  from 
and  up  to  that  time.  Thus  the  question  is 
not  tlie  authority  of  the  Greek  translation, 
which  comes  from  the  time  when  the 
Churclies  enjoyed  Apostolic  guidance,  but 
whether  there  was  a  Hebrew  original  from 
which  it  had  been  translated.  The  wit- 
nesses to  the  Hebrew*  original  were  men 
Bufliciently  competent  to  attest  so  simple  a 
fact,  especially  seeing  that  they  are  relied 
on  in  what  is  far  more  important, — that 
St.  Matthew  wrote  a  Gospel  at  all.  There 
is  in  fact  no  evidence  whatsoever  that 
St.  Matthew  wrote  in  Greek.  II.  Style 
and  Diction.  —  1.  Matthew  uses  the  ex- 
pression, "  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which 
was  spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet " 
(i.  22,  ii.  15).  In  ii.  5,  and  in  later  passages 
of  Matt,  it  is  abbreviated  (ii.  17,  iii.  3,  iv. 
14,  viii.  17,  xii.  17,  xiii.  14,  35,  xxi.  4,  xxvi. 
56,  xxvii.  9).  2.  The  reference  to  the 
Messiah  under  the  name  "  Son  of  David," 
occurs  in  Matthew  eight  times ;  and  three 
times  each  in  Mark  and  Luke.  3.  Jeru- 
salem is  called  "the  holy  city,"  "the  holy 
place"  (iv.  6,  xxiv.  15,  xxvii.  55).  4.  The 
expression  ov\niXtia  ruv  auovog  is  used  five 
tjmes ;  in  the  rest  of  the  N.  T.  only  once, 
in  Ep.  to  Hebrews.  5.  The  phrase  "  king- 
dom of  heaven,"  about  thirty-three  times ; 
other  writers  use  "kingdom  of  God,"  which 
is  found  also  in  Matthew.  6.  "  Heavenly 
Father,"  used  about  six  times ;  and  "  Father 
in  heaven  "  about  sixteen,  and  without  ex- 
planation, point  to  the  Jewish  mode  of 
speaking  in  this  Gospel.  III.  Genuineness 
of  the  Gospel.  The  genuineness  of  the 
first  two  chapters  of  the  Gospel  has  been 
questioned,  but  is  established  on  satisfactory 
grounds.  1.  All  the  old  MSS.  and  versions 
contain  them ;  and  they  are  quoted  by  the 
Fathers  of  the  2d  and  3d  centuries.  2. 
Their  contents  would  naturally  form  part 
of  a  Gospel  intended  primarily  for  the  Jews. 
3.  The  commencement  of  ch.  iii.  is  depen- 
dent on  ii.  23 ;  and  in  iv.  13  there  is  a  refer- 
ence to  ii.  23.  4.  In  constructions  and 
Expressions  they  are  similar  to  the  rest  of 
the  Gospel.  IV.  Time  when  and  place 
where  the  Gospel  was  written.  —  Nothing 
can  be  said  on  this  point  with  certainty. 
The  most  probable  supposition  is  that  it 
was  written  between  50  and  CO,  and  in  Pal- 
estine. V.  Purpose  of  the  Gospel.  —  The 
Gospel  itself  tells  us  ^y  plain  internal  evi- 


dence that  it  was  written  for  J'ewish  con- 
verts, to  show  them  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
the  Messiah  of  the  O.  T.  whom  they  ex- 
pected. Jewish  converts  overall  the  world 
seem  to  have  been  intended,  and  not  mere- 
ly Jews  in  Palestine.  It  is  pervaded  by  one 
principle,  the  fulfilment  of  the  Law  and  of 
the  Messianic  prophecies  in  the  person  of 
Jesus. 

Matthi'as,  the  Apostle  elected  to  fill 
the  place  of  the  traitor  Judas  (Acts  i.  2G). 
All  beyond  this  that  we  know  of  him  for 
certainty  is,  that  he  had  been  a  constant 
attendant  upon  the  Lord  Jesus  during  the 
whole  course  of  His  ministry ;  for  such  was 
declared  by  St.  Peter  to  be  the  necessary 
qualification  of  one  who  was  to  be  a  witness 
of  the  resurrection.  It  is  said  that  he 
preached  the  Gospel  and  suflfered  martyr- 
dom i.i  Ethiopia. 

Mattithi'ah.  1.  A  Levite,  the  first- 
born of  Shallum  the  Korhite,  who  presided 
over  the  offerings  made  in  the  pans  (1  Chr. 
ix.  31;  comp.  Lev.  vi.  20  [12],  &c.).  2. 
One  of  the  Levites  of  the  second  rank  under 
Asaph,  appointed  by  David  to  minister  be- 
fore the  ark  in  the  musical  service  (1  Chr. 
xvi.  6),  "with  harps  upon  Sheminith" 
(comp.  1  Chr.  xv.  21),  to  lead  the  choir. 
3.  One  of  the  family  of  Nebo,  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife  in  the  days  of  Ezra 
(Ezr.  x.  43).  4.  Probably  a  priest,  who 
stood  at  the  right  hand  of  Ezra  when  he  road 
the  law  to  the  people  (Ezr.  viii.  4).  5.  The 
same  as  2,  the  Hebrew  being  in  the  length- 
ened form  (1  Chr.  xv.  18,  21).  He  was  one 
of  the  six  sons  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chr.  xxv.  3, 
21). 

Mattock  (Is.  vii.  25).    The  tool  used 


Egyptian  Hoea.    (From  Wilkinson.)  . 

in  Arabia  for  loosening  the  ground,  de- 
scribed by  Niebuhr,  answers  generally  to 
our  mattock  or  grubbing-axe,  t.  e.  a  single- 


MAUL 


390 


MEALS 


ht. ailed  pickaxe,  the  sarculus  Amplex,  as 
opposed  to  bicornis  of  Palladius.  The  an- 
cient Egyptian  hoe  was  of  wood,  and  an- 
swered for  hoe,  spade,  and  pick. 

Maul  (i.e.  a  hammer ;  a  variation  of  mall, 
from  malleus),  a  word  employed  by  our 
translators  to  render  the  Hebrew  term 
mSphits.  The  Hebrew  and  English  alike 
occur  in  Prov.  xxv.  18  only.  But  a  deriv- 
ative from  the  same  root,  and  differing  but 
slightly  in  form,  viz.  majjpets,  is  found  in 
Jer.  li.  20,  and  is  there  translated  by  "  bat- 
tle-axe." 

Mauz  zim.  The  marginal  note  to  the 
A.  V.  of  Dan.  xi.  38,  "the  God  o{  forces," 
gives,  as  the  equivalent  of  the  last  word, 
"  Mauzzim,  or  gods  protectors,  or  muni- 
tions." The  Geneva  version  renders  the 
Hebrew  as  a  proper  name  both  in  Dan.  xi. 
88  and  39,  where  the  word  occurs  again 
(marg.  of  A.  V.  "  munitions  ").  In  the 
Greek  version  of  Theodotion  it  is  treated  as 
a  proper  name,  as  well  as  in  the  Vulgate. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  "  Mauzzim  " 
is  to  be  taken  in  its  literal  sense  of  "  for- 
tresses," just  as  in  Dan.  xi.  19,  39 ;  "  the 
god  of  fortresses  "  being  then  the  deity  who 
presided  over  strongholds.  But  beyond 
this  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  connect  an 
appellation  so  general  with  any  special  ob- 
ject of  idolatrous  worship.  Calvin  suggest- 
ed that  it  denoted  "  money,"  the  strongest 
of  all  powers.  By  others  it  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  Mars.  The  opinion  of  Gese- 
nius  is  more  probable,  that  "  the  god  of 
fortresses "  was  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  for 
whom  Antiochus  built  a  temple  at  Antioch 
(Liv.  xli.  20).  A  suggestion  made  by  Mr. 
Laird  (iVira.  ii.  456,  note)  is  worthy  of  being 
recorded.  After  describing  Hera,  the  As- 
syrian Venus,  as  "  standing  erect  on  a  lion, 
and  crowned  with  a  tower  or  mural  coronet, 
which,  we  learn  from  Lucian,  was  peculiar 
to  the  Semitic  figure  of  the  goddess,"  he 
adds  in  a  note,  "  May  she  be  connected 
with  the  '  El  Maozem,'  the  deity  presiding 
over  bulwarks  and  fortresses,  the  '  god  of 
forces  '  of  Dan.  xi.  38  ?  " 

Maz'zaroth.  The  margin  of  the  A.  V. 
of  Job  xxxviii.  32  gives  "  the  twelve  signs" 
as  the  equivalent  of"  Mazzaroth,"  and  this 
is  in  all  probability  its  true  meaning. 

Meadow.  Tliis  word,  so  peculiarly 
English,  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  to  translate 
two  words  which  are  entirely  distinct  and 
independent  of  each  other.  '  1.  Gen.  xli.  2 
and  18.  Here  the  word  in  the  original  is 
ha-AchH.  It  appears  to  be  an  Egyptian 
term.  ItsuseinJobviii.il  (A.  V."  flag") 
seems  to  show  that  it  is  not  a  "meadow," 
but  some  kind  of  reed  or  water-plant.  But 
as  during  high  inundations  of  the  Nile  — 
such  inundations  as  are  the  cause  of  fruitfiil 
years  —  the  whole  of  the  land  on  either  side 
is  a  marsh,  and  as  the  cultivation  extends 
up  to  the  very  lip  of  the  river,  is  it  not  pos- 


sible that  Achu  may  denote  the  herbage  of 
the  growing  crops  ?  2.  Judg.  xx.  33  only : 
"  the  meadows  of  Gibeah."  Here  the  word 
is  Maareh,  which  occurs  nowhere  else  with 
the  same  vowels  attached  to  it.  The  sense 
is  thus  doubly  uncertain.  The  most  plau- 
sible interpretation  is  that  of  the  Peshito- 
Syriac,  which  by  a  slight  difference  in  the 
vowel-points  makes  the  word  »iea?-aA.,  "the 
cave." 

Me'ah,  The  Tower  of,  one  of  the 
towers  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  when  re- 
built by  Nehemiah  (iii.  1,  xii.  39),  appears 
to  have  been  situated  somewhere  at  the 
north-east  part  of  the  city,  outside  of  the 
walls  of  Zion. 

Meals.  Our  information  on  this  subject 
is  but  scanty :  the  early  Hebrews  do  not 
seem  to  have  given' special  names  to  their 
several  meals,  for  the  terms  rendered 
"dine  "  and  "  dinner"  in  the  A.  V.  (Gen. 
xliii.  16 ;  Prov.  xv.  17)  are  in  reality  gen- 
eral expressions,  which  might  more  cor- 
rectly be  rendered  "  eat "  and  "  portion  of 
food."  In  the  N.  T.  we  have  the  Greek 
terms  aoiarov  and  dtinvor,  which  the  A.  V. 
renders  respectively  "  dinner  "  and  "  sup- 
per" (Luke  xiv.  12;  John  xxi.  12),  but 
which  are  more  properly  "breakfast  "  and 
"dinner."  There  is  some  uncertainty  as 
to  the  hours  at  which  the  meals  were  taken  : 
the  Egyptians  undoubtedly  took  their  prin- 
cipal meal  at  noon  (Gen.  xliii.  16)  ;  labor- 
ers took  a  light  meal  at  that  time  (Ruth  ii. 
14 ;  comp.  ver.  17)  ;  and  occasionally  that 
early  hour  was  devoted  to  excess  and  revel- 
ling (1  K.  XX.  16).  It  has  been  inferred 
from  those  passages  (somewhat  too  hastily, 
we  think)  that  the  principal  meal  generally 
took  place  at  noon  :  the  Egyptians  do  indeed 
still  make  a  substantial  meal  at  that  time ; 
but  there  are  indications  that  the  Jews 
rather  followed  the  custom  that  prevails 
among  the  Bedouins,  and  made  their  prin- 
cipal meal  after  sunset,  and  a  lighter  meal 
at  about  9  or  10  a.  m.  The  posture  at  meals 
varied  at  various  periods  :  there  is  sufficient 
evidence  that  the  old  Hebrews  were  in  the 
habit  of  sitting  (Gen.  xxvii.  19  ;  Judg.  xix. 
6 ;  1  Sam.  xx.  5,  24 ;  1  K.  xiii.  20),  but  it 
does  not  hence  follow  that  they  sat  on 
chairs ;  they  may  have  squatted  on  the 
ground,  as  was  the  occasional,  though  not 
perhaps  the  general  custom  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  table  was  in  this  case  bx-t 
slightly  elevated  above  the  ground,  as  is  still 
the  case  in  Egj-pt.  As  luxury  increased, 
the  practice  of  sitting  was  exclianged  for 
that  of  reclining:  the  first  intimation  (^ 
this  occurs  in  the  prophecies  of  Amos  (iii. 
12,  vi.  4).  The  custom  may  have  been 
borrowed  in  the  first  instance  from  tlie 
Babylonians  and  Syrians,  among  whom  it 
prevailed  at  an  early  period  (Esth.  i.  6,  vii. 
8).  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  reclining 
was  the  universal  custom,  as  is  implied  in 


MEALS 


891 


MEALS 


6  7. 

An  Ancient  Egyptian  Dinner  Partjr.    (Wilkinson.) 

a,/,  n.  r.  Tables  with  variooa  dishea.    b,  p.  Figs.    d.  e,  q,  and  s.  Baskets  of  grapes.    Fig.  3  is  taking  a  wing  fVom  a  goose. 
Fig.  4  holds  a  joint  of  meat.    Figs.  6  and  7  are  eating  fish.    Fig.  6  is  about  to  drink  water  from  an  earthen  vessel. 


the  terms  used  for  "  sitting  at  meat,"  as 
the  A.  V.  incorrectly  has  it.  The  couch 
itself  is  only  once  mentioned  (Mark  vii.  4; 
A.  V.  "  table  "),  but  there  can  belittle  doubt 
that  the  Roman  triclinium  had  been  intro- 
duced, and  that  the  arrangements  of  the  ta- 
bles resembled  those  described  by  classical 
writers.  Generally  speaking,  only  three  per- 
sons reclined  on  each  couch,  but  occasional- 
ly four,  or  even  five.  The  couches  were  pro- 
vided with  cushions,  on  which  the  left  elbow 
rested  in  support  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
body,  while  the  right  arm  remained  free ;  a 
room  provided  with  these  was  described  as 
iaiQb^nivov,  lit.  "spread"  (Mark  xiv.  15; 
A.  V.  "  furnished  ").  As  several  guests  re- 
clined on  the  same  couch,  each  overlapped 
his  neighbor,  as  it  were,  and  rested  his 
head  on  or  near  the  breast  of  the  one  who 
lay  behind  him  ;  he  was  then  said  to  "  lean 
on  the  bosom "  of  his  neighbor  (John  xiii. 
23,  xxi.  20).  The  ordinary  arrangement 
of  the  couches  was  in  three  sides  of  a 
square,  the  fourth  being  left  open  for  the 
servants  to  bring  up  the  dislies.  Some 
doubt  attends  the  question  whether  the  fe- 
males took  their  meals  along  with  the 
iwiles.  The  cases  of  Ruth  amid  the  reap- 
ers (Ruth  ii.  14),  of  Elkanah  with  his 
wives  (1  Sam.  i.  4),  of  Job's  sons  and 
daughters  (Job  i.  4),  and  the  general  inter- 
mixture of  the  sexes  in  daily  life,  make  it 
more  than  probable  that  they  did  so  join ; 
at  the  same  time,  as  the  duty  of  attending 
upon  the  guests  devolved  upon  them  (Luke 
X.  40),  they  probably  took  a  somewhat 
irregular  and  briefer  repast.  Before  com- 
mencing the  meal  the  guests  washed  their 
hands.  This  custom  was  founded  on  nat- 
ural decorum ;  not  only  was  the  hand  the 


substitute  for  our  knife  and  fork,  but  the 
hands  of  all  the  guests  were  dipped  into 
one  and  the  same  dish.  Another  prelimi- 
nary step  was  the  grace  or  blessing,  of 
which  we  have  but  one  instance  in  the  O.  T. 
(1  Sam.  ix.  13),  and  more  than  one  pro- 
nounced by  our  Lord  Himself  in  the  N.  T. 
(Matt.  XV.  36;  Luke  ix.  16;  John  vi.  11). 
The  mode  of  taking  the  food  differed  in  no 
material  point  from  the  modern  usages  of 
the  East ;  generally  there  was  a  single  dish, 
into  which  each  guest  dipped  his  hand 
(Matt.  xxvi.  23) ;  occasionally  separate 
portions  were  served  out  to  each  (Gen. 
xliii.  34;  Ruth  ii.  14;  1  Sam.  i.  4).  A 
piece  of  bread  was  held  between  the  thumb 
and  two  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  and  was 
dipped  either  into  a  bowl  of  melted  grease 
(in  which  case  it  was  termed  ' '  a  sop," 
John  xiii.  26),  or  into  the  dish  of  meat, 
whence  a  piece  was  conveyed  to  the  mouth 
between  the  layers  of  bread.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  meal,  grace  was  again  said 
in  conformity  with  Deut.  viii.  10,  and  the 
hands  were  again  washed.  Thus  far  we 
have  described  the  ordinary  meal ;  on  state 
occasions  more  ceremony  was  used,  and 
the  meal  was  enlivened  in  various  ways. 
Such  occasions  were  numerous,  in  connec- 
tion partly  with  public,  partly  with  private 
events.  On  these  occasions  a  sumptuous 
repast  was  prepared;  the  guests  were  pre- 
viously invited  (Esth.  v.  8 ;  Matt.  xxii.  3), 
and  on  the  day  of  the  feast  a  socontj  invi- 
tation was  issued  to  those  that  were  bidden 
(Esth.  vi.  14 ;  Prov.  ix.  3 ;  Matt.  xxii.  2>. 
Tlie  visitors  were  received  with  a  kiss 
(Tob.  vii.  6 ;  Luke  vii.  45)  ;  water  was  pro- 
duced for  'iiem  to  wash  Mieir  feet  with 
(Luke  vii.  44) ;  the  head,  the  beard,  th« 


MEARAH 


392 


MEDES 


feet,  and  sometimes  the  clothes,  were  per- 
fumed with  ointment  (Ps.  xxiii.  5 ;  Am.  vi. 
6 ;  Luke  vii.  38  ;  Jolm  xii.  3)  ;  on  special 
occasions  robes  were  provided  (Matt.  xii. 
11) ;  and  the  head  was  decorated  with 
wreaths  (Is.  xxviii.  1 ;  Wisd.  ii.  7,  8 ;  Jo- 
seph. Ant.  xix.  9,  §  1).  The  regulation 
of  the  feast  was  under  the  superintendence 
of  a  special  officer  (Jolm  ii.  8 ;  A.  V.  "  gov- 
ernor of  the  feast "),  whose  business  it  was 
to  taste  the  food  and  the  liquors  before  tliey 
were  placed  on  the  table,  and  to  settle 
about  the  toasts  and  amusements ;  he  was 
generally  one  of  the  guests  (Ecclus.  xxxii. 
1,  2),  and  might  therefore  take  part  in  the 
conversation.  The  places  of  the  guests 
were  settled  according  to  their  respective 
rank  (Gen.  xliii.  33;  1  Sam.  ix.  22;  Luke 
xiv.8;  Mark  xii.  39;  John  xiii.  23);  por- 
tions of  food  were  placed  before  each  (1 
Sam.  i.  4 ;  2  Sam.  vi.  19 ;  1  Chr.  xvi.  3), 
the  most  honored  guests  receiving  either 
larger  (Gen.  xliii.  34 ;  comp.  Herod,  vi. 
67)  or  more  choice  (1  Sara.  ix.  24)  por- 
tions than  the  rest.  The  meal  was  enliv- 
ened with  music,  singing,  and  dancing  (2 
Sam.  xix.  35;  Ps.  Ixix.  12;  Is.  v.  12;  Am. 
vi.  5),  or  with  riddles  (Judg.  xiv.  12) ; 
and  amid  these  entertainments  the  festival 
was  prolonged  for  several  days  (Esth. 
1.3.  4). 

Mea'rah,  a  place  named  in  Josh.  xiii.  4 
only.  The  word  means  in  Hebrew  a  cave, 
and  it  is  commonly  assumed  that  the  refer- 
ence is  to  some  remarkable  cavern  in  the 
neighborliood  of  Zidon. 

Measures.  [Weights  and  Measures.] 

Meat.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  word 
"  meat  "  is  used  in  any  one  instance  in  the 
A.  V.  of  either  the  O.  or  N.  Testament,  in 
the  sense  wliich  it  now  almost  exclusive- 
ly bears  of  animal  food.  The  latter  is  de- 
noted uniformly  by  "  flesh."  The  only 
possible  exceptions  to  this  assertion  in  the 
O.  T.  are  —  (a.)  Gen.  xxvii.  4,  &c.,  "sa- 
vory meat."  (b.)  lb.  xlv.  23,  "  corn  and 
bread  and  meat."  The  only  real  and  in- 
convenient ambiguity  caused  by  the  change 
which  has  taken  place  in  the  meaning  of 
the  word  is  in  the  case  of  the  '*  meat-offer- 
ing."    [Meat-offering.] 

Meat-offering.  The  -word  minchdh 
signifies  originally  a  gift  of  any  kind,  and 
appears  to  be  used  generally  of  a  gift  from 
an  inferior  to  a  superior,  whether  God  or 
man.  The  law  or  ceremonial  of  the  meat- 
offering is  described  in  Lev.  ii.  and  vi.  14- 
23.  It  was  to  be  composed  of  fine  flour, 
seasoned  with  salt,  and  mixed  with  oil  and 
frankincense,  but  without  leaven ;  and  it 
was  generally  accompanied  by  a  drink-of- 
fering of  wine.  A  portion  of  it,  including 
all  the  frankincense,  was  to  be  burnt  on  the 
altar  as  "a  memorial ;"  the  rest  belonged 
to  the  priest ;  but  the  meat-offerings  offered 
b)  the  priests  themselves  were  to  be  wholly 


burnt.  Its  meaning  appears  1  be  exactly 
expressed  in  the  words  of  David  (1  Chr. 
xxix.  10-14).  It  will  be  seen  that  this 
me.aning  involves  neither  of  the  main  ideas 
of  sacrifice  —  the  atonement  for  sin  and 
self-dedication  to  God.  It  takes  them  for 
granted,  and  is  based  on  them.  According- 
ly, the  meat-offering,  properly  so-called, 
seems  always  to  have  been  a  subsidiary  of- 
fering, needing  to  be  introduced  by  the  sin- 
offering,  which  represented  the  one  idea, 
and  forming  an  appendage  to  the  burnt- 
offering  which  represented  the  other.  The 
iHibloody  offerings  offered  alone  did  not 
properly  belong  to  the  regular  meat-offer- 
ing. They  were  usually  substitutes  for 
other  oflerings  (comp.  Lev.  v.  11 ;  Num.  v. 
15).     [Meat.] 

Mebunna'i.  In  this  form  appears,  in 
one  passage  only  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  27),  the 
name  of  one  of  David's  guard,  who  is  else- 
where called  SiBBECHAi  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18; 

1  Chr.  XX.  4)  or  Sibbecai  (1  Chr.  xi.  29, 
xxvii.  11)  in  the  A.  V.  The  reading  "  Sib- 
bechai  "  is  evidently  the  true  one. 

Mech'erathite,  The,  that  is,  the  na- 
tive or  inhabitant  of  a  place  called  Meche- 
rah  (1  Chr.  xi.  3(r).     In  the  parallel  list  of 

2  Sam.  xxiii.  the  name  appears,  with  other 
variations,  as  "  the  Maachathite"  (ver.  34). 

Me'dad.     [Eldad  and  Medap.] 

Me'dan,  a  son  of  Abraliam  and  Keturah 
(Gen.  XXV.  2;  1  Chr.  i.  32).  It  has  been 
supposed,  from  the  similarity  of  the  name, 
that  the  tribe  descended  from  Medan  was 
more  closely  allied  to  Midian  than  by  mere 
blood-relation,  and  that  it  was  the  same  as, 
or  a  portion  of,  the  latter.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  ground  for  this  theory  beyond  its 
plausibility. 

Med'eba,  a  town  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Jordan,  first  alluded  to  in  Num.  xxi.  80. 
Here  it  seems  to  denote  the  limit  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Heshbon.  It  next  occurs  in  the 
enumeration  of  the  country  divided  amongst 
the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  (Josh.  xiii.  9),  as 
giving  its  name  to  a  district  of  level  downs 
called  "the  Mishor  of  Medeba,"  or  "the 
Mishor  on  Medeba."  At  the  time  of  the 
conquest  Medeba  belonged  to  the  Amor- 
ites,  apparently  one  of  the  towns  taken  from 
Moab  by  them.  In  the  time  of  Ahaz  Me- 
deba was  a  sanctuary  of  Moab  (Is.  xv.  'f). 
It  has  retained  its  name  down  to  our  own 
times,  and  lies  4  miles  S.  E.  of  Heshhon, 
on  a  rounded  bnt  rocky  hill. 

Medes.  Me'dia.  Media  lay  north-west 
of  Persia  Proper,  south  and  south-west  of 
the  Caspian,  east  of  Armenia  and  Assyria, 
west  and  north-west  of  the  great  salt  des- 
ert of  Irani.  Its  greatest  length  was  from 
north  to  south,  and  in  this  direction  it  ex- 
tended from  the  32d  to  tlie  40th  parallel,  a 
distance  of  550  miles.  In  width  it  reached 
from  about  long.  45°  to  53^ ;  but  its  aver- 
age breadth  was  not  more  than  from  250  to 


MEDES 


893 


MEDES 


300  miles.  The  division  of  Media  cora- 
nionly  recognized  by  the  Greelss  and  Ro- 
mans was  tliat  into  Media  Magna  and  Media 
Atropatene.  1.  Media  Atropatene  corre- 
sponded nearly  to  the  modern  Azerhijan, 
being  the  tract  situated  between  the  Caspi- 
an and  the  mountains  which  run  nortli  from 
Zagros.  2.  Media  Magna  lay  south  and 
east  of  Atropatene.  It  contained  great 
I^art  of  Kurdistan  and  Luristan,  with  all 
Ardelan  and  Irak  Ajeini.  It  is  indicative  ot 
the  division,  that  there  were  two  Ecbatanas 
—  one,  the  northern,  at  Takhi-i- Suleiman  ; 
the  other,  the  southern,  at  IJamadan,  on 
the  flanks  of  Mount  Orontes  —  respective- 
ly the  capitals  of  the  two  districts.  [Ec- 
BATAXA.]  Next  to  the  two  Ecbatanas,  the 
chief  town  in  Media  was  undoubtedly  Rlia- 
ges,  the  Raga  of  the  inscriptions.  —  It  may 
be  gathered  from  the  mention  of  the  Medes, 
by  Moses,  among  the  races  descended  from 
Japhet  [Madai],  that  they  were  a  nation 
of  very  high  antiquity ;  and  it  is  in  accord- 
ance with  this  view  that  we  find  a  notice 
of  them  in  the  primitive  Babylonian  history 
of  Berosus,  who  says  that  the  Medes  con- 

?uered  Babylon  at  a  very  remote  period 
cir.  B.  c.  2458),  and  that  eight  Median 
monarchs  reigned  there  consecutively,  over 
a  space  of  224  years.  The  deepest  obscu- 
rity hangs,  however,  over  the  whole  history 
of  tlie  Medes  from  the  time  of  their  bearing 
sway  in  Bal)ylonia  (b.  c.  2458-2234)  to 
their  first  appearance  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions among  the  enemies  of  Assyria, 
about  B.  c.  880.  They  then  inhabit  a  por- 
tion of  the  region  which  bore  their  name 
down  to  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Per- 
sia; but  whether  they  were  recent  immi- 
grants into  it,  or  had  held  it  from  a  remote 
antiquity,  is  uncertain.  However  this  was, 
it  is  certain  that  at  first,  and  for  a  long 
series  of  years,  they  were  very  inferior  in 
power  to  the  great  empire  established  upon 
their  flank.  Herodotus  represents  the  de- 
cadence of  Assyria  as  greatly  accelerated  by 
a  formal  revolt  of  tlie  Medes,  and  places  this 
revolt  about  b.  c.  708.  He  gives  a  succes- 
sion of  kings  —  Deioces,  Phraortes,  Cyax- 
ares,  and  Astyages.  But  the  cuneiform 
records  of  Sargon,  Sennaclierib,  and  Esar- 
haddon  clearly  show  that  the  Median  king- 
dom did  not  commence  so  early  as  Herodo- 
tus imagined.  These  three  princes,  whose 
reigns  cover  the  space  extencHng  from  b.  c. 
720  to  B.  c.  6G0,  all  carried  their  arms  deep 
into  Media,  and  found  it,  not  under  the 
dominion  of  a  single  powerful  monarch, 
but  under  the  rule  of  a  vast  number  of 
petty  chieftains.  It  cannot  have  been  till 
near  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  b.  c. 
that  th3  Median  kingdom  was  consolidatea, 
and  became  formidable  to  its  neighbors. 
Cyaxares,  the  third  Median  monarch,  took 
Nineveh  and  conquered  Assyria,  b.  c.  625. 
The  limits  of  the  Median  Empire  cannot 


be  definitely  fixed.  From  north  to  south 
its  extent  was  in  no  place  great,  since  it 
was  certainly  confined  between  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  the  Euphrates  on  the  one  side, 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  on  the  other. 
From  east  to  west  it  had,  however,  a  wide 
expansion,  since  it  reached  from  the  Halys 
at  least  as  far  as  the  Caspian  Gates,  and 
possibly  farther.  It  was  separated  from 
Babylonia  either  by  the  Tigris,  or  more 
probably  by  a  line  running  about  half  way 
between  that  river  and  the  Euphrates.  Its 
greatest  length  may  be  reckoned  at  1500 
miles  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  and  its  average 
breadth  at  400  or  450  miles.  Its  area  would 
thus  be  about  000,000  square  miles,  or 
somewhat  greater  than  that  of  modern 
Persia.  With  regard  to  the  nature  of  the 
government  established  by  the  Medes  over 
the  conquered  nations,  we  possess  but  lit- 
tle trustworthy  evidence.  Herodotus  in 
one  place  compares,  somewhat  vaguely, 
the  Median  with  the  Persian  system  (i. 
134)  ;  but  on  the  whole  it  is  perhaps  most 
probable  that  the  Assyrian  organization 
was  continued  by  the  Medes,  the  subject- 
nations  retaining  their  native  monarchs, 
and  merely  acknowledging  subjection  by 
the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute.  The 
satrapal  organization  was  apparently  a 
Persian  invention,  begun  by  Cyrus,  con- 
tinued by  Cambyses,  his  son,  but  first 
adopted  as  the  regular  governmental  sys- 
tem by  Darius  Hystaspis.  Of  all  the  an- 
cient Oriental  monarchies  the  Median  was 
the  shortest  in  duration.  It  was  over- 
thrown by  the  Persians  under  Cyrus,  b.  c. 
558.  After  many  partial  engagements,  a 
great  battle  was  fought  between  the  two 
armies,  and  the  result  was  the  complete 
defeat  of  the  Medes,  and  the  capture  of 
their  king,  Astyages,  by  Cyrus.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  Medes  by  the  victorious  Per- 
sians was  not  that  of  an  ordinary  conquered 
nation.  According  to  some  writers  (as 
Herodotus  and  Xenophon)  there  was  a  close 
relationship  between  Cyrus  and  the  last 
Median  monarch,  who  was  therefore  natu- 
rally treated  with  more  than  common  ten- 
derness. The  two  nations  were  closely 
akin ;  they  had  the  same  Aryan  or  Iranic 
origin,  the  same  early  traditions,  the  same 
language,  nearly  the  same  religion,  and  ul- 
timately the  same  manners  and  customs, 
dress,  and  general  mode  of  life.  Medes 
were  advanced  to  stations  of  high  honor 
and  importance  under  Cyrus  and  liis  suc- 
cessors. The  original  religio'n  of  the  Medes 
must  undoubtedly  have  been  that  simple 
creed  which  is  placed  before  us  in  the 
earlier  portions  of  the  Zendavcsta.  Its 
peculiar  characteristic  was  Dualism,  tlie 
belief  in  the  existence  of  two  opposite 
principles  of  good  and  evil,  nearly  if  not 
quite  on  a  par  with  one  another.  Ormazd 
and  Ahriman  were   both  self-caused  and 

\ 


MEDES 


394 


MEDICINE 


aelf-existent,  both  indestructible,  both  po- 
tent to  work  their  will.  Besides  Ormazd, 
the  Aryans  worshipped  the  Sun  and  Moon, 
under  the  names  of  Mithra  and  Homa ;  and 
they  believed  in  the  existence  of  numerous 
spirits  or  genii,  some  good,  some  bad,  the 
subjects  and  ministers  respectively  of  the 
two  powers  of  Good  and  Evil.  Their  mi- 
gration brought  them  into  contact  with  the 
lire-worshippers  of  Armenia  and  Mount 
Zagros,  among  whom  Magism  had  been 
established  from  a  remote  antiquity.  The 
result  was  either  a  combination  of  the  two 
religions,  or  in  some  cases  an  actual  con- 
version of  the  conquerors  to  the  faith  and 
worship  of  the  conquered.  So  far  as  can 
be  gathered  from  the  scanty  materials  in 
our  possession,  the  latter  was  the  case  with 
the  Medes.  —  The  customs  of  the  Medes 
nearly  resembled  those  of  their  neighbors, 
the  Armenians  and  the  Persians ;  but  they 
were  regarded  as  the  inventors,  their 
neighbors  as  the  copyists.  They  were 
brave  and  warlike,  excellent  riders,  and 
remarkably  skilful  with  the  bow.  The 
flowing  robe,  so  well  known  from  the 
Persepolitan  sculptures,  was  their  native 
dr"ss,  and  was  certainly  among  the  points 
foi  which  the  Persians  were  beholden  to 
them.  References  to  the  Medes.  —  The 
references  to  the  Medes  in  the  canonical 
Scriptures  are  not  very  numerous,  but  they 
are  striking.  We  first  hear  of  certain 
"  cities  of  the  Medes,"  in  which  the  cap- 
tive Israelites  were  placed  by  "  the  king  of 
Assyria "  on  the  destruction  of  Samaria, 
B.  c.  721  (2  K.  xvu.  6,  xviii.  11).  This 
implies  the  subjection  of  Media  to  Assyria 
at  the  time  of  Shalmaneser,  or  of  Sargon, 
his  successor,  and  accords  very  closely 
with  the  account  given  by  the  latter  of  cer- 
tain military  colonies  which  he  planted  in 
the  Median  country.  Soon  afterwards 
Isaiah  prophesies  the  part  which  the  Medes 
shall  take  in  the  destruction  of  Babylon 
(Is.  xiii.  17,  xxi.  2)  ;  which  is  again  still 
more  distinctly  declared  by  Jeremiah  (li. 
11  and  28),  who  sufficiently  indicates  the 
independence  of  Media  in  his  day  (xxv.  25). 
Daniel  relates  the  fact  of  the  Medo-Persic 
conquest  (v.  28,  31),  giving  an  account  of 
the  reign  of  Darius  the  Mede,  who  appears 
to  have  been  made  viceroy  by  Cyrus  (vi. 
1-28).  In  Ezra  we  have  a  mention  of 
Achmetha  (Ecbatana),  "  the  palace  in  the 
pi'ovince  of  the  Medes,"  where  the  decree 
of  Cyrus  was  found  (vi.  2-5)  —  a  notice 
which  accords  with  the  known  facts  that 
the  Median  capital  was  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment under  Cyrus,  but  a  royal  residence 
only,  and  not  the  seat  of  government  under 
Darius  Hystaspis.  Finally,  in  Esther,  the 
higli  rank  of  Media  under  the  Persian 
kings,  yet  at  the  same  time  its  subordinate 
position,  are  marked  by  the  frequent  com- 
bination of  the  two  names  in  phrases  of 


honor,  t.  o  preceden<!y  being  in  every  case 
assigned  to  the  Persians.  In  the  Apocry- 
pha the  Medes  occupy  a  more  prominent 
place.  The  chief  scene  of  one  whole  book 
(Tobit)  is  Media ;  and  in  another  (Judith) 
a  very  striking  portion  of  the  narrative  be- 
longs to  the  same  country.  The  mention 
of  Khages  in  both  narratives  as  a  Median 
town  and  region  of  importance  is  geograph- 
ically correct;  and  it  is  historically  true 
that  Phraoites  suffered  his  overthrow  in 
the  Rhagian  district. 

Me'dian.  Darius,  "the  son  of  Ahas- 
uerus,  of  the  seed  of  the  Medes "  (Dan. 
ix.  1)  or  "the  Mede"  (xi.  1),  is  thus  de- 
scribed in  Dan.  v.  31. 

Medicine.  Next  to  care  for  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter,  the  curing  of  hurts 
takes  precedence  even  amongst  savage  na- 
tions. At  a  later  period  comes  the  treat- 
ment of  sickness,  and  recognition  of  states 
of  disease ;  and  these  mark  a  nascent  civ- 
ilization. From  the  most  ancient  testi- 
monies, sacred  and  secular,  Egypt,  from 
whatever  cause,  though  perhaps  from  ne- 
cessity, was  foremost  among  the  nations  in 
this  most  human  of  studies  purely  physical. 
Egypt  was  the  earliest  home  of  medical  and 
other  skill  for  the  region  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin,  and  every  Egyptian  mummy 
of  the  more  expensive  and  elaborate  sort 
involved  a  process  of  anatomy.  Still  we 
have  no  trace  of  any  philosophical  or  ra- 
tional system  of  Egyptian  origin ;  and  med- 
icine in  Egypt  was  a  mere  art  or  profes- 
sion. Of  science  the  Asclepiadae  of  Greece 
were  the  true  originators.  Hippocrates, 
who  wrote  a  book  on  "  Ancient  Medicine," 
and  who  seems  to  have  had  many  oppor- 
tunities of  access  to  foreign  sources,  gives 
no  prominence  to  Egypt.  Compared  with 
the  wild  countries  around  them,  at  any 
rate,  the  Egyptians  must  have  seemed  in- 
calculably advanced.  Representations  of 
early  Egjrptian  surgery  apparently  occur 
on  some  of  the  monuments  of  Beni-Has- 
san.  Flint  knives  used  for  embalming  have 
been  recovered  —  the  "  Ethiopic  stone  "  of 
Herodotus  (ii.  86 ;  comp.  Ex.  iv.  25)  was 
probably  either  black  flint  or  agate;  and 
those  who  have  assisted  at  the  opening  of 
a  mummy  have  noticed  that  the  teeth  ex- 
hibited a  dentistry  not  inferior  in  execution 
to  the  work  of  the  best  modern  experts. 
This  confirms  the  statement  of  Herodotus 
that  every  part  of  the  body  was  studied  by 
a  distinct  practitioner.  Pliny  (vii.  57)  as- 
serts that  the  Egyptians  claimed  the  inven- 
tion of  tlie  healing  art,  and  (xxvi.  1)  thinks 
them  subject  to  many  diseases.  Their 
"  many  medicines "  are  mentioned  (Jer. 
xlvi.  11).  Athothmes  II.,  king  of  the 
country,  is  said  to  have  written  on  the  sub- 
ject of  anatomy.  The  various  recipea 
known  to  have  been  beneficial  were  record- 
ed, with  their  peculiar  cases,  in  the  me- 


MEDICINE 


395 


MEDICINE 


moirs  of  physic,  inscribed  among  the  laws, 
and  deposited  in  the  principal  temples  of 
the  place  (Wilkinson,  iii.  39G,  897).  The 
reputation  of  its  practitioners  in  historical 
times  was  such  that  both  Cyrus  and  Darius 
sent  to  Egypt  for  physicians  or  surgeons. 
Of  midwifery  we  liave  a  distinct  notice  (Ex. 
i.  15),  and  of  women  as  its  practitioners, 
wliicii  fact  may  also  be  verified  from  the 
sculptures.  The  physicians  had  salaries 
from  the  public  treasury,  and  treated  al- 
ways according  to  established  precedents, 
or  deviated  from  these  at  tlieir  peril,  in  case 
of  a  fatal  termination ;  if,  however,  the  pa- 
tient died  under  accredited  treatment  no 
blame  was  attached.  The  Egyptians  who 
lived  in  tiie  corn-growing  region  are  said  by 
Herodotus  (ii.  77)  to  have  been  specially 
attentive  to  health.  The  scrupulous  atten- 
tion paid  to  the  dead  was  favorable  to  the 
health  of  the  living.  But,  to  pursue  to 
later  times  this  merely  general  question,  it 
appears  that  the  Ptolemies  themselves  prac- 
tised dissection,  and  that,  at  a  period  when 
Jewish  intercourse  with  Egypt  was  com- 
plete and  reciprocal,  there  existed  in  Alex- 
andria a  great  zeal  for  anatomical  study. 
In  comparing  the  growth  of  medicine  in  the 
rest  of  the  ancient  world,  the  high  rank  of 
its  practitioners  —  princes  and  heroes  — 
settles  at  once  the  question  as  to  the  esteem 
in  which  it  was  held  in  the  Homeric  and 
pre-Homeric  period.  Tlie  practice  of  physic 
was  not  among  the  Jews  a  privilege  of 
the  priesthood.  Any  one  might  practise  it, 
and  this  publicity  must  have  kept  it  pure. 
Nay,  there  was  no  Scriptural  bar  to  its 
practice  by  resident  aliens.  We  read  of 
"physicians,"  "  healing,"  &c.,  in  Ex.  xxi. 
19 ;  2  K.  viii.  29 ;  2  Chr.  xvi.  12 ;  Jerem. 
viii.  22.  At  the  same  time  the  greater  lei- 
sure of  the  Levites  and  their  other  advan- 
tages would  make  them  the  students  of  the 
nation,  as  a  rule,  in  all  science,  and  their 
constant  residence  in  cities  would  give  them 
the  opportunity,  if  carried  out  in  fact,  of  a 
far  wider  field  of  observation.  The  reign 
of  peace  of  Solomon's  days  must  have 
opened,  especially  with  renewed  Egyptian 
intercourse,  new  facilities  for  the  study.  He 
himself  seems  to  have  included  in  his  fa- 
vorite natural  history  some  knowledge  of 
the  medicinal  uses  of  the  creatures.  His 
works  show  him  conversant  with  the  notion 
of  remedial  treatment  (Prov.  iii.  8,  vi.  15,  xii. 
18,  xvii.  22,  XX.  30,  xxix.  1 ;  Eccles.  iii.  3)  ; 
and  one  passage  indicates  considerable 
knowledge  of  anatomy.  The  statement  that 
king  Asa  (2  Clir.  xvi.  12)  "  sought  not  to  Je- 
hovah but  to  tlie  physicians,"  may  seem  to 
countenance  the  notion  that  a  rivalry  of  actu- 
al  worship,  based  on  some  medical  fancies, 
nad  been  set  up.  The  captivity  at  Baby- 
lon brought  tlie  Jews  in  contact  with  a 
new  sphere  of  thought.  We  know  too  little 
of  the  precise  state  of  medicine  iu  Babylon, 


Susa,  and  the  "  cities  of  the  Mcdes,"  to-de- 
termine  tlie  direction  in  which  the  impulse 
so  derived  would  have  led  the  exiles.  The 
book  of  Ecclesiasticus  shows  the  increased 
regard  given  to  the  distinct  study  of  medi- 
cine, by  the  reijeated  mention  of  physicians, 
&c.,  which  it  contains,  and  whicli,  as  prob- 
ably belonging  to  the  period  of  the  Ptole- 
mies, it  might  be  expected  to  show.  Bank 
and  honor  are  said  to  be  the  portion  of  the 
physician,  and  his  office  to  be  from  the 
Lord  (xxxviii.  1,  3,  12).  The  repeated  al- 
lusions to  sickness  in  vii.  35,  xxx.  17,  xxxi. 
22,  xxxvii.  30,  xxxviii.  9,  coupled  with  the 
former  recognition  of  merit,  have  caused 
some  to  suppose  that  this  author  was  him- 
self a  physician.  In  Wisd.  xvi.  12,  plaister 
is  spoken  of;  anointing,  as  a  means  of 
healing,  in  Tob.  vi.  8.  To  bring  down  the 
subject  to  the  period  of  the  N.  T.,  St 
Luke,  "  the  beloved  physician,"  who  prac 
tised  at  Antioch  whilst  the  body  was  his 
care,  could  hardly  have  failed  to  be  con- 
versant with  all  the  leading  opinions  cur- 
rent down  to  his  own  time.  The  medicine 
and  surgery  of  St.  Luke  were  probably 
not  inferior  to  those  commonly  in  demand 
among  educated  Asiatic  Greeks,  and  must 
have  been,  as  regards  their  basis,  Greek, 
and  not  Jewish.  Before  proceeding  to  the 
examination  of  diseases  in  detail,  it  may 
be  well  to  observe  that  the  question  of 
identity  between  any  ancient  malady  known 
by  description,  and  any  modern  one  known 
by  experience,  is  often  doubtful.  Some 
diseases,  just  as  some  plants  and  some  ani- 
mals will  exist  almost  anywhere ;  others  can 
only  be  produced  within  narrow  limits  de- 
pending on  the  conditions  of  climate,  habit, 
&c.  Eruptive  diseases  of  the  acute  kind 
are  more  prevalent  in  the  East  than  in 
colder  climes.  They  also  run  their  course 
more  rapidly.  Disease  of  various  kinds  is 
commonly  regarded  as  a  divine  infliction, 
or  denounced  as  a  penalty  for  transgres- 
sion; "the  evil  diseases  of  Egypt"  are 
especially  so  characterized ;  so  the  emerods 
of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  v.  6) ;  the  severe 
dysentery  (2  Chr.  xxi.  15,  19)  of  Jehoram, 
which  was  also  epidemic;  so  the  sudden 
deaths  of  Er,  Onan,  the  Egyptian  first- 
born, Nabal,  Bathsheba's  son,  and  Jero- 
boam's are  ascribed  to  the  action  of  Jeho- 
vah immediately,  or  through  a  prophet. 
Pestilence  (Hab.  iii.  5)  attends  His  path, 
and  is  innoxious  to  those  whom  he  shelters 
(Ps.  xci.  3-10).  It  is  by  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
and  Amos  associated  (as  historically  in  2 
Sam.  xxiv.  13)  with  "  the  sword "  and 
"  famine."  The  sicknesses  of  the  widow's 
son  of  Zarephath,  of  Ahaziaii,  Benhadud, 
the  leprosy  of  Uzziah,  the  boil  of  Hezckiah, 
are  also  noticed  as  diseases  sent  by  Jeho- 
vah, or  in  which  He  interposed.  In  2  Sam. 
iii.  29,  disease  is  invoked  as  a  curse,  and  in 
Solomon's  prayer,  1  K.  viii.  37  (comp.  2 


MEDICINE 


396 


MEDICmE 


CMr.  XX.  9),  anticipated  as  a  chastisement. 
Satanic  ajrcncy  ajjpears  also  as  procuring 
disease  (Job  ii.  7;  Luke  xiii.  11,  IG). 
Diseases  are  also  mentioned  as  ordinary 
calamities.  Among  special  diseases  named 
in  the  0.  T.  are.  ophthalmia  (Gen.  xxix. 
17),  which  is  perhaps  more  common  in 
Syria  and  Egypt  than  anywiiere  else  in  the 
world;  especially  in  the  fig  season,  the 
juice  of  the  newly-ripe  fruit  having  the 
power  of  giving  it.  It  may  occasion  par- 
tial or  total  blindness  (2  K.  vi.  18).  The 
eye-salve  (Rev.  iii.  18)  was  a  remedy 
common  to  Orientals,  Greeks-,  and  Romans. 
Several  diseases  are  mentioned,  the  names 
of  which  are  derived  from  various  words, 
signifying  to  burn  or  to  be  hot  (Lev.  xxvi. 
16;  Deut.  xxviii.  22).  The  "burning 
boil,"  or  "  of  a  boil"  (Lev.  xiii.  23)  is 
merely  marked  by  the  notion  of  an  effect 
resembling  that  of  fire,  like  our  "  carbun- 
cle ;  "  it  may  possibly  find  an  equivalent 
in  the  Damascus  boil  of  the  present 
time.  The  diseases  rendered  "  scab  "  and 
"scurvy"  in  Lev.  xxi.  20,  xxii.  22,  Deut. 
xxviii.  27,  may  be  almost  any  skin  disease. 
Some  of  these  may  be  said  to  approach  the 
type  of  leprosy.  The  "  botch  {shecMn) 
of  Egypt"  (Deut.  xxviii.  27)  is  so  vague  a 
term  as  to  yield  a  most  uncertain  sense ; 
the  pi  igue  as  known  by  its  attendant  huho, 
has  been  suggested.  It  is  possible  that  the 
Elephantiasis  Graecorum  may  be  intended. 
The  same  word  is  used  to  express  the 
"  boil "  of  Hezekiah.  In  Deut.  xxviii.  35, 
is  mentioned  a  disease  attacking  the  "  knees 
and  legs,"  consisting  in  a  "  sore  botch  which 
cannot  be  healed,"  but  extended,  in  the  se- 
quel of  the  verse,  from  the  "  sole  of  the  foot 
to  the  top  of  the  head."  The  latter  part  of 
the  quotation  would  certainly  accord  with 
Elephantiasis  Graecorum.  The  Elephanti- 
asis Graecorum  is  what  now  passes  under 
the  name  of  "  leprosy  "  — the  lepers,  e.  g. 
of  the  huts  near  the  Zion  gate  of  modern 
Jerusalem  are  elepHantiasiacs.  [Leprosy.] 
The  disease  of  king  Antiochus  (2  Mace. 
ix.  5-10,  &c.)  is  that  of  a  boil  breeding 
worms.  There  is  some  doubt  whether  this 
disease  be  not  allied  to  phthiriasis,  in  which 
lice  are  bred,  and  cause  ulcers.  In  Deut. 
xxviii.  65,  it  is  possible  that  a  palpitation 
of  the  heart  is  intended  to  be  spoken  of 
(comp.  Gen.  xlv.26).  InMarkxi.  17(comp. 
Luke  ix.  38)  we  have  an  apparent  case  of 
epilepsy.  The  expression  of  Ex.  ix.  10,  a 
"boil"  flourishing,  or  ebullient  with  blains, 
may  perhaps  be  a  disease  analogous  to 
phlegmonous  erysipelas,  or  even  common 
erysipelas.  The  "  withered  hand  "  of  Jero- 
boam (IK.  xiii.  4-6),  and  of  the  man. 
Matt.  xii.  lJ-13  (comp.  Luke  vi.  10),  ^is 
such  an  effect  as  is  known  to  follow  from 
tne  obliteration  of  the  main  artery  of  any 
member,  or  from  paralysis  of  the  principal 
nerve,  either  througli  disease  or  through 


injury.  Tlie  case  of  the  widow's  son 
restored  by  Elisha  (2  K.  iv.  19)  was  proba- 
bly one  of  sunstroke.  The  disease  of  Asa 
"  in  his  feet "  which  attacked  him  in  his 
old  age  (1  K.  xv.  23;  2  Chr.  xvi.  12),  and 
became  exceeding  great,  may  have  been 
either  oedema,  swelling,  or  podagra,  gout. 
The  disease  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  iv. 
33)  may  be  viewed  as  a  species  of  the 
melancholy  known  as  Lyeanthropia.  Per- 
sons so  affected  wander  like  wolves  in  sep- 
ulchres by  night,  and  imitate  the  howling 
of  a  wolf  or  a  dog.  Here  should  be  noticed 
the  mental  malady  of  Saul.  His  melan- 
choly seems  to  have  had  its  origin  in  his 
sin.  Music,  which  soothed  him  for  a  while, 
has  entered  largely  into  the  milder  modem 
treatment  of  lunacy.  The  palsy  meets  us 
in  the  N.  T.  only,  and  in  features  too  famil- 
iar to  need  special  remark.  Gangrene,  or 
mortification  in  its  various  forms,  is  a  to- 
tally different  disorder  frotn  the  "  canker  " 
of  the  A.  V.  in  2  Tim.  ii.  17.  Both  gan- 
grene and  cancer  were  common  in  all  the 
countries  familiar  to  the  Scriptural  writers, 
and  neither  differs  from  the  modern  disease 
of  the  same  name.  The  bitfe  or  sting  of 
venomous  beasts  can  hardly  be  treated  as  a 
disease;  but  in  connection  with  the  "  fiery 
Qi.  e.  venomous)  serpents  "  of  Num.  xxi.  6, 
and  the  deliverance  from  death  of  those 
bitten,  it  deserves  a  notice.  The  brazen 
figure  was  symbolical  only.  It  was  custom- 
ary to  consecrate  the  image  of  the  affliction, 
either  in  its  cause  or  in  its  effect,  as  in  the 
goldon  emerods,  golden  mice,  of  1  Sam.  vi. 
4,  8,  and  in  the  ex-votos  common  in  EgA'pt, 
even  before  the  Exodus ;  and  these  may  be 
compared  with  this  setting  up  of  the  brazen 
serpent.  The  scorpion  and  centipede  are 
natives  of  the  Levant  (Rev.  ix.  5,  10),  and, 
with  a  large  variety  of  serpents,  swarm 
there.  The  disease  of  old  age  has  acquired 
a  place  in  Biblical  nosology  chiefly  owing 
to  the  elegant  allegory  into  which  "The 
Preacher  "  throws  the  successive  tokens  of 
the  ravage  of  time  on  man  (Eccl.  xii.). 
The  course  of  decline  is  marked  in  meta- 
phor by  the  darkening  of  the  great  lights 
of  nature,  and  die  ensuing  period  of  life  is 
compared  to  the  broken  weather  of  the 
wet  season,  setting  in  when  summer  is 
gone,  when  after  every  shower  fresh  clouds 
are  in  the  sky,  as  contrasted  with  the 
showers  of  other  seasons,  which  pass  away 
into  clearness.  The  "keepers  of  the 
house  "  are  perhaps  the  ribs  which  support 
the  frame,  or  the  arms  and  shoulders  which 
enwrap  and  protect  it.  The  "  strong  men  " 
are  its  supporters,  the  lower  limbs  "  bowing 
themselves  "  under  the  weight  they  once  so 
lightly  bore.  The  "grinding "  hardly  needs 
to  be  explained  of  the  teeth,  now  become 
"few."  The  "lookers  from  the  windows'* 
are  the  pupils  of  the  eyes,  now  "  darkened." 
The  "doors  shut"  represent  the  dolnessof 


MEDICINE 


397 


MEGIDDO 


those  other  senses  which  are  the  portals  of 
knowledge.  The  "rising  up  at  the  voice 
of  a  bird  "  portrays  the  light,  soon-fleeting, 
easily-broken  slumber  of  the  aged  man ;  or 
possibly,  and  more  literally,  actual  waking 
in  the  early  morning,  when  first  the  cock 
crows,  may  be  intended.  The  "daughters 
of  music  brought  low,"  suggest  the 

"  bis  manly  voice 
Now  turned  again  to  childish  treble  ; " 

and  also,  as  illustrated  by  Barzillai,  the 
failure  in  the  discernment  and  the  utterance 
of  musical  notes.  The  fears  of  old  age  are 
next  noticed:  "They  shall  be  afraid  of 
that  which  is  high  ;  "  an  obscure  expression, 
perhaps,  for  what  are  popularly  called 
"  nervous  "  terrors,  exaggerating  and  mag- 
nifying every  object  of  alarm.  "Fear  in. 
the  way "  is  at  first  less  obvious ;  but  we 
observe  that  nothing  unnerves  and  agitates 
an  old  person  more  than  the  prospect  of  a 
long  journey.  Thus  regarded,  it  becomes 
a  fine  and  subtile  touch  in  the  description 
of  decrepitude.  All  readiness  to  haste  is 
arrested  and  a  numb  despondency  succeeds. 
The  "  flourishing  "  of  "  the  almond-tree  " 
is  still  more  obscure ;  but  we  observe  this 
tree  in  Palestine  blossoming  when  others 
show  no  sign  of  vegetation,  and  when  it  is 
dead  winter  all  around  —  no  ill  type,  per- 
haps, of  the  old  man  who  has  survived  his 
own  contemporaries  and  manyof  his  juniors. 
Youthful  lusts  die  out,  and  their  organs, 
of  which  "the  grasshopper"  is  perhaps  a 
figure,  are  relaxed.  The  "silver  cord" 
may  be  that  of  nervous  sensation,  or  mo- 
tion, or  even  the  spinal  marrow  itself. 
Perhaps  some  incapacity  of  retention  may 
be  signified  by  the  "  golden  bowl  broken ; " 
the  "  pitcher  broken  at  the  well,"  suggests 
some  vital  supply  stopping  at  the  usual 
source  —  derangement  perhaps  of  the  di- 
gestion or  of  the  respiration;  the  "wheel 
shivered  at  the  cistern,"  conveys,  through 
the  image  of  the  water- lifting  process  fa- 
miliar in  irrigation,  the  notion  of  the  blood, 
pumped  as  it  were,  through  the  vessels, 
and  fertilizing  the  whole  system;  for  "  the 
blood  is  the  life."  This  careful  register  of 
the  tokens  of  decline  might  lead  us  to  ex- 
pect great  care  for  the  preservation  of 
health  and  strength;  and  this  indeed  is 
found  to  mark  the  Mosaic  system,  in  the 
regulatioriS  concerning  diet,  the  "  divers 
washings,"  and  the  pollution  imputed  to  a 
corpse  —  nay,  even  in  circumcision  itself. 
These  served  not  only  the  ceremonial  pur- 
pose of  imparting  self-consciousness  to  the 
Hebrew,  and  keeping  Jiim  distinct  from 
alien  admixture,  but  had  a  sanitary  aspect 
of  rare  wisdom,  when  we  regard  the  coun- 
try, the  climate,  and  the  age.  Among 
surgical  instruments  or  pieces  of  apparatus 
the  following  only  are  alluded  to  in  Scrip- 
ture. A  cutting  instrument,  supposed  a 
"  sharp-stone  "  (Ex.  iv.  25).     The  "  knife  "  , 


of  Josh.  V.  2  was  probably  a  more  refined 
instrument  for  the  same  purpose.  An 
"  awl "  is  mentioned  (Ex.  xxi.  6)  as  used 
to  bore  through  the  ear  of  the  bondman 
who  refused  release,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  surgical  instrument.  The 
"  roller  to  bind  "  of  Ez.  xxx.  21  was  for  a 
broken  limb,  as  still  used.  A  scraper,  for 
which  the  "potsherd"  of  Job  was  a  su|j- 
stitute  (Job  ii.  8).  Ex.  xxx.  23-25  is  a 
prescription  in  form.  An  occasional  trace 
occurs  of  some  chemical  knowledge,  e.  g. 
the  calcination  of  the  gold  by  Moses ;  the 
effect  of  "vinegar  upon  natrum "  (Ex. 
xxxii.  20;  Prov,  xxv.  20;  comp.  Jer.  ii. 
22)  ;  the  mention  of  "  the  apothecary " 
(Ex.  xxx.  35;  Eccles.  x.  1),  and  of  the 
merchant  in  "  powders "  (Cant.  iii.  6), 
shows  that  a  distinct  and  important  branch 
of  trade  was  set  up  in  these  wares,  in 
which,  as  at  a  modern  druggist's,  articles 
of  luxxiry,  &c.,  are  combined  with  the 
remedies  of  sickness.  Among  the  most 
favorite  of  external  remedies  has  always 
been  the  bath.  There  were  special  oc- 
casions on  which  the  bath  was  ceremonially 
enjoined.  The  Pharisees  and  Essenes 
aimed  at  scrupulous  strictness  of  all  such 
rules  (Matt.  xv.  2 ;  Mark  vii.  5 ;  Luke 
xi.  38).  River-bathing  was  common,  but 
houses  soon  began  to  include  a  bath-room 
(Lev.  XV.  13;  2  K.  v.  10;  2  Sam.  xi.  2; 
Susanna  15). 

Megid'do  was  in  a  very  marked  position 
on  the  southern  rim  of  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon,  on  the  frontier-line  of  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  tribes  of  Issachar  and 
Manasseh,  and  commanding  one  of  those 
passes  from  the  north  into  tlie  hiir-coUntry 
which  were  of  such  critical  importance  on 
various  occasions  in  the  history  of  Judaea 
(Judith  iv.  7).  The  first  mention  occurs  in 
Josh.  xii.  21,  where  Megiddo  appears  as 
the  city  of  one  of  the  kings  whom  Joshua 
defeated  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan.  The 
song  of  Deborah  brings  the  place  vividly 
before  us,  as  the  scene  of  the  great  conflict 
between  Siscra  and  Barak.  The  chariots 
of  Sisera  were  gathered  "  unto  the  river  of 
KisHON  "  (Judg.  iv.  13)  ;  Barak  went  down 
with  his  men  "from  Mount  Tabor"  into 
the  plain  (iv.  14)  ;  "then  fought  the  kings 
of  Canaan  in  Taanach  by  the  waters  of 
Megiddo"  (v.  19).  The  chief  historical 
interest  of  Megiddo  is  concentrated  in 
Josiah's  death.  When  Pharaoh-Necho 
came  from  Egypt  against  the  king  of 
Assyria,  Josiah  joined  the  latter,  and  was 
slain  at  Megiddo  (2  K.  xxiii.  29),  and  his 
body  was  carried  from  thence  to  Jerusalem 
(ib.  30).  The  story  is  told  in  the  Chronicles 
in  more  detail  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  22-24).  There 
the  fatal  action  is  said  to  have  taken  place 
"  in  the  valley  of  Megiddo."  This  calamity 
made  a  deep  and  permanent  impression  on 
the  Jews.     Thus,  in  the  language  of  the 


MEGIDDON 


398 


MELCHIZEDEK 


prophets  (Zech.  xii.  11),  "the  mourning  of 
Hadadrimmon  in  the  valley  of  Megiddon  " 
becomes  a  poetical  expression  for  the 
deepest  and  most  despairing  grief;  as  in 
the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  xvi.  16)  Akmaged- 
DON,  in  continuance  of  the  same  imagery, 
is  presented  as  the  scene  of  terrible  and 
final  conflict.  Megiddo  is  the  modern  el- 
Jxjjun,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  Legio  of 
Eusebius  and  Jerome.  There  is  a  copious 
stream  flowing  down  the  gorge,  and  turn- 
ing some  mills  before  joining  the  Kishon. 
Here  are  probablv  the  "waters  of  Megid- 
do "of  Judg.  V.  19. 

Megid'don,  The  Valley  of.  The 
extended  form  of  the  preceding  name.  It 
occurs  only  in  Zech.  xii.  11. 

Mehet'abeel.  Another  and  less  cor- 
rect form  of  Mehetabel.  The  ancestor 
of  Shemniah  the  prophet  who  was  hired 
against  Nehemiah  by  Tobiah  and  Sanballat 
(Noh.  vi.  10). 

Mehet  atiel,  the  daughter  of  Hatred, 
and  wife  of  Hadad,  or  Hadar,  the  eighth 
and  last-mt^ntioned  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  80). 

Mehi'da,  a  family  of  Nethinim,  the  de- 
scendants of  Mehida,  returned  from  Baby- 
lon with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  52 ;  Neh.  vii. 

hi). 

Me'hir,  the  son  of  Chelub,  the  brother 
of  SImah  (1  Chr.  iv.  11). 

Mehol'athite,  The,  a  word  occurring 
once  only  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19).  It  no  doubt 
demotes  that  Adriel  belonged  to  a  place 
called  Meholah,  but  whether  that  was  Abel- 
Meho'.ih,  afterwards  the  native  place  of 
Elisha,  or  another,  is  uncertain. 

Meha'jael,  the  son  of  Irad,  and  fourth 
in  descent  from  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

Mehu'man,  one  of  the  seven  eunuchs 
(A.  V.  "  chamberlains ")  of  Ahasuerus 
(Esth.  i.  10). 

Mehunim,  Ezr.  ii.  50.  Elsewhere 
called  MrnuNiMS  and  Meunim. 

Mehu'nims,  The,  a  people  against 
whom  king  Uzziah  waged  a  successful  war 
(2  Chr.  xxvi.  7).  Although  so  different  in 
its  English  dress,  yet  the  name  is  in  the 
original  merely  the  plural  of  Maon  [Maon]. 
Another  notice  of  the  Mehunims  in  the 
reign  of  Hezekiah  (cir.  b.  c.  726-697)  is 
found  in  1  Chr.  iv.  41.  Here  they  are 
spoken  of  as  a  pastoral  people,  either 
themselves  Hamites,  or  in  alliance  with 
Hamites,  quiet  and  peaceable,  dwelling  in 
tents.  Here,  however,  the  A.  V.  treats  the 
word  as  an  ordinary  noun,  and  renders  it 
"  habitations."  A  third  notice  of  the  Me- 
hunim, corroborative  of  those  already  men- 
tioned, is  found  in  the  narrative  of  2  Chr. 
XX.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
in  ver.  1  "  the  Ammonites  "  should  be  read 
as  "  the  Maonites,"  who  in  that  case  are 
the  "  men  of  Mount  Seir  "  mentioned  later 
in  tlie  narrative  (ver.  10,  22).    In  all  these 


passages,  including  the  last,  the  LXX.  ren- 
der the  name  by  ol  JMuvmoi  —  the  Minae- 
ans  —  a  nation  of  Arabia  renowned  for 
their  traffic  in  spices,  who  are  named  by 
Strabo,  Ptolemy,  and  other  ancient  geogra- 
phers, and  whose  seat  is  now  ascertained  to 
have  been  the  S.  W.  portion  of  the  great 
Arabian  peninsula,  the  western  half  of  the 
modern  Hadramaut.  The  latest  appear- 
ance of  the  name  Mehunims  in  the  Bible 
is  in  the  lists  of  those  who  returned  from 
the  Captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  50, 
A.  V.  "Mehunim;"  Neh.  vii.  52,  A.  V. 
"  Meunim  "). 

Me-jarlcon,  a  town  in  the  territory  of 
Dan  (Josh.  xix.  46  only)  ;  named  next  in 
order  to  Gathrimmon,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Joppa  or  Japho. 

Mek'onah,  one  of  the  towns  which 
were  re-inhabited  after  the  captivity  by  the 
men  of  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  28). 

Melati'ah,  a  Gibeonite,  who  assisted  in 
rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iu.  7). 

Mel'chi.  1.  The  son  of  Janna,  and  an- 
cestor of  Joseph  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  24).  2.  The  son  of  Addi 
in  the  same  genealogy  (Luke  iii.  21). 

Melchi'ah,  a  priest,  the  father  of  Pashur 
(Jer.  xxi.  1). 

Melchis'edec,  the  form  of  the  name 
Melchizedek  adopted  in  the  A.  V.  of  the 
New  Testament  (Heb.  v.,  vi.,  vii.). 

Mel'chi-shu'a,  a  son  of  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  49,  xxxi.  2).  Elsewhere  correctly  given 
Malchishua. 

Melehiz'edek,  king  of  Salem  and  priest 
of  the  Most  High  God,  who  met  Abrara  in 
the  valley  of  Shaveh,  which  is  the  king's 
valley,  brought  out  bread  and  wine,  blessed 
Abram,  and  received  tithes  from  him  (Gon. 
xiv.  18-20).  The  other  places  in  which 
Melchizedek  is  mentioned  are  Ps.  ex.  4, 
where  Messiah  is  described  as  a  priest  for- 
ever, "  after  the  order  of  Melchizedek," 
and  Heb.  v.,  vi.,  vii.,  where  these  two  pas- 
sages of  the  O.  T.  are  quoted,  and  the 
typical  relation  of  Melchizedek  to  cur  Lord 
is  stated  at  great  length.  There  is  some- 
thing surprising  and  mysterious  in  the  first 
appearance  of  Melchizedek,  and  in  the  sub- 
sequent reference  to  him.  Bearing  a  title 
wliich  Jews  in  after  ages  woulcLrecognize 
as  designating  their  own  sovereign,  bearing 
gifts  which  recall  to  Christians  the  Lord's 
Supper,  this  Canaanite  crosses  for  a  mo- 
ment the  path  of  Abram,  and  is  unhesitat- 
ingly recognized  as  a  person  of  higher 
spiritual  rank  than  the  friend  of  God.  Dis- 
appearing as  suddenly  as  he  came  in,  he  is 
lost  to  the  sacred  writings  for  a  thousand 
years.  The  faith  of  early  ages  ventured  to 
invest  his  person  with  superstitious  awe. 
Jewish  tradition  pronounces  Melchizedek 
to  be  a  survivor  of  tho  Deluge,  tlie  patri- 
arch Shem.     The  way  in  which  he  is  men- 


MELEA 


899 


MELONS 


tioncd  in  Genesis  would  rather  lead  to  the 
inference  that  Melcliizedek  was  of  one 
blood  with  the  children  of  Ham,  among 
whom  he  lived,  chief  (like  the  King  of 
Sodom)  of  a  settled  Canaanitish  tribe.  And 
as  Balaam  was  a  prophet,  so  Melchizedek 
was  a  priest  among  the  corrupted  heathen, 
not  self-appointed,  but  constituted  by  a  spe- 
cial gift  from  God,  and  recognized  as  such 
by  Him.  The  "  order  of  Melchizedek,"  in 
Ps.  ex.  4,  is  explained  to  mean  "  manner  " 
=  likeness  in  oflBcial  dignity  =  a  king  and 
priest.  The  relation  between  Melchizedek 
and  Christ  as  type  and  antitype  is  made  in 
the  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews  to  consist  in  the 
following  particulars.  Each  was  a  priest, 
(1)  not  of  the  Levitical  tribe;  (2)  superior 
to  Abraham ;  (3)  whose  beginning  and  end 
are  unknown ;  (4)  who  is  not  only  a  priest, 
but  also  a  king  of  righteousness  and  peace. 
—  A  fruitful  source  of  discussion  has  been 
found  in  the  site  of  Salem.     [Salesi.] 

Mele'a.  The  son  of  Menan,  and  an- 
cestor of  Joseph  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  31). 

Me'lech..  The  second  son  of  Micah, 
the  son  of  Merib-baal  or  Mephibosheth  (1 
Chr.  viii.  35,  ix.  41). 

Mel'icu.  The  same  as  Malluch  6 
(Nch.  xii.  14;  comp.  ver.  2). 

Mel'ita,  the  modem  Malta.  This  island 
has  an  illustrious  place  in  Scripture,  as  the 
scene  of  that  shipwreck  of  St.  Paul  which 
is  described  in  such  minute  detail  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Acts  xxvii.).  The 
wreck  probably  happened  at  the  place  tra- 
ditionally known  as  St.  Paul's  Bay.  (1.) 
We  take  St.  Paul's  ship  in  the  condition  in 
which  we  find  her  about  a  day  after  leaving 
Fair  Havens,  i.  e.  when  she  was  under  the 
lee  of  Clauda  (Acts  xxvii.  16),  laid-to  on 
the  starboard  tack,  and  strengthened  with 
"  undergirders,"  the  boat  being  just  taken 
on  board,  and  the  gale  blowing  hard  from 
the  E.  N.  E.  (2.)  Assuming  (what  every 
practised  sailor  would  allow)  that  the  ship's 
direction  of  drift  would  be  about  W.  by  N., 
and  her  rate  of  drift  about  a  mile  and  a 
half  an  hour,  we  come  at  once  to  the  con- 
clusion, by  measuring  the  distance  on  a 
chart,  that  she  would  be  brought  to  the 
coast  of  Malta  on  the  thirteenth  day  (see 
ver.  27),  (3.)  A  ship  drifting  in  this  di- 
rection to  the  place  traditionally  known  as 
St.  Paul's  Bay  would  come  to  that  spot  on 
the  coast  without  touching  any  other  part 
of  the  island  previously.  The  coast,  in  fact, 
trends  from  this  bay  to  the  S.  E.  (4.)  On 
Koura  Point,  which  is  the  south-easterly 
'  extremity  of  the  bay,  there  must  infallibly 
have  been  breakers,  with  the  wind  blowing 
from  the  N.  E.  Now  the  alarm  was  cer- 
tainly caused  by  breakers,  for  it  took  place 
in  the  night  (ver.  27),  and  it  docs  not  ap- 
pear that  the  passengers  were  at  first  aware 
of  the  danger  which  became  sensible  to  the 


quick  ear  of  the  "  sailors."  (5.)  Yet  the 
vessel  did  not  strike  :  and  this  corresponds 
with  the  position  of  the  point,  which  would 
be  some  little  distance  on  the  port  side,  or 
to  the  left  of  the  vessel.  (6.)  Off  this 
point  of  the  coast  the  soundings  are  20 
fathoms  (ver.  28),  and  a  little  farther,  in 
the  direction  of  the  supposed  drift,  they 
are  15  fathoms  (ib.).  (7.)  Though  the 
danger  was  imminent,  we  shall  find  from 
examining  the  chart  that  there  would  siill 
be  time  to  anchor  (ver.  29)  before  striking 
on  the  rocks  ahead.  (8.)  With  bad  hold- 
ing ground  there  would  have  been  great 
risk  of  the  ship  dragging  her  anchors. 
The  bottom  of  St.  Paul's  Bay  is  remark- 
ably tenacious.  (9.)  The  other  geological 
characteristics  of  the  place  are  in  harmony 
with  the  narrative,  which  describes  the 
creek  as  having  in  one  place  a  sandy  or 
muddy  beach  (ver.  39),  and  which  states 
that  the  bow  of  the  ship  was  held  fast  in 
the  shore,  while  the  stern  was  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  waves  (ver.  41).  (10.) 
Another  point  of  local  detail  is  of  consid- 
erable interest  —  viz.  that  as  the  ship  took 
the  ground,  the  pla'^e  was  observed  to  be 
Si&aX^aaoi,  i.  e.  a  c<  nnection  was  noticed 
between  two  apparerytly  separate  pieces  of 
water.  We  shall  see,  on  looking  at  a  chart, 
that  this  would  be  the  case.  (11.)  Malta 
is  in  the  track  of  ships  between  Alexandria 
and  Puteoli :  and  this  corresponds  with  the 
fact  that  the  "  Castor  and  Pollux,"  an  Alex- 
andrian vessel,  which  ultimately  conveyed 
St.  Paul  to  Italy,  had  wintered  in  the  island 
(Acts  xxviii.  11).  (12.)  Finally,  the  course 
pursued  in  this  conclusion  of  the  voyage, 
first  to  Syracuse,  and  then  to  Rhegium, 
contributes  a  last  link  to  the  chain  of  argu- 
ments by  which  we  prove  that  Melita  is 
Malta.  The  question  has  been  set  at  rest 
forever  by  Mr.  Smith  of  Jordan  Hill,  in 
his  Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paid, 
the  first  published  work  in  which  it  was 
thoroughly  investigated  from  a  sailor's 
point  of  view.  As  regards  the  condition 
of  the  island  of  Melita,  when  St.  Paul  was 
there,  it  was  a  dependency  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Sicil)-.  Its  chief  officer  (under 
the  governor  of  Sicily)  appears  from  in- 
scriptions to  have  had  the  title  of  tiowtoj 
MtkiTaitav,  or  Primxis  MeJitensium,  and  this 
is  the  very  phrase  which  St.  Luke  uses 
(xxviii.  7).  Melita,  from  its  position  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  the  excellence  of 
its  harbors,  has  always  been  important 
both  in  commerce  and  war.  It  was  a  set- 
tlement of  the  Phoenicians  at  an  earlj'  pe- 
riod, and  their  language,  in  a  corrupted 
form,  continued  to  be  spoken  there  in  St. 
Paul's  day. 

Melons  (Heb.  ahatticMm)  are  men- 
tioned only  in  Num.  xi.  5.  By  the  Hebrew 
word  we  are  probably  to  understand  both 
the  Melon  (^Cucumis  melo)  and  the  water 


MELZAR 


400 


MENELAUS 


Melon  {Cucurhita  citrullus).  The  water- 
meluu,  wliieli  is  now  extensively  cultivated 
in  all  hot  countries,  is  a  fruit  not  unlike  the 
common  melon,  but  the  leaves  are  deeply 
lobed  and  gashed,  the  flesh  is  pink  or 
white,  and  contains  a  large  quantity  of  cold 
watery  juice  without  much  flavor :  the  seeds 
axe  black. 

Mel'zar.  The  A.  V.  is  wrong  in  regard- 
ing Molzar  as  a  proper  name ;  it  is  rather 
an  official  title,  as  is  implied  in  the  addition 
of  the  article  in  each  case  where  the  name 
occurs  (Dan.  i.  11,  16)  ;  the  marginal  read- 
ing, "  the  steward,"  is  therefore  more  cor- 
rect. 

Mem'phis,  a  city  of  ancient  Egypt, 
situated  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  in 
latitude  30^  6'  N.  It  is  mentioned  by 
Isaiah  (xix.  13),  Jeremiah  (ii.  16,  xlvi.  14, 
19),  and  Ezekiel  (xxx.  13,  10),  under  the 
name  of  Noph  ;  and  by  Hosea  (ix.  6)  un- 
der the  name  of  Moph  in  Hebrew,  and 
Memphis  in  our  English  version.  Though 
some  regard  Thebes  as  the  more  ancient 
city,  the  monuments  of  Memphis  are  of 
higher  antiquity  than  those  of  Thebes. 
Herodotus  dates  its  foundation  from  Menes, 
the  first  king  of  Egypt.  The  city  is  said 
to  have  had  a  circumference  of  about  19 
miles.  The  temple  of  Apis  was  one  of  the 
most  noted  structures  of  Memphis.  It 
stood  opposite  the  southern  portico  of  the 
temple  of  Ptah;  and  Psamnietichus,  who 
built  that  gateway,  also  erected  in  front  of 
the  sanctuary  of  Apis  a  magnificent  colon- 
nade, supported  by  colossal  statues  or  Osi- 
ride  pilars,  such  as  may  still  be  seen  at  the 
temple  of  Medeenet  Habou  at  Thebes  (He- 
rod, ii.  153).  Through  this  colonnade  the 
Apis  was  led  with  great  pomp  upon  state  oc- 
casions. At  Memphis  was  the  reputed  bu- 
rial-place of  Isis ;  it  had  also  a  temple  to 
that  "  myriad-named  "  divinity.  Memphis 
had  also  its  Serapeiura,  which  probably  stood 
in  the  western  quarter  of  the  city.  The 
sacred  cubit  and  other  symbols  used  in 
measuring  the  rise  of  the  Nile,  were  de- 
posited in  the  temple  of  Serapis.  The  Ne- 
cropolis, adjacent  to  Memphis,  was  on  a 
scale  of  grandeur  corresponding  with  the 
city  itself.  The  "  city  of  the  pyramids  "  is 
a  title  of  Memphis  in  the  hieroglyphics  upon 
the  monuments.  Memphis  long  held  its 
place-  as  a  capital ;  and  for  centuries  a 
Memphite  dynasty  ruled  over  all  Egypt. 
Lepsius,  Bunsen,  and  Brugsch,  agree  in 
regarding  the  3d,  4th,  Gth,  7th,  and  8th 
dynasties  of  the  Old  Empire  as  Memphite, 
reaching  through  a  period  of  about  1000 
years.  The  city's  overthrow  was  distinctly 
1  redicted  by  the  Hebrew  prophets  (Is.  xix. 
13;  Jer.  xlvi.  19).  The  latest  of  these 
predictions  was  uttered  nearly  600  years  be- 
fore Christ,  and  half  a  century  before  the 
invasion  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses  (cir.  b.  c. 
525).     Herodotus  informs  us  that  Camby- 


ses, enraged  at  the  opposition  he  encoun- 
tered at  Memphis,  committed  many  out- 
rages upon  the  city.  Tiie  city  never  re- 
covered from  the  blow  inflicted  by  Cam- 
byses. The  rise  of  Alexandria  hastened 
its  decline.  The  Caliph  conquerors  found- 
ed Fostat  (Old  Cairo)  upon  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Nile,  a  few  miles  north  of 
Memphis,  and  brought  materials  from  the 
old  city  to  build  their  new  capital  (a.  d. 
638).  At  length  so  complete  was  the  ruin 
of  Memphis,  that  for  a  long  time  its  very 
site  was  lost.  Recent  explorations  have 
brought  to  light  many  of  its  antiquities. 

MemU  can.  One  of  the  seven  princes 
of  Persia  in  the  reign  of  Ahasuerus,  who 
"  saw  the  king's  face,"  and  sat  first  in  the 
kingdom  (Esth.  i.  14,  16,  21).  They  were 
"  wise  men  who  knew  the  times  "  (skilled 
in  the  planets,  according  to  Aben  Ezra), 
and  appear  to  have  formed  a  council  of 
state ;  Josephus  says  that  one  of  their  of- 
fices was  that  of  interpreting  the  laws  (^Ant. 
xi.  6,  §  1). 

Men'alieni,  son  of  Gadi,  who  slew  the 
usurper  Shallum,  and  seized  the  vacant 
throne  of  Israel,  b.  c.  772.  His  reign, 
which  lasted  ten  years,  is  briefly  recorded 
in  2  K.  XV.  14-22.  It  has  been  inferred 
from  the  expression  in  verse  14,  "  from 
Tirzah,"  that  Menahem  was  a  general  un- 
der Zechariah  stationed  at  Tirzah,  and  that 
he  brought  up  his  troops  to  Samaria,  and 
avenged  the  nmrder  of  liis  master  by  Shal- 
lum. He  maintained  the  calf-worsliip  of 
Jeroboam.  The  contemporary  prophets, 
Hosea  and  Amos,  have  left  a  melancholy 
picture  of  the  ungodliness,  demoralization, 
and  feebleness  of  Israel.  In  the  brief  his- 
tory of  Menahem,  his  ferocious  treatment 
of  Tiphsah  occupies  a  conspicuous  place. 
But  the  most  remarkable  event  in  his  reign 
is  the  first  appearance  of  a  hostile  force  of 
Assyrians  on  the  north-east  frontier  of  Is- 
rael. King  Pul,  however,  withdrew,  hav- 
ing been  converted  from  an  enemy  into  an 
ally  by  a  timely  gift  of  1000  talents  of 
silver. 

Me'nan.  The  son  of  Mattatha,  one  of 
the  ancestors  of  Joseph  in  the  genealogy 
of  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  ill.  31). 

Me  ne  (lit.  "  numbered  ").  The  first 
word  of  the  mysterious  inscription  written 
upon  the  wall  of  Belshazzar's  palace,  in 
which  Daniel  read  the  doom  of  the  king 
and  his  dynasty  (Dan.  v.  25,  26); 

Menela'US,  a  usurping  high-priest  who 
obtained  the  ofiice  from  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  (about  b.  c.  172)  by  a  large  bribe  (2 
Mace.  iv.  23-25),  and  drove  out  Jason,  who 
had  obtained  it  not  long  before  by  sim- 
ilar means.  He  met  with  a  violent  death 
at  the  hands  of  Antiochus  Eupator  (cir. 
B.  c.  1C3),  which  seemed  in  a  peculiar 
manner  a  providential  pnnishment  of  his 
sacrilege  (xiii.  3,  4).    According  to  Jose- 


MENI 


401 


RIEPlilBOSHETH 


plius  lie  was  a  younger  brother  of  Jason 
and  Onias,  and,  like  Jason,  changed  his 
proper  name  Onias  for  a  Greek  name.  In 
2  Maccabees,  on  tho  other  hand,  he  is 
called  a  brother  of  Simon  the  Benjamite 
(2  Mace.  iv.  23). 

Me'ni.  The  last  clause  of  Is.  Ixv.  11 
is  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "and  that  furnish 
the  drink-offering  unto  that  number"  the 
marginal  reading  for  the  last  word  being 
"  Meni."  That  the  word  so  rendered  is  a 
proper  name,  and  also  the  proper  name  of 
an  object  of  idolatrous  worship  cultivated 
by  the  Jews  in  Babylon,  is  a  supposition 
which  there  seems  no  reason  to  question, 
as  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  context,  and 
has  every  probability  to  recommend  it. 
But  the  identification  of  Meni  with  any 
known  heathen  god  is  still  uncertain. 

Meon'enim,  The  Plain  of,  an  oak, 
or  terebinth,  or  other  great  tree  —  for  the 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  Elon  by  "  plain" 
is  most  probably  incorrect.  [Plain.]  It 
is  mentioned  —  at  least  under  this  name  — 
only  in  Judg.  ix.  37.  The  meaning  of 
Mconenim,  if  interpreted  as  a  Hebrew  word, 
is  enchanters  or  "  observers  of  times,"  as 
it  is  elsewhere  rendered  (Deut.  xviii.  10, 
14;  in  Mic.  v.  12  it  is  "soothsayers"). 
This  connection  of  the  name  with  magical 
arts  has  led  to  the  suggestion  that  the  tree 
in  question  is  identical  with  that  beneath 
which  Jacob  hid  the  foreign  idols  and  amu- 
lets of  his  household,  before  going  into  the 
presence  of  God  at  the  consecrated  ground 
of  Bethel  (Gen.  xxxv.  4).  But  the  infer- 
ence seems  hardly  a  sound  one,  for  meo- 
nenim  does  not  mean  "  enc\\&niraents"  but 
"  enchanters  ;  "  nor  is  there  any  ground  for 
connecting  it  in  any  way  with  amulets  or 
images ;  and  there  is  the  positive  reason 
against  the  identification  that  while  this 
tree  seems  to  have  been  at  a  distance  from 
the  town  of  Shechem,  that  of  Jacob  was  in 
it,  or  in  very  close  proximity  to  it.  It  is 
perhaps  possible  that  Meonenim  may  have 
originally  been  Maonim,  that  is,  Maonites 
or  Mehunim ;  a  tribe  or  nation  of  non-Is- 
raelites elsewhere  mentioned. 

Meonotha'i.  One  of  the  sons  of  0th- 
niel,  the  younger  brother  of  Caleb  (1  Chr. 
iv.  14). 

Mepha'ath,  a  city  of  the  Reubenites, 
one  of  tlie  towns  dependent  on  Heshbon 
(Josh.  xiii.  18),  lying  in  the  district  of  the 
Mishor  (comp.  17,  and  Jer.  xlviii.  21,  A. 
V.  "plain"),  which  probably  answered  to 
the  modern  Belka.  It  was  one  of  the  cities 
allotted  with  their  suburbs  to  the  Merarite 
Lcvites  (Josh.  xxi.  37;  1  Chr.  vi.  79).  Its 
site  is  uncertain. 

Mephib'osheth,  the  name  borne  by 
two  members  of  the  family  of  Saul  —  his 
Bon  and  his  grandson.  1.  Saul's  son  by 
Bizpah  the  daughter  of  Aiah,  his  concu- 
bine (2  Sam.  xxi.  8).  He  and  his  brother 
26 


Armoni  were  among  the  seven  victims  who 
were  surrendered  by  David  to  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  and  by  them  crucified  in  sacrifice  to 
Jehovali,  to  avert  a  famine  from  which  the 
country  was  suflering.  2.  The  son  of 
Jonathan,  grandson  of  Saul,  and  nephew 
of  the  preceding.  His  life  seems  to  have 
been,  from  beginning  to  end,  one  of  trial 
and  discomfort.  The  name  of  his  mother 
is  unknown.  When  his  father  and  grand- 
father were  slain  on  Gilboa  he  was  an  in- 
fant but  five  years  old.  He  was  then  liv- 
ing under  the  charge  of  his  nurse,  probably 
at  Gibeah,  the  regular  residence  of  Saul. 
The  tidings  that  the  army  was  destroyed, 
the  king  and  his  sons  slain,  and  that  the 
Pliilistines  were  sweeping  all  before  them, 
reached  the  royal  household.  The  nurse 
fled,  carrying  the  child  on  her  shoulder. 
But  in  her  panic  and  hurry  she  stumbled, 
and  Mephibosheth  was  precipitated  to  the 
ground  with  such  force  as 'to  deprive  him 
for  life  of  the  use  of  both  feet  (2  Sam.  iv. 
4).  After  the  accident  which  thus  embit- 
tered his  whole  existence,  Mephibosheth 
was  carried  with  the  rest  of  his  family  be- 
yond the  Jordan  to  the  mountains  of  Gil- 
ead,  where  he  found  a  refuge  in  the  house 
of  Machir  ben-Ammiel,  a  powerful  Gadite 
or  Manassite  sheikh  at  Lo-debar,  not  far 
from  Mahanaim,  which  during  the  reign  of 
his  uncle  Ishbosheth  was  the  headquarters 
of  his  family.  By  Machir  he  was  brought 
up,  there  he  married,  and  there  he  was  liv- 
ing at  a  later  period,  wlien  David,  having 
completed  the  subjugation  of  the  adversa- 
ries of  Israel  on  every  side,  heard  of  his 
existence  from  Ziba.  David  invited  him 
to  Jerusalem,  and  there  treated  him  and 
his  son  Micha  with  the  greatest  kindness. 
From  this  time  forward  he  resided  at  Jeru- 
salem. Of  Mephibosheth's  behavior  dur- 
ing the  rebellion  of  Absalom  we  possess 
two  accounts — his  own  (2  Sam.  xlx.  24- 
30),  and  that  of  Ziba  (xvi.  1-4).  They  are 
naturally  at  variance  with  each  other.  In 
consequence  of  the  story  of  Ziba,  he  was 
rewarded  by  the  possessions  of  his  master. 
Mephibosheth's  story  —  which,  however,  he 
had  not  the  opportunity  of  telling  until 
several  days  later,  when  he  met  David  re- 
turning to  his  kingdom  at  the  western 
bank  of  Jordan  —  was  very  different  from 
Ziba's.  That  David  did  not  disbelieve  it 
is  shown  by  his  revoking  the  judgment  he 
had  previously  given.  That  he  did  not 
entirely  reverse  his  decision,  but  allowed 
Ziba  to  retain  possession  of  half  the  lands 
of  Mephibosheth,  is  probably  due  partly  to 
weariness  at  the  whole  transaction,  but 
mainly  to  the  conciliatory  frame  of  mind 
in  which  he  was  at  that  moment.  "  Shall 
there  any  man  be  put  to  death  this  day  ?  " 
is  the  key-note  of  the  whole  procee<fing. 
The  writer  is  aware  that  this  is  not  the  view- 
generally  taken  of  Mephibosheth's  conduct, 


MERAB 


402 


MEREMOTH 


and  in  particular  the  opposite  side  has  been 
maintained  with  much  cogency  and  ingenu- 
ity by  the  late  Professor  Blunt  in  his  Unde- 
signed' Coincidences.  But  when  the  cir- 
cumstances on  both  sides  are  weighed, 
there  seems  to  be  no  escape  from  the  con- 
clusion come  to  above. 

Me'rab,  the  eldest  daughter  of  king 
Saul  (1  Sara.  xiv.  49).  In  accordance 
witli  the  promise  which  he  made  before  the 
engagement  with  Goliath  (xvii.  25),  Saul 
betrothed  Merab  to  David  (xviii.  17). 
Before  the  nqarriage  Merab's  younger  sis- 
ter Michal  had  displayed  her  attachment 
for  David,  and  Merab  was  then  married  to 
Adriel  the  Meholathite,  to  whom  she  bore 
five  sons  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8). 

Merai'ah.  A  priest  in  the  days  of 
Joiakim,  the  son  of  Jeshua,  and  represen- 
tative of  the  priestly  family  of  Seraiah 
(Neh.  xii.  12). 

Mera  ioth.  1.  A  descendant  of  Eleazar 
the  son  of  Aaron,  and  head  of  a  priestly 
house  (1  Chr.  vi.  6,  7,  52).  It  is  appar- 
ently another  Meraioth  who  comes  in  be- 
tween Zadok  and  Ahitub  in  the  genealogy 
of  Azariah  (1  Chr.  ix.  11;  Neh.  xi.  11), 
unless  the  names  Ahitub  and  Meraioth  are 
transposed,  which  is  not  improbable.  2. 
The  head  of  one  of  the  houses  of  priests, 
which  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  the  son  of 
Jeshua  was  represented  by  Helkai  CNeh. 
xii.  15). 

Mer'ari,  third  son  of  Levi,  and  head  of 
the  third  great  division  of  the  Levites,  the 
Mekarites.  He  was  born  before  the  de- 
scent of  Jacob  into  Egypt,  and  was  one  of 
the  seventy  who  accompanied  Jacob  thither 
(Gen.  xlvi.  8,  11).  At  the  time  of  the  Ex- 
odus, and  the  numbering  in  the  wilderness, 
the  Merarites  consisted  of  two  families,  i 
the  Mahlites  and  the  Mushites,  Mahli  and 
Mushi  being  eitlier  the  two  sons,  or  the  son 
and  grandson,  of  Merari  (1  Chr.  vi.  19,  47). 
Their  chief  at  that  time  was  Zuriel.  Their 
charge  was  the  boards,  bars,  pillars,  sock- 
ets, pins,  and  coi'ds  of  the  tabernacle  and 
the  court,  and  all  the  tools  connected  with 
setting  them  up.  Owing  to  the  heavy 
nature  of  the  materials  which  they  had  to 
carry,  four  wagons  and  eight  oxen  were 
assigned  to  them  ;  and  in  the  march  both 
they  and  the  Gershonites  followed  imme- 
diately after  the  standard  of  Judah,  and 
before  that  of  Reuben,  that  they  might  set 
up  the  tabernacle  against  the  arrival  of  the 
Kohathites  (Num.  iii.  20,  33-37,  iv.  29-83, 
42-45,  vii.  8,  x.  17,  21).  In  the  division 
of  the  land  by  Joshua,  the  Merarites  had 
twelve  cities  assigned  to  them,  out  of  Reu- 
ben, Gad,  and  Zebulun,  of  which  one  was 
Ramoth-Gilead,  a  city  of  refuge,  and  in 
later  times  a  frequent  subject  of  war  between 
Israel  and  Syria  (Josh.  xxi.  7,  34-40;  1 
Chr.  vi.  63,  77-81).  In  the  days  of  Heze- 
kiah  the  Merarites  were  still  flourishing  (2 


Chr.  xxix.  12,  15).  After  the  return  from 
captivity  Shemaiah  represents  the  sons  of 
Merari,  in  1  Chr.  ix.  14,  Neh.  xi.  15.  There 
were  also  at  that  time  sons  of  Jeduthun 
under  Obadiah  or  Abda,  the  son  of  Shem- 
aiah (1  Chr.  ix.  16;  Neh.  xi.  17). 

Meratha'im,  The  Land  of,  that  is, 
"  of  double  rebellion,"  alluding  to  the  coun- 
try of  the  Chaldeans,  and  to  the  double  cap- 
tivity which  it  bad  inflicted  on  the  nation 
of  Israel  (Jer.  1.  21). 

Mercu'rius,  properly  Hermes,  the 
Greek  deity,  whom  the  Romans  identified 
with  their  Mercury,  the  god  of  commerce 
and  bargains.  Hermes  was  the  son  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  and  Maia  the  daughter  of  Atlas, 
and  is  constantly  represented  as  the  com- 
panion of  his  father  in  his  wanderings  upon 
earth.  The  episode  of  Baucis  and  Philemon 
(Ovid,  Metam.  viii.  620-724)  appears  to 
have  formed  part  of  the  folk-lore  of  Asia 
Minor,  aud  strikingly  illustrates  the  read- 
iness with  which  the  simple  people  of  Lys- 
tra  recognized  in  Barnabas  and  Paul  the 
gods  who,  according  to  their  wont,  had  come 
down  in  the  likeness  of  men  (Acts  xiv.  11). 
They  called  Paul  "  Mercurius,  because  he 
was  the  chief  speaker ;  "  identifying  in  him, 
as  they  supposed,  by  this  characteristic  the 
herald  of  the  gods  and  of  Jupiter,  the  elo- 
quent orator,  inventor  of  letters,  music,  and 
the  arts. 

Mercy-seat  (Ex.  xxv.  17,  xxxvii.  C; 
Heb.  ix.  5).  This  appears  to  have  been 
merely  the  lid  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
not  another  surface  affixed  thereto.  It  was 
that  whereon  the  blood  of  the  yearly  atone- 
ment was  sprinkled  by  the  high-priest ;  and 
in  this  relation  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
sense  of  the  word  in  the  Heb.  is  based  on 
the  material  fact  of  its  "  covering  "  the  Ark, 
or  derived  from  this  notion  of  its  reference 
to  the  "covering"  (t.  e.  atonement)  of  sin. 
Me'red.  This  name  occurs  in  a  frag- 
mentary genealogy  in  1  Chr.  iv.  17,  18,  as 
that  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Ezra.  Tradition 
identifies  him  with  Caleb  and  Moses. 

Mer'emoth.     1.  Son  of  Uriah,  or  Uri- 
jah,  the  priest,  of  the  family  of  Koz  or 
Hakkoz,  the  head  of  the  seventh  course  of 
priests  as  established  by  David.     In  Ezr. 
viii.  33,  Meremoth  is  appointed  to  weigh 
\  and  register  the  gold  and  silver  vessels  be- 
j  longing  to  the  Temple.     In  the  rebuilding 
{  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah 
I  we  find  Meremoth  taking  an  active  part, 
I  working  between  Meshullam  and  the  sons 
'  of  Hassenaah  who  restored  the   fish-gate 
I  (Neh.  iii.  4),  and  himself  restoring  the  por- 
!  tion  of  the  Temple  wall  on  which  abutted 
j  the  house  of  the  high -priest  Eliashib  (Neh. 
I  iii.  21).     2.  A  layman  of  the  sons  of  Bani, 
I  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x. 
36).     3.  A  priest,  or  more  probably  a  fam- 
ily of  priests,  who  sealed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  5}. 


MERES 


403 


MESHA 


Me'res,  one  of  the  seven  counsellors 
of  Ahasuerua,  king  of  Persia,  "  wise  men 
which  kne\v^  the  times  "  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Mer'ibah.  In  Ex.  xvii.  7  we  read,  "  he 
called  the  name  of  the  place  Massah  and 
Meribah,"  where  the  people  murmured,  and 
the  reck  was  smitten.  [For  the  situation 
see  PvEPHiDiM.]  The  name  is  also  given 
to  Kadesh  (Num.  xx.  13,  24,  xxvii.  14 ; 
Dcut.  xxii.  51,  "  Meribah-kadesh),  because 
there  also  the  people,  when  in  want  of 
water,  strove  with  God. 

Merib-ba'al,  son  of  Jonathan  the  son 
of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  34,  ix.  40),  doubtless 
the  same  person  who  in  the  narrative  of  2 
Samuel  is  called  Mephibosheth. 

Mero'dach.  is  mentioned  once  only  in 
Scripture,  namely,  in  .Jcr.  1.  2,  and  was 
really  identical  with  the  famous  Babylonian 
Bel  or  Belus,  the  word  being  probably  at 
first  a  mere  epithet  of  the  god,  which  by 
degrees  superseded  his  proper  appella- 
tion. 

Mero'dach-baradan  is  mentioned  as 

king  of  Babylon  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah, 
both  in  the  second  book  of  Kings  (xx.  12) 
and  in  Isaiah  (xxxix.  1).  In  the  former 
.place  he  is  called  Berodach-Baladan.  The 
orthography  "  Merodach  "  is,  however,  to 
be  preferred.  The  name  of  Merodach- 
Baladan  has  been  recognized  in  the  Assyr- 
ian inscriptions.  It  appears  there  were  two 
reigns  of  this  king,  the  first  from  b.  c.  721 
to  B.  c.  709,  when  he  was  deposed ;  and  the 
second,  after  his  recovery  of  the  throne  in 
B.  c.  702,  which  lasted  only  half  a  year. 
There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  time  at  which 
he  sent  his  ambassadors  to  Hezekiah,  for  the 
purpose  of  inquiring  as  to  the  astronom- 
ical marvel  of  which  Judaea  had  been  the 
scene  (2  Chr.  xxxii.  31),  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  b.  c.  713.  The  real  objectof  the 
mission  was  most  likely  to  effect  a  league 
between  Babylon,  Judaea,  and  Egypt  (Is. 
XX.  6,  G),  in  order  to  check  the  growing 
power  of  the  Assyrians.  The  league,  how- 
ever, though  designed,  does  not  seem  to 
have  taken  etTect.  Sargon  sent  expeditions 
both  into  Syria  and  Babylonia  —  seized  the 
stronghold  of  Ashdod  in  the  one,  and  com- 
pletely defeated  Merodach-Baladan  in  the 
other.  That  monarch  sought  safety  in 
flight,  and  lived  for  eight  years  in  exile.  At 
last  he  found  an  opportunity  to  return.  In 
B.  c.  703  or  702,  Babylonia  was  plunged  in 
anarchy  —  the  Assyrian  yoke  was  thrown 
oflF,  and  various  native  leaders  struggled  for 
the  mastery.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  exiled  monarch  seems  to  have  returned, 
and  recovered  his  throne.  Merodach- 
Baladan  had  obtained  a  body  of  troops  from 
his  ally,  the  king  of  Susiana;  but  Sen- 
nacherib defe?';ed  the  combined  army  in  a 
pitched  battle  Merodach-Baladan  fled  to 
"  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates." 
He  lost  his  recovered  cr  own  after  wearing 


it  for  about  six  months,  and  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days  in  exile  and  obscurity. 

Me'rom,  The  Waters  of,  a  place 
memora'.ile  in  the  history  of  the  conquest  of 
Palestine.  Hefe,  after  Joshua  had  gained 
possession  of  the  southern  portions  of 
the  country,  a  confederacy  of  the  northern 
chiefs  assembled  under  the  leadership  of 
Jabin,  king  of  Hazor  (Josh.  xi.  5),  and  here 
they  were  encountered  by  Joshua,  and  com- 
pletely routed  (ver.  7).  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  though  by  common  consent  the 
"  waters  of  Merora  "  are  identified  with  the 
lake  through  which  the  Jordan  runs  be- 
tween Banias  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  —  the 
Bahr  el-HrUeh  of  the  modern  Arabs  —  yet 
that  identity  cannot  be  proved  by  any  an- 
cient record.  In  form  the  lake  is  not  far 
from  a  triangle,  the  base  being  at  the  north 
and  the  apex  at  the  south.  It  measures 
about  3  miles  in  each  direction.  The  water 
is  clear  and  sweet;  it  is  covered  in  parts 
by  a  broad-leaved  plant,  and  abounds  in 
water- fowl. 

Meron'othite,  The,  that  is,  the  na- 
tive of  a  place  called  probably  Meronoth, 
of  which,  however,  no  further  traces  have 
yet  been  discovered.  Two  Meronothites  are 
named  in  the  Bible  —  1.  Jehdeiah  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  30) ;  and  2.  Jadon  (Neh.  iii.  7). 

Me'roz,  a  place  mentioned  only  in  the 
Song  of  Deborah  and  Barak  in  Judg.  v. 
23,  and  there  denounced  because  its  inhab- 
itants had  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the 
struggle  with  Sisera.  Meroz  must  have 
been  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Kishon, 
but  its  real  position  is  not  known  :  possibly 
it  was  destroyed  in  obedience  to  the  curse. 

Me'sech,  Me'shech,  a  son  of  Japheth 
(Gen.  X.  2;  1  Chr.  i.  5),  and  the  progenitor 
of  a  race  frequently  noticed  in  Scripture  in 
connection  with  Tubal,  Magog,  and  other 
northern  nations.  They  appear  as  allies  of 
Gog  (Ez.  xxxviii.  2,  3,  xxxix.  1),  and  as 
supplying  the  Tyrians  with  copper  and 
slaves  (Ez.  xxvii.  13)  ;  in  Ps.  cxx.  5,  they 
are  noticed  as  one  of  the  remotest,  and  at 
the  same  time  rudest  nations  of  the  world. 
Both  t!ie  name  and  the  associations  are  in 
favor  of  the  identification  of  Meshcch  with 
the  Moschi,  a  people  on  the  borders  of  Col- 
chis and  Armenia. 

Me'sha.  1.  The  name  of  one  of  the 
geographical  linrits  of  the  Joktanitcs  when 
they  first  settled  in  Arabia  (Gen.  x.  30), 
probably  in  north-western  Yemen.  2.  The 
king  of  Moab  in  the  reigns  of  Ahab  and  his 
sons  Ahaziah  and  Jehoram,  kings  of  Israel 
(2  K.  iii.  4),  and  tributary  to  the  first. 
When  Ahab  had  fallen  in  battle  at  Ramoth- 
Gilead,  Mesha  seized  the  opportunity  af- 
forded by  the  confusion  consequent  upon 
this  disaster,  and  the  feeble  reign  of  Ahaziah, 
to  shake  off"  the  yoke  of  Israel  and  free  him- 
self from  the  burdensome  tribute  of  "  a 
hundred  thousand  wethers  and  a  htfidred 


MESHACH 


404 


MESHULLAM 


thousand  rams  with  their  wool."  Wh  jn 
Jehoratn  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Israel, 
one  of  his  first  acts  was  to  secure  the  as- 
sistance of  Jehoshaphat,  his  father's  ally,  in 
reducing  the  Moabites  to  their  former  con- 
dition of  tributaries.  The  united  armies 
of  the  two  kings  marched,  by  a  circuitous 
route,  round  the  Dead  Sea,  and  were  joined 
by  the  forces  of  the  king  of  Edom.  The 
Moabites  were  defeated,  and  the  king  took 
refuge  in  his  last  stronghold,  and  defended 
himself  with  the  energy  of  despair.  With 
700  fighting  men  he  made  a  vigorous  at- 
tempt to  cut  his  way  through  the  beleaguer- 
ing army,  and  when  beaten  back,  he  with- 
drew to  the  wall  of  his  city,  and  there,  in 
sight  of  the  allied  host,  offered  his  first- 
born son,  his  successor  in  the  kingdom,  as  a 
burnt-offering  to  Chemosh,  the  ruthless  fire- 
god  of  Moab.  His  bloody  sacrifice  had  so 
far  the  desired  effect  that  the  besiegers  re- 
tired from  him  to  their  own  land.  3.  The 
eldest  son  of  Caleb  the  son  of  Hezron  by 
his  wife  Azubah,  as  Kimchi  conjectures  (1 
Chr.  ii.  42).  4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Sha- 
haraim,  by  his  wife  Hodesh,  who  bare  him 
in  the  land  of  Moab  (1  Chr.  viii.  9). 

Me'shacll.  The  name  given  to  Mishael, 
one  of  the  companions  of  Daniel,  and  like 
him  of  the  blood-royal  of  Judah,  who  with 
three  others  was  chosen  from  among  the 
captives  to  be  taught  "the  learning  and 
the  tongue  of  the  Chaldeans"  (Dan.  i.  4), 
so  that  they  might  be  qualified  to  "  stand 
before  "  king  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  i.  5) 
as  his  personal  attendants  and  advisers 
(i.  20).  But,  notwithstanding  their  Chal- 
dean education,  these  three  young  Hebrews 
were  strongly  attached  to  the  religion  of 
their  fathers ;  and  their  refusal  to  join  in 
the  worship  of  the  image  on  the  plain  of 
Dura  gave  a  handle  of  accusation  to  the 
Chaldeans.  The  rage  of  the  king,  the 
swift  sentence  of  condemnation  passed 
upon  the  three  offenders,  their  miraculous 
preservation  from  the  fiery  furnace  heated 
seven  times  hotter  than  usual,  the  king's 
acknowledgment  of  the  God  of  Shadrach, 
Meshach,  and  Abednego,  with  their  restora- 
tion to  office,  are  written  in  the  3d  chapter 
of  Daniel,  and  there  the  history  leaves 
them. 

Meshelemi'ali.  A  Korhite,  son  of 
Kore,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph,  who  with  his 
seven  sons  and  his  brethren,  "sons  of 
might,"  were  porters  or  gate-keepers  of  the 
house  of  Jehovah  in  the  reign  of  David 
(1  Chr.  ix.  21,  xxvi.  1,  2,  9). 

Meshez'abeel.  1.  Ancestor  of  Me- 
shuUam,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  rebuild- 
ing the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  4).  2. 
One  of  the  "  heads  of  the  people,"  proba- 
bly a  family,  who  sealed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  21).  3.  The  father  of 
Pethahiah,  and  descendant  of  Zerah  the  son 
of  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  24). 


Meshil'leraith.  The  son  »f  Immer, 
a  priest,  and  ancestor  of  Amashai  or 
Maasiai,  according  to  Neh.  xi.  13,  and  of 
Pashur  and  Adaiah,  according  to  1  Chr 
ix.  12. 

MesMl'lemoth.  1.  An  Ephraimite,. 
ancestor  of  Berecliiah,  one  of  the  chielf 
of  the  tribe  in  the  reign  of  Pekah  (2  Chr, 
xxviii.  12).  2.  Neh.  xi.  13.  The  same  as 
Meshillemith. 

Meshul'lam.  1.  Ancestor  of  Shaphan 
the  scribe  (2  K.  xxii.  3).  2.  The  son  of 
Zerubbabel  (1  Chr.  iii.  19).  3.  A  Gadite, 
one  of  the  chief  men  of  the  tribe,  who  dwelt 
in  Bashan  at  the  time  the  genealogies  were 
recorded  in  the  reign  of  Jotham  king  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  v.  13).  4.  A  Benjamite,  of 
the  sons  of  Elpaal  (1  Clir.  viii.  17).  5.  A 
Benjamite,  the  son  of  Hodaviah  or  Joed, 
and  father  of  Sallu  (1  Chr.  ix.  7;  Neh.  xi. 
7).  6.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shephathiah, 
who  lived  at  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity 
(1  Chr.  ix.  8).  7.  The  same  as  Shallum, 
who  was  high-priest  probably  in  the  reign 
of  Amon,  and  father  of  Hilkiah  (1  Chr.  ix. 
11;  Neh.  xi.  11).  8.  A  priest,  son  of 
Meshillemith,  or  Meshillemoth,  the  son 
of  Immer,  and  ancestor  of  Maasiai  or 
Amashai  (1  Chr.  ix.  12;  corap.  Neh.  xi. 
13).  9.  A  Kohathite,  or  family  of  Ko- 
hathite  Levites,  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (3 
Chr.  xxxiv.  12).  10.  One  of  the  "heads" 
(A.  V.  "  chief  men  ")  sent  by  Ezra  to  Iddo, 
"  the  head,"  to  gather  together  the  Levites 
to  join  the  caravan  about  to  return  to  Jeru- 
salem (Ezr.  viii.  16).  11.  A  chief  man  in 
the  time  of  Ezra,  probably  a  Levite,  wl  o 
assisted  Jonathan  and  Jahaziah  in  abol- 
ishing the  marriages  which  some  of  the 
people  had  contracted  with  foreign  wives 
(Ezr.  X.  15).  12.  One  of  the  descendants 
of  Bani,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
and  put  her  away  (Ezr.  x.  29).  13.  (Neh. ' 
iii.  30,  vi.  18).  The  son  of  Berechiah, 
who  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  iii.  4),  as  well  as  the  Temple 
wall,  adjoining  which  he  had  his  "  cham- 
ber" (Neh.  iii.  30).  He  was  probably  a 
priest,  and  his  daughter  was  married  to 
Johanan  the  son  of  Tobiah  the  Ammonite 
(Neh.  vi.  18).  14.  The  son  of  Besodeiah  : 
he  assisted  Jehoiada  the  son  of  Paseah  in 
restoring  the  old  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  6).  15.  One  of  those  who  stood  at  the 
left  hand  of  Ezra  when  he  read  the  law 
to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4).  16.  A  priest, 
or  family  of- priests,  who  sealed  the  cove- 
nant with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  7).  17. 
One  of  the  heads  of  the  people  who  sealed 
the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  20). 
18.  A  priest  in  the  days  of  Joiakim  the 
son  of  Jeshua,  and  representative  of  the 
house  of  Ezra  (Neh.  xii.  13).  19.  Like- 
wise a  priest  at  the  same  time  as  the  pre- 
ceding, and  head  of  the  priestly  family  of 
Ginnethon  (Neh.  xii.  16).     20.  A  famil/ 


MESHULLEMETH 


405 


MESSIAH 


ot  porters,  descendants  of  Meshullara 
(Neh.  xii.  25),  who  is  also  called  Meshel- 
emiah  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  1),  Shelcmiah  (1  Chr. 
xxvi.  14),  and  Shallum  (Neh.  vii.  45).  21. 
One  of  the  princes  of  Judah  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii. 
33). 

Meshiil'leineth.  The  daughter  of 
Haruz  of  Jotbah,  wife  of  Manasseh  king 
of  Judah,  and  mother  of  his  successor 
Amon  (2  K.  xxi.  19). 

Mes'obaite,  The,  a  title  which  occurs 
only  once,  and  then  attached  to  the  name 
of  Jasiel  (1  Chr.  xi.  47.)  The  word  re- 
tains strong  traces  of  Zobah,  one  of  the 
petty  Aramite  kingdoms.  But  on  this  it 
is  impossible  to  pronounce  with  any  cer- 
tainty. 

Mesopota'mia  is  the  ordinary  Greek 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Aram-Naharaim, 
or  "  Syria  of  the  two  rivers."  If  we  look 
to  the  signification  of  the  name,  we  must 
regard  Mesopotamia  as  the  entire  country 
between  the  two  rivers  —  the  Tigris  and 
the  Euphrates.  This  is  a  tract  nearly  700 
miles  long,  and  from  20  to  250  miles  broad, 
extending  in  a  south-easterly  direction  from 
Telek  (lat.  38°  23',  long.  39°  18')  to  Kurnah 
(lat.  31°,  long.  47°  30').  The  Arabian 
geographers  term  it  "  the  Island,"  a  name 
which  is  almost  literally  correct,  since  a 
few  miles  only  intervene  between  the  source 
of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  at  Telek. 
But  the  region  which  bears  the  name  of 
Mesopotamia,  par  excellence,  both  in  Scrip- 
ture and  in  the  classical  writers,  is  the 
north-western  portion  of  this  tract,  or  the 
country  between  the  great  bend  of  the 
Euphrates  (lat.  35°  to  37°  30')  and  the  up- 
per Tigris.  We  first  hear  of  Mesopotamia 
in  Scripture  as  the  country  where  Nahor 
and  his  family  settled  after  quitting  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees  (Gen.  xxiv.  10).  Here  lived 
Bethueland  Labiin;  and  hither  Abraham 
sent  his  servant,  to  fetch  Isaac  a  wife  "  of 
his  own  kindred"  (ib.  ver.  38).  Hither 
too,  a  century  later,  came  Jacob  on  the 
same  errand ;  and  hence  he  returned  with 
his  two  wives  after  an  absence  of  21  years. 
After  this  we  have  no  mention  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, till  the  close  of  the  wanderings  in 
the  wilderness  (Deut.  xxiii.  4).  About 
half  a  century  later,  we  find,  for  the  first 
and  last  time,  Mesopotamia  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  monarchy  (Judg.  iii.).  Finally, 
the  children  of  Ammon,  having  provoked  a 
war  with  David,  "sent  a  thousand  talents 
of  silver  to  hire  them  chariots  and  horse- 
men out  of  Mesopotamia,  and  out  of  Syria- 
Maachah,  and  out  of  Zobah"  (1  Chr.  xix. 
6).  According  to  the  Assyrian  inscriptions 
Mesopotamia  was  inhabited  in  the  early 
times  of  the  empire  (b.  c.  1200-1100)  by  a 
vast  number  of  petty  tribes,  each  under  its 
own  prince,  and  all  quite  independent  of 
one  anoth  ^r.     "he  Assyrian  monarchs  con- 


tended with  these  chiefs  at  great  advantage, 
and  by  the  time  of  Jehu  (b.  c.  880)  had 
fully  established  their  dominion  over  them. 
On  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  empire, 
Mesopotamia  seems  to  have  been  divided 
between  the  Medes  and  the  Babylonians. 
The  conquests  of  Cyrus  brought  it  wholly 
under  the  Persian  yoke ;  and  thus  it  con- 
tinued to  the  time  of  Alexander. 

Messi'ah.  This  word  (Mashiach), 
which  answers  to  the  word  Christ  (Xomros) 
in  the  N.  T.,  means  anointed,  and  is  appli- 
cable in  its  first  sense  to  any  one  anointed 
with  the  holy  oil.  It  is  applied  to  the  liigh- 
priest  in  Lev.  iv.  3,  5,  16.  The  kings  of 
Israel  were  called  anointed,  from  the  mode 
of  their  consecration  (1  Sam.  ii.  10,  35,  xii. 
3,  5,  &c.).  This  word  also  refers  to  the 
expected  Prince  of  the  chosen  people  who 
was  to  complete  God's  purposes  for  them, 
and  to  redeem  them,  and  of  whose  coming 
the  prophets  of  the  old  covenant  in  all  time 
spoke.  It  is  twice  used  in  the  N.  T.  of  Je- 
sus (John  i.  41,  iv.  25,  A.  V.  "Messias"); 
but  the  Greek  equivalent,  the  Christ,  ia 
constantly  applied,  at  first  with  the  article 
as  a  title,  exactly  the  Anointed  One,  but 
later  without  the  article,  as  a  proper  name, 
Jesus  Christ.  The  present  article  contains 
a  brief  survey  of  the  expectation  of  a  Mes- 
siah among  the  Jews.  The  earliest  gleam 
of  the  Gospel  is  found  in  the  account  of 
the  fall  (Gen.  iii.  15).  Many  interpreters 
would  understand  by  the  seed  of  the  woman 
the  Messiah  only ;  but  it  is  easier  to  think 
with  Calvin  that  mankind,  after  they  are 
gathered  into  one  army  by  Jesus  the  Christ 
the  Head  of  the  Church,  are  to  achieve  a 
victory  over  evil.  The  blessings  in  store 
for  the  children  of  Shem  are  remarkably 
indicated  in  the  words  of  Noah,  "Blessed 
be  Jehovah  the  God  of  Shem"  (Gen.  ix. 
26).  Next  follows  the  promise  to  Abraham, 
wherein  the  blessings  to  Shem  are  turned 
into  the  narrower  channel  of  one  family 
(Gen.  xii.  2,  3).  The  promise  is  still  in- 
definite ;  but  it  tends  to  the  undoing  of  the 
curse  of  Adam,  by  a  blessing  to  all  the 
earth  through  the  seed  of  Abraham,  as 
death  had  come  on  the  whole  earth  through 
Adam.  A  great  step  is  made  in  Gen.  xlix. 
10,  "  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Ju- 
dah, nor  a  lawgiver  from  between  his  feet, 
until  Shiloh  come ;  and  unto  him  shall  the 
gathering  of  the  people  be."  This  is  the 
first  case  in  which  the  promises  distinctly 
centre  in  one  person.  The  next  passage 
usually  quoted  is  the  prophecy  of  Balaam 
(Num.  xxiv.  17-19).  The  star  points  in- 
deed to  the  glory,  as  the  sceptre  denotes 
the  power  of  a  king.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  prophecy  is  not  fulfilled  in  Da- 
vid (2  Sam.  viii.  2,  14)  ;  and  though  David 
is  himself  a  type  of  Christ,  the  direct  Mes- 
sianic application  of  this  place  is  by  no 
means  certain.    The  prophecy  of  Moses 


MESSIAH 


406 


METALS 


(Peut.  xviii.  18)  claims  attention.  Does 
this  refer  to  the  Messiah?  The  reference 
to  Moses  in  John  v.  45-47,  "  He  wrote  of 
me,"  seems  to  point  to  this  passage.  The 
passages  in  the  Pentateuch  which  relate  to 
"  the  Angel  of  the  Lord  "  have  been  thought 
by  many  to  bear  reference  to  the  Messiah. 
The  second  period  of  Messianic  prophecy 
would  include  the  time  of  David.  Passages 
in  the  Psalms  are  numerous  which  are  ap- 
plied to  the  Messiah  in  the  N.  T. ;  such  as 
Ps.  ii.,  xvi.,  xxii.,  xl.,  ex.  The  advance  in 
clearness  in  this  period  is  great.  The  name 
of  Anointed,  i.  e.  King,  comes  in,  and  the 
Messiah  is  to  come  of  the  lineage  of  David. 
He  is  described  in  His  exaltation,  with  His 
great  kingdom  that  shall  be  spiritual  rather 
than  temporal,  Ps.  ii.,  xxi.,  xl.,  ex.  In 
other  places  He  is  seen  in  suffering  and 
humiliation,  Ps.  xxii.,  xvi.,  xl.  After  the 
time  of  David  the  predictions  of  the  Mes- 
siah ceased  for  a  time ;  until  those  prophets 
arose  whose  works  we  possess  in  the  canon 
of  Scripture.  The  Messiah  is  a  King  and 
Ruler  of  David's  house,  who  should  come 
to  reform  and  restore  the  Jewish  nation  and 
purify  the  church,  as  in  Is.  xi.,  xl.-lxvi. 
The  blessings  of  the  restoration,  however, 
will  not  be  confined  to  Jews  ;  the  heathen 
are  made  to  share  them  fully  (Is.  ii.,  Ixvi.). 
The  passage  of  Micah  v.  2  (comp.  Matt.  ii. 
6)  left  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  Sanhe- 
drim as  to  the  birthplace  of  the  Messiah. 
The  lineage  of  David  is  again  alluded  to  in 
Zechariah  xii.  10-14.  The  time  of  the  sec- 
ond Temple  is  fixed  by  Haggai  ii.  9  for 
Messiah's  coming ;  and  the  coming  of  the 
Forerunner  and  of  the  Anointed  are  clearly 
revealed  in  Mai.  iii.  1,  iv.  5,  6.  The  fourth 
period  after  the  close  of  the  canon  of  the 
O.  T.  is  known  to  us  in  a  great  measure 
from  allusions  in  thy  N.  T.  to  the  expecta- 
tion of  the  Jews.  The  Pharisees  and  those 
of  the  Jews  who  expected  Messiah  at  all, 
looked  for  a  temporal  prince  only.  The 
Apostles  themselves  were  infected  with  this 
opinion  till  after  the  Eesurrection,  Matt. 
XX.  20,  21 ;  Luke  xxiv.  21 ;  Acts  i.  6.  Gleams 
of  a  purer  faith  appear,  Luke  ii.  30,  xxiii. 
42 ;  John  iv.  25.  On  the  other  hand  there 
was  a  sceptical  school  which  had  discarded 
the  expectation  altogether.  The  expecta- 
tion of  a  golden  age  that  should  return  upon 
tlie  earth  was  common  in  heathen  nations. 
This  hope  the  Jews  also  shared ;  but  with 
them  it  was  associated  with  the  coming  of 
a  particular  Person,  the  Messiah.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  in  Him  the  Jews  looked 
for  an  earthly  king,  and  that  the  existence 
of  the  hope  of  a  Messiah  may  thus  be  ac- 
counted for  on  natural  grounds,  and  with- 
out a  divine  revelation.  But  the  prophe- 
cies refute  this  :  they  hold  out  not  a  Prophet 
only,  but  a  King  and  a  Priest,  whose  busi- 
ness it  should  be  to  set  the  people  free  from 
sin,  and  to  teach  them  the  ways  of  God,  as 


in  Ps.  xxii.,  xl.,  ex. ;  Is.  ii.,  xi.,  liii.  In 
these  and  other  places  too  the  power  of  the 
coming  One  reaches  beyond  the  Jews  and 
embraces  all  the  Gentiles,  which  is  contrary 
to  the  exclusive  notions  of  Judaism.  A 
fair  consideration  of  all  the  passages  will 
convince  that  the  growth  of  the  Messianic 
idea  in  the  prophecies  is  owing  to  revela- 
tion from  God. 

Messi'as,  the  Greek  form  of  Messiah 
(John  i.  41;  iv.  25). 

Metals.  The  Hebrews,  in  common  with 
other  ancient  nations,  were  acquainted  with 
nearly  all  the  metals  known  to  modern  met- 
allurgy, whether  as  the  products  of  their 
own  soil  or  the  results  of  intercourse  with 
foreigners.  One  of  the  earliest  geographi- 
cal definitions  is  that  which  describes  the 
country  of  Havilah  as  the  land  which 
abounded  in  gold,  and  the  gold  of  which 
was  good  (Gen.  ii.  11,  12).  The  first  artist 
in  metals  was  a  Cainite,  Tubal  Cain,  the 
son  of  Lamech,  the  forger  or  sharpener  of 
every  instrument  of  copper  (A.  V.  "  brass") 
and  iron  (Gen.  iv.  22).  "  Abram  was  very 
rich  in  cattle,  in  silver,  and  in  gold  "  (Gen. 
xiii.  2)  7  silver,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter, 
being  the  medium  of  commerce,  while  gold 
existed  in  the  shape  of  ornaments,  during 
the  patriarchal  ages.  Tin  is  first  mentioned 
among  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites  which 
were  taken  when  Balaam  was  slain  (Num. 
xxxi.  22),  and  lead  is  used  to  heighten  the 
imagery  of  Moses'  triumphal  song  (Ex.  xv. 
10).  Whether  the  ancient  Hebrews  were 
acquainted  with  steel,  properly  so  called,  is 
uncertain;  the  words  so  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  (2  Sam.  xxii.  35;  Job  xx.  24;  Ps. 
xviii.  34;  Jer.  xv.  12)  are  in  all  other  pas- 
sages translated  brass,  and  would  be  more 
correctly  copper.  The  "  northern  iron  "  of 
Jer.  XV.  12  is  believed  by  commentators  to 
be  iron  hardened  and  tempered  by  some 
peculiar  process,  so  as  more  nearly  to  cor- 
respond to  what  we  call  steel  [Steel]  ;  and 
the  "  flaming  torches "  of  Nah.  ii.  3  are 
probably  the  flashing  steel  scythes  of  the 
war-chariots  which  should  come  against 
Nineveh.  Besides  the  simple  metals,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  Hebrews  used  the  mix- 
ture of  copper  and  tin  known  as  bronze. 
We  have  no  indications  of  gold  streams  or 
mines  in  Palestine.  The  Hebrews  obtained 
their  principal  supply  from  the  south  of 
Arabia,  and  the  commerce  of  the  Persian 
Gulf.  It  was  probably  brought  in  form  of 
ingots  (Josh.  vii.  21 ;  A.  V.  "  wedge,"  lit. 
"  tongue  ").  The  great  abundance  of  gold 
in  early  times  is  indicated  by  its  entering 
into  the  composition  of  every  article  of  or- 
nament and  almost  all  of  domestic  use. 
Among  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites  taken 
by  the  Israelites  in  their  bloodless  victory 
when  Balaam  was  slain,  were  ear-rings  and 
jewels  to  the  amount  of  16,750  shekels  of 
gold  (Num.  xxxi.  48-54),  equal  in  value  to 


MErUEG-AMMAH 


407 


MICAH 


uore  than  30,000Z.  of  English  money. 
1700  shekels  of  gold  (worth  more  than 
3000Z.)  in  nose  jewels  (A.  V.  "  ear-rings  ") 
alone  were  taken  by  Gideon's  army  from 
the  slaughtered  Midianites  (Judg.  viii.  26). 
These  numbers,  though  large,  are  not  in- 
credibly great,  when  we  consider  that  the 
country  of  the  Midianites  was  at  that  time 
rich  in  gold  streams  which  have  been  since 
exhausted,  and  that  like  the  Malays  of  the 
present  day,  and  the  Peruvians  of  the  time 
of  Pizarro,  they  carried  most  of  their  wealth 
about  them.  But  the  amount  of  treasure 
accumulated  by  David  from  spoils  taken  in 
•war,  is  so  enormous,  that  we  are  tempted 
to  conclude  the  numbers  exaggerated. 
Though  gold  was  thus  common,  silver 
appears  to  have  been  the  ordinary  medium 
of  commerce.  The  first  commercial  trans- 
action of  which  we  possess  the  details  was 
the  purchase  of  Ephron's  field  by  Abraham 
for  400  shekels  of  silver  (Gen.  xxiii.  16). 
The  accumulation  of  wealth  in  the  reign  of 
Solomon  was  so  great  that  silver  was  but 
little  esteemed ;  "  the  king  made  silver  to 
be  in  Jerusalem  as  stones"  (1  K.  x.  21,  27). 
With  the  treasures  which  were  brought  out 
of  Egypt,  not  only  the  ornaments  but  the 
ordinary  metal-work  of  the  tabernacle  were 
made.  Brass,  or  more  properly  copper, 
was  a  native  product  of  Palestine,  "  a  land 
whose  stones  are  iron,  and  out  of  whose 
hills  thou  mayest  dig  copper  "  (Deut.  viii. 
9;  Job  xxviii.  2).  It  was  so  •plentiful  in 
the  days  of  Solomon  that  the  quantity  em- 
ployed in  the  Temple  could  not  be  estimated, 
it  was  so  great  (IK.  vii.  47).  There  is 
strong  reason  to  believe  that  brass,  a  mix- 
ture of  copper  and  zinc,  was  unknown  to 
the  ancients.  To  the  latter  metal  no  allu- 
sion is  found.  But  tin  was  well  known, 
and  from  the  difficulty  which  attends  the 
toughening  pure  copper  so  as  to  render  it 
fit  for  hammering,  it  is  probable  that  the 
mode  of  deoxidizing  copper  by  the  admix- 
ture of  small  quantities  of  tin  had  been 
early  discovered.  Arms  (2  Sam.  xxi.  16 ; 
Job  XX.  24 ;  Ps,  xviii.  34)  and  armor  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  5,  6,  38)  were  made  of  this 
nistal,  wliich  was  capable  of  being  so 
wrought  as  to  admit  of  a  keen  and  hard 
edge.  The  Egyptians  employed  it  in  cut- 
ting the  hardest  granite.  Iron,  like  copper, 
was  found  in  the  hills  of  Palestine.  Iron- 
mines  are  still  worked  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Kefr  Uuneh  in  the  S.  of  the  valley  Za- 
hardni. 

Me'theg-am'mah,  a  place  which  Da- 
vid took  from  the  Pliilistines,  apparently  in 
his  last  war  with  them  (2  Sam.  viii.  1). 
Ammah  may  be  taken  as  meaning  "  mother- 
city  "  or  "  metropolis  "  (comp.  2  Sam.  xx. 
19),  and  Metheg-ha-Ammah  "the  bridle  of 
the  mother-city  "  —  viz.  of  Gath,  the  chief 
(own  of  the  Philistines. 

Methu'sael,  the  son  of  Mehujael,  fourth 


in  descent  from  Cain,  and  father  of  Lamech 
(Gen.  iv.  18). 

Methu'selah,  the  son  of  Enoch,  sixth 
in  descent  from  Seth,  and  father  of  Lamech 
(Gen.  V.  25-27). 

Meu'nim,  Neh.  vii.  52.  Elsewhere  given 
in  A.  V.  as  Mehdnim  and  Mkhunims. 

Meu'zal,  Ez.  xxvii.  19,  marg,    [Uzal.] 

Mezahab.  The  father  of  Matred  and 
grandfather  of  Mehetabel,  who  was  wife  of 
Hadar  or  Hadad,  the  last-named  king  of 
Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  39 ;  1  Chr.  i.  50).  His 
name,  which,  if  it  be  Hebrew,  signifies 
"  waters  of  gold,"  has  given  rise  to  much 
speculation. 

Mi'amiz^  1.  A  layman  of  Israel  of 
tl#e  sons  of  Parosh,  who  had  married  a  for- 
eign wife  and  put  her  away  at  the  bidding 
of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  25).  2.  A  priest  or  family 
of  priests  who  went  up  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  5). 

Mib'har.  "Mibhar  the  son  of  Hag- 
geri "  is  the  name  of  one  of  David's  heroes 
in  the  list  given  in  1  Chr.  xi.  The  verse 
(38)  in  which  it  occurs  appears  to  be  cor- 
rupt, for  in  the  corresponding  catalogue  of 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  36  we  find,  instead  of  "  Mib- 
har the  son  of  Haggeri,"  "of  Zobah,  Bani 
the  Gadite." 

Mib'sam.  1.  A  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  13;  1  Chr.  i.  29),  not  elsewhere  men- 
tioned. The  signification  of  his  name  has 
led  some  to  propose  an  identification  of  the 
tribe  sprung  from  him  witli  some  one  of 
the  Abrahamic  tribes  settled  in  Arabia  Aro- 
matifera.  2.  A  son  of  Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv. 
25),  perhaps  named  after  the  Ishmaelite 
Mibsam. 

Mib'zar.  One  of  the  phylarchs  or 
"dukes"  of  Edom  (1  Chr.  i.  53)  or  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  43)  after  the  death  of  Hadad 
or  Hadar. 

Mi'cah  (the  sac3e  name  as  Micaiah) 
[Micaiah].  1.  An  Israelite  whose  familiar 
story  is  preserved  in  the  xviith  and  xviiith 
chapters  of  Judges.  From  this  interesting 
narrative  we  see  (1.)  how  completely  some 
of  the  most  solenm  and  characteristic  en- 
actments of  the  Law  had  become  a  dead 
letter.  Micah  was  evidently  a  devout  be- 
liever in  Jehovah.  His  one  anxiety  is  to 
enjoy  the  favor  of  Jehovah  (xvii.  13)  ;  the 
formula  of  blessing  used  by  his  mother  and 
his  priest  invokes  the  same  awful  name 
(xvii.  2,  xviii.  6) ;  and  yet  so  completely 
ignorant  is  lie  of  the  Law  of  Jehovah,  that 
the  mode  which  he  adopts  of  honoring  Him 
is  to  make  a  molten  and  graven  image,  tera- 
phim  or  images  of  domestic  gods,  and  to 
set  up  an  unauthorized  priesthood,  fii"st  in 
his  own  family  (xvii.  5),  and  then  in  the 
person  of  a  Levite  not  of  the  priestly  line 
(ver.  12).  (2.)  The  story  also  throws  a 
light  on  the  condition  of  tlie  Levites.  Here 
we  have  a  Levite  belonging  to  Bethlehcm- 
Judah,  a  town  not  allotted  to  his  tribe; 


MICAH 


408 


MICAH 


next  wandering  forth  to  take  up  his  abode 
wherever  he  could  find  a  residence ;  then 
undertaking  the  charge  of  Micah's  idol- 
chapel;  and  lastly,  carrying  off  the  prop- 
erty of  his  master  and  benefactor,  and 
becoming  the  first  priest  to  another  system 
of  false  worship.  But  the  transaction  be- 
comes still  more  remarkable  when  we  con- 
sider, (3.)  that  this  was  no  obscure  or  ordi- 
nary Levite.  He  belonged  to  the  chief 
family  in  the  tribe,  nay,  we  may  say  to  the 
chief  family  of  the  nation,  for  though  not 
himself  a  priest,  he  was  closely  allied  to  the 
priestly  house,  and  was  the  grandson  of  no 
less  a  person  than  the  great  Moses  himself. 
(4.)  The  narrative  gives  us-*  most  vivid 
idea  of  the  terrible  anarchy  in  which  the 
country  was  placed,  when  *'  there  was  no 
king  in  Israel,  and  every  man  did  what  was 
right  in  his  own  eyes,"  and  shows  how  ur- 
gently necessary  a  central  authority  had 
become.  A  body  of  six  hundred  men  com- 
pletely armed,  besides  the  train  of  their 
families  and  cattle,  traverses  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land,  not  on  any  mission  for 
the  ruler  or  the  nation,  as  on  later  occasions 
(2  Sam.  ii.  12,  &c.,  xx.  7,  14),  but  simply 
for  their  private  ends.  Entirely  disregarding 
the  rights  of  private  property,  they  burst  in 
wherever  they  please  along  their  route,  and 
plundering  the  valuables  and  carrying  off 
persons,  reply  to  all  remonstrances  by  taunts 
and  threats.  As  to  the  date  of  these  interest- 
ing events,  the  narrative  gives  us  no  direct 
information ;  but  we  may  at  least  infer  that  it 
.was  also  before  the  time  of  Samson,  because 
in  this  narrative  (xviii.  12)  we  meet  with 
the  origin  of  the  name  Malianeli-dan,  a  place 
which  already  bore  that  name  in  Samson's 
childhood  (xiii.  25).  2.  The  sixth  in  order  of 
the  minor  prophets.  To  distinguish  him  from 
Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah,  the  contempo- 
rary of  Elijah,  he  is  called  the  Mouasthite, 
that  is,  a  native  of  Moresheth,  or  some  place 
of  similar  name,  which  Jerome  and  Euse- 
bius  call  Morasthi  and  identify  with  a  small 
village  near  Eleutheropolis  to  the  east, 
where  formerly  the  prophet's  tomb  was 
shown,  though  in  the  days  of  Jerome  it  had 
been  succeeded  by  a  churcli.  It  is  stated 
in  the  superscription  to  his  prophecies 
that  Micah  exercised  the  prophetical  office 
■during  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  giving  thus  a 
maximum  limit  of  59  years  (b.  o.  756-697), 
from  the  accession  of  Jotham  to  the  death 
of  Hezekiah,  and  a  minimum  limit  of  16 
years  (b.  c  742-726),  from  the  death  of 
Jotham  to  the  accession  of  Hezekiah.  In 
either  case  he  would  be  contemporary  with 
Hosea  and  Amos  during  part  of  their  min- 
istry in  Israel,  and  with  Isaiah  in  Judah. 
With  respect  to  one  of  his  prophecies  (iii. 
12)  it  is  distinctly  assigned  to  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  (Jer.  xxvi.  18),  and  was  probably 
delivered  before  the  great  passover  which 


inaugurated  the  reformation  in  Judah.  Ac- 
cording to  the  most  probable  arrangement, 
ch.  i.  was  delivered  in  the  contemporary 
reigns  of  /otham  king  of  Judah  and  of 
Pekah  king  of  Israel ;  ii.  1-iv.  8,  in  those 
of  Ahaz,  Pekah,  and  Hosea;  iii.  12  being 
assigned  to  the  last  year  of  Ahaz,  and  tht» 
remainder  of  the  book  to  the  reign  of  Heze- 
kiah. But,  at  whatever  time  the  several 
prophecies  were  first  delivered,  they  appear 
in  their  present  form  as  an  organic  whole, 
marked  by  a  certain  regularity  of  develop- 
ment. Three  sections,  omitting  the  super- 
scription, are  introduced  by  the  same  phrase, 
"  hear  ye,"  and  represent  three  natural 
divisions  of  the  prophecy  —  i.,  ii.,  iii.-v., 
vi.-vii.  —  each  commencing  with  rebukes 
and  threatenings  and  closing  with  a  promise. 
The  first  section  opens  with  a  magnificent 
description  of  the  coming  of  Jehovah  to 
judgment  for  the  sins  and  idolatries  of  Israel 
and  Judah  (i.  2-4),  and  the  sentence  pro- 
nounced upon  Samaria  (5-9)  by  the  Judge 
Himself.  The  prophet  sees  the  danger  which 
threatens  his  country,  and  traces  in  imagina- 
tion the  devastating  march  of  the  Assyrian 
conquerors  (i.  8-16).  The  impending  pun- 
ishment suggests  its  cause,  and  the  prophet 
denounces  a  woe  upon  the  people  generally 
for  the  corruption  and  violence  which  were 
rife  among  them,  and  upon  the  false  proph- 
ets who  led  them  astray  by  pandering  to 
their  appetites  and  luxury  (ii.  1-11).  The 
sentence  of  captivity  is  passed  upon  them 
(10),  but  is  followed  instantly  by  a  promise 
of  restoration  and  triumphant  return  (ii.  12, 
13).  The  second  section  is  addressed  es- 
pecially to  the  princes  and  heads  of  the 
people ;  their  avarice  and  rapacity  are  re- 
buked in  strong  terms.  But  the  threatening 
is  again  succeeded  by  a  promise  of  restora- 
tion, and  in  the  glories  of  the  Messianic 
kingdom  the  prophet  loses  sight  of  the  deso- 
lation which  should  befall  his  country.  The 
predictions  in  this  section  form  the  climax 
of  the  book,  and  Ewald  arranges  them  in 
four  strophes,  consisting  of  from  seven  to 
eiglit  verses  each  (iv.  1-8,  iv.  9-v.  2,  v.  3- 
9,  V.  10-15),  with  the  exception  of  the  last, 
which  is  shorter.  In  the  last  section  (vi., 
vii.)  Jehovah,  by  a  bold  poetical  figure,  ia 
represented  as  holding  a  controversy  with 
His  people,  pleading  with  them  in  justifica- 
tion of  His  conduct  towards  them  and  the 
reasonableness  of  His  requirements.  The 
dialogue  form  in  which  chap.  vi.  is  cast 
renders  the  picture  very  dramatic  and  strik- 
ing. The  whole  concludes  with  a  triumphal 
song  of  joy  at  the  great  deliverance,  like  that 
from  Egypt,  which  Jehovah  will  achieve,  and 
a  full  acknowledgment  of  His  mercy  and 
faithfulness  to  His  promises  (16-20).  The 
last  verse  is  reproduced  in  the  song  of 
Zacharias  (Luke  i.  72,  73).  Tlie  predic- 
tions uttered  by  Micah  relate  to  the  inva- 
sions of  Shalmaneser  (i.  6-8 ;  2  K.  xviL 


MICAIAH 


409 


MICHAIAH 


4,  6)  and  Sennacherib  (i.  9-16 ;  2  K.  xviii. 
13),  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  12, 
vii.  13),  the  captivity  in  Babylon  (iv.  10), 
the  return  (iv.  1-8,  vii.  11),  the  establish- 
ment of  a  theocratic  kingdom  in  Jerusalem 
(iv.  8),  and  the  Ruler  who  should  spring 
from  Bethlehem  (v.  2).  The  destruction 
of  Assyria  and  Babylon  is  supposed  to  be 
referred  to  in  v.  5,  6,  vii.  8,  10.  It  is  re- 
markable that  the  prophecies  commence 
■with  the  last  words  recorded  of  the  proph- 
et's namesake,  Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah, 
"  Hearken,  O  people,  every  one  of  you  " 
(1  K.  xxii.  28).  The  style  of  Micah  has 
been  compared  with  that  of  Hosea  and 
Isaiah.  His  diction  is  vigorous  and  forcible, 
sometimes  obscure  from  the  abruptness  of 
its  transitions,  but  varied  and  rich  in  figures 
derived  from  the  pastoral  (i.  8,  ii.  12,  v.  4, 

5,  7,  8,  vii.  14)  and  rural  life  of  the  lowland 
country  (i.  6,  iii.  12,  iv.  3,  12,  13,  vi.  15), 
whose  vines  and  olives  and  fig-trees  were 
celebrated  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  27,  28),  and  sup- 
ply the  prophet  with  so  many  striking  allu- 
sions (i.  G,  iv.  3,  4,  vi.  15,  vii.  1,  4),  as  to 
suggest  that,  like  Amos,  he  may  have  been 
either  a  herdsman  or  a  vine-dresser,  who 
had  heard  the  howling  of  the  jackals  (i.  8, 
A.  V.  "  dragons  ")  as  he  watched  his  flocks 
or  his  vines  by  night,  and  had  seen  the  lions 
slaughtering  the  sheep  (v.  8).  The  language 
of  Micah  is  quoted  in  Matt.  ii.  6,  6,  and  his 
prophecies  are  alluded  to  in  Matt.  x.  35, 
36 ;  Mark  xiii.  12 ;  Luke  xii.  53 ;  John  vii. 
42.  3.  A  descendant  of  Joel  the  Reuben- 
ite  (1  Chr.  v.  5).  4.  The  son  of  Merib- 
baal,  or  Mcphibosheth,  the  son  of  Jonathan 
(1  Chr.  viii.  34,  35,  ix.  40,  41).  5.  A 
Kohathite  Levite,  eldest  son  of  Uzziel  the 
brother  of  Amram  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  20).  6. 
The  father  of  Abdon,  a  man  of  high  station 
in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxiv.  20). 

Mica'iah.,  the  same  name  as  Micah,  both 
meaning  the  same  thing.  "  Who  like  Je- 
hovah ?  "  —  Micaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  was 
a  prophet  of  Samaria,  who,  in  the  last  year 
of  the  reign  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  pre- 
dicted his  defeat  and  death,  B.  c.  897  (1  K. 
xxii.  1-35;  2  Chr.  xviii.). 

Mi'clia.  1.  The  son  of  Mephibosheth 
(2  Sam.  ix.  12).  2.  A  Levite,  or  family 
of  Levites,  who  signed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  11).  3.  The  father  of 
Mattaniah,  a  Gershonitc  Levite  and  de- 
scendant of  Asaph  (Neh.  xi.  17,  22).  4.  A 
Simeonite,  father  of  Ozias,  one  of  the  three 
governors  of  the  city  of  Bethulia  in  the  time 
of  Judith  (Jud.  vi.  15). 

Mi'chaeL  1.  An  Asherite,  father  of 
Sethur,  one  of  the  twelve  spies  (Num.  xiii. 
13).  2.  The  son  of  Abihail,  one  of  the 
Gaditcs  who  settled  in  the  land  of  Bashan 
(1  Chr.  V.  13).  3.  Another  Gadite,  ances- 
tor of  Abihail  (1  Chr.  v.  14).  4.  A  Ger- 
shonite  Levite,  ancestor  of  Asaph  (1  Chr. 
vi.  40).    5.  One  of  the  five  sons  of  Izra- 


hiah  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (1  Chr.  vii.  8). 
6.  A  Benjamite  of  the  sons  of  Beriah  (1 
Chr.  viii.  16).  7.  One  of  the  captains  of 
the  "  thousands  "  of  Manasseh  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  20).  8.  The 
father  or  ancestor  of  Omri,  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Issachar  in  the  reign  of  David  ( 1 
Chr.  xxvii.  18).  9.  One  of  the  sons  of 
Jehoshaphat  who  were  murdered  by  their 
elder  brother  Jehoram  (2  Chr.  xxi.  2,  4). 
10.  The  father  or  ancestor  of  Zebadiah  of 
the  sons  of  Shephatiah  (Ezr.  viii.  8).  11. 
"  One,"  or  "  the  first  of  the  chief  princes  " 
or  archangels  (Dan.  x.  13;  comp.  Jude  9), 
described  in  Dan.  x.  21  as  the  "  prince  " 
of  Israel,  and  in  xii.  1  as  "  the  great  prince 
which  standeth"  in  time  of  conflict  "for 
the  children  of  thy  people."  All  these  pas- 
sages in  the  O.  T.  belong  to  that  late  period 
of  its  revelation,  wlien,  to  the  general 
declaration  of  the  angelic  office,  was  added 
the  division  of  that  office  into  parts,  and 
the  assignment  of  them  to  individual  angels. 
As  Gabriel  represents  the  ministration  of 
the  angels  towards  man,  so  Michael  is  the 
type  and  leader  of  their  strife,  in  God's 
name  and  His  strength,  against  the  power 
of  Satan.  In  the  O.  T.  therefore  he  is  the 
guardian  of  the  Jewish  people  in  their  an- 
tagonism to  godless  power  and  heathenism. 
In  the  N.  T.  (see  Rev.  xii.  7)  he  fights  in 
heaven  against  the  dragon —  "  that  old  ser- 
pent called  the  Devil  and  Satan,  which  de- 
ceiveth  the  whole  world ; "  and  so  takes  part 
in  that  struggle,  which  is  the  work  of  the 
Church  on  earth.  There  remains  one  pas- 
sage (Jude  9 ;  comp.  2  Pet.  ii.  11)  in  which 
we  are  told  that  "  Michael  the  archangel, 
when  contending  with  the  devil  he  disputed 
about  the  body  of  Moses,  durst  not  bring 
against  him  a  railing  accusation,  but  said, 
The  Lord  rebuke  thee."  The  allusion  seems 
to  be  to  a  Jewish  legend  attached  to  Deut. 
xxxiv.  6. 

Mi'Chah,  eldest  son  of  Uzziel,  the  son 
of  Kohatl^(l  Chr.  xxiv.  24,  25),  elsewhere 
(1  Chr.  xxiii.  20)  called  Micah. 

Micha'iab.  1.  The  father  of  Achbor, 
a  man  of  high  rank  in  the  reign  of  Josiah 
(2  K.  xxii.  12).  He  is  the  same  as  Micah 
the  father  of  Abdon  (2 Chr.  xxxiv.  20.)  2. 
The  son  of  Zaccur,  a  descendant  of  Asaph 
(Neh.  xii.  35).  He  is  the  same  as  Micah 
the  son  of  Zichri  (1  Chr.  ix.  15)  and  Micha 
the  son  of  Zabdi  (Neh.  xi.  17).  3-  One  of 
the  priests  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  41).  4.  The  daugh- 
ter of  Uriel  of  Gibeah,  wife  of  Rehoboam, 
and  mother  of  Abijah  king  of  Judah  (2  Chr. 
xiii.  2).  [Maachah,  3.]  5.  One  of  the 
princes  of  Jehoshaphat  whom  he  sent  to 
teach  the  law  of  Jehovah  in  the  cities  of 
Judah  (2  Chr.  xvii.  7).  6.  The  son  of 
Gemariah.  He  is  only  mentioned  on  one 
occasion.  After  Baruch  had  read,  in  pub- 
lic, prophecies  of  Jenmiah  annou  icu  g  im- 


MICHAL 


410 


JiDDIN 


mment  calamities,  Michaiah  went  and  de- 
clared them  to  all  the  princes  assembled  in 
king  Jehoiakim's  house;  and  the  princes 
forthwith  sent  for  Baruch  to  read  the  proph- 
ecies to  them  (Jer.  xxxvi.  11-14). 

Mi'chal,  tlie  younger  of  Saul's  two 
daughters  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49).  The  king  had 
proposed  to  bestow  on  David  his  eldest 
daughter  Merab  ;  but  before  the  marriage 
could  be  arranged  an  unexpected  turn  was 
given  to  tlie  matter  by  the  behavior  of 
Sfichal,  who  fell  violently  in  love  with  the 
young  hero.  The  marriage  with  her  elder 
sister  was  at  once  put  aside.  Saul  eagerly 
caught  at  the  opportunity  which  the  change 
aflForded  him  of  exposing  his  rival  to  the  risk 
of  death.  The  price  fixed  on  Michal's  hand 
was  no  less  than  the  slaughter  of  a  hundred 
Philistines.  David  by  a  brilliant  feat  doubled 
the  tale  of  victims,  and  Michal  became  his 
wife.  Shortly  afterwards  she  saved  David 
from  the  assassins  whom  her  father  had  sent 
to  take  his  life  (1  Sara.  xix.  11-17).  Saul's 
rage  may  be  imagined :  his  fury  was  such 
that  Michal  was  obliged  to  fabricate  a  story 
of  David's  having  attempted  to  kill  her. 
This  was  the  last  time  she  saw  her  husband 
for  many  years  ;  and  when  the  rupture  be- 
tween Saul  and  David  had  become  open 
and  incurable,  she  was  married  to  another 
man,  Phalti  or  Phaltiel  of  Gallim  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  44).  After  the  death  of  her  father 
and  brothers  at  Gilboa,  David  compelled 
her  new  husband  to  surrender  Michal  to 
him  (2  Sara.  iii.  13-16).  It  is  on  the  road 
leading  up  from  the  Jordan  valley  to  the 
Mount  of  Olives  that  we  first  encounter  her 
with  her  husband,  Michal  under  the  joint 
escort  of  David's  messengers  and  Abner's 
twenty  men,  en  route  to  David  at  Hebron, 
the  submissive  Phaltiel  behind,  bewailing 
the  wife  thus  torn  from  him.  It  was  at  least 
fourteen  years  since  David  and  she  had 
parted  at  Gibeah,  since  she  had  watched 
him  disappear  down  the  cord  into  the  dark- 
ness and  had  perilled  her  own  life  for  his 
against  the  rage  of  her  insane  father.  That 
David's  love  for  his  absent  wife  had  under- 
gone no  change  in  the  interval  seems  cer- 
tain from  the  eagerness  with  which  he  re- 
claims her  as  soon  as  the  opportunity  is 
afforded  him.  The  meeting  took  place  at 
Hebron.  How  Michal  comported  herself 
in  the  altered  circumstances  of  David's 
household  we  are  not  told;  but  it  is- plain 
from  the  subsequent  occurrences  that  some- 
tiling  had  happened  to  alter  the  relations 
of  herself  and  David.  It  was  the  day  of 
David's  greatest  triumph,  when  he  brought 
the  ark  of  Jehovah  from  its  temporary  rest- 
ing-place to  its  home  in  the  newly-acquired 
city.  Michal  watched  the  procession  ap- 
proach from  the  window  of  her  apartment; 
the  motions  of  her  husband  shocked  her  as 
undignified  and  indecent ;  "she  despised  him 
in  her  heart."    After  the  exertions  of  the 


long  day  were  over,  the  king  was  rect  ived 
by  his  wife  with  a  bitter  taunt.  David's  re- 
tort was  a  tremendous  one,  conveyed  iu 
words  which  once  spoken  could  never  be 
recalled.  All  intercourse  between  her  and 
David  ceased  from  that  date  (2  Sam.  vi. 
20-23).  Her  name  appears  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
8)  as  the  mother  of  five  of  the  grandchil- 
dren of  Saul.  But  it  is  probably  more  cor- 
rect to  substitute  Merab  for  Michal  in  this 
place. 

Midl'mas,  a  variation,  probably  a  later 
form,  of  the  name  Michmash  (Ezr.  ii.  27; 
Neh.  vii.  31). 

Micli'mash,  a  town  which  is  known  to 
us  almost  solely  by  its  connection  with  the 
Philistine  war  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (1 
Sara,  xiii.,  xiv.).  It  has  been  identified 
with  great  probability  in  a  village  which 
still  bears  the  name  of  Mukhmas,  about  7 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  The  place  was 
thus  situated  in  the  very  middle  of  tlie  tribe 
of  Benjamin.  In  the  invasion  of  Sen- 
nacherib in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  it  is 
mentioned  by  Isaiah  (x.  28).  After  the 
captivity  the  men  of  the  place  returned 
(Ezr.  ii.  27 ;  Neh.  vii.  31).  At  a  later  date 
it  became  the  residence  of  Jonathan  Mac- 
cabaeus,  and  the  seat  of  his  government 
(1  Mace.  ix.  73).  In  the  tirae  of  Eusebiua 
and  Jerome  it  was  "a  very  large  village 
retaining  its  ancient  name,  and  lying  near 
Ramah  in  the  district  of  Aelia  (Jerusa- 
lem) at  9  miles'  distance  therefrom."  Im- 
mediately below  the  village  the  gre.at  wady 
spreads  out  to  a  considerable  widtli  —  per- 
haps half  a  mile ;  and  its  bed  is  broken  up 
into  an  intricate  mass  of  hummocks  and 
mounds,  some  two  of  which,  before  the  tor- 
rents of  3000  winters  had  reduced  and 
rounded  their  forms,  were  probably  the 
two  "  teeth  of  cliff"  —  the  Bozez  and  Seneb 
of  Jonathan's  adventure.  Right  opposite  is 
Jeba  (Geba)  on  a  curiously  terraced  hill. 

Mich.'methall,  a  place  which  formed 
one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  boundary  of 
the  territories  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  on 
the  western  side  of  Jordan  (Josh.  xvii.  7). 
The  position  of  the  place  must  be  some- 
where on  the  east  of  and  not  far  distant 
from  Shechem. 

Micli'ri,  ancestor  of  Elah,  one  of  the 
heads  of  the  fathers  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr. 
ix.  8)  after  the  captivity. 

Mich'tam.  This  word  occurs  in  the 
titles  of  six  Psalms  (xvi.,  Ivi.-lx.),  all  of 
which  are  ascribed  to  David.  The  marginal 
reading  of  our  A.  V.  is  "  a  golden  Psalm," 
while  in  the  Geneva  version  it  is  described 
as  "  a  certain  tune."  From  the  position 
which  it  occupies  in  the  title  we  may  infer 
that  michtam  is  a  term  applied  to  these 
Psalms  to  denote  their  musical  character, 
but  beyond  this  everything  is  obscure. 

Mid' din,  a  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  61), 
one  of  the  six  specified  as  situated  in  the 


MIDiAN 


411 


MIGDOL 


district  of  "the  midbar"  (A.  V.  "wilder- 
ness"). 

Mid'ian,  a  son  of  Abraham  and  Keturah 
(Gon.  XXV.  2;  1  Chr.  i.  32)  ;  progenitor  of 
the  Midianites,  or  Arabians  dwelling  prin 
cipally  in  the  desert  north  of  the  peninsula 
of  Arabia.  Southwards  they  extended 
along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Eyleh  (Sinus  Aelaniticus) ;  and  north- 
wards they  stretched  along  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Palestine.  Midian  is  first  men- 
tioned, as  a  people,  when  Moses  fled,  hav- 
ing killed  the  Egyptian,  to  the  "  land  of 
Midian  "  (Ex.  ii.  15),  and  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  a  priest  of  Midian  (21).  The  "land 
of  Midian,"  or  the  portion  of  it  specially 
referred  to,  was  probably  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai.  The  next  occurrence  of  the  name 
of  this  people  in  the  sacred  history  marks 
their  nortliern  settlement  on  the  border  of 
the  Promised  Land,  "  on  this  side  Jordan 
[by]  Jericho  "  in  the  plains  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxii.  1-4).  It  was  "  on  this  side  Jordan  " 
that  the  chief  doings  of  the  Midianites  with 
the  Israelites  took  place.  The  influence 
of  the  Midianites  on  the  Israelites  was 
clearly  most  evil,  and  directly  tended  to 
lead  them  from  the  injunctions  of  Moses. 
The  events  at  Shittim  occasioned  the  in- 
junction to  vex  Midian  and  smite  them. 
Twelve  thousand  men,  a  thousand  from 
each  tribe,  went  up  to  this  war,  a  war  in 
which  all  the  males  of  the  enemy  were  slain. 
After  a  lapse  of  some  years,  the  Midianites 
appear  again  as  the  enemies  of  the  Israelites. 
They  had  recovered  from  the  devastation  of 
the  former  war,  probably  by  the  arrival  of 
fresh  colonists  from  the  desert  tracts  over 
which  their  tribes  wandered ;  and  they  now 
were  sufficiently  powerful  to  become  the 
oppressors  of  the  children  of  Israel.  Allied 
with  the  Amalekites  and  the  Bene-Kedem, 
they  drove  them  to  make  dens  in  the  moun- 
tains and  caves  and  strongholds,  and  wasted 
their  crops  even  to  Gaza,  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast,  in  tlie  land  of  Simeon.  The 
Midianites  had  oppressed  Israel  for  seven 
years,  but  were  finally  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  by  Gideon.  [Gideon.]  The 
Midianites  are  described  as  true  Arabs  — 
now  Bedawees,  or  "people  of  the  des- 
ert; "  anon  pastoral,  or  settled  Arabs  —  the 
"  flock  "  of  Jethro ;  the  cattle  and  flocks  of 
Midian,  in  the  later  days  of  Moses ;  their 
camels  without  number,  as  the  sand  of  the 
Bea-side  for  multitude  when  they  oppressed 
Israel  in  the  days  of  the  Judges  —  all  agree 
with  such  a  description.  Like  Arabs,  who 
are  predominantly  a  nomadic  people,  they 
seem  to  have  partially  settled  in  the  land 
of  Moab.  The  only  glimpse  of  their  habits 
is  found  in  the  vigorous  picture  of  the  camp 
in  the  valley  of  Jezreel  (Judg.  vii.  13). 
The  spoil  taken  in  both  the  war  of  Moses 
and  that  of  Gideon  is  remarkable.  The 
gold,  silver,  brass,  iron,  tin,  and  lead  (Num. 


xxxi.  22),  the  "jewels  of  gold,  chains,  and 
bracelets,  rings,  earri-xgs,  and  tablets  "  (50) 
taken  by  Moses,  is  especially  noteworthy; 
and  it  is  confirmed  by  the  booty  taken  by 
Gideon  (Judg.  viii.  21,  24-26).  We  have 
here  a  wealthy  Arab  nation,  living  by  plun- 
der, delighting  in  finery ;  and,  where  forays 
were  impossible,  carrying  on  the  traffic 
southwards  into  Arabia,  the  land  of  gold  — 
if  not  naturally,  by  trade  —  and  across  to 
Chaldaea,  or  into  the  rich  plains  of  Egypt. 

Midwife.  Parturition  in  the  East  is 
usually  easy.  The  office  of  a  midwife  is 
thus,  in  many  eastern  countries,  in  little 
use,  but  is  performed,  when  necessary,  by 
relatives. 

Mig'dal-el,  one  of  the  fortified  towns 
of  the  possession  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
38  only),  possibly  deriving  its  name  from 
some  ancient  tower — the  "tower  of  El, 
or  God." 

Mig'dal-gad,  a  city  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  37)  in  the  district  of  the  Shefelah,  or 
maritime  lowland. 

Mig'dol,  the  name  of  one  or  two  places 
on  the  eastern  frontier  of  Egypt,  cognate 
to  Migdal,  which  appears  properly  to  sig- 
nify a  military  watch-tower,  or  a  shepherd's 
lookout,  1.  A  Migdol  is  mentioned  in  the 
account  of  the  Exodus  (Ex.  xiv.  2 ;  Num- 
xxxiii.  7,  8).  We  suppose  that  the  positio'i 
of  the  encampment  was  before  or  at  Pih?  - 
hiroth,  behind  which  was  Migdol,  and  on  the 
other  hand  Baal-zephon  and  the  sea,  these 
places  being  near  together.  The  place  of 
the  encampment  and  of  the  passage  of 
the  sea  we  believe  to  have  been  not  far 
from  the  Persepolitan  monument,  which  is 
made  in  Linant's  map  the  site  of  the  Sera- 
peum.  2.  A  Migdol  is  spoken  of  by  Jere- 
miah and  Ezekiel.  The  latter  prophet  men- 
tions it  as  a  boundary -town,  evidently  on  the 
eastern  border,  corresponding  to  Seveneh, 
Syene,  on  the  southern  (xxix.  10,  xxx.  6). 
In  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  the  Jews  in 
Egypt  are  spoken  of  as  dwelling  at  Migdol, 
Tahpanhes,  and  Noph,  and  in  the  country 
of  Patliros  (xliv,  1)  ;  and  in  that  foretell- 
ing, apparently,  an  invasion  of  Egypt  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Migdol,  Noph,  and  Tah- 
panhes are  again  mentioned  together  (xlvi. 
14).  It  seems  plain,  from  its  being  spoken 
of  with  Memphis,  and  from  Jews  dwelling 
there,  that  this  Migdol  was  an  important 
town,  and  not  a  mere  fort,  or  even  military 
settlement.  After  this  time  there  is  no 
notice  of  any  place  of  this  name  in  Egypt, 
excepting  of  Magdolus,  by  Hecataeus  of 
Miletus,  and  in  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus, 
in  which  Magdolo  is  placed  twelve  Roman 
miles  to  the  southward  of  Pelusium,  in  the 
route  from  the  Serapeum  to  that  town. 
This  latter  place  most  probably  represents 
the  Migdol  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel.  Its  position  on  the  route  to  Pales- 
tine would  make  it  both  strategically  impor* 


MIGRON 


412 


MILL 


tant  and  populous,  neither  of  which  would 
be  the  case  with  a  Own  in  the  position  of 
ihe  Migdol  of  tlie  Pentateuch. 

Mig'ron,  a  town  or  a  spot  —  for  there  is 
nothing  to  indicate  which  —  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Saul's  city,  Gibeah,  on  the  very 
edge  of  the  district  belonging  to  it  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  2).  Migron  is  also  mentioned  in  the 
list  of  the  places  disturbed  by  Sennache- 
rib's approach  to  Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  28). 
But  here  its  position  seems  a  little  farther 
north  than  that  indicated  in  the  former  pas- 
sage. In  Hebrew,  Migron  may  mean  a 
"precipice,"  and  it  is  not  impossible,  there- 
fore, that  two  places  of  the  same  name  are 
intended. 

Mi'jamin.  1.  The  chief  of  the  sixth 
of  the  24  courses  of  priests  established  by 
David  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  9).  2.  A  family  of 
priests  who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah;  probably  the  descendants  of  the 
preceding  (Neh.  x.  7). 

Mik'loth.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Jehiel, 
the  father  or  prince  of  Gibeon,  by  his  wife 
Maachah  (1  Chr.  viii.  32,  ix.  37,  38).  2. 
The  leader  of  tlie  second  division  of  David's 
army  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  4). 

Miknei'ah.  One  of  the  Levites  of  the 
second  rank,  gatekeepers  of  the  ark,  ap- 
pointed by  David  to  play  in  the  Temple 
band  "  with  harps  upon  Sheminith  "  (1  Chr. 
XV.  18,  21). 

Milala'i.  Probably  a  Gershonite  Levite 
of  the  sons  of  Asaph,  who  assisted  at  the 
dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
adi.  36). 

Mil'cah..  1.  Daughter  of  Haran  and 
wife  of  her  uncle  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother, 
to  whom  she  bore  eight  children  (Gen.  xi. 
29,  xxii.  20,  23,  xxiv.  15,  24,  47),  2.  The 
fourth  daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi. 
33,  xxvii.  1,  xxxvi.  11;  Josh.  xvii.  3). 

Mircom.  The  "  abomination  "  of  the 
children  of  Ammon,  elsewhere  called  Mo- 
i^-scH  (1  K.  xi.  7,  &c.)  and  Malcham  (Zeph. 
i  6,  marg.  "their  king"),  of  the  latter  of 
which  it  is  probably  a  dialectical  variation. 

Mile,  a  Roman  measure  of  length,  equal 
to  1618  English  yards.  It  is  only  once 
noticed  in  the  Bible  (Matt.  v.  41),  the  usual 
method  of  reckoning  both  in  the  N.  T.  and 
in  Josephus  being  by  the  stadium.  The 
mile  of  the  Jews  is  said  to  have  been  of 
two  kinds,  long  or  short,  dependent  on  the 
length  of  the  pace,  which  varied  in  differ- 
ent parts,  the  long  pace  being  double  the 
length  of  the  short  one. 
»^  Mile'tus  (Acts  XX.  15,  17,  less  correctly 
(),*)'  called  MiLETUM  in  2  Tim.  iv.  20).  In  the 
context  of  Acts  xx.  6,  we  have  the  geograph- 
ical relations  of  Miletus  brought  out  as  dis- 
tinctly as  if  it  were  St.  Luke's  purpose  to 
state  them.  In  the  first  place  it  lay  on  the 
coast  to  the  S.  of  Ephesus.  Next,  it  was 
a  day's  sail  from  Trogy Ilium  (ver.  15). 
Moreo  er,  to  those  who  are  sailing  from  the 


north,  it  is  in  the  direct  line  for  Cos.  All 
these  details  correspond  with  the  geograph- 
ical facts  of  the  case.  The  site  of  Miletus 
has  now  receded  ten  miles  from  the  coast, 
and  even  in  the  Apostle's  time  it  must  have 
lost  its  strictly  maritime  position.  The 
passage  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy, 
where  Miletus  is  mentioned,  presents  a 
very  serious  difficulty  to  the  theory  that 
there  was  only  one  Roman  imprisonment. 
As  to  the  history  of  Miletus  itself,  it  was 
far  more  famous  five  hundred  years  before 
St.  Paul's  day,  than  it  ever  became  after- 
wards. In  early  times  it  was  the  most 
flourishing  city  of  the  Ionian  Greeks.  In 
the  natural  order  of  events,  it  was  absorbed 
in  the  Persian  empire.  After  a  brief  peri- 
od of  spirited  independence,  it  received  •& 
blow  from  which  it  never  recovered,  in  the 
siege  conducted  by  Alexander,  when  on  his 
Eastern  campaign.  But  still  it  held,  even 
through  the  Roman  period,  the  rank  of  a 
second-rate  trading  town,  and  Strabo  men- 
tions its  four  harbors.  At  this  time  it  was 
politically  in  the  province  of  Asia,  though 
Caria  was  the  old  ethnological  name  of 
the  district  in  which  it  was  situated. 

Milk.  As  an  article  of  diet,  milk  holds 
a  more  important  position  in  Eastern  coun- 
tries than  with  us.  It  is  not  a  mere  adjunct 
in  cookery,  or  restricted  to  the  use  of  the 
young,  although  it  is  naturally  the  charac- 
teristic food  of  childhood,  both  from  its 
simple  and  nutritive  qualities  (1  Pet.  ii.  2), 
and  particularly  as  contrasted  with  meat 
(1  Cor.  iii.  2;  Heb.  v.  12):  but  beyond 
this  it  is  regarded  as  substantial  food 
adapted  alike  to  all  ages  and  classes.  Not 
only  the  milk  of  cows,  but  of  sheep  (Deut. 
xxxii.  14),  of  camels  (Gen.  xxxii.  15),  and 
of  goats  (Prov.  xxvii.  27)  was  used ;  the 
latter  appears  to  have  been  most  highly 
prized.  Milk  was  used  sometimes  in  its 
natural  state,  and  sometimes  in  a  sour, 
coagulated  state :  the  former  was  named 
chdl&b,  and  the  latter  chema.  In  the  A.  V. 
the  latter  is  rendered  "  butter,"  but  there 
can  be  no  question  that  in  every  case  (ex- 
cept perhaps  Prov.  xxx.  33)  the  term  refers 
to  a  preparation  of  milk  well  known  in  East- 
ern countries  under  the  name  of  leben. 
The  method  now  pursued  in  its  preparation 
is  to  boil  the  milk  over  a  slow  fire,  adding 
to  it  a  small  piece  of  old  leben  or  some 
other  acid  in  order  to  make  it  coagulate. 
The  refreshing  draught  which  Jael  offered 
"  in  a  lordly  dish  "  to  Sisera  (Judg.  v. 
25)  was  leben.  Leben  is  still  extensively 
used  in  the  East :  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  the  poor  almost  live  upon  it,  while  the 
upper  classes  eat  it  with  salad  or  meat. 
It  is  still  offered  in  hospitality  to  the  pass- 
ing stranger,  exactly  as  of  old  in  Abra- 
ham's tent  (Gen.  xviii.  8). 

Mill.  The  mills  of  the  ancient  Hebrews 
probably  differed  but  little  from  those  at 


MILLET 


413 


MINES 


present  m  use  in  the  East.  These  consist 
of  two  circular  stones,  about  18  inches  or 
two  feet  in  diameter,  the  lower  of  which  is 
fixed,  and  has  its  upper  surface  slightly 
convex,  fitting  into  a  corresponding  con- 
cavity in  the  upper  stone.  The  latter  has 
a  hole  in  it,  through  which  the  grain  passes, 
immediately  above  a  pivot  or  shaft  which 
rises  from  the  centre  of  the  lower  stone, 
and  iibout  which  the  upper  stone  is  turned 
by  means  of  an  upright  handle  fixed  near 
the  edge.  It  is  worked  by  women,  some- 
times singly  and  sometimes  two  together, 
who  are  usually  seated  on  the  bare  ground 
(Is.  xlvii.  1,  2)  "facing  each  other;  both 
have  hold  of  the  handle  by  which  the  upper 
is  turned  round  on  the  '  nether '  millstone. 
The  one  whose  right  hand  is  disengaged 
throws  in  the  grain  as  occasion  requires 
through  the  hole  in  the  upper  stone.  It  is 
not  correct  to  say  that  one  pushes  it  half 
round,  and  then  the  other  seizes  the  han- 
dle. This  would  be  slow  work,  and  would 
give  a  spasmodic  motion  to  the  stone.  Both 
retain  their  hold,  and  pull  to  or  push  from, 
as  men  do  with  the  whip  or  crosscut  saw. 
The  proverb  of  our  Saviour  (Matt.  xxiv. 
41)  is  true  to  life,  for  women  only  grind.  I 
cannot  recall  an  instance  in  which  men 
were  at  the  mill."  (Thomson,  The  Land  and 
the  Book,  c.  34.)  The  labor  is  very  hard, 
and  the  task  of  grinding  in  consequence  per- 
formed only  by  the  lowest  sen-ants  (Ex. 
xi.  5)  and  captives  (Judg.  xvi.  21 ;  Job 
xxxi.  10;  Is.  xlvii.  1,  2;  Lam.  v.  13).  So 
essential  were  millstones  for  daily  domes- 
tic use,  that  they  were  forbidden  to  be  taken 
in  pledge  (Deut.  xxiv.  6),  in  order  that  a 
man's  family  might  not  be  deprived  of  the 
means  of  preparing  their  food.  The  hand- 
mills  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  appear  to 
have  been  of  the  same  character.  "They 
had  also  a  large  mill  on  a  very  similar  prin- 
ciple; but  the  stones  were  of  far  greater 
power  and  dimensions ;  and  this  could  only 
have  been  turned  by  cattle  or  asses,' like 
those  of  the  ancient  Eomans,  and  of  the 
modern  Cairenes "  (Wilkinson).  It  was 
the  millstone  of  a  mill  of  this  kind,  driven 
by  an  ass,  which  is  alluded  to  in  Matt,  xviii. 
6.  With  the  movable  upper  millstone  of 
the  hand-mill  the  woman  of  Thebez  broke 
Abimelech's  skull  (Judg.  ix.  53). 

Millet  (Heb.  dCchan)  occurs  only  in 
Ez.  iv.  9.  Dr.  Royle  maintains  that  the 
true  dukhun  of  Arab  authors  is  the  Pani- 
cum  miliaceum,,  which  is  universally  culti- 
vated in  the  East.  It  is  probable  that  both 
the  Sorghum  vulgare  and  the  Panicum, 
miliaceum  were  used  by  the  ancient  He- 
brews and  Egyptians,  and  that  the  Heb. 
ddchan  may  denote  either  of  these  plants. 

Mil'lo,  a  place  in  ancient  Jerusalem. 
Both  name  and  place  seem  to  have  been  al- 
ready in  existence  when  the  city  was  taken 
from  the  Jebusites  by  David  (2  Sam.  v,  9 ; 


1  Chr.  xi.  8).  Its  repair  or  restoration  wa« 
one  of  the  great  works  for  which  SolomoQ 
raised  his  "levy"  (1  K.  ix.  15,  24,  xi.  27); 
and  it  formed  a  prominent  part  of  the  forti- 
fications by  which  Hezekiah  prepared  for 
the  approach  of  the  Assyrians  (2  Chr. 
xxxii.  5).  Tlie  last  passage  seems  to  show 
that  "  the  Millo  "  was  part  of  the  "  city  of 
David,"  that  is,  of  Zion  (comp.  2  K.  xii. 
20).  If  "Millo"  be  taken  as  a  Hebrew- 
word,  it  would  be  derived  from  a  root  which 
has  the  force*  of  "filling;"  but  the  only 
ray  of  light  which  we  can  obtain  as  to  the 
meaning  of  the  word  is  from  the  LXX. 
Their  rendering  in  every  case  (excepting 
only  2  Chr.  xxxii.  5)  is  »/  lixoa,  a  word 
which  they  employ  nowhere  else  in  the  O.  T. 
Now  1/  axQtt  means  "the  citadel,"  and  it  ia 
remarkable  that  it  is  the  word  used  with  un- 
varying persistence  throughout  the  Books 
of  Maccabees  for  the  fortress  on  Mount 
Zion.  It  is  therefore  perhaps  not  too  much 
to  assume  that  the  word  3Iillo  was  employed 
in  the  Hebrew  original  of  1  Maccabees. 

Mil'lo,  The  House  of.  1.  Apparently 
a  family  or  clan,  mentioned  in  Judg.  ix.  6, 
20,  only,  in  connection  with  the  men  or  lords 
of  Shechem,  2.  The  "  house  of  Millo  that 
goeth  down  to  Silla  "  was  the  spot  at  which 
king  Joash  was  murdered  by  his  slaves  (2 
K.  xii.  20).  There  is  nothing  to  lead  us  to 
suppose  that  the  murder  was  not  conmiitted 
in  Jerusalem,  and  in  that  case  the  spot 
must  be  connected  with  the  ancient  Millo 
(see  preceding  article). 

Mines,  Mining.  "  Surely  there  is  a 
source  for  the  stlrer,  and  a  place  for  the 
gold  which  they  refine.  Iron  is  taken  out 
of  the  soil,  and  stone  man  melts  (for)  cop- 
per. He  hath  put  an  end  to  darkness,  and 
to  all  perfection  (i.  e.  most  thoroughly) ; 
he  searcheth  the  stone  of  thick  darkness 
and  of  the  shadow  of  death.  He  hath  sunk 
a  shaft  far  from  the  wanderer;  they  that 
are  forgotten  of  the  foot  are  suspended, 
away  from  man  they  waver  to  and  fro.  (As 
for)  the  earth,  from  her  cometh  forth  bread, 
yet  her  nethermost  parts  are  upturned  as 
(by)  fire.  The  place  of  sapphire  (are)  her 
stones,  and  dust  of  gold  is  his.  A  track 
which  the  bird  of  prey  hath  not  known,  noi 
the  eye  of  the  falcon  glared  upon ;  which 
the  sons  of  pride  (t.  e.  wild  beasts)  have 
not  trodden,  nor  the  roaring  lion  gone 
over ;  in  the  flint,  man  hath  thrust  his  hand, 
he  hath  overturned  mountains  from  the 
root ;  in  the  rocks  he  hath  cleft  channels, 
and  every  rare  thing  hath  his  eye  seen  :  the 
streams  hath  he  bound  that  they  weep  not, 
and  that  which  is  hid  he  bringeth  forth  to 
light"  (Job  xxviii.  1-11).  Such  is  the 
highly  poetical  description  given  by  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Job  of  the  operations 
of  mining  as  known  in  his  day,  the  only 
record  of  the  kind  which  we  inherit  from 
the  ancient  Hebrews.    It  may  be  fairly  in- 


MINES 


414 


MINES 


ferred  from  the  description  that  a  distinc- 
tion is  made  between  gold  obtained  in  the 
manner  indicated,  and  that  which  is  found 
in  the  natural  state  in  the  alluvial  soil, 
among  tlie  debris  washed  down  by  the  tor- 
rents. This  appears  to  be  implied  in  the 
expression  "  the  gold  they  refine,"  which 
presupposes  a  process  by  which  the  pure 
gold  is  extracted  from  the  ore,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  silver  or  copper  with  which 
it  may  have  been  mixed.  .What  is  said  of 
gold  may  be  equally  applied  to  silver.  In 
the  Wady  MagliArah,  "the  valley  of  the 
Cave,"  are  still  traces  of  the  Egyptian 
colony  of  miners  who  settled  there  for  the 
purpose  of  extracting  copper  from  the  free- 
stone rocks,  and  left  their  hierogljTjhic  in- 
ecriptions  upon  the  face  of  the  cliff.  The 
ancient  furnaces  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  on 
the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  are  found  the  piers 
and  wharves  whence  the  miners  shipped 
their  metal  in  the  harbor  of  Abu  Zelimeh. 
The  copper-mines  of  Phaeno  in  Idumaea, 
according  to  Jerome,  were  between  Zoar 
and  Petra ;  in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian 
the  Christians  were  condemned  to  work 
them.  The  gold-mines  of  Egypt  in  the 
Bisharee  desert,  the  principal  station  of 
which  was  Eshuranib,  about  three  days' 
journey  beyond  Wady  Allaga,  have  been 
discovered  within  the  last  few  years  by  M. 
Linant  and  Mr.  Bonomi.  According  to  the 
account  given  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (iii. 
12-14),  the  mines  were  worked  by  gangs  of 
convicts  and  captives  in  fetters,  who  were 
kept  day  and  night  to  their  task  by  the 
soldiers  set  to  guard  them.  The  harder 
rock  was  split  by  the  application  of  fire,  but 
the  softer  was  broken  up  with  picks  and 
chisels.  The  miners  were  quite  naked, 
their  bodies  being  painted  according  to  the 
color  of  the  rock  they  were  working,  and  in 
order  to  see  in  the  dark  passages  of  the 
mine  they  carried  lamps  upon  their  heads. 
The  stone  as  it  fell  was  carried  off  by  boys ; 
it  was  then  pounded  in  stone  mortars  with 
iron  pestles  by  those  who  were  over  30 
years  of  age  till  it  was  reduced  to  the  size 
of  a  lentil.  The  women  and  old  men  after- 
wards ground  it  in  mills  to  a  fine  powder. 
The  final  process  of  separating  the  gold 
from  the  pounded  stone  was  intrusted  to 
the  engineers  who  superintended  the  work. 
They  spread  this  powder  upon  a  broad 
slightly-inclined  table,  and  rubbed  it  gently 
with  the  hand,  pouring  water  upon  it  from 
time  to  time  so  as  to  carry  away  all  the 
earthy  matter,  leaving  the  heavier  particles 
upon  the  board.  This  was  repeated  several 
times ;  at  first  with  the  hand  and  afterwards 
with  fine  sponges  gently  pressed  upon  the 
earthy  substance,  till  nothing  but  the  gold 
was  left.  It  was  then  collected  by  other 
workmen,  and  placed  in  earthen  crucibles 
with  a  mixture  of  lead  and  salt  in  certain 
proportions,  together  with  a  little  tin  and 


some  barley  bran.  The  crucibles  were 
covered  and  carefully  closed  with  clay,  and 
in  this  condition  baked  in  a  furnace  for  five 
days  and  nights  without  intermission.  Of 
the  three  methods  which  have  been  era- 
ployed  for  refining  gold  and  silver,  1.  by 
exposing  the  fused  metal  to  a  current  of 
air ;  2.  by  keeping  the  alloy  in  a  state  of 
fusion  and  throwing  nitre  upon  it;  and  3. 
by  mixing  the  alloy  with  lead,  exposing  the 
whole  to  fusion  upon  a  vessel  of  bone-ashes 
or  earth,  and  blowing  upon  it  with  bellows 
or  other  blast:  the  latter  appears  most 
nearly  to  coincide  with  the  description  of 
Diodorus.  To  this  process,  known  as  the 
cupelling  process,  there  seems  to  be  a  refer- 
ence in  Ps.  xii.  6 ;  Jer.  vi.  28-30 ;  Ez.  xxii. 
18-22.  The  chief  supply  of  silver  in  the 
ancient  world  appears  to  have  been  brought 
from  Spain.  A  strong  proof  of  the  ac- 
quaintance possessed  by  the  ancient  He- 
brews with  the  manipulation  of  metals  is 
found  by  some  in  the  destruction  of  the 
golden  calf  in  the  desert  by  Moses.  "And 
he  took  the  calf  which  they  had  made,  and 
burnt  it  in  fire,  and  ground  it  to  powder,  and 
strewed  it  upon  the  water,  and  made  the 
children  of  Israel  drink"  (Ex.  xxxii.  20). 
As  the  highly  malleable  character  of  gold 
would  render  an  operation  like  that  which 
is  described  in  the  text  almost  impossible, 
an  explanation  has  been  sought  in  the  sup- 
position  that  we  have  here  an  indication 
that  Moses  was  a  proficient  in  the  process 
known  in  modern  times  as  calcination.  The 
whole  diflSculty  appears  to  have  arisen  from 
a  desire  to  find  too  much  in  the  text.  The 
main  object  of  the  destruction  of  the  calf 
was  to  prove  its  worthlessness  and  to  throw 
contempt  upon  idolatry ;  and  all  this  might 
have  been  done  without  any  refined  chemi- 
cal process  like  that  referred  to.  How  far 
the  ancient  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with 
the  processes  at  present  in  use  for  extract- 
ing copper  from  the  ore  it  is  impossible  to 
assert,  as  there  are  no  references  in  Scrip- 
ture to  anything  of  the  kind,  except  in  the 
passage  of  Job  already  quoted.  The  Egyp- 
tians evidently  possessed  the  art  of  working 
bronze  in  great  perfection  at  a  very  early 
time,  and  much  of  the  knowledge  of  metals 
which  the  Israelites  had  must  have  been 
acquired  during  their  residence  among 
them.  Of  tin  there  appears  to  have  been 
no  trace  in  Palestine.  The  hills  of  Pales- 
tine are  rich  in  iron,  and  the  mines  are  still 
worked  there,  though  in  a  very  simple,  rude 
manner,  Uke  that  of  the  ancient  Samothra- 
cians  :  of  the  method  employed  by  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Hebrews  we  have  no  certain  infor- 
mation. It  may  have  been  similar  to  that  in 
use  throughout  the  whole  of  India  from 
very  early  times,  which  is  thus  described 
by  Dr.  Ure  :  —  '*  The  furnace  or  bloomary 
in  which  the  ore  is  smelted  is  from  four  to 
five  feet  high ;  it  is  somewhat  pe^-shaped» 


MINGLED  PEOPLE 


415 


MINSTREL 


being  about  five  feet  w  icle  at  bottom  and  one 
foot  at  top.  It  is  built  entirely  of  clay.  .  .  . 
There  is  an  opening  in  front  about  a  foot  or 
more  in  height,  which  is  built  up  with  clay 
at  the  conimencement  and  broken  down  at 
the  end  of  each  smelting  operation.  The 
bellows  are  usually  made  of  goat's  skin.  .  .  . 
The  bamboo  nozzles  of  the  bellows  are  in- 
serted into  tubes  of  clay,  which  pass  into 
the  furnace.  .  .  .  The  furnace  is  filled  with 
charcoal,  and  a  lighted  coal  being  intro- 
duced before  the  nozzles,  the  mass  in  the 
interior  is  soon  kindled.  As  soon  as  this  is 
accomplislied,  a  small  portion  of  the  ore, 
previously  moistened  with  water  to  prevent 
it  from  running  through  the  charcoal,  but 
without  any  flux  whatever,  is  laid  on  the 
top  of  the  coals  and  covered  with  charcoal 
to  fill  up  the  furnace.  In  this  manner  ore 
and  fuel  are  supplied,  and  the  bellows  are 
urged  for  three  or  four  hours.  When  the 
process  is  stopped  and  the  temporary  wall 
in  front  broken  down,  the  bloom  is  removed 
with  a  pair  of  tongs  from  the  bottom  of  the 
furnace."  It  has  seemed  necessary  to  give 
this  account  of  a  very  ancient  method  of 
iron-smelting,  because,  from  the  difficulties 
which  attend  it,  and  the  intense  heat  which 
is  required  to  separate  the  metal  from  the 
ore,  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  allusions 
to  iron  and  iron  manufacture  in  the  Old 
Testament  are  anachronisms.  But  if  it 
were  possible  among  the  ancient  Indians  in 
a  very  primitive  state  of  civilization,  it 
might  have  been  known  to  the  Hebrews, 
who  may  have  acquired  their  knowledge  by 
working  as  slaves  in  the  iron  furnaces  of 
Egyi)t  (comp.  Deut.  iv.  20). 

Mingled  People.  This  phrase,  like 
that  of  "  the  mixed  multitude,"  which  the 
Hebrew  closely  resembles,  is  applied  in  Jer. 
XXV.  20,  and  Ez.  xxx.  5,  to  denote  the  mis- 
cellaneous foreign  population  of  Egypt  and 
its  frontier-tribes,  including  every  one,  says 
Jerome,  who  was  not  a  native  Egyptian, 
but  was  resident  there.  It  is  diflicult  to 
attach  to  it  any  precise  meaning,  or  to  iden- 
tify with  the  mingled  people  any  race  of 
which  we  have  knowledge.  "  The  kings  of 
the  mingled  people  that  dwell  in  the  desert," 
are  the  same  apparently  as  the  tributary 
kings  (A.  V.  "kings  of  Arabia")  who 
brought  presents  to  Solomon  (1  K.  x.  15)  ; 
the  Hebrew  in  the  two  cases  is  identical. 
The  "mingled  people"  in  the  midst  of 
Babylon  (Jer.  1.  37),  were  probably  the 
foreign  soldiers  or  mercenary  troops,  who 
lived  among  the  native  population. 

Mini'amln.  1.  A  Levite  in  the  reign 
of  Hczekiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  15).  2.  The 
same  as  Miamin  2  and  Mwamin  2  (Neh. 
xii.  17).  3.  One  of  the  priests  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  41). 

Minister.  This  term  is  used  in  the  A. 
v.  to  describe  various  officials  of  a  religious 
and  civil  character.    In  the  O.  T.  it  answers 


to  the  Hebrew  meshdrSth,  which  is  applied 

(1)  to  an  attendant  upon  a  person  of  high 
rank  (Ex.  xxiv.  13 ;  Josh.  i.  1 ;  2  K.  iv.  43)  ; 

(2)  to  the  attaches  of  a  royal  court  (1  K.  x. 
5;  2  Chr.  xxii.  8;  comp.  P?.  civ.  4),  where, 
it  may  be  observed,  they  are  distinguished 
from  the  "  servants  "  or  officials  of  higher 
rank ;  (3)  to  the  Priests  and  Levites  (Is.  Ixi. 
6 ;  Ez.  xliv.  11 ;  Joel  i.  9,  13 ;  Ezr.  viii.  17 ; 
Neh.  X.  36).  In  the  N.  T.  vre  have  three 
terms,  each  with  its  distinctive  meaning  — 
Jttrovqyug,  vnijQiTtjg,  and  Siuxomg.  The 
first  answers  most  nearly  to  the  Hebrew 
meshdreth,  and  is  usually  employed  in  the 
LXX.  as  its  equivalent.  It  betokens  a  sub- 
ordinate public  administrator  (Rom.  xiii.  6, 
XV.  16 ;  Heb.  viii.  2).  In  all  these  instances 
the  original  and  special  meaning  of  the 
word,  as  used  by  the  Athenians  of  one  who 
performs  certain  gratuitous  public  services, 
is  preserved.  The  second  term,  vntjnhyis, 
differs  from  the  two  others  in  that  it  con- 
tains the  idea  of  actual  and  personal  attend- 
ance upon  a  superior.  Thus  it  is  used  of 
the  attendant  in  the  synagogue,  the  chazan 
of  the  Talmudists  (Luke  iv.  20),  whose  duty 
it  was  to  open  and  close  the  building,  to 
produce  and  replace  the  books  employed  in 
the  service,  and  generally  to  wait  on  the 
officiating  priest  or  teacher.  The  idea  of 
personal  attendance  comes  prominently  for- 
ward in  Luke  i.  2;  Acts  xxvi.  16.  In  all 
these  cases  the  etymological  sense  of  the 
word  (vno  ioirrig,  literally  a  ^'sub-rower," 
one  who  rows  under  command  of  the  steers- 
man) comes  out.  The  third  term,  Siuxovoc, 
is  the  one  usually  employed  in  relation  to 
the  ministry  of  the  Gospel :  its  application  is 
twofold,  in  a  general  sense  to  indicate  min- 
isters of  any  order,  whether  superior  or  in- 
ferior, and  in  a  special  sense  to  indicate  an 
order  of  inferior  ministers.     [Deacon.] 

Min'ni,  a  country  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Ararat  and  Ashchenaz  (Jer.  li. 
27).  It  has  been  already  noticed  as  a  por- 
tion of  Armenia.     [Armenia.] 

Min'nith,  a  place  on  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  named  as  the  point  to  which  Jeph- 
thah's  slaughter  of  the  Ammonites  extend- 
ed (Judg.  xi.  33.)  A  site  bearing  the  name 
Menjah,  is  marked  in  Van  de  Velde's  Map, 
at  7  Roman  miles  east  of  Heshbon.  The 
"wheat  of  Minnith"  is  mentioned  in  Ez. 
xxvii.  17,  as  being  supplied  by  Judah  and 
Israel  to  Tyre ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  indi- 
cate that  the  same  place  is  intended,  and 
indeed  the  word  is  thought  by  some  not  to 
be  a  proper  name. 

Minstrel.  The  Hebrew  word  in  2  K. 
iii.  15  properly  signifies  a  player  upon  a 
stringed  instrument  like  the  harp  or  kinnor 
[Harp],  whatever  its  precise  character 
may  have  been,  on  which  David  played  be- 
fore Saul  (1  Sam.  xvi.  16,  xviii.  10,  xix.  9), 
and  which  the  harlots  of  the  great  cities 
used  to  carry  with  them  as  they  walked,  to 


MINT 


416 


MIRACLES 


attract  notice  (Is.  xxiii.  16).  The  passage 
in  which  it  occurs  has  given  rise  to  much 
conjecture ;  Elisha,  upon  being  consulted 
by  Jehoram  as  to  the  issue  of  the  war  with 
Moab,  at  first  indignantly  refuses  to  answer, 
and  is  only  induced  to  do  so  by  the  presence 
of  Jehoshaphat.  He  calls  for  a  harper, 
apparently  a  camp  follower;  "and  it  came 
to  pass  as  theharper  harped  that  the  hand 
of  Jehovah  was  on  him."  Other  instances 
of  the  same  divine  influence  or  impulse 
connected  with  music,  are  seen  in  the  case 
of  Saul  and  the  young  prophets  in  1  Sam. 
X.  5,  6,  10,  11.  In  the  present  passage  the 
reason  of  Elisha's  appeal  is  variously  ex- 
plained. According  to  Keil,  '*  Elisha  calls 
for  a  minstrel,  in  order  to  gather  in  his 
thoughts  by  the  soft  tones  of  music  from 
the  impression  of  the  outer  world,  and  by 
repressing  the  life  of  self  and  of  the  world, 
to  be  transferred  into  the  state  of  internal 
vision,  by  which  his  spirit  would  be  pre- 
pared to  receive  the  divine  revelation." 
The  "  minstrels  "  in  Matt.  ix.  23,  were  the 
flute-players  who  were  employed  as  profes- 
sional mourners,  to  whom  frequent  allusion 
is  made  (Eccl.  xii.  5 ;  2  Chr.  xxxv.  25 ;  Jer. 
ix.  17-20). 

Mint  occurs  only  in  Matt,  xxiii.  23,  and 
Luke  xi.  42,  as  one  of  those  herbs,  the  tithe 
of  which  the  Jews  were  most  scrupulously 
exact  in  paying.  The  horse  mint  (if.  Syl- 
vestris)  is  common  in  Syria. 

Miph'kad,  The  Gate,  one  of  the  gates 
of  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the  rebuilding 
of  the  wall  after  the  return  from  captivity 
(Nell.  iii.  31).  It  was  probably  not  in  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  proper,  but  in  that  of  the 
city  of  David,  or  Zion,  and  somewhere 
near  to  the  junction  of  the  two  on  the 
north  side. 

Miracles.  The  word  "miracle"  is 
the  ordinary  translation,  in  our  Authorized 
English  Version,  of  the  Greek  word  Se- 
meion  (atnnetov),  which  signifies  "  a  sign." 
The  habitual  use  of  the  terra  "miracle" 
has  tended  to  fix  attention  too  much  on  the 
physical  strangeness  of  the  facts  thus  de- 
scribed, and  to  divert  attention  from  what 
may  be  called  their  signality.  A  miracle 
may  be  defined  to  be  a  plain  and  manifest 
exercise  by  a  man,  or  by  God  at  the  call  of 
a  man,  of  those  powers  which  belong  only 
to  the  Creator  and  Lord  of  nature;  and 
this  for  the  declared  object  of  attesting 
that  a  divine  mission  is  given  to  that  man. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  the  wonder,  the  excep- 
tion to  common  experience,  that  constitutes 
the  miracle,  as  is  assumed  both  in  the 
popular  use  of  the  word,  and  by  most  ob- 
jectors against  miracles.  No  phenomenon 
in  nature,  however  unusual,  no  event  in  the 
course  of  God's  providence,  however  unex- 
pected, is  a  miracle  unless  it  can  be  traced 
to  the  agency  of  man  (including  prayer 
under  the  term  agency),  and  unless  it  be 


put  forth  as  a  proof  of  divine  mission. 
Prodigies  and  special  providences  are  not 
miracles.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  mere 
petitio  principii,  to  argue  against  all  mira- 
cles, on  the  ground  that  if  we  could  see  the 
secret  manner  of  God's  working,  we  might 
find  them  to  be  consistent  with  some  higher 
law  unknown  to  our  experience.  For  it  is 
not  so,  much  the  violation  of  law,  as  the 
manifest  application  of  it  to  a  special  occa- 
sion, that  attests  the  immediate  power  of 
God.  The  peculiar  improbability  of  Mira- 
cles is  resolved  by  Hume,  in  his  famous 
Essay,  into  the  circumstance  that  they 
are  "  contrary  to  experience."  This  ex- 
pression is,  as  has  otten  been  pointed  out, 
strictly  speaking,  incorrect.  In  strictness, 
that  only  can  be  said  to  be  contrary  to  ex- 
perience, which  is  contradicted  by  the  im- 
mediate perceptions  of  persons  present  at 
the  time  when  the  fact  is  alleged  to  have 
occurred.  But  the  terms  "  contrary  to 
experience  "  are  used  for  "  contrary  to  the 
analogy  of  our  experience ;  "  and  it  must 
be  admitted  that,  in  this  latter,  less  strict 
sense,  miracles  are  contrary  to  general  ex- 
perience, so  far  as  their  mere  physical 
circumstances,  visible  to  us,  are  concerned. 
This  should  not  only  be  admitted,  but 
strongly  insisted  upon,  by  the  maintenance 
of  miracles,  because  it  is  an  essential  ele- 
ment of  their  signal  character.  And  this 
leads  us  to  notice  one  grand  difference  be- 
tween Divine  Miracles  and  otlier  alleged 
facts  that  seem  to  vary  from  the  ordinary 
course  of  nature.  It  is  manifest  that  there 
is  an  essential  diff'erence  between  alleging 
a  case  in  which,  all  the  real  antecedents  or 
causes  being  similar  to  those  which  we  have 
daily  opportunities  of  observing,  a  conse- 
quence is  said  to  have  ensued  quite  different 
from  that  which  general  experience  finds 
to  be  uniformly  conjoined  with  them,  and 
alleging  a  case  in  which  there  is  supposed 
and  indicated  by  all  the  circumstances,  the 
intervention  of  an  invisible  antecedent,  or 
cause,  which  we  know  to  exist,  and  to  be 
adequate  to  the  production  of  such  result ; 
for  the  special  operation  of  which,  in  this 
case,  we  can  assign  probable  reasons,  and 
also  for  its  not  generally  operating  in  a 
similar  manner.  This  latter  is  the  case  of 
the  Scripture  miracles.  Even  if  we  do  not 
regard  the  existence  of  God,  in  t.ho  proper 
sense  of  that  term,  as  proved  by  the  course 
of  nature,  still  if  we  admit  His  existence  to 
be  in  any  degree  probable,  or  even  possible, 
the  occurrence  of  miracles  will  not  be  in- 
credible. Por  it  is  surely  going  too  far  to 
say,  that,  because  the  ordinary  course  of 
nature  leaves  us  in  doubt  whether  the 
author  of  it  be  able  or  unable  to  alter  it,  or 
of  such  a  character  as  to  be  disposed  to 
alter  it  for  some  great  purpose,  it  is  there- 
fore incredible  that  he  should  ever  hare 
actually  altered  it.    It  will  be  proper  to 


MIRACLES 


417 


MIRACLES 


Bay  a  few  words  here  upon  some  popular 
forms  of  expression  which  tend  greatly  to 
increase,  in  many  minds,  the  natural  preju- 
dice against  miracles.  One  of  these  is  the 
usual  descrij>tion  of  a  miracle,  as,  "a  viola- 
tion of  the  laws  of  nature."  This  meta- 
phorical expression  suggests  directly  the 
idea  of  natural  agents  breaking,  of  their 
own  accord,  some  rule  which  has  the  au- 
thority and  sanctity  of  a  law  to  them. 
Such  a  figure  can  only  be  applicable  to  the 
case  of  a  supposed  causeless  and  arbitrary 
variation  from  the  uniform  order  of  se- 
quence in  natural  things,  and  is  wholly  in- 
applicable to  a  change  in  that  order  caused 
by  God  himself.  The  word  "law,"  when 
applied  to  material  things,  ought  only  to  be 
understood  as  denoting  a  number  of  ob- 
served and  anticipated  sequences  of  phe- 
nomena, taking  place  with  such  a  resem- 
blance or  analogy  to  eacli  other  as  if  a 
rule  had  been  laid  down,  which  tliose 
phenomena  were  constantly  observing.  But 
tlie  rule^  in  this  case,  is  nothing  different 
from  the  actual  order  itself;  and  there  is 
no  cause  of  these  sequences  but  the  will 
of  God  choosing  to  produce  those  phenom- 
ena, and  choosing  to  produce  them  in  a 
certain  order.  Again,  the  term  "nature" 
suggests  to  many  persons  the  idea  of  a 
great  system  of  things  endowed  with  powers 
and  forces  of  its  own  —  a  sort  of  machine, 
set  a-going  originally  by  a  first  cause,  but 
continuing  its  motions  of  itself.  Hence 
we  are  apt  to  imagine  that  a  change  in  the 
motion  or  operation  of  any  part  of  it  by 
God,  would  produce  the  same  disturbance 
of  the  other  parts,  as  such  a  change  would 
be  likely  to  produce  in  them,  if  made  by 
us,  or  any  other  natural  agent.  But  if  the 
motions  and  operations  of  material  things 
be  produced  really  by  the  divine  will,  then 
His  choosing  to  change,  for  a  special  pur- 
pose, the  ordinary  motion  of  one  part,  does 
not  necessarily,  or  probably,  infer  His 
choosing  to  change  the  ordinary  motions 
of  other  parts  in  a  way  not  at  all  requisite 
for  the  accomplishment  of  that  special  pur- 
pose. It  is  as  easy  for  Him  to  continue 
the  ordinary  course  of  tlic  rest,  with  the 
change  of  one  part,  as  of  all  the  phenomena 
without  any  change  at  all.  Thus,  though 
the  stoppage  of  the  motion  of  the  earth  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  nature  would  be 
attended  with  terrible  convulsions,  the 
stoppage  of  the  earth  miraculously,  for  a 
special  purpose  to  be  served  by  thai  only, 
would  not  of  itself  be  followed  by  any 
such  consequences.  From  the  same  con- 
ception of  nature,  as  a  machine,  we  are  apt 
to  think  of  interferences  with  the  ordinary 
course  of  nature  as  implying  some  imper- 
fection in  it.  But  it  is  manifest  that  this 
is  a  false  analogy;  for  the  reason  why 
machines  are  made  is,  to  save  us  trouble ; 
and,  therefore,  they  are  more  perfect  iu 
27 


proportion  as  they  answer  this  purpose. 
But  no  one  can  seriously  imagine  tliat  the 
universe  is  a  machine  for  the  purpose  of 
saving  trouble  to  the  Almighty.  Again, 
when  miracles  are  described  as  "  inter- 
ferences with  the  laws  of  nature,"  this 
description  makes  them  appear  improbable 
to  many  minds,  from  tlieir  not  sufficiently 
considering  that  the  laws  of  nature  inter- 
fere with  one  another ;  and  that  we  cannot 
get  rid  of  "  interferences  "  upon  any  hypoth- 
esis consistent  with  experience.  Furtlier- 
raore,  whatever  ends  may  be  contemplated 
by  the  Deity  for  the  laws  of  nature  in 
reference  to  the  rest  of  the  universe,  —  in 
wliich  question  we  have  as  little  informa- 
tion as  interest,  —  we  know  that,  in  respect 
of  us,  they  answer  discernible  moral  ends 
—  that  they  place  us,  practically,  under 
government,  conducted  in  the  way  of  re- 
wards and  punishments,  —  a  government  of 
which  the  tendency  is  to  encourage  virtue 
and  repress  vice,  —  and  to  form  in  us  a 
cert<ain  character  by  discipline ;  which  char- 
acter our  moral  nature  compels  us  to  con- 
sider as  the  highest  and  worthiest  object 
which  we  can  pursue.  Since,  therefore, 
the  laws  of  nature  have,  in  reference  to  us, 
moral  purposes  to  answer,  which,  as  far  as 
we  can  judge,  they  have  not  to  serve  in 
other  respects,  it  seems  not  incredible  that 
these  peculiar  purposes  should  occasionally 
require  modifications  of  those  laws  in  rela- 
tion to  us,  which  are  not  necessary  in 
relation  to  other  parts  of  the  universe. 
After  all  deductions  and  abatements  have 
been  made,  however,  it  must  be  allowed 
that  a  certain  antecedent  improbability 
must  always  attach  to  miracles,  considered 
as  events  varying  from  the  ordinary  ex- 
perience of  mankind  as  known  to  us  ;  be- 
cause likelihood,  versimilitude,  or  resem- 
blance to  what  we  know  to  have  occurred, 
is,  by  the  constitution  of  our  minds,  the 
very  ground  of  probability;  and,  though 
we  can  perceive  reasons,  from  the  moral 
character  of  God,  for  thinking  it  likely  that 
He  may  have  wrought  miracles,  yet  we 
know  too  little  of  His  ultimate  designs,  and 
of  the  best  mode  of  accomplishing  them,  to 
argue  confidently  from  His  character  to  His 
acts,  except  where  the  connection  between 
the  character  and  the  acts  is  demonstrably 
indissoluble,  as  in  the  case  of  acts  rendered 
necessary  by  the  attributes  of  veracity  and 
justice.  But,  in  order  to  form  a  fair  judg- 
ment, we  must  take  in  all  the  circumstances 
of  the  case,  and,  amongst  the  rest,  the  testi' 
mony  on  which  the  miracle  is  reported  to 
us.  Our  belief,  indeed,  in  human  testimony 
seems  to  rest  upon  the  same  sort  of  in- 
stinct on  which  our  belief  in  the  testimony 
(as  it  may  be  called)  of  nature  is  built,  and 
is  to  be  checked,  modified,  and  confirmed 
by  a  process  of  experience  similar  to  that 
which  is  applied  in  the  other  case.    The 


MIRACLES 


418 


MIRACLES 


circumstances  of  our  condition  force  us 
dtiily  to  make  continual  observations  upon 
tlie  phenomena  of  human  testimony ;  and 
it  is  a  matter  upon  which  we  can  make 
such  experiments  with  peculiar  advantage, 
because  every  man  carries  within  his  own 
breast  the  whole  sura  of  the  ultimate  mo- 
tives wliich  can  influence  human  testimony. 
Hence  arises  the  aptitude  of  human  testi- 
mony for  overcoming,  and  more  than  over- 
coming, almost  anj'  antecedent  improbabil- 
ity in  the  thing  reported.  So  manifest, 
indeed,  is  this  inherent  power  of  testimony 
to  overcome  antecedent  improbabilities,  that 
Hume  is  obliged  to  allow  that  testimony 
may  be  so  circumstanced  as  to  require  us 
to  believe,  in  some  cases,  the  occurrence 
of  things  quite  at  variance  with  general 
experience ;  but  he  pretends  to  show  that 
testimony  to  such  facts  when  connected  with 
religion  can  never  be  so  circumstanced. 
Over  an^1  above  the  direct  testimony  of 
human  witnesses  to  the  Bible-miracles,  we 
have  also  what  may  be  called  the  indirect 
testimony  of  events  confirming  the  former, 
and  raising  a  distinct  presumption  that 
some  such  miracles  must  have  been  wrought. 
Thus,  for  example,  we  know,  by  a  copious 
induction,  that  in  no  nation  of  the  ancient 
world,  and  in  no  nation  of  the  modern 
world  unacquainted  with  the  Jewish  or 
Christian  revelation,  has  the  knowledge 
of  the  one  true  God  as  the  Creator  and 
Governor  of  the  world,  and  the  public  wor- 
ship of  Him,  been  kept  up  by  the  mere 
light  of  nature,  or  formed  the  groundwork 
of  such  religions  as  men  have  devised  for 
themselves.  Yet  we  do  find  that,  in  the 
Jewish  people,  though  no  way  distinguished 
above  others  by  mental  power  or  high 
civilization,  and  with  as  strong  natural  ten- 
dencies to  idolatry  as  others,  this  knowl- 
edge and  worship  were  kept  up  from  a  very 
early  period  of  their  history,  and,  accord- 
ing to  their  uniform  historical  tradition, 
kept  up  by  revelation  attested  by  undeni- 
able miracles.  Again,  the  existence  of  the 
Christian  religion,  .as  the  belief  of  the  most 
considerable  and  intelligent  part  of  the 
world,  is  an  undisputed  fact ;  and  it  is  also 
certain  that  this  religion  originated  (as  far 
as  human  means  are  concerned)  with  a 
handful  of  Jewish  peasants,  who  went 
about  preaching,  on  the  very  spot  where 
Jesus  was  crucified,  that  He  had  risen 
from  the  dead,  and  had  been  seen  by,  and 
had  conversed  with  them,  and  afterwards 
ascended  into  heaven.  This  miracle,  at- 
tested by  them  as  eye-witnesses,  was  the 
very  ground  and  foundation  of  the  religion 
which  they  preached,  and  it  was  plainly 
one  so  circumstanced  that,  if  it  had  been 
false,  it  could  easily  have  been  proved  to  be 
false.  Yet,  though  the  preachers  of  it  were 
everywhere  persecuted,  they  had  gathered, 
Ijefore  they  died,   large  churches   in  the 


country  where  the  facts  were  best  known, 
and  through  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Egypt, 
and  Italy ;  and  these  churches,  notwith- 
standing the  severest  persecutions,  went  on 
increasing,  till,  in  about  300  years  after, 
this  religion  —  i.  e.  a  religion  which  taught 
the  worship  of  a  Jewish  peasant  who  had 
been  ignominiously  executed  as  a  male- 
factor —  became  the  established  religion 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  has  ever  since 
continued  to  be  the  prevailing  religion  of 
the  civilized  world.  It  is  manifest  that,  if 
the  miraculous  facts  of  Christianity  did  not 
really  occur,  the  stories  about  them  must 
have  originated  either  in  fraud  or  in  fancy. 
The  coarse  explanation  of  them  by  the  hy- 
pothesis of  unlimited  fraud,  has  been  gen- 
erally abandoned  in  modern  times  :  but,  in 
Germany  especially,  many  persons  of  great 
acuteness  have  long  labored  to  account  for 
them  by  referring  them  to  fancy.  In  the 
case  of  the  Old  Testament  Miracles,  in  or- 
der fully  to  understand  their  evidential 
character,  we  must  consider  the  general 
nature  and  design  of  the  dispensation  with 
which  they  were  connected.  The  general 
design  of  that  dispensation  appears  to  have 
been  to  keep  up  in  one  particular  race  a 
knowledge  of  the  one  true  God,  and  of  the 
promise  of  a  Messiah  in  whom  "all  the 
families  of  the  earth  "  should  be  "  blessed  " 
And  in  order  to  this  end,  it  appears  to 
liave  been  necessary  that,  for  some  time, 
God  should  have  assumed  the  character  of 
the  local  tutelary  Deity  and  Prince  of  that 
particular  people.  And  from  this  peculiar 
relation  in  which  He  stood  to  the  Jewish 
people  resulted  the  necessity  of  frequent 
miracles,  to  manifest  and  make  sensibly 
perceptible  His  actual  presence  among 
and  government  over  them.  The  mira- 
cles, therefore,  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
to  be  regarded  as  evidential  of  the  theo- 
cratic government ;  and  this  again  is  to  be 
conceived  of  as  subordinate  to  the  further 
purpose  of  preparing  the  way  for  Christian- 
ity, by  keeping  up  in  the  world  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  true  God  and  of  His  promise 
of  a  Redeemer.  With  respect  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  Old  Testament  miracles,  we 
must  also  remember  that  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  the  Jewish  economy  had  reference 
to  the  peculiar  exigency  of  the  circum- 
stances of  a  people  imperfectly  civilized,  and 
is  60  distinctly  described  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  dealing  with  men  according  to  the 
"  hardness  of  their  hearts,"  and  being  a 
system  of  "weak  and  beggarly  elements," 
and  a  rudimentary  instruction  for  "  chil- 
dren "  who  were  in  the  condition  of  "  slaves." 
—  The  Nieio  Testament  Miracles  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  generally  denied  by  the  op- 
ponents of  Christianity.  They  appear  to 
have  preferred  adopting  the  expedient  of 
ascribing  them  to  art,  magic,  and  the  pow- 
er of  evil   spirits.     We  know  that  in  two 


MIRACLES 


419 


MIRROR 


instances,  in  the  Gospel  narrative,  the  cure 
of  the  man  born  blind,  and  the  Resurrec- 
tion, the  Jewish  priests  were  unable  to 
pretend  such  a  solution,  and  were  driven  to 
maintain  unsuccessfully  a  charge  of  fraud. 
The  circumstances  of  the  Christian  mira- 
cles are  utterly  unlike  those  of  any  pre- 
tended instances  of  magical  wonders.  This 
difference  consists  in,  (1.)  The  greatness, 
number,  completeness,  and  publicity  of  the 
miracles.  (2.)  The  natural  beneficial  ten- 
dency of  the  doctrine  they  attested.  (3.) 
The  connection  of  them  with  a  whole 
scheme  of  revelation  extending  from  the 
first  origin  of  the  human  race  to  the  time 
of  Christ.  This  evasion  of  the  force  of  the 
Christian  miracles,  by  referring  them  to 
the  power  of  evil  spirits,  has  seldom  been 
seriously  recurred  to  in  modern  times ;  but 
the  English  infidels  of  the  last  century  em- 
ployed it  as  a  kind  of  argiimentum  ad  hom- 
ineni,  to  tease  and  embarrass  their,  oppo- 
nents, contending  that,  as  the  Bible  speaks 
of  "  lying  wonders  "  of  Antichrist,  and  re- 
lates a  long  contest  of  apparent  miracles 
between  Moses  and  the  Egyptian  magicians, 
Christians  could  not,  on  their  own  princi- 
ples, have  any  certainty  that  miracles  were 
not  wrought  by  evil  spirits.  The  Ecdesias- 
tical  Miracles  are  not  delivered  to  us  by 
inspired  historians ;  nor  do  they  seem  to 
form  any  part  of  the  same  series  of  events 
as  the  miracles  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  miracles  of  the  New  Testament  (set- 
ting aside  those  wrought  by  Christ  Him- 
Belf)  appear  to  have  been  worked  by  a 
power  conferred  upon  particular  persons 
according  to  a  regular  law,  in  virtue  of 
which  that  power  was  ordinarily  transmit- 
ted from  one  person  to  another,  and  the 
only  persons  privileged  thus  to  transmit 
that  power  were  the  Apostles.  The  only 
exceptions  to  this  rule  were,  (1.)  the  Apos- 
tles themselves,  and  (2.)  the  family  of 
Cornelius,  who  were  the  first-fruits  of  the 
Gentiles.  In  all  other  cases,  miraculous 
gifts  were  conferred  only  by  the  laying  on 
of  the  Apostles'  hands.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, it  is  evident  that  a  provision  was 
made  for  the  total  ceasing  of  that  miracu- 
lous dispensation  within  a  limited  period : 
because,  on  the  death  of  the  last  of  the 
Apostles,  the  ordinary  channels  would  be 
all  stopped  through  which  such  gifts  were 
transmitted  in  the  Church.  One  passage 
h.as,  indeed,  been  appealed  to  as  seeming 
to  indicate  the  permanent  residence  of 
miraculous  powers  in  the  Christian  Church 
through  all  ages,  Mark  xvi.  17,  18.  But  — 
(1.)  That  passage  itself  is  of  doubtful  au- 
thority, since  we  know  that  it  was  omitted 
in  most  of  the  Greek  MSS.  which  Eusebius 
was  able  to  examine  in  the  4th  century; 
and  it  is  still  wanting  in  some  of  the  most 
important  that  remain  to  us,  (3.)  It  does 
not  ne'  essarily  Imply  more  than  a  promise 


that  such  miraculous  powers  should  exhibit 
themselves  among  the  immediate  converts 
of  the  Apostles.  And  (3.)  this  latter  in- 
terpretation is  supported  by  what  follows 
— "  And  they  went  forth,  and  preached 
everywhere,  the  Lord  working  with  them, 
and  conjirtning  the  word  with  the  accom- 
panying signs."  Moreover,  the  ecclesias- 
tical miracles  are  improbable,  (1.)  as  vary- 
ing from  the  analogy  of  nature;  (2.)  as 
varying  from  the  analogy  of  the  Scripture 
miracles ;  (3.)  as  resembling  those  legen- 
dary stories  which  are  the  known  product 
of  the  credulity  or  imposture  of  mankind. 

Mir'iam,  the  sister  of  Moses,  was  the 
eldest  of  that  sacred  family ;  and  she  first 
appears,  probably  as  a  young  girl,  watch- 
ing her  infant  brother's  cradle  in  the  Nile 
(Ex.  ii.  4r),  and  suggesting  her  mother  as  a 
nurse  (ib.  7).  The  independent  and  high 
position  given  by  her  superiority  of  age  she 
never  lost.  "  The  sister  .of  Aaron  "  is  her 
Biblical  distinction  (Ex.  xv.  20).  In  Num. 
xii.  1  she  is  placed  before  Aaron ;  and  in 
Mic.  vi.  i  reckoned  as  amongst  the  Three 
Deliverers.  She  is  the  first  personage  in 
that  household  to  whom  the  prophetic  gifts 
are  directly  ascribed  —  "  Miriam  the  proph- 
etess "  is  her  acknowledged  title  (Ex.  xv. 
20).  The  prophetic  power  showed  it- 
self in  her  under  the  same  form  as  that 
which  it  assumed  in  the  days  of  Samuel 
and  David,  — poetry,  accompanied  with 
music  and  processions  (Ex.  xv.  1-19).  She 
took  the  lead,  with  Aaron,  in  the  complaint 
against  Moses  for  his  marriage  with  a  Cush- 
ite.  "Hath  Jehovah  spoken  by  Moses? 
Hath  He  not  also  spoken  by  us  ?  "  (Num. 
xii.  1,  2.)  A  stern  rebuke  was  adminis- 
tered in  front  of  the  sacred  Tent  to  both 
Aaron  and  Miriam.  But  the  punishment 
fell  Qn  Miriam,  as  the  chief  offender.  The 
hateful  Egyptian  leprosy,  of  which  for  a 
moment  the  sign  had  been  seen  on  the  hand 
of  her  younger  brother,  broke  out  over  the 
whole  person  of  the  proud  prophetess. 
How  grand  was  her  position,  and  how  heavy 
the  blow,  is  implied  in  the  cry  of  anguish 
which  goes  up  from  both  her  brothers. 
And  it  is  not  less  evident  in  the  silent  grief 
of  the  nation  (Num.  xii.  10-15).  This 
stroke,  and  its  removal,  which  took  place 
at  Hazeroth,  form  the  last  public  event  of 
Miriam's  life.  She  died  towards  the  close 
of  the  wanderings  at  Kadesh,  and  was 
buried  there  (Num.  xx.  1).  Her  tomb  was 
shown  near  Petra  in  the  days  of  Jerome. 
According  to  Josephus,  she  was  married  to 
the  famous  Hub,  and,  through  him,  was 
grandmother  of  the  architect  Bezaleei.. 

Mir'ma.  A  Benjamite,  '*  chief  of  tho 
fathers,"  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his  wifa 
Hodesh ;  born  in  the  land  of  Moab  (1  Chr. 
vjii.  10). 

Mirror.  Two  Hebrew  words  in  Ex. 
xxxviii.  8,  and  Job  xxxvii.  18,  are  rendered 


MISGAB 


420 


MIXED  MtTLTITUDB 


"  looking-glass  "  in  the  A.  V.,  but  from  the 
context  evidently  denote  a  mirror  of  pol- 
ished metal.  The  Hebrew  women  on  com- 
ing out  of  Egypt  probably  brought  with 
them  mirrors  like  those  which  were  used  by 
the  Egyptians,  and  were  made  of  a  mixed 
metal,  chiefly  copper,  wrought  with  admi- 
rable skill,  and  susceptible  of  a  bright  lus- 
tre. The  metal  of  which  the  mirrors  were 
composed,  being  liable  to  rust  and  tarnish, 
required  to  be  constantly  kept  bright  ( Wisd. 
vii.  26;  Ecclus.  xii.  11).  The  obscure  im- 
age produced  by  a  tarnished  or  imperfect 
mirror,  appears  to  be  alluded  to  in  1  Cor. 
xiii.  12. 

Mis'gab,  a  place  in  Moab  named  in 
company  with  Nebo  and  Kiriathaim  in  the 
denunciation  of  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  1).  It 
appears  to  be  mentioned  also  in  Is.  xxv.  12, 
though  there  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "  high 
fort."  It  is  possibly  identical  with  Mizpeh 
OF  Moab,  named  only  in  1  Sam.  xxiii.  3. 

Mish'ael.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Uz- 
ziel,  the  uncle  of  Aaron  and  Moses  (Ex. 
vi.  22).  When  Nadab  and  Abihu  were 
struck  dead  for  offering  strange  fire,  Mish- 
ael  and  his  brother  Elzaphan,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Moses,  removed  their  bodies  from 
the  sanctuary,  and  buried  them  without  the 
camp,  their  loose-fitting  tunics  serving  for 
winding-sheets  (Lev.  x.  4,  5).  2.  One  of 
those  who  stood  at  Ezra's  left  hand  when 
he  read  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 
[Meshach.] 

Mi'shal,  and  Mi'sheal,  one  of  the 
towns  in  the  territory  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  26),  allotted  to  the  Gershonite  Levites 
(xxi.  30"). 

Mi'sliam.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Elpaal, 
and  descendant  of  Shaharaim  (1  Chr.  viii. 

Mish'ma.  1.  A  son  of  Ishmael  and 
brother  of  Mibsam  (Gen.  xxv.  14 ;  1  Chr. 
i.  30).  The  Masamani  of  Ptolemy  may 
represent  the  tribe  of  Mishma.  2.  A  son 
of  Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv.  25),  brother  of  Mib- 
sam. These  brothers  were  perhaps  named 
after  the  older  brothers,  Mishma  and  Mib- 
sam. 

Mishman'nah.  The  fourth  of  the 
twelve  lion-faced  Gadites  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  10). 

Mish'raites,  The,  the  fourth  of  the 
four  "families  of  Kirjath-jearim,"  i.  c.  col- 
onies proceeding  therefrom  and  founding 
towns  (1  Chr.  ii.  53). 

Mis'per-eth.  One  of  those  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  from 
Babylon  (Neh.  vii.  7). 

Jlis'rephoth-ma'im,  a  place  in  north- 
ern Palestine,  in  close  connection  with 
Zidon-rabbah,  i.  e.  Sidon  (Josh.  xi.  8,  xiii. 
6).  Taken  as  Hebrew,  the  literal  meaning 
ef  the  name  is  "  burnings  of  waters,"  and 
accordingly  it  is  taken  by  the  old  interpret- 
ers to  mean  "  warm  waters,"  whether  nat- 


ural,—  i.  e.  hot  baths  or  springs  —  or  ar- 
tificial, i.  e.  salt,  glass,  or  smelting  works. 
Dr.  Thomson  treats  Misrephoth-maim  as 
identical  with  a  collection  of  springs  called 
Ain-Musheirifeh,  on  the  sea  shore  close 
under  the  Ras  en-Nakhura ;  but  this  has 
the  disadvantage  of  being  very  far  from 
Sidon.  May  it  not  rather  be  the  place  with 
which  we  are  familiar  in  the  later  history  as 
Zarephath  ? 

Mite,  a  coin  current  in  Palestine  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord  (Mark  xii.  41-44 ;  Luke 
xxi.  1-4),  It  seems  in  Palestine  to  have 
been  the  smallest  piece  of  money,  being 
the  half  of  the  farthing,  which  was  a  coin 
of  very  low  value.  From  St.  Mark's  ex- 
planation, "  two  mites,  which  make  a  far- 
thing" (ver.  42),  it  may  perhaps  be  inferred 
that  the  farthing  was  the  commoner  coin. 
In  the  Graeco-Roman  coinage  of  Palestine, 
the  two  smallest  coins,  of  which  the  assa- 
rion  is  the  more  common,  seem  to  corre- 
spond to  the  farthing  and  the  mite,  the 
larger  weighing  about  twice  as  much  as  the 
smaller. 

Mith'cah,  the  name  of  an  unknown 
desert  encampment  of  the  Israelites,  mean- 
ing, perhaps,  "place  of  sweetness"  (Num. 
xxxiii.  28,  29). 

Mith'nite,  The,  the  designation  of 
Josiiaphat,  one  of  David's  guard  in  the 
catalogue  of  1  Chr.  xi.  (ver.  43). 

Mith'redath.  1.  The  treasurer  of  Cy- 
rus king  of  Persia,  to  whom  the  king  gave 
the  vessels  of  the  Temple,  to  be  by  him 
transferred  to  the  hands  of  Sheshbazzar 
(Ezr.  i.  8).  2.  A  Persian  oflicer  stationed 
at  Samaria,  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes,  or 
Smerdis  the  Magian  (Ezr.  iv.  7). 

Mitre.    [Ckown.] 

Mityle'ne,  the  chief  town  of  Lesbos, 
and  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island. 
Mitylene  is  the  intermediate  place  where 
St.  Paul  stopped  for  the  night  between 
Assos  and  Chios  (Acts  xx.  14,  15).  The 
town  itself  was  celebrated  in  Roman  times 
for  the  beauty  of  its  buildings.  In  St. 
Paul's  day  it  had  the  privileges  of  a  free 
city. 

Mixed  Multitude.  When  the  Israel- 
ites journeyed  from  Rameses  to  Succoth, 
the  first  stage  of  the  Exodus  from  Egypt, 
there  went  up  with  them  "a  mixed  multi- 
tude" (Ex.  xii.  38;  Num.  xi.  4).  They 
were  probably  the  offspring  of  marriages 
contracted  between  the  Israelites  and  the 
Egyptians ;  and  the  term  may  also  include 
all  those  who  were  not  of  pure  Israelite 
blood.  In  Exodus  and  Numbers  it  proba- 
bly denoted  the  miscellaneous  hangers-on 
of  the  Hebrew  camp,  whether  they  were 
the  issue  of  spurious  marriages  with  Egjrp- 
tians,  or  were  themselves  Egyptians,  or  be- 
longing to  other  nations.  I'he  same  hap- 
pened on  the  return  from  Babylon,  and  in 
Neh.  xiii.  3  (comp.  23-30)  a  slight  clew  ia 


MIZAR 


421 


MIZRAIM 


giv<m  by  which  the  meaning  of  the  "  mixed 
multitude "  may  be  more  definitely  ascer- 
tained. 

Mi'zar,  The  Hill,  a  mountain  appar- 
ently in  the  northern  part  of  trans- Jordanic 
Palestine,  from  which  the  author  of  Psalm 
xlii.  utters  his  pathetic  appeal  (ver.  6). 

Miz'pah,  and  Miz'peh.,  "a  watch-tow- 
er," the  name  of  several  places  in  Pales- 
tine. 1.  The  earliest  of  all,  in  order  of  the 
narrative,  is  the  heap  of  stones  piled  up  by 
Jacob  and  Laban  (Gen.  xxxi.  48)  on  Mount 
Gilead  (ver.  25),  to  serve  both  as  a  witness 
to  the  covenant  then  entered  into,  and  also 
as  a  landmark  of  the  boundary  between 
them  (ver.  62).  This  heap  received  a  name 
from  each  of  the  two  chief  actors  in  the 
transaction  —  Galeed  and  Jegar  Saha- 
DUTHA.  But  it  had  also  a  third,  viz.  Miz- 
PAH,  which  it  seems  from  the  terms  of  the 
narrative  to  have  derived  from  neither  par- 
ty, but  to  have  possessed  already.  The 
name  remained  attached  to  the  ancient 
meeting-place  of  Jacob  and  Laban,  and  the 
spot  where  their  conference  had  been  held 
became  a  sanctuary  of  Jehovah,  and  a 
place  for  solemn  conclave  and  deliberation 
in  times  of  difficulty  long  after.  On  this 
natural  "  watch-tower"  did  the  cluldren  of 
Israel  assemble  for  the  choice  of  a  leader 
to  resist  the  children  of  Ammon  (Judg.  x. 
17)  ;  ani  when  the  outlawed  Jophthah  had 
been  prevailed  on  to  leave  his  exile  and 
take  the  head  of  his  people,  his  first  act 
was  to  go  to  "  the  Mizpah,"  and  on  that 
consecrated  ground  utter  all  his  words 
"  before.  Jehovah."  At  Mizpah  he  seems 
to  have  henceforward  resided;  there  the 
fatal  meeting  took  place  with  his  daughter 
on  his  return  from  the  war  (xi.  34),  and  we 
can  hardly  doubt  that  on  the  altar  of  that 
sanctuary  the  father's  terrible  vow  was  con- 
summated. It  seems  most  probable  that  the 
"  Mizpeh-Gilead  "  which  is  mentioned  here, 
and  here  only,  is  the  same  as  the  ham-Miz- 
pah  of  the  other  parts  of  the  narrative ;  and 
both  are  probably  identical  with  the  Ra- 
MATH-MizpEH  and  Ramoth-Gilead,  so  fa- 
mous in  the  later  history.  Mizpah  still  re- 
tained its  name  in  the  days  of  the  Macca- 
bees, by  whom  it  was  besieged  and  taken 
with  the  other  cities  of  Gilead  (1  Mace.  v. 
35).  2.  A  second  Mizpeh,  on  the  east 
of  Jordan,  was  the  Mizpeh-Moab,  where 
the  king  of  that  nation  was  living  when 
David  committed  his  parents  to  his  care 
(1  Sam.  xxii.  3).  3.  A  third  was  The 
Land  of  Mizpeh,  or  more  accurately  "of 
Mizpah,"  the  residence  of  the  Hivites  who 
joined  the  northern  confederacy  against 
Israel,  headed  by  Jabin  king  of  Hazor 
(Josh.  xi.  3).  No  other  mention  is  found 
of  this  district  in  the  Bible,  unless  it  be  iden- 
tical with —  4.  The  Valley  of  Mizpeh,  to 
which  the  discomfited  hosts  of  the  same 
confederacy  were  chafed  by  Joshua  (xi.  8), 


perhaps  identical  with  the  great  country  of 
Coele-Syria.  5.  Mispeh,  a  city  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  38),  in  the  district  of  the  Shefe- 
lah  or  maritime  lowland.  6.  Mizpeh,  in 
Joshua  and  Samuel ;  elsewhere  Mizpah,  a 
"city"  of  Benjamin,  named  in  the  list  of 
the  allotment  between  Beeroth  and  Che- 
phira,  and  in  apparent  proximity  to  Ramah 
and  Gibeon  (Josh,  xviii.  26).  Its  connec- 
tion with  the  two  last-named  towns  is  also 
implied  in  the  later  history  (1  K.  xv.  22 ;  2 
Chr.  xvi.  6 ;  Neh.  iii.  7).  It  was  one  of  the 
places  fortified  by  Asa  against  the  incur- 
sions of  the  kings  of  the  northern  Israel  (1 
K.  XV.  22 ;  2  Chr.  xvi.  6 ;  Jer.  xli.  9)  ;  and 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  it  became 
the  residence  of  the  superintendent  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  of  Babylon  (Jer.  xl.  7, 
&c.),  and  the  scene  of  his  murder  and  of 
the  romantic  incidents  connected  with  the 
name  of  Ishmael  the  son  of  Nethaniah. 
But  Mizpah  was  more  than  this.  In  the 
earlier  periods  of  the  history  of  Israel,  at 
the  first  foundation  of  the  monarchy,  it  was 
one  of  the  three  holy  cities  which  Samuel 
visited  in  turn  as  judge  of  the  people  (vii. 
6,  16),  the  other  two  being  Bethel  and  Gil- 
gal.  But,  unlike  Bethel  and  Gilgal,  no 
record  is  preserved  of  the  cause  or  origin 
of  a  sanctity  so  abruptly  announced,  and 
yet  so  fully  asserted.  With  the  conquest 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  establishment  there 
of  the  Ark,  the  sanctity  of  Mizpah,  or  at 
least  its  reputation,  seems  to  have  declined. 
We  hear  of  no  religious  act  in  connection 
with  it  till  that  affecting  assembly  called 
together  thither,  as  to  the  ancient  sanctuary 
of  their  forefathers,  by  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
"  when  the  Israelites  assembled  themselves 
together  and  came  to  Massepha  over  against 
Jerusalem ;  for  in  Maspha  was  there  afore- " 
time  a  place  of  prayer  for  Israel"  (1  Mace, 
iii.  46).  The  expression  "over  against," 
no  less  than  the  circumstances  of  the  story, 
seems  to  require  that  from  Mizpah  the  City 
or  the  Temple  was  visible.  These  condi- 
tions are  satisfied  by  the  position  of  Scopus, 
the  broad  ridge  which  forms  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Mount  of  Olives  to  the  north 
and  east,  from  which  the  traveller  gains, 
like  Titus,  his  first  view,  and  takes  his  last 
farewell,  of  the  domes,  walls,  and  towers 
of  the  Holy  City. 

Miz'par.  Properly  Mispar,  as  in  the 
A.  V.  of  1611  and  the  Geneva  version;  the 
same  as  Mispereth  (Ezr.  ii.  2). 

Miz'peh.     [Mizpah.] 

Miz'raim,  the  usual  name  of  Egypt  in 
the  O.  T.,  the  dual  of  Mazor,  which  is  less 
frequently  employed.  It  is  probably  de- 
rived from  the  Arabic  word  Mizr,  which 
signifies  "  red  earth  or  mud."  Mizraim 
first  occurs  in  the  account  of  the  Hamites 
in  Gen.  Xy,  where  we  read,  "  And  the  sona 
of  Ham ;  Cush,  and  Mizraim,  and  Phut,  and 
Canaan"  (ver.  6;  comp.  1  Chr.  i.  8).    In 


MIZZAH 


422 


MOAB 


the  use  of  th€  name  Mizraim  for  Egypt  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  dual  indicates  the 
two  regions  (Upper  and  Lower  Egypt)  into 
which  the  country  has  always  been  divided 
by  nature  as  well  as  by  its  inhabitants. 

Miz'zah.  Son  of  Reuel  and  grandson 
of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  13,  17;  1  Chr.  i.  37). 

Mna'son  is  honorably  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  like  Gaius,  Lydia,  and  others,  as 
one  of  the  hosts  of  the  Apostle  Paul  (Acts 
xxi.  16).  It  is  most  likely  that  his  resi- 
dsnee  at  this  time  was  not  Caesarea,  but 
Jerusalem.  He  was  a  Cyprian  by  birth,  and 
may  have  been  a  friend  of  Barnabas  (Acts 
iv.  36),  and  possibly  brought  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  Christianity  by  him. 

Mo'ab,  Mo'abites.  Moab  was  the  son 
of  Lot's  eldest  danghter,  the  progenitor  of 
the  Moabites,  and  the  elder  brother  of  Ben- 
Ammi,  the  progenitor  of  the  Ammonites 
(Gen.  xix.  37).  Zoar  was  the  cradle  of  the 
race  of  Lot.  From  this  centre  the  brother- 
tribes  spread  themselves.  The  Moabites 
first  inhabited  the  rich  highlands  which 
crown  the  eastern  side  of  the  chasm  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  extending  as  far  north  as  the 
mountain  of  Gilead,  from  which  country 
they  expelled  the  Emims,  the  original  in- 
habitants (Deut.  ii.  11).  But  they  them- 
selves were  afterwards  driven  southwards 
by  the  warlike  Amorites,  who  had  crossed 
the  Jordan,  and  were  confined  to  the  coun- 
try south  of  the  river  Arnon,  which  formed 
their  northern  boundary  (Num.  xxi.  13; 
Judg.  xi.  18).  The  territory  occupied  by 
Moab  at  the  period  of  its  greatest  extent, 
before  the  invasion  of  the  Amorites,  divided 
itself  naturally  into  three  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent portions.  Each  of  these  portions 
appears  to  have  had  its  name,  by  which  it  is 
almost  invariably  designated.  (1)  The  en- 
closed corner  or  canton  south  of  the  Arnon 
was  the  "  field  of  Moab"  (Ruth  i.  1,  2,  6, 
&c.).  (2)  The  more  open  rolling  country 
north  of  the  Arnon,  opposite  Jericho,  and 
tip  to  the  hills  of  Gilead,  was  the  "  land  of 
Moab"  (Deut.  i.  5,  xxxii.  49,  &c.).  (3) 
The  sunk  district  in  the  tropical  depths  of 
the  Jordan  valley,  taking  its  name  from 
that  of  the  great  valley  itself — the  Arabah 

—  was  the  Arboth-Moab,  the  dry  regions 

—  in  the  A.  V.  very  incorrectly  rendered 
the  "  plains  of  Moab  "  (Num.  xxii.  1,  &c.). 
The  Israelites,  in  entering  the  Promised 
Land,  did  not  pass  through  the  Moabites  (1 
Judg.  xi.  18),  but  conquered  the  Amorites, 
who  occupied  the  country  from  which  the 
Moabites  had  been  so  lately  expelled.  Af- 
ter the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  relations  of 
Moab  with  Israel  were  of  a  mixed  charac- 
ter. With  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  whose 
possessions  at  their  eastern  end  were  sepa- 
rated from  those  of  Moab  only  by  the  Jor- 
dan, they  had  at  least  one  severe  struggle, 
in  union  with  their  kindred,  the  Ammonites 
(Judg,  iii.   12-30).     The  feud  continued 


with  true  Oriental  pertinacity  to  the  time 
of  Saul.  Of  his  slaughter  of  the  Ammon- 
ites we  have  full  details  in  1  Sam.  xi.,  and 
amongst  his  other  conquests  Moab  is  espe- 
cially mentioned  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47).  But 
while  such  were  their  relations  to  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin,  the  story  of  Ruth,  on  the  other 
hand,  testifies  to^Jie  existence  of  a  friendly 
intercourse  between  Moab  and  Bethlehem, 
one  of  the  towns  of  Judah.  By  his  descent 
from  Ruth,  David  may  be  said  to  have  had 
Moabite  blood  in  his  veins.  The  relation- 
ship was  sufiicient  to  warrant  his  visiting 
the  land,  and  committing  his  parents  to  the 
protection  of  tlie  king  of  Moab,  when  hard 
pressed  by  Saul  (1  Sara.  xxii.  3,  4).  But 
here  all  friendly  relations  stop  forever.  The 
next  time  the  name  is  mentioned  is  in  the 
account  of  David's  war,  who  made  them 
tributary  (2  Sam.  viii.  2;  1  Chr.  xviii.  2). 
So  signal  a  vengeance  can  only  have  been 
occasioned  by  some  act  of  perfidy  or  insult, 
like  that  which  brought  down  a  similar 
treatment  on  the  Ammonites  (2  Sam.  x.) 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  king  of 
Moab  betrayed  the  trust  which  David  re- 
posed in  him,  and  either  himself  killed  Jesse 
and  his  wife,  or  surrendered  them  to  SauL 
It  must  have  been  a  considerable  time  be- 
fore Moab  recovered  from  so  severe  a  blow. 
At  the  disruption  of  the  kingdom,  Moab 
seems  to  have  fallen  to  the  northern  realm. 
At  the  death  of  Ahab,  eighty  years  later, 
we  find  Moab  paying  him  the  enormous 
tribute,  apparently  annual,  of  100,000  rams, 
and  the  same  number  of  wethers,  with  their 
fleeces.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  Moab- 
ites should  have  seized  the  moment  of 
Ahab's  death  to  throw  ofi"  so  burdensome  a 
yoke  (1  K.  i.  1,  iii.  4) ;  but  it  is  surprising, 
that  notwithstanding  such  a  drain  on  their 
resources,  they  were  ready  to  incur  the  risk 
and  expense  of  a  war  with  a  state  in  every 
respect  far  their  superior.  Their  first  step, 
after  asserting  their  independence,  was  to 
attack  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xx.). 
The  army  was  a  huge  heterogeneous  horde 
of  ill-assorted  elements,  and  the  expedition 
contained  witliin  itself  the  elements  of  its 
own  destruction.  As  a  natural  consequence 
of  the  late  events,  Israel,  Judah,  and  Edom, 
united  in  an  attack  on  Moab.  The  three 
confederate  armies  approached  not  as  usual 
by  the  north,  but  round  the  southern  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  through  the  parched  val- 
leys of  Upper  Edom.  As  the  host  came 
near,  the  king  of  Moab,  doubtless  the  same 
Mesha  who  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Ahab,  as- 
sembled the  whole  of  his  people  on  the 
boundary  of  his  territory.  Here  they  re- 
mained all  night  on  the  watch.  With  the 
approach  of  morning  the  sun  rose  suddenly 
above  the  horizon  of  the  rolling  plain,  and 
shone  with  a  blood-red  glare  on  a  mul- 
titude of  pools  in  the  bed  of  the  wady  at 
their  feet.    To  them  the  conclusion  was  in< 


MOADIAH 


423 


MOLECH 


evitable.  The  army  had,  like  their  own  on 
the  late  occasion,  fallen  out  in  the  night; 
these  red  pools  were  the  blood  of  the  slain ; 
those  who  were  not  killed  had  fled,  and 
nothing  stood  between  them  and  the  pillage 
of  the  camp.  The  cry  "  Moab  to  the  spoil !  " 
was  r?iised.  Down  the  slopes  they  rushed 
in  headlong  disorder.  Then  occurred  one 
of  those  scenes  of  carnage  which  can  hap- 
pen but  once  or  twice  in  the  existence  of  a 
nation.  The  Moabites  fled  back  in  confu- 
sion, followed  and  cut  down  at  every  step 
by  their  enemies.  Far  inwards  did  the  pur- 
suit reach,  among  the  cities  and  farms  and 
orchards  of  that  rich  district ;  nor  when  the 
slaughter  was  over  was  the  horrid  work  of 
destruction  done.  At  last  the  struggle  col- 
lected itself  at  KiR-HARASETH-  Here  Mesha 
took  refuge  with  his  family,  and  with  the 
remnants  of  his  army.  The  heights  around 
were  covered  with  slingers,  who  discharged 
their  volleys  of  stones  on  the  town.  At 
length  the  annoyance  could  be  borne  no 
longer.  Then  Mesha,  collecting  round  him 
a  forlorn  hope  of  700  of  his  best  warriors, 
made  a  desperate  sally,  with  the  intention 
of  cutting  his  way  through  to  his  special  foe 
the  king  of  Edom.  But  the  enemy  were 
too  strong  for  him,  and  he  was  driven  back. 
And  then  came  a  fitting  crown  to  a  tragedy 
already  so  terrible.  An  awful  spectacle 
amazed  and  horrified  tlie  besiegers.  The 
king  and  his  eldest  son,  the  heir  to  the 
throne,  mounted  the  wall,  and,  in  the  sight 
of  the  thousands  who  covered  the  sides  of 
that  vast  amphitheatre,  the  father  killed  and 
burnt  his  child  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  to 
the  cruel  gods  of  his  country.  Isaiah  (xv., 
xvi.,  XXV.  10-12)  predicts  the  utter  annihi-« 
lation  of  Moab;  and  they  are  frequently 
denounced  by  the  subsequent  prophets.  For 
the  religion  of  the  Moabites  see  Chemosh, 
MoLECH,  Peor. 

Moadi'ah.  A  priest,  or  family  of  priests, 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel.  The  chief 
of  the  house  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  the  son 
of  Jeshua  was.  Piltai  (Neh.  xii.  17).  Else- 
where (Neb.  xii.  5)  called  Maadiah. 

Mo'din,  a  place  not  mentioned  in  either 
Old  or  New  Testament,  though  rendered 
immortal  by  its  connection  with  the  history 
of  the  Jews  in  the  interval  between  the  two. 
It  was  the  native  city  of  the  Maccabaean 
family  (1  Mace.  xiii.  25),  and  as  a  necessary 
consequence  contained  their  ancestral  sep- 
ulchre (ii.  70,  ix.  19,  xiii.  25-30).  At  Modin 
the  Maccabaean  armies  encamped  on  the 
eves  of  two  of  their  most  memorable  vic- 
tories —  that  of  Juda^  over  Antiochus  Eu- 
pator  (2  Mace.  xiii.  14),  and  that  of  Simon 
over  Cendebeus  (1  Mace.  xvi.  4),  the  last 
battle  of  the  veteran  chief  before  his  assas- 
sination. The  only  indication  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  place  to  be  gathered  from  the 
above  notices  is  contained  in  the  last,  from 
which  we  may  infer  that  it  was  near  "  the 


plain,"  i.  e.  the  great  maritime  lowland  of 
Philistia  (ver.  6).  By  Eusebius  and  Jenime 
it  is  specified  as  near  Diospolis,  i.  e.  Lydda ; 
while  the  notice  in  the  Mishna  states  that  it 
was  1  (Roman)  mile  from  Jerusalem.  At 
the  same  time  the  description  of  the  monu- 
ment seems  to  imply  that  the  spot  was  so 
lofty  as  to  be  visible  from  the  sea,  and  bo 
near  that  even  the  details  of  the  sculptui-e 
were  discernible  therefrom.  All  these  con- 
ditions, excepting  the  last,  are  toler<ably 
fulfilled  in  either  of  the  two  sites  called- 
Latrun  and  Kub&h.  The  mediaeval  and 
modern  tradition  places  Modin  at  Soba,  an 
eminence  south  of  Kurietel-enab ;  but  this 
being  not  more  than  7  miles  from  Jerusalem, 
while  it  is  as  much  as  25  from  Lydda  and  30 
from  the  sea,  and  also  far  removed  from  the 
plain  of  Philistia,  is  at  variance  with  every 
one  of  the  conditions  implied  in  the  records. 

Mol'adah,  a  city  of  Judah,  one  of  those 
which  lay  in  the  district  of  "  the  south," 
next  to  Edom  (Josh.  xv.  26,  xix.  2).  In 
the  latter  tribe  it  remained  at  any  rate  fill 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  iv.  28),  but  by 
the  time  of  the  captivity  it  seems  to  have 
come  back  into  the  hands  of  Judah,  by 
whom  it  was  reinhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  26).  In  the  Onomasticon  a,  place 
named  Malatha  is  spoken  of  as  in  the  interior 
of  Daroma ;  and  further  it  is  mentioned  as 
4  miles  from  Arad  and  20  from  Hebron.  It 
may  be  placed  at  el-Milh,  which  is  about  4 
English  miles  from  Tell  Arad,  17  or  18  from 
Hebron,  and  9  or  10  due  eastof  Beersheba. 

Mole.  1.  Tinshemeih  (Lev.  xi.  30).  It 
is  probable  that  the  animals  mentioned  with 
the  tinshemeih  in  the  above  passage  denote 
different  kinds  of  lizards ;  perhaps,  there- 
fore, the  chameleon  may  be  the  animal  in- 
tended. 2.  Chiphdr  peroth  is  rendered 
"moles"  in  Is.  ii. 

Mo'lech.  The  fire-god  Molech  was  the 
tutelary  deity  of  the  children  of  Ammon, 
and  essentially  identical  with  the  Moabitish 
Chemosh.  Fire-gods  appear  to  have  been 
common  to  all  the  Canaanite,  Syrian,  and 
Arab  tribes,  who  worshipped  the  destructive 
element  under  an  outward  symbol,  with  the 
most  inhuman  rites.  Among  these  were 
human  sacrifices,  purifications  and  ordesils 
by  fire,  devoting  of  the  first-born,  mutila- 
tion, and  vows  of  perpetual  celibacy  and 
virginity.  The  root  of  the  word  Molech  is 
the  same  as  that  of  melee  or  "king."  The 
first  direct  historical  allusion  to  Molech- 
worship  is  in  t  le  des  ;ription  of  Solomon's 
idolatry  in  his  old  age  (1  K.  xi.  7).  Two 
verses  before,  the  same  deity  is  called  Mii,- 
COM.  Most  of  the  Jewish  interpreters  say 
that  in  the  worship  of  Molech  the  children 
were  not  burnt,  but  made  to  pass  between 
two  burning  pyres,  as  a  purificatory  rite. 
But  the  allusions  to  the  actual  slaughter  are 
too  plain  to  be  mistaken.  Compare  Deut. 
xii.  31 ;  Ps.  cvi.  37,  38 ;  Jer.  vii.  31,  xix.  5  j 


MOLI 


424 


MONEY 


Ez.  xvi.  20,  21,  xxiii.  37.  The  worship  of 
Molech  is  evidently  alluded  to,  though  not 
expressly  mentioned,  in  connection  with 
star-worship  and  the  worship  of  Baal  in  2 
K.  xvii.  16,  17,  xxi.  6,  6,  which  seems  to 
show  that  Molech,  the  flame-god,  and  Baal, 
the  sun-god,  were  worshipped  with  the  same 
rites.  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  the 
image  of  Molech  was  of  brass,  hollow  with- 
in, and  was  situated  without  Jerusalem. 
Kimchi  (on  2  K.  xxiii.  10)  describes  it  as 
"  set  within  seven  chapels,  and  whoso  of- 
fered fine  flour,  they  open  to  him  one  of 
them ;  (whoso  offered)  turtle-doves  or  young 
pigeons,  they  open  to  him  two ;  a  lamb,  they 
open  to  him  three ;  a  ram,  they  open  to  him 
four ;  a  calf,  they  open  to  him  five ;  an  ox, 
they  open  to  him  six ;  and  so  whoever  of- 
fered his  son,  they  open  to  him  seven.  And 
his  face  was  (that)  of  a  calf,  and  his  hands 
stretched  forth  like  a  man  who  opens  his 
hands  to  receive  (something)  of  his  neigh- 
bor. And  they  kindled  it  with  fire,  and 
tRe  priests  took  the  babe  and  put  it  into  the 
hands  of  Molech,  and  the  babe  gave  up  the 
ghost."  "  The  tabernacle  of  Moloch  "  men- 
tioned in  Acts  vii.  43,  was  more  probably  a 
shrine  or  ark  in  which  the  figure  of  the  god 
was  carried  in  processions.  Many  instances 
of  human  sacrifices  are  found  in  ancient 
writers,  which  may  be  compared  with  the 
description  in  the  Old  Testament  of  the 
manner  in  which  Molech  was  worshipped. 
The  Carthaginians,  according  to  Augustine, 
offered  children  to  Saturn.  Among  the 
Khodians  a  man  was  offered  to  Kronos 
on  the  Gth  July.  According  to  Manetho, 
Amosis  abolished  the  same  practice  in 
Egypt  at  Heliopohs,  sacred  to  Juno.  San- 
choniatho  related  that  the  Phoenicians,  on 
the  occasion  of  any  great  calamity,  sacri- 
ficed to  Saturn  one  of  their  relatives.  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  (xx.  14)  records  that  the  Car- 
thaginians, when  besieged  by  Agathocles, 
tyrant  of  Sicily,  offered  in  public  sacrifice 
to  Saturn  200  of  their  noblest  children, 
while  others  voluntarily  devoted  themselves 
to  the  number  of  300.  His  description  of 
the  statue  of  the  god  differs  but  slightly 
from  that  of  Molech,  which  has  been  quoted. 
Molech,  "  the  king,"  was  the  lord  and  mas- 
ter of  the  Ammonites ;  their  country  was 
his  possession  (Jer.  xlix.  1),  as  Moab  was 
the  heritage  of  Chcmosh;  the  princes  of 
the  land  were  tlie  princes  of  Malcham  (Jer. 
xlix.  3;  Am.  i.  15).  His  priests  were  men 
of  rank' (Jer.  xlix.  3),  taking  precedence 
•of  the  princes.  The  priests  of  Molech,  like 
tliose  of  other  idols,  were  called  Chemarim 
(2  K.  xxiii.  5;  Hos.  x.  5;  Zeph.  i.  4). 

Mo'li.  Mahli,  the  son  of  Merari  (1 
JSsdr.  viii.  47;  comp.  Ezr.  viii.  18). 

Mo'lioL,  the  son  of  Abishur  by  his  wife 
Abihail,  and  descendant  of  Jerahmeel  (1 
Chr.  ii.  29). 

Moloch.,  the  same  as  Molech. 


Money.  I.  Uncoined  Monet.  1.  Pn- 
coined  Money  in  general.  —  It  is  well 
known  that  ancient  nations  that  were  with- 
out a  coinage  weighed  the  precious  metals, 
a  practice  represented  on  the  Egyptian 
monuments,  on  which  gold  and  silver  are 
shown  to  have  been  kept  in  the  form  of 
rings.  We  have  no  certain  record  of  the 
use  of  ring-money  or  other  uncoined  money 
in  antiquity  excepting  among  the  Egyptians. 
It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  the  Assyr- 
ians and  Babylonians  adopted,  if  they  did 
not  originate,  this  custom.  2.  The  An- 
tiquity of  Coined  Money.  —  Respecting  the 
origin  of  coinage  there  are  two  accounts 
seemingly  at  variance;  some  saying  that 
Phidon  king  of  Argos  first  struck  money, 
and  according  to  Ephorus,  in  Aegina ;  but 
Herodotus  ascribing  its  invention  to  the 
Lydians.  The  former  statement  probably 
refers  to  the  origin  of  the  coinage  of  Euro- 
pean Greece,  the  latter  to  that  of  Asiatic 
Greece.  On  the  whole  it  seems  reasonable 
to  carry  up  Greek  coinage  to  the  8th  cen- 
tury B.  c.  Purely  Asiatic  coinage  cannot 
be  taken  up  to  so  early  a  date.  The  more 
archaic  Persian  coins  seem  to  be  of  the  time 
of  Darius  Hystaspis,  or  possibly  Cyrus,  and 
certainly  not  much  older ;  and  there  is  no 
Asiatic  money,  not  of  Greek  cities,  that  can 
be  reasonably  assigned  to  an  earlier  period. 
3.  Notices  of  Uncoined  Money  in  the  0.  T. 
— We  have  no  evidence  of  the  use  of  coined 
money  before  the  return  from  the  Babylo- 
nian captivity ;  but  silver  was  used  foi 
money,  in  quantities  determined  by  weight, 
at  least  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham ; 
and  its  earliest  mention  is  in  the  generic 
sense  of  the  pnce  paid  for  a  slave  (Gen. 
xvii.  13) .     The  1000  pieces  of  silver  paid  by 


Egyptian  weighing  Rings  for  Money. 

Abimelech  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xx.  IG),  and 
the  20  pieces  of  silver  for  which  Joseph  was 
sold  to  the  Ishmeelites  (Gen.  xxxvii.  28) 
were  probably  rings  such  as  we  see  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments  in  the  act  of  bring 


MONEY 


425 


MONEY-CHANGERS 


weighed.  In  the  first  recorded  transaction 
of  commerce,  the  cave  of  Machpelah  is  pur- 
chased by  Abraham  for  400  shekels  of  sil- 
ver, and  it  was  this  just  weight  that  was 
recognized  as  current  with  the  merchant 
(*'  money "  is  not  in  the  original :  Gen. 
xxiii.  15,  IG).  The  shekel  weight  of  silver  | 
was  the  unit  of  value  through  the  whole 
age  of  Hebrew  history,  down  to  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity.  In  only  one  place  is  there 
a  mention  of  so  many  shekels  of  gold  as  a 
sum  of  money  (1  Chr.  xxi.  25),  and  even 
here,  in  the  older  parallel  passage,  silver 
only  is  mentioned  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  9).  In  the 
transaction  between  Naaman  and  Gehazi, 
the  "six  thousand  of  gold"  (2  K.  v.  5, 
where  pieces  is  not  in  the  original)  probably 
denotes  shekels,  like  the  "  six  hundred  of 
gold  "  in  1  K.  X.  16.  II.  Coined  Money. 
1.  The  Principal  Monetary  Systems  of 
Antiquity.  —  The  earliest  Greek  coins,  by 
which  we  here  intend  those  struck  in  the 
age  before  the  Persian  war,  are  of  three 
talents  or  standards  :  the  Attic,  the  Aegine- 
tan,  and  the  Macedonian  or  earlier  Phoe- 
nician. The  oldest  coins  of  Athens,  of 
Aegina,  and  of  Macedon  and  Thrace,  we 
should  select  as  typical  respectively  of  these 
standards ;  obtaining  as  the  weiglit  of  the 
Attic  drachm  about  67*5  grains  troy ;  of  the 
Aeginetan,  about  96;  and  of  the  Macedo- 
nian, about  58,  or  116,  if  its  drachm  be 
what  is  now  generally  held  to  be  the  di- 
drachm.  2.  Coined  Money  mentioned  in 
ihe  Bible.  —  After  the  Captivity  we  have  the 
earliest  mention  of  coined  money,  in  allu- 
sion, as  might  have  been  expected,  to  the 
J*ersian  coinage,  the  gold  Daric  (A.  V. 
dram:  Ezra  ii.  69,  viii.  27;  Neh.  vii.  70, 
71,  72).  [Daric]  No  native  Jewish  coin- 
age appears  to  have  existed  till  Antiochus 
VII.  Sidetes  granted  Simon  Maccabaeus 
the  license  to  coin  money  (b.  c.  140)  ;  and 
it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  oldest 
Jewish  silver  coins  belong  to  this  period. 
Tliey  are  shekels  and  half-shekels  of  the 
weight  of  220  and  110  grains.     With  this 


^'ItS'l  vpr»  "  Shekel  of  IwMsL"  V«M,  above  rhich 
tft  [Tearl.]  R.  HwlD  CbCTT^f  "Jeniialem  the 
holy."    Brauch  bearing  three  flowen.    AR. 

silver  there  was  associated  a  copper  coin- 
age, some  pieces  of  which  have  been  sup- 
posed to  reach  as  high  as  Judas  Macca- 
baeus ;  but  probably  none  are  really  older 


the  series  is  continued,  almost  without  in- 
terruption, to  the  end  of  the  Asmonaean 
house.  Most  of  them  are  marked  as  the 
half  or  quarter  (doubtless  of  the  shekel), 
their  average  weight  being  235i  and  13S 
grains ;  and  there  is  a  third  piece  of  about 
82  grains,  wliich  seems  to  be  the  sixth  of  a 
shekel.  The  abundant  money  of  Herod  the 
Great,  which  js  of  a  thoroughly  Greek  char- 
acter, and  of  copper  only,  seems  to  have 
been  a  continuation  of  the  copper  coinage 
of  the  Maccabees,  with  some  adaptation  to 
the  Roman  standard.  In  the  money  of  the 
New  Testament  we  see  the  native  copper 
coinage  side  by  side  with  the  Graeco-Roman 
copper,  silver,  and  gold.  An  interesting 
illustration  occurs  in  our  Lord's  first  com- 
mission to  the  Apostles.  St.  Matthew  (x. 
9),  with  comprehensive  generality,  mentions 
all  the  three  metals,  "  Provide  neither  gold, 
nor  silver,  nor  brass,  in  your  girdles."  St. 
Mark  (vi.  8)  names  only  the  copper  (jrai- 
xoi),  which  formed  tlie  common  native  cur- 
rency. St.  Luke  (ix.  3)  uses  the  general 
word  for  money  {anyrQtnr).  —  The  coins 
mentioned  by  the  Evangelists,  and  first 
those  of  silver,  are  the  following :  —  The 
stater  is  spoken  of  in  the  account  of  the 
miracle  of  the  tribute-money.  The  receiv- 
ers of  didrachms  demanded  the  tribute,  but 
St.  Peter  found  in  the  fish  a  stater,  which 
he  paid  for  our  Lord  and  himself  (Matt. 
xvii.  24-27).  The  stater  was  therefore  a 
tetradrachm;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  at 
this  period  almost  the  only  Greek  Imperial 
silver  coin  in  the  East  was  a  tetradrachm, 
the  didrachm  being  probably  unknown,  or 
very  little  coined.  The  didrachm  is  men- 
tioned as  a  money  of  account  in  the  passage 
above  cited,  as  the  equivalent  of  the  He- 
brew shekel.  The  denarius,  or  Roman 
penny,  as  well  as  the  Greek  drachm,  then 
of  about  the  same  weight,  are  spoken  of  as 
current  coins  (Matt.  xxii.  15-21;  Luke  xx. 
19-25).  Of  copper  coins  the  farthing  and 
its  half,  the  mite,  are  spoken  of,  and  these 
probably  formed  the  chief  native  currency. 
The  proper  Jewish  series  closes  with  the 
money  of  the  famous  Barkobab,  who  headed 
the  revolt  in  the  time  of  Hadrian.  His 
most  important  coins  are  shekels,  of  which 
we  here  engrave  one. 


Money-changers  (Matt.  xii.  12 ;  Mark 
thanJohnUyrcanu8(B.c.  135),  from  whom   xi.   15;  John  ii.  15).     Accordmg  to  Ex. 


MONTH 


426 


MOON 


XXX.  13-15,  every  Israelite  who  had  reached 
or  passed  the  age  of  twenty  must  pay  into 
the  sacred  treasury,  whenever  the  nation 
was  numbered,  a  half  shekel  as  an  offering 
to  Jehovah.  The  money-changers  whom 
Christ,  for  their  impiety,  avarice,  and  fraud- 
ulent dealing,  expelled  from  the  Temple, 
were  the  dealers  who  supplied  half-shekels, 
for  such  a  premium  as  tliey  might  be  able 
to  exact,  to  the  Jews  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  who  assembled  at  Jerusalem  during 
the  great  festivals,  and  were  required  to 
pay  their  tribute  or  ransom  money  in  the 
Hebrew  coin. 

Month.  The  terms  for  "  month  "  and 
"  moon  "  have  the  same  close  connection 
in  the  Hebrew  language  as  in  our  own. 
The  most  important  point  in  connection 
with  the  month  of  the  Hebrews  is  its  length, 
and  the  mode  by  which  it  was  calculated. 
The  difficulties  attending  this  inquiry  are 
considerable  in  consequence  of  the  scanti- 
ness of  the  data.  Though  it  may  fairly  be 
presumed  from  the  terms  used  that  the 
month  originally  corresponded  to  a  luna- 
tion, no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  mere 
verbal  argument  to  prove  the  exact  length 
of  the  month  in  historical  times.  From  the 
time  of  the  institution  of  the  Mosaic  law 
downwards  the  month  was  a  lunar  one. 
The  cycle  of  religious  feasts  commencing 
with  the  Passover,  depended  not  simply  on 
the  month,  but  on  the  moon ;  the  14th  of 
Abib  was  coincident  with  the  full  moon; 
and  the  new  moons  themselves  were  the 
occasions  of  regular  festivals  (Num.  x.  10, 
Xxviii.  11-14).  The  commencement  of  the 
montli  was  generally  decided  by  observa- 
tion of  the  new  moon.  The  usual  number 
of  months  in  a  year  was  twelve,  as  implied 
in  1  K.  iv.  7 ;  1  Chr.  xxvii.  1-15 ;  but  inas- 
much as  the  Hebrew  months  coincided 
with  the  seasons,  it  follows  as  a  matter  of 
course  that  an  additional  month  must  have 
been  inserted  about  every  third  year,  which 
would  bring  the  number  up  to  thirteen. 
No  notice,  however,  is  taken  of  this  month 
in  the  Bible.  In  the  modern  Jewish  cal- 
endar the  intercalary  month  is  introduced 
eeven  times  in  every  "19  years.  The  usual 
method  of  designating  the  months  was  by 
their  numerical  order,  e.  g.  "  the  second 
month"  (Gen.  vii.  11),  "the  fourth  month" 
(2  K.  XXV.  3)  ;  and  this  was  generally  re- 
tained even  when  the  names  were  given, 
e.  g.  "  in  the  month  Zif,  which  is  the  second 
month  "  (1  K.  vi.  1),  "  in  the  third  month, 
that  is,  the  month  Sivan  "  (Estli.  viii.  9). 
An  exception  occurs,  however,  in  regard  to 
Abib  in  the  early  portion  of  the  Bible  (Ex. 
xiii.  4,  xxiii.  15;  Deut.  xvi.  1),  which  is 
always  mentioned  by  name  alone.  The 
practice  of  the  writers  of  the  post-Babylo- 
nian period  in  this  respect  varied;  Ezra, 
Esther,  and  Zechariah  specify  both  the 
names  and  the  numerical  order ;  Nebemiah 


only  the  former ;  Daniel  and  Haggai  only 
the  latter.  The  names  of  the  months  be- 
long to  two  distinct  periods ;  in  the  first 
place  we  have  those  peculiiir  to  the  period 
of  Jewish  independence,  of  which  four 
only,  even  including  Abib,  which  we  hardly 
regard  as  a  proper  name,  are  mentioned, 
viz. :  Abib,  in  which  the  Passover  fell  (Ex. 
xiii.  4,  xxiii.  15,  xxxiv.  18 ;  Deut.  xvi.  1), 
and  which  was  established  as  the  first 
month  in  commemoration  of  the  Exodus 
(Ex.  xii.  2) ;  Zif,  the  second  month  (1  K. 
vi.  1,  37) ;  Bui,  the  eiglith  (1  K.  vi.  38) ; 
and  Ethanim,  the  seventh  (1  K.  viii.  2). 
In  the  second  place  we  have  the  names 
which  prevailed  subsequently  to  the  Baby- 
lonish Captivity;  of  these  the  following 
seven  appear  in  the  Bible  :  —  Nisan,  the 
first,  in  which  the  Passover  was  held  (Neh. 
ii.  1 ;  Esth.  iii.  7) ;  Sivan,  tlie  third  (Esth. 
viii.  9  ;  Bar.  i.  8)  ;  Elul,  the  sixth  (Neh.  vi. 
15 ;  1  Mace.  xiv.  27) ;  Chisleu,  the  ninth 
(Neh.  i.  1 ;  Zech.  vii.  1 ;  1  Mace.  i.  54) ; 
Tebeth,  the  tenth  (Esth.  ii.  16)  ;  Sehat,  the 
eleventh  (Zech.  i.  7 ;  1  Mace.  xvi.  14) ; 
and  Adar,  the  twelfth  (Esth.  iii.  7,  viii.  12 ; 
2  Mace.  XV.  36).  The  names  of  the  re- 
maining five  occur  in  the  Talmud  and  other 
works ;  they  were,  lyar,  the  second  (Tar- 
gum,  2  Chr.  XXX.  2)  ;  Tammuz,  the  fourth ; 
Ab,  the  fifth ;  Tisri,  the  seventh ;  and  Mar- 
clieshvan,  the  eighth.  The  name  of  the 
intercalary  month  was  Veadar,  i.  e.  the 
additional  Adar.  —  Subsequently  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Syro-Macedonian  Em- 
pire, the  use  of  the  Macedonian  calendar 
was  gradually  adopted  for  purposes  of  lit- 
erature or  intercommunication  with  other 
countries.  The  only  instance  in  which  the 
Macedonian  names  appear  in  the  Bible  is 
in  2  Mace.  xi.  30,  33,  38,  where  we  hare 
notice  of  Xanthicus  in  combination  with 
another  named  Dioscorinthius  (ver.  21), 
which  does  not  appear  in  the  Macedonian 
calendar.  It  is  most  probable  that  the 
author  of  2  Mace,  or  a  copyist  was  familiar 
with  the  Cretan  calendar,  which  contained 
a  month  named  Dioscurus,  holding  tlie 
same  place  in  the  calendar  as  the  Macedo- 
nian Dystrus,  i.  e.  immediately  before  Xan- 
thicus, and  that  he  substituted  one  for  the 
other.  —  The  identification  of  the  Jewish 
months  with  our  own  cannot  be  effected 
with  precision  on  account  of  the  variations 
that  must  inevitably  exist  between  the  lunar 
and  the  solar  month.  Nisan  (or  Abib)  an- 
swers to  March ;  Zif  or  lyar  to  May ;  Si- 
van to  June ;  Tammuz  to  July ;  Ab  to 
August;  Elul  to  September;  Ethanim  or 
Tisri  to  October ;  Bui  or  Marcheshvan  to 
November ;  Chisleu  to  December ;  Tebeth 
to  January ;  Sebat  to  February ;  and  Adar 
to  March. 

Moon.  The  moon  held  an  important 
place  in  the  kingdom  of  nature,  as  known 
to  the  Hebrews.    In  the  history  of   the 


MOON,  NEW 


427 


MORDEC!AI 


creation  (Gen.  i.  14-16),  it  appears  simul- 
taneouslj  with  the  sun.  Conjointly  with 
the  sun,  it  was  appointed  "  for  signs  and 
for  seasons,  and  for  days  and  years ; " 
though  in  this  respect  it  exercised  a  more 
important  influence,  if  by  the  "  seasons  " 
we  understand  tlie  great  religious  festivals 
of  the  Jews,  as  is  particularly  stated  in  Ps. 
cir.  19,  and  more  at  length  in  Ecclus.  xliii. 
6,  7.  Besides  this,  it  had  its  special  office 
in  the  distribution  of  light ;  it  was  appoint- 
ed "  to  rule  over  the  night,"  as  the  sun 
over  the  day,  and  thus  the  appearance  of 
the  two  founts  of  light  served  "  to  divide 
between  the  day  and  between  the  night." 
The  inferiority  of  its  light  is  occasionally 
noticed,  as  in  Gen.  i.  IG;  in  Cant.  vi.  10; 
and  in  Is.  xxx.  26.  The  coldness  of  the 
night-dews  is  prejudicial  to  the  health,  and 
particularly  to  the  eyes,  of  those  who  are 
exposed  to  it,  and  the  idea  expressed  in  Ps. 
cxxi.  6  may  have  reference  to  the  general 
or  the  particular  evil  effect.  The  worship 
of  the  moon  was  extensively  practised  by 
the  nations  of  the  East,  and  under  a  varie- 
ty of  aspects.  In  Egypt  it  was  honored 
under  the  form  of  Isis,  and  was  one  of  the 
only  two  deities  which  commanded  the  rev- 
erence of  all  the  Egyptians.  In  Syria  it 
was  represented  bj'  that  one  of  the  Ashta- 
roth,  surnaraed  "Karnaim,"  from  the  horns 
of  the  crescent  moon  by  which  she  was 
distinguished.  There  are  indications  of  a 
very  early  introduction  into  the  countries 
adjacent  to  Palestine  of  a  species  of  wor- 
ship distinct  from  any  that  we  have  hither- 
to noticed,  viz.  of  the  direct  homage  gf 
the  heavenly  bodies,  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
which  is  the  characteristic  of  Sabianism. 
The  first  notice  we  have  of  this  is  in  Job 
(xxxi.  26,  27),  and  it  is  observable  that  the 
warning  of  Moses  (Deut.  iv.  19)  is  directed 
against  this  nature-worship,  rather  than 
against  the  form  of  moon-worship,  which 
the  Israelites  must  have  witnessed  in  Egypt. 
At  a  later  period,  however,  the  worship  of 
the  moon  in  its  grosser  form  of  idol-wor- 
ship was  introduced  from  Syria.  In  the 
figurative  language  of  Scripture,  the  moon 
is  frequently  noticed  as  presaging  events 
of  the  greatest  importance  through  the 
temporary  or  permanent  withdrawal  of  its 
light  (Is.  xiii.  10;  Joel  ii.  31;  Matt.  xxiv. 
29;  Mark  xiii.  24). 
Moon,  New.  [New  Moon.] 
Morasthite,  Tlte,  that  is,  the  native  of 
a  place  named  Mokesheth.  It  occurs  twice 
(Jer.  xxvi.  18;  Mic.  i.  1),  each  time  as  the 
description  of  the  prophet  Micah. 

Mor'decai,  the  deliverer,  under  Divine 
Providence,  of  the  Jews  from  the  destruc- 
tion plotted  against  them  by  Haman  the 
chief  minister  of  Xerxes ;  the  institutor  of 
the  feast  of  Purim.  The  incidents  of  his 
history  are  too  well  known  to  need  to  be 
dwelt  upon.     [Esthek.]     It  will  be  more 


useful  to  point  out  his  place  in  sacred,  pro- 
fane, and  rabbinical  history  respectively. 
Three  things  are  predicated  of  Mordecai  in 
the  Book  of  Esther:  (1)  that  he  lived  in 
Shushan  ;  (2)  that  his  name  was  Mordecai, 
son  of  Jair,  son  of  Shimei,  son  of  Kish  tlie 
Benjamite  who  was  taken  captive  with  Je- 
hoiachin ;  (3)  that  he  brought  up  Esther, 
This  genealogy  does  then  fix  with  great  cer- 
tainty the  age  of  Mt)rdecai.  He  was  great 
grandson  of  a  contemporary  of  Jehoiachin. 
Now  four  generations  cover  120  years  — 
and  120  years  from  b.  c.  599  bring  us  to  B. 
c.  479,  i.  e.  to  the  6th  year  of  the  reign  of 
Xerxes.  It  is  probable  that  the  Mordecai 
mentioned  in  Ezr.  ii.  2 ;  Neh.  vii.  7,  as  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  captives  who  returned 
from  time  to  time  from  Babyloii  to  Judaea, 
was  the  same  as  Mordecai  of  the  Book 
of  Esther.  As  regards  his  place  in  prof  ant 
history,  the  domestic  annals  of  the  reign 
of  Xerxes  are  so  scanty,  that  it  would  not 
surprise  us  to  find  no  mention  of  Mordecai. 
But  there  is  a  person  named  by  Ctesias, 
who  probably  saw  the  very  chronicles  of 
the  kings  of  Media  and  Persia  referred  to 
in  Esth.  X.  2,  whose  name  and  character 
present  some  points  of  resemblance  with 
Mordecai,  viz.  Matacas,  or  Natacas,  whom 
he  describes  as  Xerxes'  chief  favorite,  and 
the  most  powerful  of  them  all.  He  relates 
of  him,  that  when  Xerxes,  after  his  return 
from  Greece,  had  commissioned  Megabyzus 
to  go  and  plunder  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  upon  his  refusal,  he  sent  Matacas 
the  eunuch,  to  insult  the  god,  and  to  plun- 
der his  property,  which  Matacas  did,  and 
returned  to  Xerxes.  The  known  hatred  of 
Xerxes  to  idol-worship  makes  his  selec- 
tion of  a  Jew  for  his  prime  minister  very 
probable,  and  there  are  strong  points  of 
resemblance  in  what  is  thus  related  of  Mat- 
acas, and  what  we  know  from  Scripture  of 
Mordecai.  Again,  that  Mordecai  Wtos, 
what  Matacas  is  related  to  have  been,  a 
eunuch,  seems  not  improbable  from  his 
having  neither  wife  nor  child,  from  his 
bringing  up  his  cousin  Esther  in  his  own 
house,  from  his  situation  in  the  king's  gate, 
from  his  access  to  the  court  of  the  women, 
and  from  his  being  raised  to  the  highest 
post  of  power  by  the  king,  which  we  know 
from  Persian  history  was  so  often  the  case 
with  the  king's  eunuchs.  If  we  suppose 
the  original  form  of  the  name  to  have  been 
Matacai,  it  would  easily  in  the  Chaldee  or- 
thography become  Morde;Mi.  As  re'gards 
his  place  in  Rabbinical  estimation,  Morde- 
cai, as  is  natural,  stands  very  high.  The 
interpolations  in  the  Greek  book  of  Esther 
are  one  indication  of  his  popularity  with  his 
countrymen.  The  Targum  (of  late  date) 
shows  that  this  increased  rather  than  di- 
minished with  the  lapse  of  centuries.  It  is 
said  of  Mordecai  that  he  knew  the  seventy 
languages,  i.  e.  the  languiges  of  all  tho 


MOEEH 


428 


MORTAR 


nations  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.,  which  the 
Jews  count  as  seventy  nations,  and  that  his 
age  exceeded  400  years.  He  is  continually 
designated  by  the  appellation  "  the  Just." 
Benjamin  of  Tudcla  places  the  tomb  of 
Mordecai  and  Esther  at  Hamadan,  or  Ecbat- 
ana.  Others,  however,  place  the  tomb  of 
Mordecai  in  Susa. 

Mo'reh.  1.  The  Plain,  or  Plains  (or, 
as  it  should  rather  be  rendered,  the  Oak 
or  Oaks),  of  Moreh.  The  Oak  of  Moreh 
was  the  first  recorded  halting-place  of 
Abram  after  his  entrance  into  the  land  of 
Canaan  (Gen.  xii.  G) .  It  was  at  the  "place 
of  Shechcm"  (xii.  C),  close  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Ebal  and  Gerizim  (Deut.  xi.  30). 
There  is  reason  for  believing  that  this  place, 
the  scene  of  so  important  an  occurrence  in 
Abram's  early  residence  in  Canaan,  may 
have  been  also  that  of  one  even  more  im- 
portant, the  crisis  of  his  later  life,  the  of- 
fering of  Isaac,  on  a  mountain  in  '*  the 
land  of  Moriah."  Whether  the  oaks  of 
Moreh  had  any  connection  with  —  2.  The 
Hill  of  Moreh,  at  the  foot  of  which  the 
Midianites  and  Amalekites  were  encamped 
before  Gideon's  attack  upon  them  (Judg. 
vii.  1),  seems,  to  say  the  least,  most  uncer- 
tain. But  a  comparison  of  Judg.  vi.  33 
with  vii.  1  makes  it  evident  that  it  lay  in 
the  valley  of  Jezrcel,  rather  on  the  north 
Bide  of  the  valley,  and  north  also  of  the 
eminence  on  which  Gideon's  little  band  of 
heroes  was  clustered.  These  conditions 
are  most  accurately  fulfilled  if  we  assume 
Jebel  ed-Duhy,  the  "Little  Hermon"  of 
the  modern  travellers,  to  be  Moreh,  the 
Ain-Jalood  to  be  the  spring  of  Harod,  and 
Gideon's  position  to  have  been  on  the  north- 
east slope  of  Jehel  Fuk&a  (Mount  Gilboa), 
between  the  village  of  Nuris  and  the  last- 
mentioned  spring. 

Mor'eslieth-gath,  a  place  named  by 
the  prophet  Micah  only  (Mic.  i.  14),  in 
company  with  Lachish,  Achzib,  Mareshah, 
and  other  towns  of  the  lowland  district  of 
Judah.  Micah  was  himself  the  native  of 
a  place  called  Morcsheth.  Eusebius  and 
Jerome,  in  the  Onomasticon,  describe  Mo- 
rasthi  as  a  moderate-sized  village  near 
Eleuthcropolis,  to  the  east. 

Mori'ah.  1.  The  Land  of  Moriah. 
On  "  one  of  the  mountains"  in  this  district 
took  place  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii. 
2).  What  the  name  of  the  mountain  was 
we  are  not  told ;  but  it  was  a  conspicuous 
one,  visible  from  "  afar  oif"  (ver.  4).  Nor 
does  the  narrative  afford  any  data  for  ascer- 
taining its  position.  It  is  most  natural  to 
take  the  "land  of  Moriah"  as  the  same 
district  with  that  in  which  the  "  Oak  (A. 
V.  '  plain ')  of  Moreh  "  was  situated,  and 
not  as  that  which  contains  Jerusalem,  as 
the  modern  tra  iition,  which  would  identify 
the  Moriah  of  jten.  xxii.  and  that  of  2  Chr. 
iii.  1,  affirujs.    2.  Moc^x  Moriah.    The 


name  ascribed,  in  2  Chr.  iii.  1  only,  to  the 
eminence  on  which  Solomon  built  the  Tem- 
ple ;  "  where  He  appeared  to  David  his 
father,  in  a  place  which  David  prepared  in 
the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah  tlie  Jebu- 
site."  From  the  mention  of  Araunah,  the 
inference  is  natural  that  the  "  appearance" 
alluded  to  occurred  at  the  time  of  the  pur- 
chase of  the  threshing-floor  by  David,  and 
his  erection  thereon  of  the  altar  (2  Sam. 
xxiv. ;  1  Chr.  xxi.).  But  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  nothing  is  said  in  the  narratives 
of  that  event  of  any  "  appearance  "  of  Je- 
hovah. A  tradition  which  first  appears  in 
a  definite  shape  in  Josephus,  and  is  now 
almost  universally  accepted,  asserts  that 
the  "  Mount  Moriah  "  of  the  Chronicles  is 
identical  with  the  "  mountain  "  in  "  tlie  land 
of  Moriah  "  of  Genesis,  and  that  the  spot 
on  which  Jehovah  appeared  to  David,  and 
on  which  the  Temple  was  built,  was  the 
very  spot  of  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac.  But 
the  single  occurrence  of  the  name  in  this 
one  passage  of  Chronicles  is  surely  not 
enough  to  establish  a  coincidence,  which  if 
we  consider  it,  is  little  short  of  miraculous. 
Except  in  the  case  of  Salem  —  and  that  is 
by  no  means  ascertained  —  the  name  of 
Abraham  does  not  appear  once  in  connec- 
tion with  Jerusalem  or  the  later  royal  or 
ecclesiastical  glories  of  Israel.  Jerusalem 
lies  out  of  the  path  of  the  patriarchs,  and 
has  no  part  in  the  history  of  Israel  till  the 
establishment  of  the  monarchy.  But  in 
addition  to  this,  Jerusalem  is  incompatible 
with  the  circumstances  of  the  narrative  of 
Gen.  xxii.  To  name  only  two  instances  — 
(1.)  The  Temple  mount  cannot  be  spoken 
of  as  a  conspicuous  eminence.  It  is  not 
visible  till  the  traveller  is  close  upon  it  at 
the  southern  edge  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom, 
from  whence  he  looks  down  upon  it  as  on  a 
lower  eminence.  (2.)  If  Salem  was  Jeru- 
salem, then  the  trial  of  Abraham'^  faith, 
instead  of  taking  place  in  the  lonely  and 
desolate  spot  implied  by  the  narrative, 
where  not  even  fire  was  to  be  obtained,  and 
where  no  help  but  that  of  the  Almighty  was 
nigh,  actually  took  place  under  the  very 
walls  of  the  city  of  Melchizedek.  But, 
while  there  is  no  trace  except  in  the  single 
passage  quoted  of  Moriah  being  attached 
to  any  part  of  Jerusalem  —  on  the  other 
hand,  in  the  slightly  different  form  of  Mo- 
reh, it  did  exist  attached  to  the  town  and 
the  neighborhood  of  Shechem,  the  spot  of 
Abram's  first  residence  in  Palestine. 

Mortar.  The  simplest  and  probably 
most  ancient  method  of  preparing  corn  for 
food  was  by  pounding  it  between  two  stones. 
The  Israelites  in  the  desert  appear  to  have 
possessed  mortars  and  handmills  among 
their  necessary  domestic  utensils.  When 
the  manna  fell  they  gathered  it,  and  either 
ground  it  in  the  mill  or  pounded  it  in  the 
mortar  till  it  was  fit  for  use  (Num.  xi.  8). 


MORTER 


429 


MOSES 


So  in  the  present  day  stone  mortars  are 
used  by  the  Arabs  to  pound  wheat  for  their 
national  dish  kibby.  Another  word  occur- 
ring in  Prov.  xxvii.  22,  probably  denotes  a 
mortar  of  a  larger  kind  in  which  corn  was 
pounded.  "Though  thou  bray  the  fool  in 
the  mortar  among  the  bruised  corn  with  the 
pestle,  yet  will  not  his  folly  depart  from 
liim."  Corn  may  be  separated  from  its 
husk  and  all  its  good  properties  preserved 
by  such  an  operation,  but  the  fool's  folly  is 
so  essential  a  part  of  himself  that  no  anal- 
ogous process  can  remove  it  from  him. 
Such  seems  the  natural  interpretation  of 
this  remarkable  proverb.  The  language  is 
intentionally  exaggerated,  and  there  is  no 
necessity  for  supposing  an  allusion  to  a 
mode  of  punishment  by  which  criminals 
were  put  to  death  by  being  pounded  in  a 
mortar.  A  custom  of  this  kind  existed 
among  the  Turks,  but  there  is  no  distinct 
trace  of  it  among  the  Hebrews.  Such, 
however,  is  supposed  to  be  the  reference  in 
the  proverb  by  Mr.  Roberts,  who  illustrates 
it  from  his  Indian  experience. 

Morter  (Gen.  xi.  3 ;  Ex.  i.  14 ;  Lev.  xiv. 
42,  45;  Is.  xli.  25;  Ex.  xiii.  10,  11,  14,  15, 
xxii.  28 ;  Nah.  iii.  14).  The  various  com- 
pacting substances  used  in  Oriental  build- 
ings appear  to  be  —  1.  bitumen,  as  in  the 
Babylonian  structures ;  2.  common  mud  or 
moistened  clay ;  3.  a  very  firm  cement  com- 
pounded of  sand,  ashes,  and  lime,  in  the 
proportions  respectively  of  1,  2,  3,  well 
pounded,  sometimes  mixed  and  sometimes 
coated  with  oil,  so  as  to  form  a  surface  al- 
most impenetrable  to  wet  or  the  weather. 
In  Assyrian  and  also  Egyptian  brick  build- 
ings, stubble  or  straw,  as  hair  or  wool  among 
ourselves,  was  added  to  increase  the  te- 
nacity. 

Mo'serah,  Deut.  x.  6,  apparently  the 
same  as  Moseroth.,  Num.  xxxiii.  30,  its 
plural  form,  the  name  of  a  place  near  Mount 
Hor. 

Mo'ses  (Heb.  MdsJieh  =  "  drawn  "),  the 
legislator  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  in  a 
certain  sense  the  founder  of  the  Jewish 
religion.  His  birth  and  education.  The 
immediate  pedigree  of  Moses  is  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

Levi 
I 


Cterahon  Kohath  Meraii 

Aioram  o  Jochebed 
I 

Hur— Miriam    Aaron  ~Elisheb»     MoBEB  —  Zipporah 


Kadab     Abiba      Eleazar      Tthamar     Genhoni      £Uezer 


The  fact  that  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Levi 
no  doubt  contributed  to  the  selection  of 
that  tribe  as  the  sacred  caste.  The  story 
of  his  birth  is  thoroughly  Egyptian  in  its 


scene.  The  beauty  of  the  new-bom  babe 
induced  the  mother  to  make  extraordinary 
efforts  for  its  preservation  from  the  general 
destruction  of  the  male  children  of  Israel. 
For  three  months  the  child  was  concealed 
in  the  house.  Then  his  mother  placed  him 
in  a  small  boat  or  basket  of  papyrus,  closed 
against  the  water  by  bitumen.  This  was 
placed  among  the  aquatic  vegetation  by  the 
side  of  one  of  the  canals  of  the  Nile.  The 
mother  departed  as  if  unable  to  bear  the 
sight.  The  sister  lingered  to  watch  her 
brother's  fate.  The  Egyptian  princess  came 
down,  after  the  Homeric  simplicity  of  the 
age,  to  bathe  in  the  sacred  river.  Her  at- 
tendant slaves  followed  her.  She  saw  the 
basket  in  the  flags,  and  despatched  divers 
after  it.  The  divers,  or  one  of  the  female 
slaves,  brought  it.  It  was  opened,  and  the 
cry  of  the  child  moved  the  princess  to  com- 
passion. She  determined  to  rear  it  as  her 
own.  The  sister  was  at  hand  to  recom- 
mend a  Hebrew  nurse.  The  child  was 
brought  up  as  the  princess's  son,  and  the 
memory  of  the  incident  was  long  cherished 
in  the  name  given  to  the  foundling  of  the 
water's  side  —  whether  according  to  its  He- 
brew or  Egyptian  form.  Its  Hebrew  form 
is  Mdsheh,  from  Mdshdh,  "  to  draw  out"  — 
"  because  I  have  drawn  him  out  of  the 
water."  But  this  is  probably  the  Hebrew 
form  given  to  a  foreign  word.  In  Coptic, 
mo  =  water,  and  ushe  =  saved.  This  is  the 
explanation  given  by  Josephus.  The  child 
was  adopted  by  the  princess.  From  this 
time  for  many  years  Moses  must  be  con- 
sidered as  an  Egyptian.  In  the  Pentateuch 
this  period  is  a  blank,  but  in  the  N.  T.  he 
is  represented  as  "  educated  in  all  the  wis- 
dom of  the  Egyptians,"  and  as  "  mighty  in 
words  and  deeds  "  (Acts  vii.  22).  But  the 
time  at  last  arrived  when  he  was  resolved 
to  reclaim  his  nationality  (Heb.  xi.  24-26). 
Seeing  an  Israelite  suffering  the  bastina- 
do from  an  Egyptian,  and  thinking  that 
they  were  alone,  he  slew  the  Egyptian,  and 
buried  the  corpse  in  the  sand.  The  firo  of 
patriotism  which  thus  turned  him  into  a 
deliverer  from  the  oppressors,  turns  him 
into  the  peace-maker  of  the  oppressed.  It 
is  characteristic  of  the  faithfulness  of  the 
Jewish  records  that  his  flight  is  there  occa- 
sioned rather  by  the  malignity  of  his  coun- 
trymen than  by  the  enmity  of  the  Egyptians. 
He  fled  into  Midian.  Beyond  the  fact  that 
it  was  in  or  near  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  its 
precise  situation  is  unknown.  There  was 
a  famous  well  ("  the  well,"  Ex.  ii.  15)  sur- 
rounded by  tanks  for  the  watering  of  the 
flocks  of  the  Bedouin  herdsmen.  By  this 
well  the  ftigitive  seated  himself,  and  watched 
the  gathering  of  the  sheep.  There  were 
the  Arabian  shepherds,  and  there  were  also 
seven  maidens,  whom  the  shepherds  rudely 
drove  away  fi-om  the  water.  The  chival- 
rous spirit  which  had  already  broken  forth 


MOSES 


430 


MOSES 


in  behalf  of  his  oppressed  countrymen, 
broke  forth  again  in  behalf  of  tiie  distressed 
maidens.  Tliey  returned  unusually  soon  to 
their  father,  and  told  him  of  their  adven- 
ture. Moses,  who  up  to  this  time  had  been 
"  an  Egyptian  "  (Ex.  ii.  19),  now  became 
for  forty  years  (Acts  vii.  30),  an  Arabian. 
He  married  Zipporah,  daughter  of  his  host, 
to  whom  he  also  became  the  slave  and 
ehepherd  (Ex.  ii.  21,  iii.  1).  But  the  chief 
effect  of  this  stay  in  Arabia  is  on  Moses 
liimself.  It  was  in  the  seclusion  and  sim- 
plicity of  his  shepherd-life  that  he  received 
his  call  as  a  prophet.  The  traditional  scene 
of  this  great  event  is  in  the  valley  of  Shoayb, 
or  Hobab,  on  the  N.  side  of  Jebel  Musa. 
The  original  indications  are  too  slight  to 
enable  us  to  fix  the  spot  with  any  certainty. 
It  was  at  "  the  back  of  the  wilderness  " 
at  Horeb  (Ex.  iii.  1),  '*  the  mountain  of 
God."  Upon  the  mountain  was  a  well- 
known  acacia,  the  thorn-tree  of  the  des- 
ert, spreading  out  its  tangled  branches 
thick  set  witli  white  thorn,  over  the  rocky 
ground.  It  was  this  tree  which  became  the 
symbol  of  the  Divine  Presence ;  a  flame 
of  fire  in  the  midst  of  it,  in  which  the  dry 
branches  would  naturally  have  crackled 
and  burnt  in  a  moment,  but  wliich  played 
around  it  without  consuming  it.  The  rocky 
ground  at  once  became  "holy,"  and  the 
shepherd's  sandal  was  to  be  taken  off  no 
less  than  on  the  threshold  of  a  palace  or  a 
temple.  The  call  or  revelation  was  two- 
fold—  1.  The  declaration  of  the  Sacred 
Name  expresses  the  eternal  self-existence 
of  the  One  God.  2.  The  mission  was  given 
to  Moses  to  deliver  his  people.  The  two 
signs  are  characteristic  —  the  one  of  his 
past  Egyptian  life  —  the  other  of  his  active 
shepherd  life.  In  the  rush  of  leprosy  into 
his  hand  is  the  link  between  him  and  the 
people  whom  the  Egyptians  called  a  nation 
of  lepers.  In  the  transformation  of  his 
shepherd's  staff  is  the  glorification  of  the 
simple  pastoral  life,  of  which  that  staff  was 
the  symbol,  into  the  great  career  which  lay 
before  it.  He  returns  to  Egypt  from  his 
exile.  His  Arabian  wife  and  her  two  infant 
sons  are  with  him.  She  is  seated  with  them 
on  the  ass.  He  apparently  walks  by  their 
side  with  his  shepherd's  staff.  On  the 
journey  back  to  Egypt  a  mysterious  in- 
cident occurred  in  the  family.  The  most 
probable  explanation  seems  to  be,  that  at 
the  caravanserai  either  Moses  or  Gershom 
■was  struck  with  what  seemed  to  be  a  mortal 
illness.  In  some  way  this  illness  was  con- 
nected by  Zipporah  with  the  fact  that  her 
son  had  not  been  circumcised.  She  in- 
stantly performed  the  rite,  and  threw  the 
sharp  instrument,  stained  with  the  fresh 
blood,  at  the  feet  of  her  husband,  exclaim- 
ing in  the  agony  of  a  mother's  anxiety  for 
the  life  of  her  child  —  "A  bloody  husband 
thou  art,  to  cause  the  death  of  my  son." 


Then,  when  the  recovery  from  the  illness 
took  place,  she  exclaims  again,  "A  bloody 
husband  still  thou  art,  but  not  so  as  to  cause 
the  child's  death,  but  only  to  bring  about  hia 
circumcision."  It  would  seem  to  have  been 
in  consequence  of  this  event,  whatever  it 
was,  that  the  wife  and  her  children  were 
sent  back  to  Jethro,  and  remained  with  him 
till  Moses  joined  them  at  Rephidim  (Ex. 
xviii.  2-6) .  After  this  parting  he  advanced 
into  the  desert,  and  at  the  same  spot  where 
he  had  had  his  vision  encountered  Aaron 
(Ex.  iv.  27).  From  that  meeting  and  co- 
operation we  have  the  first  distinct  indi- 
cation of  his  personal  appearance  and 
character.  But  beyond  the  slight  glance  at 
his  infantine  beauty,  no  hint  of  this  grand 
personality  is  given  in  the  Bible.  What  is 
described  is  rather  the  reverse.  The  only 
point  there  brought  out  is  a  singular  and 
unlooked-for  infirmity.  "  I  am  slow  of 
speech  and  of  a  slow  tongue."  In  the  solu- 
tion of  this  difficulty  which  Moses  offers, 
we  read  both  the  disinterestedness,  wliich  is 
the  most  distinct  trait  of  his  personal 
character,  and  the  future  relation  of  the 
two  brothers.  Aaron  spoke  and  acted  for 
Moses,  and  was  the  permanent  inheritor  of 
the  sacred  staff  of  power.  But  Moses  waa 
the  inspiring  soul  behind.  The  history  of 
Moses  henceforth  is  the  history  of  Israel  for 
forty  years.  It  is  important  to  trace  his 
relation  to  his  immediate  circle  of  followers. 
In  the  Exodus,  he  takes  the  decisive  lead 
on  the  night  of  the  flight.  Up  to  that  point 
he  and  Aarop  appear  almost  on  an  equality. 
But  after  that,  Moses  is  usually  mentioned 
alone.  Aaron  still  held  the  second  place. 
Another,  nearly  equal  to  Aaron,  is  Hur,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah.  Miriam  always  held 
the  independent  position  to  which  her  age 
entitled  her.  Her  part  waa  to  supply  the 
voice  and  song  to  her  brother's  prophetic 
power.  But  Moses  is  incontestably  the 
chief  personage  of  the  history,  in  a  sense  in 
which  no  one  else  is  described  before  or 
since.  He  was  led  into  a  closer  com- 
munion with  the  invisible  world  than  waa 
vouchsafed  to  any  other  in  the  O.  T.  There 
are  two  main  characters  in  which  he  ap- 
pears —  as  a  Leader  and  as  a  Prophet,  (a.) 
Asa  Leader,  his  life  divides  itself  into  the 
three  epochs  —  of  the  march  to  Sinai ;  the 
march  from  Sinai  to  Kadesh ;  and  the  con- 
quest of  the  Trans-Jordanic  kingdoms.  Of 
his  natural  gifts  in  this  capacity,  we  have 
but  few  means  of  judging.  The  two  main 
difficulties  which  he  encountered  were  the 
reluctance  of  the  people  to  submit  to  his 
guidance,  and  the  impracticable  nature  of 
the  country  which  they  had  to  traverse. 
The  incidents  with  which  his  name  was 
especially  connected  both  in  the  sacred  nar- 
rative, and  in  the  Jewish,  Arabian,  and 
heathen  traditions,  were  those  of  suppljing 
water,  when  most  wanted.    In  the  Pen- 


MOSES 


431 


MOSES 


tateuch  these  supplies  of  water  take  place 
at  Marah,  at  Horeb,  at  Kadesh,  and  in  the 
land  of  Moab.  Of  the  three  first  of  these 
incidents,  traditional  sites,  bearing  his 
name,  are  shown  in  the  desert  at  the 
present  day,  though  most  of  them  are  re- 
jected by  modern  travellers.  The  route 
through  the  wilderness  is  described  as  hav- 
ing been  made  under  his  guidance.  The 
particular  spot  of  the  encampment  is  fixed 
by  the  cloudy  pillar.  But  the  direction  of 
the  people  first  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  then 
to  Mount  Sinai,  is  communicated  through 
Moses,  or  given  by  him.  On  approaching 
Palestine  the  office  of  the  leader  becomes 
blended  with  that  of  the  general  or  the  con- 
queror. By  Moses  the.  spies  were  sent  to 
explore  the  country.  Against  his  advice 
took  place  tlie  first  disastrous  battle  at 
Hormah.  To  his  guidance  is  ascribed  the 
circuitous  route  by  which  the  nation  ap- 
proached Palestine  from  the  east,  and  to  his 
generalship  the  two  successful  campaigns 
in  which  Sihon  and  Og  were  defeated. 
The  narrative  is  told  so  shortly,  that  we 
are  in  danger  of  forgetting  that  at  this  last 
stage  of  his  life  Moses  must  have  been  as 
much  a  conqueror  and  victorious  soldier  as 
Joshua,  (i.)  His  character  as  a  Prophet 
is,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  more  dis- 
tinctly brouglit  out.  He  is  the  first  as  he 
is  the  greatest  example  of  a  prophet  in  the 
O.  T.  In  a  certain  sense,  he  appears  as 
the  centre  of  a  prophetic  circle,  now  for 
the  first  time  named.  His  brother  and 
sister  were  both  endowed  with  prophetic 
gifts.  The  seventy  elders,  and  Eldad  and 
Medad  also,  all  "prophesied"  (Num.  xi. 
25-27).  But  Moses  rose  high  above  all 
these.  With  him  the  Divine  revelations 
were  made,  "mouth  to  mouth,  even  ap- 
parently, and  not  in  dark  speeches,  and  the 
similitude  of  Jehovah  shall  he  behold" 
(Num.  xii.  8).  Of  the  especial  modes  of  this 
more  direct  communication,  four  great  ex- 
amples are  given,  corresponding  to  four 
critical  epochs  in  his  historical  career.  (1.) 
The  appearance  of  the  Divine  presence  in 
the  flaming  acacia-tree  has  been  already 
noticed.  No  form  is  described.  "  The 
Angel,"  or  "  Messenger,"  is  spoken  of  as 
being  "in  the  flame"  (Ex.  iii.  2-6).  (2.) 
In  the  giving  of  the  Law  from  Mount  Sinai, 
the  outward  form  of  the  revelation  was  a 
thick  darkness  as  of  a  thunder-cloud,  out 
of  which  proceeded  a  voice  (Ex.  xix.  19, 
XX.  21).  The  revelation  on  this  occasion 
was  especially  of  the  Name  of  Jehovah. 
On  two  occasions  he  is  described  as  having 
penetrated  within  the  darkness,  and  re- 
mained there  successively,  for  two  periods 
of  forty  days,  of  which  the«econd  was  spent 
in  absolute  seclusion  and  fasting  (Ex.  xxiv. 
18,  xxxiv.  28).  (3.)  It  was  nearly  at  the 
close  of  those  communications  in  the  moun- 
taios  of  Sinai  that  an  especial  revelation 


was  made  to  him  personally.  In  the  de- 
spondency produced  by  the  apostasy  of  the 
molten  calf,  he  besought  Jehovah  to  show 
him  "  His  glory."  The  Divine  answer  an- 
nounced that  an  actual  vision  of  God  was 
impossible.  "  Thou  canst  not  see  my  face ; 
for  there  shall  no  man  see  my  face  and  live." 
He  was  commanded  to  hew  two  blocks  of 
stone,  like  those  which  he  had  destroyed. 
He  was  to  come  absolutely  alone.  He  took 
his  place  on  a-  well-known  or  prominent 
rock  ("  the  rock  ")  (xxxiii.  21).  The  cloud 
passed  by  (xxxiv.  5,  xxxiii.  22).  A  voice 
proclaimed  the  two  immutable  attributes 
of  God,  Justice  and  Love  —  in  words  which 
became  part  of  the  religious  creed  of  Israel 
and  of  the  world  (xxxiv.  6,  7).  (4.)  The 
fourth  mode  of  Divine  manifestation  was 
that  which  is  described  as  commencing  at 
this  juncture,  and  which  continued  with 
more  or  less  continuity  through  the  rest  of 
his  career.  Immediately  after  the  catas- 
trophe of  the  worship  of  the  calf,  and  ap- 
parently in  consequence  of  it,  Moses  re- 
moved the  chief  tent  outside  the  camp,  and 
invested  it  with  a  sacred  character  under 
the  name  of  "  the  Tent  or  Tabernacle  of  the 
congregation"  (xxxiii.  7).  This  tent  be- 
came henceforth  the  chief  scene  of  his  com- 
munications with  God.  It  was  during  these 
communications  that  a  peculiarity  is  men- 
tioned which  apparently  had  not  been  seen 
before.  It  was  on  his  final  descent  from 
Mount  Sinai,  after  his  second  long  seclu- 
sion, that  a  splendor  shone  on  his  face,  as 
if  from  the  glory  of  the  Divine  Presence. 
There  is  another  form  of  the  prophetic  gift, 
in  which  Moses  more  nearly  resembles  the 
later  prophets.  It  is  clear  that  the  pro- 
phetical office,  as  represented  in  the  history 
of  Moses,  included  the  poetical  form  of 
composition  which  characterizes  the  Jewish 
prophecy  generally.  These  poetical  utter- 
ances, whether  connected  with  Moses  by 
ascription  or  by  actual  authorship,  enter  so 
largely  into  the  full  Biblical  conception  of 
his  character,  that  they  must  be  here  men- 
tioned. 1.  "The  song  which  Moses  and 
the  children  of  Israel  sung  "  (after  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Red  Sea,  Ex.  xv.  1-19).  2.  A 
fragment  of  a  war-song  against  Amalek 
(Ex.  xvii.  16).  3.  A  fragment  of  a  lyrical 
burst  of  indignation  (Ex.  xxxii.  18).  4. 
Probably,  either  from  him  or  his  immediate 
prophetic  followers,  the  fragments  of  war- 
songs  in  Num.  xxi.  14, 15,  27-30,  preserved 
in  the  "  book  of  the  wars  of  Jehovah,"  Num. 
xxi.  14 ;  and  the  address  to  the  well,  xxi. 
16,  17,  18.  6.  The  Song  of  Moses  (Deut. 
xxxii.  1-43),  setting  forth  the  greatness  and 
the  failings  of  Israel.  6.  The  blessing  of 
Moses  on  the  tribes  (Deut.  xxxiii.  1-29). 
7.  The  90th  Psalm,  "A  prayer  of  Moses, 
the  man  of  God."  The  title,  like  all  the 
titles  of  the  Psalms,  is  of  doubtful  authority, 
and  the  Psalm  has  often  been  referred  to  a 


MOSES 


432 


MOSES 


later  author.  How  far  the  gradual  devel- 
opment of  these  revelations  or  prophetic 
utterances  had  any  connection  with  his  own 
character  and  history,  the  materials  are  not 
Buch  as  to  justify  any  decisive  judgment. 
His  Egyptian  education  must,  on  the  one 
hand,  have  supplied  him  with  much  of  the 
ritual  of  the  Israelite  worship.  The  coin- 
cidences between  the  arrangements  of  the 
priesthood,  the  dress,  the  sacrifices,  the  ark, 
in  the  two  countries,  are  decisive.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  proclamation  of  the  Unity 
of  God  implies  distinct  antagonism,  almost 
a  conscious  recoil  against  the  Egyptian  sys- 
tem. And  the  absence  of  the  doctrine  of  a 
future  state  proves  at  least  a  remarkable 
independence  of  the  Egyptian  theology,  in 
which  that  great  doctrine  held  so  promi- 
nent a  place.  The  prophetic  office  of  Moses 
can  only  be  fully  considered  in  connection 
with  his  whole  character  and  appearance 
(Hos.  xii.  13).  He  was  in  a  sense  peculiar 
to  himself  the  founder  and  representative 
of  his  people.  And  in  accordance  with  this 
complete  identification  of  himself  with  his 
nation  is  the  only  strong  personal  trait 
which  we  are  able  to  gather  from  his  his- 
tory (Num.  xii.  3).  The  word  "  meek"  is 
hardly  an  adequate  reading  of  the  Hebrew 
term,  which  should  be  rather  "much  en- 
during." It  represents  what  we  should  now 
designate  by  the  word  "  disinterested."  All 
that  is  told  of  him  indicates  a  withdrawal 
of  himself,  a  preference  of  the  cause  of  his 
nation  to  his  own  interests,  which  makes 
him  the  most  complete  example  of  Jewish 
patriotism.  In  exact  conformity  with  his 
life  is  the  account  of  his  end.  The  Book 
of  Deuteronomy  describes,  and  is,  the  long 
last  farewell  of  the  prophet  to  his  people. 
It  takes  place  on  the  first  day  of  the 
eleventh  month  of  the  fortieth  year  of  the 
wanderings,  in  the  plains  of  Moab  (Deut.  i. 
3,  5).  He  is  described  as  120  years  of  age, 
but  with  his  sight  and  his  freshness  of 
strength  unabated  (Deut.  xxxiv.  7).  The 
address  from  ch.  i.  to  ch.  xxx.  contains  the 
recapitulation  of  the  Law.  Joshua  is  then 
appointed  his  successor.  The  Law  is  writ- 
ten out,  and  ordered  to  be  deposited  in  the 
^k  (ch.  xxxi.).  The  song  and  the  blessing 
of  the  tribes  conclude  the  farewell  (ch. 
Kxxii.,  xxxiii.).  And  then  comes  the  mys- 
terious close.  As  if  to  carry  out  to  the  last 
the  idea  that  the  prophet  was  to  live,  not  for 
himself,  but  for  his  people,  he  is  told  that 
he  is  to  see  the  good  land  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan, but  not  to  possess  it  himself.  The  sin 
for  which  this  penalty  was  imposed  on  the 
prophet  is  difficult  to  ascertain  clearly.  He 
ascends  a  mountain  in  the  range  which  rises 
above  the  Jordan  valley.  The  mountain 
tract  was  known  by  the  general  name  of 
THE  PisGAH.  Its  summits  apparently  were 
dedicated  to  different  divinities  (Num.  xxiii. 
li).     On  one  of  these,  consecrated  to  Nebo, 


Moses  took  his  stand,  and  surveyed  the  four 
great  masses  of  Palestine  west  of  the  Jordan 
—  so  far  as  it  could  be  discerned  from  that 
height.  The  view  has  passed  into  a  prov- 
erb for  all  nations.  "  So  Moses  the  ser- 
vant of  Jehovah  died  there  in  the  land  of 
Moab,  according  to  the  word  of  Jehovah, 
and  He  buried  him  in  a  '  ravine  '  in  the  land 
of  Moab, '  before  '  Beth-peor  —  but  no  man 
knoweth  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day.  .  .  . 
And  the  children  of  Israel  wept  for  Moses 
in  the  plains  of  Moab  thirty  days  "  (Deut. 
xxxiv.  5,  8).  This  is  all  that  is  said  in  the 
sacred  record.  Jewish,  Arabian,  and  Chris- 
tian traditions  have  labored  to  fill  up  the 
detail.  His  grave,  though  studiously  con- 
cealed in  the  sacred  narrative,  is  shown  by 
the  Mussulmans  on  the  west  (and  therefore 
the  wrong)  side  of  the  Jordan,  between  the 
Dead  Sea  and  St.  Saba.  In  the  O.  T.  the 
name  of  Moses  does  not  occur  so  frequent- 
ly, after  the  close  of  the  Pentateuch,  aa 
might  be  expected.  In  the  Psalms  and  the 
Prophets,  however,  he  is  frequently  named 
as  the  chief  of  the  prophets.  In  the  N.  T. 
he  is  referred  to  partly  as  the  representative 
of  the  Law  — as  in  the  numerous  passages 
cited  above  —  and  in  the  vision  of  the 
Transfiguration,  where  he  appears  side  by 
side  with  Elijah.  As  the  author  of  the  Law 
he  is  contrasted  with  Christ,  the  Author 
of  the  Gospel :  "  The  Law  was  given  by 
Moses"  (John  i.  17).  The  ambiguity  and 
transitory  nature  of  his  glory  are  set  against 
the  permanence  and  clearness  of  Christian- 
ity (2  Cor.  iii.  13-18),  and  his  mediatorial 
character  against  the  unbroken  communica- 
tion of  God  in  Christ  (Gal.  iii.  19).  His  "ser- 
vice "  of  God  is  contrasted  with  Christ's  son- 
ship  (Heb.  iii.  5,6).  But  he  is  also  spoken  of 
as  a  likeness  of  Christ ;  and  as  this  is  a  point 
of  view  which  has  been  almost  lost  in  the 
Church,  compared  with  the  more  familiar 
comparisons  of  Christ  to  Adam,  David, 
Joshua,  and  yet  has  as  firm  a  basis  in  fact 
as  any  of  them,  it  may  be  well  to  draw  it 
out  in  detail.  1.  Moses  is,  as  it  would 
seem,  the  only  character  of  the  O.  T.  to 
whom  Christ  expressly  likens  Himself : 
"Moses  wrote  of  me"  (John  v.  46).  It 
suggests  three  main  points  of  likeness : 
(a.)  Christ  was,  like  Moses,  the  great 
Prophet  of  the  people  —  the  last,  as  Moses 
was  the  first.  (6.)  Christ,  like  Moses,  is 
a  Lawgiver:  "Him  shall  ye  hear."  (c.) 
Christ,  like  Moses,  was  a  Prophet  out  of 
the  midst  of  the  nation,  "  from  their  breth- 
ren." As  Moses  was  the  entire  represen- 
tative of  his  people,  feeling  for  them  more 
than  for  himself,  absorbed  in  their  inter- 
ests, hopes,  and  fears,  so,  with  reverence 
be  it  said,  was  Christ.  2.  In  Heb.  iii.  1-19, 
xii.  24-29,  Acts  vii.  37,  Christ  is  described, 
though  more  obscurely,  as  the  Moses  of 
the  new  dispensation  —  as  the  Apostle,  or 
Messenger,  or  Mediator,  of  God  to  the  peo- 


MOTH 


43? 


MOURNING 


3  s<>int;tiints, 
_  I  (Acts  vii.  2-1 
ailusmn  lu  uv 


or  -i 
:~:  bo.; 


'  '  ■" ')  '  town  /sV<«- 

;im  its  situH- 
X  Gerizim.    8. 
i  to  Mount  Ei>h ra- 
id to  Lebanon,  2 
L     TTsed  also  for 
Sftm.  xxir.  3.     9. 
i  ■  "  iu   1  Sam. 
,  "  to  hidi;," 


di;  18,  " 


■•-•  tar  Jo  Ihfc  j».  ■ 
.  of  Olivea,  tht 

iVTountiiin  of  tho  Ammorites,  sp<;- 

.isf  of  tho  I  44 ) .     it  seoiv*  to  bo  IIk-  .>s 

ud  species,  j  abruptly  from  the  platc^  .:i- 

c  of  6onK>  I  n'mg  from  a  little  H.  of  > 
■ra.      The  '  'i/'1  of  v'hi<;h  ttt(>  <»x*-rpt; 


>UjUt    (1: 


tic  ui  itti/uu)tug,  »i>.iMji  in    I 
the  nat»if«  of  thi- Jewish  cw 
;-ufar  to  h. 
:')winjr    pt'  1, 

.-...,  ..  •■..  .v.^.,,    .wv...ui..^   ..,•-•    ...v.iji  or  other  jj.*.  ,.:■   vl    uie 
■',  XTU.  :2S,  xxix.  I  body.     2.  Woepinji^  and  screaming  in  an 
1  excessive  degree.    8.  Wearing  »ail-"f>lored 
1.  jixix- 3;   Jer.   vi.   6,  &c.).  j  gannents.      4.    Songs  of  lameutHiiion.    §. 
I  Fuiierai  feasts.      6.    Employment  of  per 
lia.  The  Hebrew  word  I  sons,  especially  women,  to  lament.     (1.) 
"  mountiiin,"  i>4  em- i  One  marked  feature  of  Oriental   «iourning 

"   •      '  -...:-, .  1         11  :;<  studied  publicity, 

ince   of    the   pre~ 

.--:„ a.   xxiii.  2;  Job  i* 

is.  XV.  a,  i'.-,;.     (2.)  Among  the- 

r   foiTjis    observed    the   follov-ing 

-  :i^  mentioned:  o.  Rending  the  clotlitv 

1.    x\xvii.  29.  84.  xliv.  !".,&<?:').       h- 


.  the  hair 
~t.    2  Satn.-ViA.     r.  .vj.   .     o.  i.m.  l;  iwrp 
lOun-  I  jNirt  of  the  bfx'y  (I?,  xx.  2,  xlvii.  2, 
:.  n.  34. ,  /».  Fsistmg  or  abstinence  ti\  meat  ami 
.    Chisloth-[(2  Sam.  i.  12,  iii.  35,  xii.  16,  22,   .- 
also  in  the    In  the  same  direct)'?n  may  f>s   n 
ited  on  this  ]  dimiuation  in  offer' 
.lloth,  %,  e.    bition  to  purbike  i 


K 

^  oat 
X.  6; 

sonjo 

Ah:.). 

liri':' 


MUPPIM 


435 


MUSIC 


time  it  is  possible  that  mules  from  Egjrpt 
occasionally  accompanied  the  horses  which 
we  know  the  king  of  Israel  obtained  from 
that  country ;  for  though  the  mule  is  not  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  monuments  of 
Egypt,  yet  it  is  not  easy  to  believe  that  the 
Egyptians  were  not  well  acquainted  with 
tliis  animal.  It  would  appear  that  kings 
and  great  men  only  rode  on  mules.  We 
do  not  read  of  mules  at  all  in  the  N.  T. ; 
perhaps  therefore  they  had  ceased  to  be 
imported.  Mules  are  mentioned  in  Gen. 
xxxvi.  24  :  "  This  was  that  Anah  that  found 
the  mules  in  the  wilderness  as  he  fed  the 
asses  of  Zibeon  his  father  :  "  but  the  A.  V. 
is  certainly  incorrect ;  and  the  Hebrew  word 
y^mim,  here  translated  "mules,"  probably 
means  "  warm  springs,"  as  the  Vulg.  has  it. 

Mup'pim,  a  Benjamite,  and  one  of  the 
fourteen  descendants  of  Rachel  who  be- 
longed to  the  original  colony  of  the  sons 
of  Jacob  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi.  21).  In 
Num.  xxvi.  39  the  name  is  written  Shu- 
pham.  In  1  Chr.  vii.  12,  15,  it  is  Shuppira 
(tlie  same  as  xxvi.  16),  and  viii.  5  Shephu- 
phan.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  Muppira 
is  a  corruption  of  the  text,  and  that  Shu- 
pliam  is  the  true  form. 

Mtirder.  The  principle  on  which  the 
act  of  taking  the  life  of  a  human  being  was 
regarded  by  the  Almighty  as  a  capital  of- 
fence is  stated  on  its  highest  ground  as  an 
outrage  on  the  likeness  of  God  in  man,  to 
be  punished  even  when  caused  by  an  ani- 
mal (Gen.  ix.  5,  6 ;  see  also  John  viii.  44 ; 
1  John  iii.  12,  15).  The  Law  of  Moses, 
while  it  protected  the  accidental  homicide, 
defined  with  additional  strictness  the  crime 
of  murder.  It  prohibited  compensation  or 
reprieve  of  the  murderer,  or  his  protection 
if  he  took  refuge  in  the  refuge  city,  or  even 
at  the  altar  of  Jehovah  (Ex.  xxi.  12,  14 ; 
Lev.  xxiv.  17,  21 ;  IK.  ii.  5,  6,  31).  If  an 
animal  known  to  be  vicious  caused  the  death 
of  any  one,  not  only  was  the  animal  de- 
stroyed, but  the  owner  also,  if  he  had  taken 
no  steps  to  restrain  it,  was  held  guilty  of 
murder  (Ex.  xxi.  29,  31).  The  duty  of 
executing  punishment  on  the  murderer  is 
in  the  Law  expressly  laid  on  the  "  revenger 
of  blood ; "  but  the  question  of  guilt  was  to 
be  previously  decided  by  the  Levitical  tri- 
bunal. In  regal  times  the  duty  of  execu- 
tion of  justice  on  a  murderer  seems  to  have 
been  assumed  to  some  extent  by  the  sover- 
eign, as  well  as  the  privilege  of  pardon  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  39,  xiv.  7,  11;  IK.  ii.  34).  It 
was  lawful  to  kill  a  burglar  taken  at  night 
in  the  act,  but  unlawful  to  do  so  after  sun- 
rise (Ex.  xxii.  2,  3). 

Mu'shi,  the  son  of  Merari  the  son  of 
Kohath  (Ex.  vi.  19;  Num.  iii.  20;  1  Chr. 
vi.  19,  47,  xxiii.  21,  23,  xxiv.  26,  30). 

Music  The  inventor  of  musical  in- 
struments, like  the  first  poet  and  the  first 
forger  of  metals,  was  a  Cainite.    We  learn 


from  Gen.  iv.  that  Jubal  the  son  of  Lamech 
was  "  the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the 
harp  and  organ,"  that  is,  of  all  players  upon 
stringed  and  wind  instruments.  The  first 
mention  of  music  in  the  times  after  the 
Deluge  is  in  the  narrative  of  Laban's  inter- 
view with  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxi.  27).  So  that, 
in  whatever  way  it  was  preserved,  the  prac- 
tice of  music  existed  in  the  upland  coun- 
try of  Syria ;  and  of  the  three  possible  kinds 
of  musical  instruments,  two  were  known 
and  employed  to  accompany  the  song.  The 
three  kinds  are  alluded  to  in  Job  xxi.  12. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Red  Sea  Moses  and 
the  children  of  Israel  sang  their  triumphal 
song  of  deliverance  from  the  hosts  of 
Egypt;  and  Miriam,  in  celebration  of  the 
same  event,  exercised  one  of  her  functions 
as  a  prophetess  by  leading  a  procession  of 
the  women  of  the  camp,  chanting  in  chorus 
the  burden  to  the  song  of  Moses,  "  Sing 
ye  to  Jehovah,  for  He  hath  triumphed  glo- 
riously ;  the  horse  and  his  rider  hath  He 
thrown  into  the  sea."  The  triumphal  hj  mn 
of  Moses  had  unquestionably  a  religious 
character  about  it;  but  the  employment  of 
music  in  religious  service,  though  idola- 
trous, is  more  distinctly  marked  in  the  fes- 
tivities which  attended  the  erection  of  the 
golden  calf.  The  silver  trumpets  made  by 
the  metal  workers  of  the  tabernacle,  wliich 
were  used  to  direct  the  movements  of  the 
camp,  point  to  music  of  a  very  simple  kind 
(Num.  X.  1-10).  The  song  of  Deborah  and 
Barak  is  cast  in  a  distinctly  metrical  form, 
and  was  probably  intended  to  be  sung  with 
a  musical  accompaniment  as  one  of  the 
people's  songs.  The  simpler  impromptu 
with  which  the  women  from  the  cities  of 
Israel  greeted  David  after  the  slaughter  of 
the  Philistine,  was  apparently  struck  off 
on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  wild  joy  with  which  they  wel- 
comed their  national  champion,  *'  the  dar- 
ling of  the  songs  of  Israel"  (I  Sam.  xviii. 
6,  7).  Up  to  this  time  we  meet  with  noth- 
ing like  a  systematic  cultivation  of  music 
among  the  Hebrews,  but  the  establishment 
of  the  schools  of  the  prophets  appears  to 
have  supplied  this  want.  Whatever  the 
students  of  these  schools  may  have  been 
taught,  music  was  an  essential  part  of  their 
practice.  Professional  musicians  soon  be- 
came attached  to  the  court.  David  seems 
to  have  gathered  round  him  "  singing  men 
and  singing  women"  (2  Sam.  xix.  35). 
Solomon  did  the  same  (Eccl.  ii.  8),  adding  ti> 
the  luxury  of  his  court  by  his  patronage  of 
art,  and  obtaining  a  reputation  himself  as  no 
mean  composer  (1  K.  iv.  32).  But  the 
Temple  was  the  great  school  of  music,  and  it 
was  consecrated  to  its  highest  service  in  the 
worship  of  Jehovah.  Before,  however,  the 
elaborate  arrangements  had  been  made  by 
David  for  the  temple  choir,  there  must  have 
been  a    considerable    body  of  musiciuaa 


MUSIC 


436 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS 


throughout  the  country  (2  Sam.  vi.  5),  and 
in  the  procession  which  accompanied  the 
ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom,  the 
Levites,  with  Chenaniah  at  their  head,  wlio 
had  acquired  skill  from  previous  training, 
played  on  psalteries,  harps,  and  cymbals, 
to  the  words  of  the  psalm  of  thanksgiving 
which  David  had  composed  for  the  occasion 
(1  Chr.  XV.,  xvi.).  It  is  not  improbable  that 
the  Levites  all  along  had  practised  music, 
and  that  some  musical  service  was  part  of 
the  worship  of  the  tabernacle.  The  position 
which  they  occupied  among  the  other 
tribes  naturally  favored  the  cultivation  of 
an  art  which  is  essentially  characteristic  of 
a  leisurely  and  peaceful  life.  The  three 
great  divisions  of  the  tribe  had  each  a  rep- 
resentative family  in  the  choir.  Asaph 
himself  appears  to  have  played  on  the  cym- 
bals (1  Chr.  xvi.  5),  and  this  was  the  case 
with  the  other  leaders  (I  Chr.  xv.  19),  per- 
haps to  mark  the  time  more  distinctly, 
while  the  rest  of  the  hand  played  on  psal- 
teries and  harps.  The  singers  were  dis- 
tinct from  both,  as  is  evident  in  Ps.  Ixviii. 
25,  "  the  singers  went  before,  the  players 
on  instruments  followed  after,  in  the  midst 
of  the  damsels  playing  with  timbrels."  The 
"  players  on  instruments "  were  the  per- 
formers upon  stringed  instruments,  like  the 
psaltery  and  harp.  The  "  players  on  in- 
struments "  in  Ps.  Ixxxvii.  7,  were  different 
from  these  last,  and  were  properly  pipers  or 
peribrmers  on  perforated  wind-instruments 
(see  1  K.  i.  40).  "The  damsels  playing 
with  timbrels"  (comp.  1  Chr.  xiii.  8)  seem  to 
indicate  that  women  took  part  in  the  temple 
choir.  The  trumpets  which  are  mentioned 
among  the  instruments  played  before  the 
ark  (1  Chr.  xiii.  8),  appear  to  have  been 
reserved  for  the  priests  alone  (1  Chr.  xv.  24, 
xvi.  6).  As  they  were  also  used  in  royal 
proclamations  (2  Kxi.  14),  they  were  prob- 
ably intended  to  set  forth  by  way  of  cymbal 
the  royalty  of  Jehovah,  the  theocratic  King 
of  His  people,  as  well  as  to  sound  the  alarm 
against  His  enemies  (2  Chr.  xiii.  12).  In 
the  private  as  well  as  in  the  religious  life 
of  the  Hebrews  music  held  a  prominent 
place.  The  kings  had  their  court  musi- 
cians (Eccl.  ii.  8),  who  bewailed  their  death 
(2  Chr.  xxxv.  25),  and  in  the  luxurious 
times  of  the  later  monarchy  the  effeminate 
gallants  of  Israel,  reeking  with  perfumes 
and  stretched  upon  their  couches  of  ivory, 
were  wont  at  their  banquets  to  accompany 
the  song  with  the  tinkling  of  the  psaltery 
or  guitar  (Am.  vi.  4-6),  and  amused  them- 
selves with  devising  musical  instruments 
while  their  nation  was  perishing.  But 
while  music  was  thus  made  to  minister  to 
debauchery  and  excess,  it  was  the  legiti- 
mate expression  of  mirth  and  gladness,  and 
the  indication  of  peace  and  prosperity.  It 
was  only  when  a  curse  was  upon  the  land 
that  the  prophet  could  say,   "The  mii'th 


of  tabrets  ceaseth,  the  noise  of  them  that 
rejoice  endeth,  the  joy  of  the  harp  ceaseth, 
they  shall  not  drink  wine  with  a  song"  (Is. 
xxiv.  8,  9).  The  bridal  processions  as  they 
passed  through  the  streets  were  accom- 
panied with  music  and  song  (Jer.  vii.  34), 
and  these  ceased  only  when  the  loud  was 
desolate  (Ez.  xxvi.  13).  The  music  of  the 
banquets  was  accompanied  with  songs  and 
dancing  (Luke  xv.  25).  The  triumphal 
processions  which  celebrated  a  victory  were 
enlivened  by  minstrels  and  singers  (Ex. 
XV.  i.  20;  Judg.  v.  1,  xi.  34;  1  Sam.  xviii. 
6,  xxi.  11 ;  2  Chr.  xx.  28;  Jud.  xv.  12,  13), 
and  on  extraordinary  occasions  they  even 
accompanied  armies  to  battle.  Besides 
songs  of  triumph  there  were  also  religious 
songs  (Is.  XXX.  29;  Am.  v.  23;  Jam.  v. 
13),  "songs  of  the  temple"  (Am.  viii.  3), 
and  songs  which  were  sung  in  idolatrous 
worship  (Ex.  xxxii.  18).  Love  songs  are 
alluded  to  in  Ps.  xlv.  title,  and  Is.  v.  1. 
There  were  also  the  doleful  songs  of  the 
funeral  procession,  and  the  wailing  chant 
of  the  mourners  who  went  about  the  streets, 
the  professional  "keening"  of  those  who 
were  skilful  in  lamentation  (2  Chr.  xxxv. 
25;  Eccl.  xii.  5;  Jer.  ix.  17-20;  Am.  v. 
16).  The  grape-gatherers  sang  as  they 
gathered  in  the  vintage,  and  the  wine- 
presses were  trodden  with  the  shout  of  a 
song  (Is.  xvi.  10 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  33) ;  the 
women  sang  as  they  toiled  at  the  mill,  and 
on  every  occasion  the  land  of  the  Hebrews 
during  their  national  prosperity  was  a  land 
of  music  and  melody.  The  instruments 
of  music  which  have  been  represented  in 
our  version  by  some  modern  word,  are 
treated  under  their  respective  titles. 

Musical  Instruments.  In  addition 
to  the  instruments  of  music  which  have 
been  represented  in  our  version  by  some 
modern  word,  and  are  treated  under  their 
respective  titles,  there  are  other  terms 
which  are  vaguely  or  generally  rendered. 
These  are  —  1.  Dachavdn,  Chald.,  rendered 
"  instruments  of  music "  in  Dan.  vi.  18. 
The  margin  gives  "  or  table,  perhaps  lit. 
concubines."  The  last-mentioned  rendering 
is  that  approved  by  Gesenius,  and  seems 
most  probable.  2.  Minnim,  rendered  with 
great  probability  "  stringed-instruments  " 
in  Ps.  cl.  4.  It  appears  to  be  a  general 
term,  but  beyond  this  nothing  is  known 
of  it.  3.  'Asdr,  "  an  instrument  of  ten 
strings,"  Ps.  xcii.  3.  The  full  phrase  is 
nebel  'Asdr,  "a  ten-stringed  psaltery,"  as  in 
Ps.  xxxiii.  2,  cxliv.  9 ;  and  the  true  render- 
ing of  the  first-mentioned  passage  would 
be  "  upon  an  instrument  of  ten  strings, 
even  upon  the  j)saltery."  4.  Shidddh,  in 
Eccl.  ii.  8  only,  "  I  gat  me  men-singers  and 
women-Singers,  and  the  delights  of  the 
sons  of  men,  rmisical  instruments,  and  thai 
of  all  sorts."  The  words  thus  rendered 
have  received  a  great  variety  of  meanings 


MUSTARD 


437 


MYRA 


But  the  most  probable  interpretation  to  be 
put  upon  them  is  that  suggested  by  a  usage 
of  the  Tahnud,  where  shtddh  denotes  a 
"pahinquin"or  "litter"  for  women.  5.  Shd- 
lisMm,  rendered  "instruments  of  music" 
in  the  A.  V.  of  1  Sam.  xviii.  6,  and  in 
the  margin  "three-stringed  instruments." 
Koediger  translates  "  triangles,"  which  are 
said  to  have  been  invented  in  Syria,  from 
the  same  root.  We  have  no  means  of  de- 
ciding wliich  is  the  more  correct. 

Mustard  occurs  in  Matt.  xiii.  31,  xvii. 
20;  Mark  iv.  31;  Luke  xiii.  19,  xvii.  6. 
The  mustard-tree  of  Scripture  is  main- 
tained by  Dr.  Royle  to  be  the  Salvadora 
persica,  which  he  supposes  to  be  the  same 
as  the  tree  called  Khardal  (The  Arabic  for 
mustard),  seeds  of  which  are  employed 
throughout  Syria  as  a  substitute  for  mus- 
tard, of  which  they  have  the  taste  and 
properties.  This  tree  is  found  all  along 
the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  near  the  lake 
of  Tiberias,  and  near  Damascus,  and  is 
said  to  be  generally  recognized  in  Syria 
as  the  mustard-tree  of  Scripture.  But 
notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  adduced 
by  Dr.  Royle  in  support  of  his  argument, 
it  will  be  well  to  consider  whether  some 
mustard-plant  (^Sinapis)  may  not  after  all 
be  the  mustard-tree  of  the  parable.  —  The 
objection  commonly  made  against  any 
Sinapis  being  the  plant  of  the  parable  is, 
that  the  seed  grew  into  "  a  tree,"  or,  as  St. 
Luke  has  it,  "  a  great  tree,"  in  the  branches 
of  which  the  fowls  of  the  air  are  said  to 
come  and  lodge.  Now,  in  answer  to  the 
above  objection,  it  is  urged  with  great  truth 
that  the  expression  is  figurative  and  Orien- 
tal, and  that  in  a  proverbial  simile  no  lit- 
eral accuracy  is  to  be  expected.  It  is  an 
error,  for  which  the  language  of  Scripture 
is  hot  accountable,  to  assert,  as  Dr.  Royle 
and  some  others  have  done,  that  the  pas- 
sage implies  that  birds  "built  their  nests  " 
in  the  tree :  the  Greek  word  has  no  such 
meaning;  the  word  merely  means  "  to  set- 
tle or  rest  upon  "  anything  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time ;  nor  is  there  any  occasion  to 
suppose  that  the  expression  "  fowls  of  the 
air  "  denotes  any  other  than  the  smaller  in- 
sessorial  kinds  —  linnets,  finches,  &c.  Kil- 
ler's explanation  is  probably  the  correct 
one ;  that  the  birds  came  and  settled  on  the 
mustard-plant  for  the  sake  of  the  seed,  of 
which  they  are  very  fond.  Again,  what- 
ever the  Sinapis  m<ay  be,  it  is  expressly 
said  to  be  an  herb,  or  more  properly  "  a  gar- 
den herb."  Irby  and  Mangles  mention  the 
large  size  which  the  mustard-plant  attains 
in  Palestine.  In  their  journey  from  Bysan 
to  Adjeloun,  in  the  Jordan  valley^  they 
crossed  a  small  plain  very  thickly  covered 
with  herbage,  particularly  the  mustard- 
plant,  which  reached  as  high  as  their  horses' 
heads.  Dr.  Thomson  also  says  he  has  seen 
the   Wild  Mustard  on  the  rich  plain  of 


Akkar  as  tall  as  the  horse  and  the  rider. 
If,  then,  the  wild  plant  on  the  rich  plain  of 
Akkar  grows  as  high  as  a  man  on  horse- 
back, it  might  attain  to  the  same  or  a  greater 
height  when  in  a  cultivated  garden.  The 
expression  "  which  is  indeed  the  least  of  all 
seeds  "  is  in  all  probability  hyperbolical, 
to  denote  a  very  small  seed  indeed,  as  there 
are  many  seeds  which  are  smaller  than 
mustard.  "  The  Lord  in  his  popular  teach- 
ing," says  Trench  {Notes  on  Parables,  108), 
"adhered  to  the  popular  language;"  and 
the  mustard-seed  was  used  proverbially  to 
denote  anything  very  minute. 

Muth-lab'ben. '  "To  the  chief  musi- 
cian upon  Muth-labben  "  is  the  title  of  Ps. 
ix.,  which  has  given  rise  to  infinite  conjec- 
ture. Two  difficulties  in  connection  with 
it  have  to  be  resolved;  first,  to  determine 
the  true  reading  of  the  Hebrew,  and  then 
to  ascertain  its  meaning.  Neither  of  these 
points  has  been  satisfactorily  explained. 
The  Targum  renders  the  title  of  the  psalm, 
—  "  on  the  death  of  the  man  who  came 
forth  from  between  the  camps,"  alluding 
to  Goliath,  the  Philistine  champion  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  4).  Others  render  it  "on  the  death 
of  the  son,"  and  apply  it  to  Absalom. 
Rashi's  words  are  —  "  but  I  say  that  this 
song  is  of  the  future  to  come,  when  the 
cliildhood  and  youth  of  Israel  shall  be 
made  white,  and  their  righteousness  be  re- 
vealed, and  their  salvation  draw  nigh,  when 
Esau  and  his  seed  shall  be  blotted  out." 
Donesh  supposes  that  labben  was  the  name 
of  a  man  who  warred  with  David  in  those 
days,  and  to  whom  reference  is  made  as 
"  the  wicked"  in  verse  5,  Arama  (quoted 
by  Dr.  Gill  in  his  Exposition)  identifies 
him  with  Saul.  There  still  remain  to  be 
noticed  the  conjectures  of  Delitzsch  that 
Muth-labben  denotes  the  tune  or  melody, 
with  the  words  of  the  song  associated  with 
it ;  of  others  that  it  was  a  musical  instru- 
ment, and  of  Hupfeld  that  it  was  the  com- 
mencement of  an  old  song,  either  signify- 
ing "die  for  the  son,"  or  "death  to  the 
son."  On  all  accounts  it  seems  extremely 
probable  that  the  title  in  its  present  form  is 
only  a  fragment  of  the  original,  which  may 
have  been  in  full  what  has  been  suggested 
above. 

Myn'dus,  a  town  on  the  coast  of  C aria, 
between  Miletus  and  Halicarnassus. 
We  find  in  1  Mace.  xv.  23,  that  it  was  the 
residence  of  a  Jewish  population. 

My'ra,  an  important  town  in  Lycia,  and 
interesting  to  us  as  the  place  where  St. 
Paul,  on  his  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii. 
5),  was  removed  from  the  Adramyttian  ship 
which  had  brought  him  from  Caesarea,  and 
entered  the  Alexandrian  ship  in  wliich  he 
was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Malta.  Myra 
(called  Dembra  by  the  Greeks)  is  remark- 
able still  for  its  remains  of  various  periods 
of  history. 


MYRRH 


438 


NAARAN 


Myrrh  is  mentioned,  in  Ex.  xxx.  23,  as 
one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  "  oil  of  holy 
ointment;  "  in  Esth.  ii.  12,  as  one  of  the 
substances  used  in  the  pui-ification  of  wo- 
men ;  in  Ps.  xlv.  8,  Prov.  vii.  17,  and  in 
several  passages  in  Canticles,  as  a  perfume. 
The  Greek  occurs  in  Matt.  ii.  11  amongst 
the  gifts  brought  by  the  wise  men  to  the  in- 
fant Jesus,  and  in  Mark  xv.  23,  it  is  said 
that  "  wine  mingled  with  myrrh  "  was  of- 
fered to,  but  refused  by,  our  Lord  on  the 
cross.  Myrrh  was  also  used  for  embalm- 
ing (see  John  xix.  39,  and  Herod,  ii.  86). 
The  Balsamodendron  myrrha,  which  pro- 
duces the  myrrh  of  commerce,  has  a  wood 
and  bark  which  emit  a  strong  odor ;  the 
gum  which  exudes  from  the  bark  is  at  first 
oily,  but  becomes  hard  by  exposure  to  the 
air :  it  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Tere- 
hinthaceae.  For  the  "wine  mingled  with 
myrrh,"  see  Gall.  The  "  myrrh "  men- 
tioned in  the  A.  V.  in  Gen.  xxxvii.  25, 
xliii.  11,  is  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
word  I6t,  and  is  generally  considered  to  de- 
note the  odorous  resin  which  exudes  from 
the  branches  of  the  Cistus  creticus,  known 
by  the  name  of  ladanum,  or  labdanum.  It 
is  clear  that  Idt  cannot  signify  "  myrrh," 
which  is  not  produced  in  Palestine.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Hebrew  Idt,  the 
Arabic  ladan,  the  Greek  Xi',duv',r;  the  Latin 
and  English  ladanum,  are  identical. 

Myrtle  is  mentioned  in  Neh.  viii.  15 ; 
Is.  xli.  19,  Iv.  13;  Zech.  i.  8,  10,  11.  The 
modern  Jews  still  adorn  with  myrtle  the 
booths  and  sheds  at  the  Feast  of  Taberna- 
cles. Formerly,  as  we  learn  from  Nehe- 
miah  (viii.  15),  myrtles  grew  on  the  hills 
about  Jerusalem.  "  On  Olivet,"  says  Dean 
Stanley,  "  nothing  is  now  to  be  seen  but 
the  olive  and  the  fig-tree  : "  on  some  of  the 
hills,  however,  near  Jerusalem,  Hasselquist 
observed  the  myrtle.  Dr.  Hooker  says  it 
is  not  uncommon  in  Samaria  and  Galilee. 
The  Mijrtus  communis  is  the  kind  denoted 
by  the  Hebrew  word. 

Mys'ia  (Acts  xvi.  7,  8)  was  the  region 
about  the  frontier  of  the  provinces  of  Asia 
and  Bithynia.  The  term  is  evidently  used 
in  an  ethnological,  not  a  political  sense. 


Na'am.  One  of  the  sons  of  Caleb,  the 
son  of  Jephunneh  (1  Chr.  iv.  15). 

lyTa'aznab.  (loveliness).  1.  One  of  the 
four  women  whose  names  are  preserved  in 
the  records  of  the  world  before  the  Flood ; 
all  except  Eve  being  Cainites.  She  was 
daughter  of  Lamech  by  his  wife  Zillah,  and 
sister,  as  is  expressly  mentioned,  to  Tubal- 
cain  (Gen.  iv.  22  only).  2.  Mother  of  king 
Rehoboam  (1  K.  xiv.  21,  31;  2  Chr.  xii. 
13).     On  each  occasion  she  is  distinguished 


by  tlie  title  "  the  (not  *  an,'  as  in  A.  V.)  Am* 
monite."  She  Was  therefore  one  of  the  for- 
eign women  whom  Solomon  took  into  hia 
establishment  (1  K.  xi.  1). 

Na'amah,  one  of  the  towns  of  Judah 
in  the  district  of  the  lowland  or  Shefelah 
(Josh.  XV.  41). 

Na'aman  (pleasantness).  1.  "  Naaman 
the  Syrian  "  (Luke  iv.  27).  A  Jewish  tra- 
dition, at  least  as  old  as  the  time  of  Jose- 
phus,  and  which  may  very  well  be  a  genuine 
one,  identifies  him  with  the  archer  whose 
arrow,  whether  at  random  or  not,  struck 
Ahab  with  his  mortal  wound,  and  thus 
"  gave  deliverance  to  Syria."  The  expres- 
sion in  2  K.  V.  1,  is  remarkable  —  "  because 
that  by  him  Jehovah  had  given  deliverance 
to  Syria."  The  most  natural  explanation 
perhaps  is,  that  Naaman,  in  delivering  hia 
country,  had  killed  one  who  was  the  enemy 
of  Jehovah  not  less  than  he  was  of  Syria. 
Whatever  the  particular  exploit  referred  to 
was,  it  had  given  Naaman  a  great  position 
at  the  court  of  Benhadad.  He  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army,  and  was  near- 
est to  the  person  of  the  king,  whom  he  ac- 
companied officially,  and  supported,  when 
he  went  to  worship  in  the  temple  of  Rira- 
mon  (ver.  18).  He  was  afficted  with  a 
leprosy  of  the  white  kirni  (ver.  27),  which 
had  hitherto  defied  cure.  The  circum- 
stances of  his  visit  to  Elisha  are  related 
elsewhere.  [Elisha,  p.  172.]  His  request 
to  be  allowed  to  take  away  two  mules'  bur- 
den of  earth  is  not  easy  to  understand.  The 
natural  explanation  is  that,  with  a  feeling 
akin  to  that  which  prompted  the  Pisan  in- 
vaders to  take  away  the  earth  of  Aceldama 
for  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  the  grateful 
convert  to  Jehovah  wished  to  take  away 
some  of  the  earth  of  His  country,  to  form  an 
altar.  But  in  the  narrative  there  is  no  men- 
tion of  an  altar.  How  long  Naaman  lived  to 
continue  a  worshipper  of  Jehovah  while  as- 
sisting officially  at  the  worship  of  Rimmon, 
we  are  not  told.  2.  One  of  the  family  of  Ben- 
jamin who  came  down  to  Egypt  with  Jacob, 
as  read  in  Gen.  xlvi.  21.  He  was  the  son 
of  Bela,  and  head  of  the  family  of  the  Naam- 
ites.     (Num.  xxvi.  40;  1  Chr.  viii.  3,  4). 

Na'amathite,  the  gentilic  name  of  one 
of  Job's  friends,  Zophar  the  Naamathite 
(Job  ii.  11,  xi.  1,  XX.  1,  xlii.  9).  There  is  no 
other  trace  of  this  name  in  tUe  Bible,  and 
the  town  whence  it  is  derived  is  unknown. 

13'a'aiuites,  The,  the  family  descended 
from  Naaman,  the  grandson  of  Benjamin 
(Num.  xxvi.  40  only). 

Na'arah,  the  second  wife  of  Ashur,  a 
descendant  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  5,  6). 

Na'arai,  One  of  the  valiant  men  of 
David's  armies  (1  Chr.  xi.  37).  In  1  Chr. 
he  is  called  the  son  of  Ezbai,  but  in  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  35  he  appears  as  "  Paarai  the  Arbite." 
Kennicott  decides  that  the  former  is  correct. 

Na'aran,  a  city  of  Ephruim,  which  in  a 


NAARATH 


439 


NADAB 


t-  7  ancient  record  (1  Chr.  vii.  28)  is  men- 
tioned as  the  eastern  limit  of  the  tribe.  It 
is  very  probably  identical  with  Naaeath,  or 
more  accurately  Naarah. 

Na'arath  (the  Heb.  is  =  to  Naarah, 
which  is  therefore  the  real  form  of  the  name), 
a  place  named  (Josh.  xvi.  7,  only)  as  one 
of  the  landmarks  on  the  (soutliern)  boun- 
dary of  P>phraim.  It  appears  to  have  lain 
between  Ataroth  and  Jericho.  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  speak  of  it  as  if  well  known  to 
them — "Naorath,  a  small  village  of  the 
Jews,  five  miles  from  Jericho." 

Naash'on.    [Nahshok.] 

Naas'son.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name 
Naiishon  (Matt.  i.  4;  Luke  iii.  32,  only). 

If a'bal  {fool)  was  a  shoepmaster  on  the 
confines  of  Judaea  and  the  desert,  in  that 
part  of  the  country  which  bore  from  its 
great  conqueror  the  name  of  Caleb  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  14,  xxv.  3).  His  residence  was 
on  the  southern  Carmel,  in  the  pasture  lands 
of  Maon.  His  wealth,  as  might  be  expected 
from  his  abode,  consisted  chiefly  of  sheep 
and  goats.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  shep- 
herds to  drive  them  into  the  wild  downs  on 
the  slopes  of  Carmel ;  and  it  was  whilst  they 
were  on  one  of  these  pastoral  excursions, 
that  tliey  met  a  band  of  outlaws,  who  showed 
them  unexpected  kindness,  protecting  them 
by  day  and  night,  and  never  themselves 
committing  any  depredations  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
7.  15,  16).  Once  a  year  there  was  a  grand 
banquet,  on  Carmel,  "like  the  feast  of  a 
king"  (xxv.  2,  4,  36).  It  was  on  one  of 
these  occasions  that  Nabal  came  across  the 
path  of  the  man  to  whom  he  owes  his  place 
in  history.  Ten  youths  from  the  chief  of 
the  freebooters  approached  him  with  a  triple 
salutation  —  enumerated  the  services  of 
their  master,  and  ended  by  claiming,  with  a 
mixture  of  courtesy  and  defiance  character- 
istic of  the  East,  "  whatsoever  cometh  into 
thy  hand  for  thy  servants  and  for  thy  so?i 
David."  The  great  sheepmaster  was  not 
disposed  to  recognize  this  unexpected  pa- 
rental relation.  On  hearing  the  demand  of 
the  ten  petitioners,  he  broke  out  into  fury 
—  "  Who  is  David?  and  who  is  the  son  of 
Jesse  ?  "  "  What  runaway  slaves  are  these 
to  interfere  witl^my  own  domestic  arrange- 
ments?" (xxv.  10,  11).  The  moment  that 
the  messengers  were  gone,  the  shepherds 
that  stood  by  perceived  the  danger  that  their 
master  and  themselves  would  incur.  To 
Nabal  himself  they  durst  not  speak  (xxv. 
17).  To  his  wife,  as  to  the  good  angel  of 
the  household,  one  of  the  shepherds  told  the 
state  of  affairs.  She,  with  the  offerings 
usual  on  such  occasions,  loaded  the  asses 
of  Nabal's  large  establishment  —  herself 
mounted  one  of. them,  and,  with  her  attend- 
ants running  before  iier,  rode  down  the  hill 
towards  David's  encampment.  David  had 
already  made  the  fatal  vow  of  extermination 
(xxv.  22).     At  tills  moment,  as  it  would 


seem,  Abigail  appeared,  threw  herself  on 
her  face  before  him,  and  poured  forth  her 
petition  in  language  which  both  in  form  and 
expression  almost  assumes  the  tone  of 
poetry.  She  returns  with  the  news  of 
David's  recantation  of  his  vow.  Nabal  is 
then  at  the  height  of  his  orgies,  and  liis 
wife  dared  not  communicate  to  him  either 
his  danger  or  his  escape  (xxv.  36).  At 
break  of  day  she  told  him  both.  The  stupid 
reveller  was  suddenly  roused  to  a  sense  of 
that  wliich  impended  over  liim.  "  His  heart 
died  within  him,  and  he  became  as  a  stone." 
It  was  as  if  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  or  paraly- 
sis had  fallen  upon  him.  Ten  days  he 
lingered,  "  and  the  Lord  smote  Nabal,  and 
he  died"  (xxv.  37,  38). 

Xfa'both.,  victim  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel, 
was  the  owner  of  a  small  vineyard  at  Jezreel, 
close  to  the  royal  palace  of  Ahab  (1  K.  xxi. 
1,2).  It  thus  became  an  object  of  desire  to 
the  king,  who  offered  an  equivalent  in  money 
or  another  vineyard  in  exchange  for  this. 
Naboth,  in  the  independent  spirit  of  a  Jew- 
ish landholder,  refused.  "  Jehovah  forbid 
it  to  me  that  I  should  give  the  inheritance 
of  my  fathers  unto  thee."  Ahab  was  cowed 
by  this  reply ;  but  the  proud  spirit  of  Jeze- 
bel was  roused.  She  took  the  matter  into 
her  own  hands.  A  solemn  fast  was  pro- 
claimed, as  on  the  announcement  of  some 
great  calamity.  Naboth  was  "  set  on  high  " 
in  the  public  place  of  Samaria :  two  men  of 
worthless  character  accused  him  of  having 
"  cursed  God  and  the  king."  He  and  his 
children  (2  K.  ix.  26)  were  dragged  out  of 
the  city  and  despatched  the  same  night. 
The  place  of  execution  there,  was  by  tlie 
large  tank  or  reservoir,  which  still  remains 
on  the  slope  of  the  hill  of  Samaria,  imme- 
diately outside  the  walls.  The  usual  pun- 
ishment for  blasphemy  was  enforced.  Na- 
both and  his  sons  were  stoned ;  and  the 
blood  from  their  wounds  ran  down  into  the 
waters  of  the  tank  below. 

Nabuchodon'osor.    [Nebuchadnez- 

ZAK.] 

Na'chon's  Threshing-floor,  the 
place  at  which  the  ark  had  arrived  in  its 
progress  from  Kirjath-jearira  to  Jerusalem, 
when  Uzzah  lost  his  life  in  his  too  hasty 
zeal  for  its  safety  (2  Sam.  vi  6.) 

Na'chor.    [Nahok.] 

Na'dab  (liberal).  1.  The  eldest  son  of 
Aaron  and  Elisheba  (Ex.  vi.  23 ;  Num.  iii. 
2).  He,  his  father  and  brother,  and  seven- 
ty old  men  of  Israel  were  led  out  from  the 
midst  of  the  assembled  people  (Ex.  xxiv. 
1),  and  were  commanded  to  stay  and  wor- 
ship God  "  afar  off,"  below  the  lofty  sum- 
mit of  Sinai,  where  Moses  alone  was  to 
come  near  to  the  Lord.  Subsequently  (Lev. 
X.  1)  Nadab  and  his  brother  were  struck 
dead  before  the  sanctuary  by  fire  from  the 
Lord.  Their  ofience  was,  kindling  the  in- 
cense in  their  censers  with  "  strange  '  fijre, 


IJAGGE 


440 


NAHSHON 


1.  e.  not  taken  from  that  which  burned 
perpetually  (Lev.  vi.  13)  on  the  altar.  2. 
King  Jeroboam's  son,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Israel  b.  c.  954,  and  reigned  two 
years  (1  K.  xv.  25-31).  At  the  siege  of 
Gibbethon  a  conspiracy  broke  out  in  the 
midst  of  the  army,  and  the  king  was  slain 
by  Baasha,  a  man  of  Issachar.  3.  A  son 
of  Shammai  (1  Chr.  ii.  28),  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  4.  A  son  of  Giboon  (1  Chr.  viii. 
30,  ix.  3G),  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 

Nag'ge,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  Christ 
(Luke  iii.  25).  It  represents  the  Heb.  No- 
gah  (1  Chr.  iii.  7).  Nagge  must  have  lived 
about  the  time  of  Onias  I.,  and  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Macedonian  dynasty. 

Krahal'al,  one  of  the  cities  of  Zebulun, 
given  with  its  "  suburbs  "  to  the  Merarite 
Lcvites  (Josh.  xxi.  35).  It  is  the  same 
which  in  Josh.  xix.  15  is  inaccurately  given 
in  the  A.  V.  as  Nauallal,  the  Hebrew  be- 
ing in  both  cases  identical.  Elsewhere  it  is 
called  Nahalol  (Judg.  i.  30).  The  Jeru- 
salem Tahnud  asserts  that  Nahalal  was  in 
post-biblical  times  called  Mahlul ;  and  this 
is  identified  with  the  modern  Malul,  a  vil- 
lage in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 

!N'aha'lJel  {torrents  of  God),  one  of  the 
baiting-places  of  Israel  in  the  latter  part 
of  their  progress  to  Canaan  (Num.  xxi.  19). 
It  lay  "  beyond,"  that  is,  north  of  the  Ar- 
non  (ver.  13),  and  between  Mattanah  and 
Banioth,  the  next  after  Bamoth  being  Pis- 
gah.  Its  name  seems  to  imply  that  it  was 
a  stream  or  wady,  and  it  is  not  impossibly 
preserved  in  that  of  the  Wady  Enclieyle, 
which  runs  into  the  Mojch,  the  ancient  Ar- 
non,  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  the 
place  at  which  the  road  between  Kabba  and 
Aroer  crosses  the  ravine  of  the  latter  river. 

Na'halol.     [Nahalal.] 

Na'ham.  The  brother  of  Hodiah,  or 
Jehudijah,  wife  of  Ezra  (1  Chr.  iv.  19). 

Ifahana'ani.  A  chief  man  among  those 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubba- 
bel  and  Jeshua  (Neh.  vii.  7). 

Nahar'ai.  The  armor-bearer  of  Joab, 
called  in  the  A.  V.  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  37,  Na- 
HARi.  He  was  a  native  of  Beeroth  (1  Chr. 
xi.  39). 

Na'hari.  The  same  as  Nahabai  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  37).  In  the  A.  V.  of  1611  the  name 
is  printed  *'Naharai  the  Berothite." 

Na'hash  {serpent).  1.  King  of  the  Am- 
monites, who  dictated  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Jabesh-Gilead  that  cruel  alternative  of  the 
loss  of  their  right  eyes  or  slavery,  which 
roused  the  swift  wrath  of  Saul,  and  caused 
the  destruction  of  the  Ammonite  force  (1 
Sam.  xi.  1,  2-11).  "  Nahash"  would  seem 
to  have  been  the  title  of  the  king  of  the 
Ammonites  rather  than  the  name  of  an  in- 
dividual. Nahash  the  father  of  Hanun  had 
rendered  David  some  special  and  valuable 
service,  wliich  David  was  anxious  for  an 
opportunity  of  requiting  (2  Sam.  x.  2).  — 


2.  A  person  mentioned  once  only  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  25)  in  stating  the  parentage  of  Amasa, 
the  commander-in-chief  of  Absalom's  army. 
Amasa  is  there  said  to  have  been  the  son 
of  a  certain  Ithra,  by  Abigail,  "  daughter 
of  Nahash,  and  sister  to  Zeruiah."  By  the 
genealogy  of  1  Chr.  ii.  16  it  appears  that 
Zeruiah  and  Abigail  were  sisters  of  David 
and  the  other  children  of  Jesse.  The  ques- 
tion then  arises.  How  could  Abigail  have 
been  at  the  same  time  daughter  of  Nahash 
and  sister  to  the  children  of  Jesse  ?  To 
this,  three  answers  may  be  given :  1.  The 
universal  tradition  of  the  Rabbis  that  Na- 
hash and  Jesse  were  identical.  2.  That 
Nahash  was  the  king  of  the  Ammonites, 
and  that  the  same  woman  had  first  been  his 
wife  or  concubine  —  in  which  capacity  she 
had  given  birth  to  Abigail  and  Zeruiah  — 
and  afterwards  wife  to  Jesse,  and  the  mother 
of  his  children.  3.  A  third  possible  expla- 
nation is,  that  Nahash  was  the  name  not  of 
Jesse,  nor  of  a  former  husband  of  his  wife, 
but  of  his  wife  herself. 

Na'hath.  1.  One  of  the  "  dukes  "  or 
phylarchs  in  the  land  of  Edom,  eldest  son 
of  Reuel  the  son  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  13, 
17;  1  Chr.  i.  37).  2.  A  Kohathite  Levite, 
son  of  Zophai  (1  Chr.  vi.  26).  3.  A  Le- 
vite in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi. 
13). 

Nah'bi.  The  son  of  Vophsi,  a  Naph- 
talite,  and  one  of  the  twelve  spies  (Num. 
xiii.  14). 

Na'h.or,  the  name  of  two  persons  in  the 
family  of  Abraham.  1.  His  grandfather; 
tlie  son  of  Serug  and  father  of  Terah  (Gen. 
xi.  22-25).  2.  Grandson  of  the  preceding, 
son  of  Terah  and  brother  of  Abraham  and 
Haran  (Gen.  xi.  26,  27).  The  order  of  the 
ages  of  the  family  of  Terah  is  not  improb- 
ably inverted  in  the  narrative;  in  which 
case  Nahor,  instead  of  being  younger  than 
Abraham,  was  really  older.  He  married 
Milcah,  the  daughter  of  his  brother  Haran ; 
and  when  Abraham  and  Lot  migrated  to 
Canaan,  Nahor  remained  behind  in  the  land 
of  his  birth,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. Like  Jacob,  and  also  like  Ishmael, 
Nahor  was  the  father  of  twelve  sons,  and 
further,  as  in  the  case  of  Jacob,  eight  of 
them  were  the  children  of  liis  wife,  and 
four  of  a  concubine  (Gen.  xxii.  21-24). 
Special  care  is  taken  in  speaking  of  the 
legitimate  branch  to  specify  its  descent 
from  Milcah  —  "  the  son  of  Milcah,  which 
she  bare  unto  Nahor."  It  was  to  this  pure 
and  unsullied  race  that  Abraham  and  Re- 
bekah  in  turn  had  recourse  for  wives  for 
their  sons.  But  with  Jacob's  flight  from 
Haran  the  intercourse  ceased. 

Nah'shon,  or  Naash'on,  son  of  Anr- 
minadab,  and  prince  of  the  children  of  Ju- 
dah (as  he  is  styled  in  the  genealogy  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  10),  at  the  time  of  the 
first  numbering  in  the  wilderness  CExod. 


NAHUM 


441 


NAPHISH 


▼i.  23;  Num.  i  7,  &c.).  His  sister,  Elish- 
eba,  was  wife  to  Aaron,  and  his  son,  Sal- 
mon, was  husband  to  Kahab  after  the  taking 
of  Jericlio.  He  died  in  tlie  wilderness, 
according  to  Num.  xxvi.  04,  G5. 

Na'hum  {consolation).  Nahum  "  the 
El'ioshite,"  the  seventh  in  order  of  the 
m  nor  propliets.  His  personal  history  is 
quite  unknown.  The  site  of  Elkosh,  his 
native  place,  is  disputed,  some  placing  it 
in  Galilee,  others  in  Assyria.  Those  who 
Uiaintain  ;he  latter  view  assume  tliat  the 
prophet's  parents  were  carried  into  cap- 
tivity by  Tiglath-pilescr,  and  that  the 
prophet  was  born  at  the  village  of  Al- 
kush,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  two 
miles  north  of  Mosul.  But  there  is  noth- 
ing in  the  prophecy  of  Nahum  to  indicate 
that  it  was  written  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  Nineveh,  and  in  full  view  of  the 
scenes  which  are  depicted,  nor  is  the  lan- 
guage that  of  an  exile  in  an  enemy's  country. 
No  allusion  is  made  to  the  captivity ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  imagery  is  such  as 
would  be  natural  to  an  inhabitant  of  Pales- 
tine (i.  4),  to  whom  the  rich  pastures  of 
Bashan,  the  vineyards  of  Carmel,  and  the 
blossom  of  Lebanon,  were  emblems  of  all 
that  was  luxuriant  and  fertile.  The  lan- 
guage employed  in  i.  15,  ii.  2,  is  appropriate 
to  one  who  wrote  for  his  countrymen  in 
their  native  land.  In  fact,  the  sole  origin 
of  the  theory  that  Nahum  flourished  in 
Assyria  is  the  name  of  the  village  Alkush, 
which  contains  his  supposed  tomb,  and  from 
its  similarity  to  Elkosh  was  apparently 
selected  by  mediaeval  tradition  as  a  shrine 
for  pilgrims.  The  date  of  Nahum's  proph- 
ecy can  be  determined  with  as  little  pre- 
«;ision  as  his  birthplace.  It  is,  however, 
certain  that  the  prophecy  was  written  be- 
fore the  final  downfall  of  Nineveh,  and  its 
capture  by  the  Medes  and  Chaldaeans  (cir. 
B.C.  625).  The  allusions  to  the  Assyrian 
power  imply  that  it  was  still  unbroken  (i. 
12,  ii.  13,  14,  iii.  15-17).  It  is  most  proba- 
Tale  that  Nahum  flourished  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  and  wrote  his 
prophecy  either  in  Jerusalem  or  its  neigh- 
borhood. The  subject  of  the  prophecy  is, 
in  accordance  with  the  superscription,  "  the 
burden  of  Nineveh,"  the  destruction  of 
which  he  predicts.  As  a  poet,  Nahum  oc- 
cupies a  high  place  in  the  first  rank  of 
Hebrew  literature.  In  i)roof  of  this  it  is 
only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  opening 
verses  of  his  propiiccy  (i.  2-6),  and  to  the 
magnificent  description  of  the  siege  and  de- 
struction of  Nineveh  in  ch.  ii.  His  stj'le  is 
clear  and  uninvolved,  though  pregnant  and 
forcible ;  his  diction  sonorous  and  rhyth- 
mical, the  words  re-echoing  to  the  sense 
(comp.  ii.  4,  iii.  3). 

Nail.  I.  (of  finger).  1.  A  nail  or  claw 
of  man  or  animal.  2.  A  point  or  style,  e.  g. 
for  writing-   see  Jer.  xvii.  1.      II.    1,  A 


nail  (Is.  xli.  7),  a  stake  (Is.  xxxiii.  20), 
also  a  tent-peg.  Tent-pegs  are  usually  of 
wood  and  of  large  size ;  but  sometimes,  as 
was  the  case  with  those  used  to  fasten  the 
curtains  of  the  Tabernacle,  of  metal  (Ex. 
xxvii.  19,  xxxviii.  20).  2.  A  nail,  primarily 
a  point.  We  are  told  that  David  prepared 
iron  for  the  nails  to  be  used  in  the  Temple ; 
and  as  the  Holy  of  Holies  was  plated  with 
gold,  the  nails  also  for  listening  the  platea 
were  probably  of  gold. 

Na'in,  a  village  of  Galilee,  the  gate  of 
which  is  made  illustrious  by  the  raising  of 
the  widow's  son  (Luke  vii.  12).  The  mod- 
ern Nein  is  situated  on  the  north-western 
edge  of  the  '"Little  Hermon,"  or  Jehel-ed- 
Diihy,  where  the  ground  falls  into  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon.  The  entrance  to  the  place, 
where  our  Saviour  met  the  funeral,  must 
probably  always  have  been  up  the  steep 
ascent  from  the  plain ;  and  here,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  village,  the  rock  is  full  of 
sepulchral  caves. 

Na'ioth,  or  more  fully,  "Naioth  in  Ea- 
mah,"  a  place  in  which  Samuel  and  David 
took  refuge  together,  after  the  latter  had 
made  his  escape  from  the  jealous  fury  of 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xix.  18,  19,  22,  23,  xx.  1).  It 
is  evident  from  ver.  18,  that  Naioth  was  not 
actually  in  Ramah,  Samuel's  habitual  resi- 
dence. In  its  corrected  form  the  name  sig- 
nifies "  habitations,"  and  probably  means 
the  huts  or  dwellings  of  a  school  or  college 
of  prophets  over  which  Samuel  presided, 
as  Elisha  did  over  those  at  Gilgal  and 
Jericho. 

Nane'a.  The  last  act  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  was  his  attempt  to  plunder  the 
temple  of  Nanea  at  Elymais,  which  had 
been  enriched  by  the  gifts  and  trophies  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (1  Mace.  vi.  1-4;  2 
Mace.  i.  13-16).  The  Persian  goddess 
Nanea  is  apparently  the  Moon-goddess. 
Elphinstone  in  1811  found  coins  of  the  Sas- 
sanians  with  the  inscription  NANAIA,  and 
on  the  reverse  a  figure  with  nimbus  and 
lotus-flower.  In  consequence  of  a  con- 
fusion between  the  Greek  and  Eastern  my- 
thologies, Nanea  has  been  identified  with 
Artemis  and  Aphrodite,  the  probalnlity 
being  that  she  corresponds  with  the  Tauric 
or  Ephesian  Artemis,  who  was  invested 
with  the  attributes  of  Aphrodite,  and  repre- 
sented the  productive  power  of  nature. 

Na'omi,  the  wife  of  Elimelech,  and 
mother-in-law  of  Ruth  (Ruth  i.  2,  &c.,  ii. 
1,  &c.,  iii.  1,  iv.  3,  &c.).  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  a  root  signifying  sweetness  or 
pleasantness ;  whence  we  read  :  "  Call 
me  not  Naomi  (pleasant),  call  me  Mara 
(bitter)  .  .  .  why  call  ye  me  Naomi,  when 
Jehovah  had  testified  against  me  ?  " 

Na'pblsll,  the  last  but  one  of  the  sons 
of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  15;  1  Chr.  i.  31). 
The  tribe  descended  from  Nodr.b  was  sub- 
dued by  the  Eeubenites,  the  Gadites,  and 


NAPHTALl 


442 


NATHANAEL 


the  half  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  when 
"  they  made  war  with  the  Hagarites,  with 
Jetur,  and  Nephish^  and  Nodab"  (1  Chr. 
V.  19). 

Naph'tali  {wrestling').  The  fifth  son 
of  Jacob ;  the  second  child  borne  to  him  by 
Bilhah,  Rachel's  slave.  His  birth  and  the 
bestowal  of  his  name  are  recorded  in  Gen. 
XXX.  8  :  "and  Rachel  said,  *  Wrestlings  (or 
contortions  — naphtule)  of  God  have  I 
wrestled  (niphtalii)  with  my  sister,  and 
have  prevailed.'  And  slie  called  his  name 
Naphtali."  At  the  migration  to  Egypt  four 
sons  are  attributed  to  Naphtali  (Gen.  xlvi. 
24;  Ex.  i.  4;  1  Chr.  vii.  13).  When  the 
census  was  taken  at  Mount  Sinai  the  tribe 
numbered  no  less  than  53,400  fighting  men 
(Num.  i.  43,  ii.  30).  But  when  the  borders 
of  the  Promised  Land  were  reached,  its 
numbers  were  reduced  to  45,400  (Num. 
xxvi.  48-50).  During  the  march  through 
the  wilderness  Naphtali  occupied  a  position 
on  the  north  of  the  Sacred  Tent  with  Dan 
and  Asher  (Num.  ii.  25-31).  In  the  ap- 
portionment of  the  land,  the  lot  of  Naphtali 
was  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  those  of 
other  tribes.  On  the  west  lay  Asher;  on 
the  south  Zebulun,  and  on  the  east  the 
trans-Jordanic  Manasseh.  The  north  ter- 
minated with  the  ravine  of  the  LitAny  or 
Leontes,  and  opened  into  the  splendid  val- 
ley which  separates  the  two  ranges  of 
Lebanon.  The  south  boundary  was  prob- 
ably very  much  the  same  as  that  which  at 
a  later  time  separated  Upper  from  Lower 
Galilee.  In  the  reign  of  Pekah  king  of 
Israel  (cir.  b.  c.  730),  Tiglath-Pileser  over- 
ran the  whole  of  the  north  of  Israel,  swept 
off  the  population,  and  bore  them  away  to 
Assyria.  But  though  the  history  of  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali  ends  here,  yet  under  the 
title  of  Galilee  the  district  which  they  had 
formerly  occupied  was  destined  to  become 
in  every  way  far  more  important  than  it 
had  ever  before  been. 

Naph'tali,  Mount.  The  mountainous 
district  which  formed  the  main  part  of  the 
inheritance  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xx.  7),  an- 
swering to  "  Mount  Ephraira  "  in  the  centre 
and  "  Mount  Judah  "  in  the  south  of  Pales- 
tine. 

Naph'tutlim,  a  Mizraite  nation  or 
tribe,  mentioned  only  in  the  account  of  the 
descendants  of  Noah  (Gen.  x.  13 ;  1  Chr, 
i.  11).  If  we  may  judge  from  their  posi- 
tion in  the  list  of  the  Mizraites,  the  Naph- 
tuhim  were  probably  settled,  at  first,  either 
in  Egypt  or  immediately  to  tlie  west  of  it. 

Narcis'sus,  a  dweller  at  Rome  (Rom. 
XA'i.  11),  some  members  of  whose  house- 
hold were  known  as  Christians  to  St.  Paul. 
Some  have  assumed  the  identity  of  this 
Narcissus  with  the  secretary  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius ;  but  this  is  quite  uncertain. 

Nard.     [Spikenard.] 

Na'than   (a  giver).      1.    An  eminent 


Hebrew  prophet  in  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon.  He  first  appears  in  the  consul- 
tation with  David  about  the  building  of  the 
Temple  (2  Sam.  vii.  2,  3,  17).  He  next 
comes  forward  as  the  reprover  of  David 
for  the  sin  with  Bathsheba ;  and  his  famous 
apologue  on  the  rich  man  and  the  ewe 
lamb,  which  is  the  only  direct  example  of 
his  prophetic  power,  shows  it  to  liave  been 
of  a  very  high  order  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-12). 
On  the  birth  of  Solomon  he  was  either 
specially  charged  with  giving  him  his  name, 
Jedeuiah,  or  else  with  his  education  (2 
Sara.  xii.  25).  At  any  rate,  in  the  last 
years  of  David,  it  is  Nathan  who,  by  taking 
the  side  of  Solomon,  turned  the  scale  in  his 
favor.  He  advised  Bathsheba;  he  himself 
ventured  to  enter  the  royal  presence  with  a 
remonstrance  against  the  king's  apathy; 
and^at  David's  request  he  assisted  in  the  in- 
auguration of  Solomon  (1  K.  i.  8,  10,  11, 
22,  23,  24,  32,  34,  38,  45).  This  is  the  last 
time  that  we  hear  directly  of  his  interven- 
tion in  the  history.  He  left  two  works  be- 
hind him  —  a  Life  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxix. 
29),  and  a  Life  of  Solomon  (2  Chr.  ix.  29), 
The  last  of  these  may  have  been  incom- 
plete, as  we  cannot  be  sure  that  he  outlived 
Solomon.  But  the  biography  of  David  by 
Nathan  is,  of  all  the  losses  which  antiqui- 
ty, sacred  or  profane,  has  sustained,  the 
most  deplorable.  His  grave  is  shown  at 
Halhul,  near  Hebron.  2.  A  son  of  David ; 
one  of  the  four  who  were  born  to  him  by 
Bathsheba  (1  Chr.  iii.  5 ;  comp.  xiv.  4,  and 
2  Sara.  V.  14).  Nathan  appears  to  have 
taken  no  part  in  the  events  of  his  father's 
or  his  brother's  reigns.  He  is  interesting 
to  us  from  his  appearing  as  one  of  the  fore- 
fathers of  Josepli  in  the  genealogy  of  St. 
Luke  (iii.  31).  3.  Son,  or  brother,  of  one 
of  the  members  of  David's  guard  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  36;  1  Chr.  xi.  38).  4.  One  of  the 
head  men  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Ezra  on  his  second  expedition  (Ezr.  viii. 
16;  1  Esdr.  viii.  44).  It  is  not  impossible 
that  he  may  be  the  same  with  the  "  son  of' 
Bani"  (Ezr.  x.  39). 

Nathan' aol,  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ, 
concerning  whom,  under  that  name  at  least, 
we  learn  from  Scripture  little  more  than 
his  birthplace,  Cana  of  Galilee  (John  xxi. 
2),  and  his  simple  truthful  character  (John 
i.  47).  The  name  does  not  occur  in  the 
first  three  Gospels.  But  it  is  commonly 
believed  that  Nathanael  and  Bartliolomew 
are  the  same  person.  The  evidence  for 
that  belief  is  as  follows :  St.  John,  who 
twice  mentions  Nathanael,  never  introdu<;es 
the  name  of  Bartholomew  at  all.  St.  Matt. 
X.  3 ;  St.  Mark  iii.  18 ;  and  St.  Luke  vi.  14, 
all  speak  of  Bartholomew,  but  never  of 
Nathaniel.  It  may  be  that  Nathaniel  was 
the  proper  name,  and  Bartliolomew  (son  of 
Tholraai)  the  surname  of  the  same  disciple, 
just  as  Simon  was  called  Bar-Joua,  and 


NATHAN-MELECH 


443 


KAZARITE 


Joses,  Barnabas.  It  was  Philip  who  first 
brought  Nathanael  to  Jesus,  just  as  Andrew 
had  brought  his  brotlier  Simon ;  and  Bar- 
tholomew is  named  by  each  of  the  first 
three  livangelists  immediately  after  Pliilip, 
while  by  St.  Luke  he  is  coupled  with  Philip 
precisely  in  the  s.ame  way  as  Simon  with 
his  brother  Andrew,  and  James  with  his 
brother  Jo'm. 

Na'than-me'leoh,  a  eunuch  (A.  V. 
"  chamberlain  ")  in  the  court  of  Josiah  (2 
K.  xxiii.  11). 

Na'um,  son  of  Esli  and  father  of  Amos, 
in  the  genealogy  of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  25), 
about  contemporary  with  the  high-priest- 
hood of  Jason  and  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes. 

Nave.  The  Heb.  gav  conveys  the  no- 
tion of  convexity  or  protuberance.  It  is 
rendered  in  A.  V.  boss  of  a  shield,  Job  xv. 
26 ;  the  eyebrow,  Lev.  xiv.  9 ;  an  eminent 
place,  Ez.  xvi.  31 ;  once  only  in  plur.  naves, 
1  K.%ii.  33 ;  but  in  Ez.  i.  18,  twice  " rings," 
and  niarg.  "  strakes." 

Naz'arene,  an  inhabitant  of  Nazareth. 
This  appellative  is  applied  to  Jesus  in 
many  passages  in  the  N.  T.  Its  applica- 
tion to  Jesus,  in  consequence  of  the  provi- 
dential arrangements  by  which  His  parents 
were  led  to  take  up  their  abode  in  Naza- 
reth, was  the  filling  out  of  the  predictions 
in  which  the  promised  Messiah  is  described 
as  a  Nttser,  i.  e.  a  shoot,  sprout,  of  Jesse, 
a  humble  and  despised  descendant  of  the 
decayed  royal  family.  Whenever  men 
spoke  of  Jesus  as  the  Nazarene,  they  ei- 
ther consciously  or  unconsciously  pro- 
nounced one  of  the  names  of  the  predict- 
ed Messiah,  a  name  indicative  both  of 
his  royal  descent  and  his  humble  condi- 
tion. Once  (Acts  xxiv.  5)  the  term  Naza- 
renes  is  applied  to  the  followers  of  Jesus 
by  way  of  contempt.  The  name  still  exists 
in  Arabic  as  the  ordinary  designation  of 
Christians. 

IN'az'areth.,  the  ordinary  residence  of 
our  Saviour,  is  not  mentioned  in  the  O.  T., 
but  occurs  first  in  Matt.  ii.  23.  It  derives 
its  celebrity  from  its  connection  with  the 
history  of  Christ,  and  in  that  respect  has  a 
hold  on  the  imagination  and  feelings  of 
men  which  it  shares  only  with  Jerusalem 
and  Bethlehem.  It  is  situated  among  the 
hills  which  constitute  the  south  ridges  of 
Lebanon,  just  before  they  sink  down  into 
the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  Of  the  identifica- 
tion of  the  ancient  site  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  The  name  of  the  present  village  is 
en-N&zirah,  the  same,  therefore,  as  of  old ; 
it  is  formed  on  a  hill  or  mountain  (Luke 
iv.  29) ;  it  is  within  the  limits  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Galilee  (Mark  i.  9) ;  it  is  near  Cana, 
according  to  the  implication  in  John  ii.  1, 
£,  11;  a  precipice  exists  in  the  neighbor- 
hood (Luke  iv.  29) ;  and,  finally,  a  series 
of  testimonies  reaches  back  to  Eusebius,  the 


father  of  Church  history,  which  represetrt 
the  place  as  having  occupied  an  invariable 
position.  The  modern  Nazareth  belongs  to 
the  better  class  of  eastern  villages.  It  has 
a  population  of  8000  or  4000;  a  f(!W  are 
Mohammedans,  the  rest  Latin  and  Greek 
Christians.  The  origin  of  the  disrepute  in 
which  Nazareth  stood  (John  i.  47)  is  not 
certainly  known.  All  the  inhabitants  of 
Galilee  were  looked  upon  with  contempt 
by  the  people  of  Judaea  because  they  spoke 
a  ruder  dialect,  were  less  cultivated,  and 
were  more  exposed  by  their  position  to 
contact  with  the  heathen.  But  Nazareth 
labored  under  a  special  opprobrium,  for  it 
was  a  Galilean  and  not  a  southern  Jew  who 
asked  the  reproachful  question  whether 
"  any  good  thing  "  could  come  from  that 
source.  —  Among  the  "  holy  places  "  which 
the  legends  have  sought  to  connect  with 
events  in  the  life  of  Christ,  two  localities 
are  of  special  interest.  One  of  these  is 
the  "  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,"  situated  at 
the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  town, 
where,  according  to  one  tradition,  the 
mother  of  Jesus  received  the  angel's  salu- 
tation (Luke  1.  28).  The  other  place  is 
that  of  the  attempted  Precipitation.  Above 
the  town  are  several  rocky  ledges,  over 
which  a  person  could  not  be  thrown  with- 
out almost  certain  destruction.  But  there 
is  one  very  remarkable  precipice,  almost 
perpendicular,  and  forty  or  fifty  feet  high, 
near  the  Maronite  church,  which  may  well 
be  supposed  to  be  the  identical  one  over 
which  His  infuriated  townsmen  attempted 
to  hurl  Jesus. 

Naz'arite,  more  properly  Naz'irite 
{one  separated^,  one  of  either  sex  who  was 
bound  by  a  vow  of  a  peculiar  kind  to  be  set 
apart  from  others  for  the  service  of  God. 
The  obligation  was  either  for  life  or  for  a 
defined  time.  There  is  no  notice  in  the 
Pentateuch  of  Nazarites  for  life ;  but  the 
regulations  for  the  vow  of  a  Nazarite  of 
days  are  given  Num.  vi.  1-21.  The  Naz- 
arite, during  the  term  of  his  consecration, 
was  bound  to  abstain  from  wine,  grapes, 
with  every  production  of  the  vine,  and 
from  every  kind  of  intoxicating  drink.  He 
was  forbidden  to  cut  the  hair  of  his  head,  or 
to  approach  any  dead  body,  even  that  of  his 
nearest  relation.  When  the  period  of  his 
vow  was  fulfilled,  he  was  brought  to  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle,  and  was  required  to  ofler 
a  he  lamb  for  a  burnt-ofiering,  a  ewe  lamb 
for  a  sin-offering,  and  a  ram  for  a  peace-of- 
fering, with  the  usual  accompaniments  of 
peace-offerings  (Lev.  vii.  12,  13)  and  of  the 
offering  made  at  the  consecration  of  priesvs 
(Ex.  xxix.  2),  "a  basket  of  unleavened 
bread,  cakes  of  fine  flour  mingled  with  oil, 
and  wafers  of  unleavened  bread  anointed 
with  oil "  (Num.  vi.  15).  He  brought  also  a 
meat-offering  and  a  drink-offering,  which 
appear  to  have  been  presented  by  theia- 


KAZAEITE 


444 


NEBO 


selves  as  a  distinct  act  of  service  (ver.  17). 
He  was  to  cut  off  the  liair  of  "  the  head  of 
his  separation  "  (tliat  is,  the  hair  wliich  had 
grown  during  the  period  of  his  consecra- 
tion) at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  and  to 
put  it  into  the  fire  under  the  sacrifice  on 
the  altar.  The  priest  then  placed  upon  his 
bands  the  sodden  left  shoulder  of  the  rain, 
with  one  of  the  unleavened  cakes  and  one 
of  the  wafers,  and  then  took  them  again 
and  waved  them  for  a  wave-offering.  Of 
the"  Nazarites  for  life  three  are  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures :  Samson,  Samuel,  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist.  The  only  one  of 
these  actually  called  a  Nazarite  is  Samson. 
We  do  not  know  whether  the  vow  for  life 
was  ever  voluntarily  taken  by  the  individ- 
ual. In  all  the  cases  mentioned  in  the 
sacred  iiistory,  it  was  made  by  the  parents 
before  the  birth  of  the  Nazarite  himself.  — 
The  consecration  of  the  Nazarite  bore  a 
striking  resemblance  to  that  of  the  high- 
priest  (Lev.  xxi.  10-12).  In  one  particu- 
lar, this  is  brought  out  more  plainly  in  the 
Hebrew  text  than  it  is  in  our  version,  in 
the  LXX.,  or  in  the  Vulgate.  One  word 
(n^zer),  derived  from  the  same  root  as 
Nazarite,  is  used  for  the  long  hair  of  the 
Nazarite  (Num.  vi.  19),  where  the  A.  V. 
has  "  hair  of  his  separation,"  and  for  the 
anointed  head  of  the  high-priest  (Lev.  xxi. 
12),  where  it  is  rendered  "crown."  Of 
the  two  vows  recorded  of  St.  Paul,  that  in 
Acts  xviii.  18  certainly  cannot  be  regarded 
as  a  regular  Nazarite  vow.  All  that  we 
are  told  of  it  is  that,  on  his  way  from  Cor- 
inth to  Jerusalem,  lie  "  shaved  his  head  in 
Cenchreae,  for  he  had  a  vow."  It  is  most 
likely  that  it  was  a  sort  of  vow  modified 
from  the  proper  Nazarite  vow,  which  had 
come  into  use  at  this  time  amongst  the  re- 
ligious Jews  who  had  been  visited  by  sick- 
ness, or  any  other  calamity.  The  other 
reference  to  a  vow  taken  by  St.  Paul  is  in 
Acts  xxi.  2i,  where  we  find  the  brethren 
at  Jerusalem  exhorting  him  to  take  part 
with  four  Christians  who  had  a  vow  on 
them,  to  sanctify  (not  purify,  as  in  A.  V.) 
himself  with  them,  and  to  be  at  charges 
with  them,  that  tliey  might  shave  their 
heads.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  was 
a  strictly  legal  Nazarite  vow.  —  The  mean- 
ing of  the  Nazarite  vow  has  been  regarded 
in  different  lights.  It  may  be  regarded  as 
an  act  of  self-sacrifice.  That  it  w.as  essen- 
tially a  sacrifice  of  the  person  to  the  Lord 
is  obviously  in  accordance  with  tiie  terms 
of  the  Law  (Num.  vi.  2).  As  the  Nazarite 
was  a  witness  for  the  straitness  of  the  Law, 
as  distinguished  from  the  freedom  of  the 
Gospel,  his  sacrifice  of  himself  was  a  sub- 
mission to  the  letter  of  the  rule.  Its  out- 
ward manifestations  were  restraints  and 
eccentricities.  The  man  was  separated 
from  his  brethren  that  he  might  be  pecu- 
liarly devoted  to  the  Lord.     This  was  con- 


sistent with  the  purpose  of  divine  wisdom 
for  tlie  time  for  which  it  was  ordained. 

Ne'ah,  a  place  which  was  one  of  the 
landmarks  on  the  boundary  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  13  only).  By  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  it  is  mentioned  merely  with  a  cau- 
tion that  there  is  a  place  of  the  same  name, 
10  miles  S.  of  Neapolis.  It  has  not  yet 
been  identified. 

Neap'olis  is  the  place  in  northern 
Greece  where  Paul  and  his  associates  first 
landed  in  Europe  (Acts  xvi.  11)  ;  where,  no 
doubt,  he  landed  also  on  his  second  visit  to 
Macedonia  (Acts  xx.  1),  and  whence  cer- 
tainly he  embarked  on  his  last  journey 
through  that  province  to  Troas  and  Jeru- 
salem (Acts  XX.  G).  Philippi  being  an  in- 
land town,  Neapolis  was  evidently  the  port, 
and  is  represented  by  the  present  Kavalla. 

Neari'ah.  1.  One  of  the  six  sons  of 
Shemaiah  in  the  line  of  the  royal  family  of 
Judah  after  the  captivity  (1  Chr.  iii.  22,  23). 
2.  A  son  of  Ishi,  and  one  of  the  captains 
of  the  500  Simeonites  who,  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah,  drove  out  the  Amalekites  from 
Mount  Seir  (1  Chr.  iv.  42). 

Neba'i,  a  family  of  the  heads  of  the 
people  who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  x.  19).  The  LXX.  followed 
the  written  text,  while  the  Vulgate  adopted 
the  reading  of  the  margin. 

Neba'ioth,  Neba'joth,  the  "  first-born 
of  Ishmael"  (Gen.  xxv.  13;  1  Chr.  i.  29), 
and  father  of  a  pastoral  tribe  named  after 
him,  the  "  rams  of  Nebjyoth  "  being  men- 
tioned by  the  prophet  Isaiah  (Ix.  7)  with 
the  flocks  of  Kedar.  From  the  days  of 
Jerome  this  people  had  been  identified  with 
the  Nabathaeans,  of  whom  Pctra  was  the 
capital,  until  M.  Quatremere  first  investi- 
gated the  origin  of  the  latter,  their  language, 
religion,  and  history.  It  is  possible  that 
Nebaioth  went  to  the  far  east,  to  the  country 
of  his  grandfather  Abraham,  intermarried 
with  the  Chaldaeans,  and  gave  birth  to  a 
mixed  race,  the  Nabat.  It  is,  however, 
safest  to  leave  unsettled  the  identification 
of  Nebaioth  and  Nabat  until  another  link 
be  added  to  the  chain  that  at  present  seems 
to  connect  them. 

Nebal'lat,  a  town  of  Benjamin,  one  of 
those  which  the  Benjamites  reoccupicd 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  34). 

Ne'bat,  the  father  of  Jeroboam  (IK. 
xi.  26,  xii.  2,  15,  &c.),  is  described  as  an 
Ephrathite,  or  Ephraimite,  of  Zereda. 

Ne'bo,  Mount,  the  mountain  from 
which  Moses  took  his  first  and  last  view  of 
the  Promised  Land  (Rent,  xxxii.  49,  xxxiv. 
1).  It  is  described  as  in  the  land  of  Moab, 
facing  Jericho ;  the  head  or  summit  of  a 
mountain  called  the  Pisgah;  but  notwith- 
standing the  minuteness  of  this  description, 
no  one  has  yet  succeeded  in  pointing  out 
any  spot  which  answers  to  Nebo. 

Ne'bo.     1.  A  town  of  Reuben  on  the 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR 


445 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR 


eastern  side  of  Jordan  (Num.  xxxii.  3,  38). 
In  the  remarkable  propliecy  adopted  by 
Isaiah  (xv.  2)  and  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  1,  22) 
concerning  Moab,  Nebo  is  mentioned  in  the 
same  connection  as  before,  but  in  tlie  hands 
of  Moab.  EuscbiuB  and  Jerome  identify  it 
with  Nobah  or  Kenath,  and  place  it  8  miles 
south  of  Heshbon,  where  the  ruins  of  el- 
Ilahis  appear  to  stand  at  present.  2.  The 
children  of  Nebo  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  29,  x.  43 ;  Neh. 
vii.  33).  The  name  occurs  between  Bethel 
and  Ai,  and  Lydda,  which  implies  that  it 
was  situated  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin 
to  the  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem.  This  is  pos- 
sibly the  modern  Beit-Niihah,  about  12  miles 
N.  W.  by  W.  of  Jerusalem,  8  from  Lydda. 
3.  Nebo,  which  occurs  both  in  Isaiah  (xlvi. 
1)  and  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  1)  as  the  name  of 
a  Chaldaean  god,  is  a  well-known  deity  of 
the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  He  was 
the  god  who  presided  over  learning  and  let- 
ters. His  general  character  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  Egyptian  Thoth,  the  Greek 
Hermes  and  the  Latin  Mercury.  Astro- 
nomically he  is  identified  with  the  planet 
nearest  the  sun.  In  Babylonia  Nebo  held 
a  prominent  place  from  an  early  time.  The 
ancient  town  of  Borsippa  was  especially 
under  his  protection,  and  the  great  temple 
there  (the  modern  Jiirs-Nimrud)  was  ded- 
icated to  him  from  a  very  remote  age.  He 
was  the  tutelar  god  of  the  most  important 
Babylonian  kings,  in  whose  names  the  word 
Kahu,  or  Nebo,  appears  as  an  element. 

Nebuchadnez'zar,  or  Nebuchad- 
rez'zar,  the  greatest  and  most  powerful 
of  the  Babylonian  kings.  His  name  is  ex- 
plained to  mean  "Nebo  is  the  protector 
against  misfortune."  He  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Nabopolassar,  the  founder  of 
the  Babylonian  Empire.  In  the  lifetime 
of  his  father,  Nebuchadnezzar  led  an  army 
against  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  de- 
feated him  at  Carchemish  (b.  c.  605)  in  a 
great  battle  (Jer.  xlvi.  2-12),  recovered 
Coele-syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  took 
Jerusalem  (Dan.  i.  1,  2),  pressed  forward 
to  Egypt,  and  was  engaged  in  that  country 
or  upon  its  borders  when  intelligence  ar- 
rived whicli  recalled  him  hastily  to  Babylon. 
Nabopolassar,  after  reigning  21  years,  had 
died,  and  the  throne  was  vacant.  In  some 
alarm  about  the  succession  he  hurried  back 
to  the  capital,  accompanied  only  by  his  light 
troops ;  and  crossing  the  desert,  probably 
by  way  of  Tadmor  or  Palmyra,  reached 
Babylon  before  any  disturbance  had  arisen, 
and  entered  peaceably  on  his  kingdom  (b.  c. 
604).  Within  three  years  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's first  expedition  into  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine, disaffection  again  showed  itself  in 
tliose  countries.  Jehoiakim,  who,  although 
threatened  at  first  with  captivity  (2  Chr. 
xxxvi.  6)  had  been  finally  maintained  on 
•he  throne  as  a  Babylonian  vassal,  after 


three  years  of  service  "  turned  and  rebelled" 
against  his  suzerain,  probably  trusting  to  be 
supported  by  Egypt  (2  K.  xxiv.  1).  Not 
long  afterwards  Phoenicia  seems  to  have 
broken  into  revolt;  and  the  Chaldaean 
monarch,  who  had  previously  endeavored 
to  subdue  the  disaffected  by  his  generals 
(ib.  ver.  2),  once  more  took  the  field  in 
person,  and  marched  first  of  all  against 
Tyre.  Having  invested  that  city,  and  left  a 
portion  of  his  army  there  to  continue  the 
siege,  he  proceeded  against  Jerusalem, 
which  submitted  without  a  struggle.  Ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  who  is  here  our  chief 
authority,  Nebuchadnezzar  punished  Jehoi- 
akim with  death  (comp.  Jer.  xxii.  18,  19, 
and  xxxvi.  30),  but  placed  his  son  Jehoi- 
achin  upon  the  throne.  Jehoiachin  reigned 
only  three  months ;  for,  on  his  showing 
symptoms  of  disaffection,  Nebuchadnezzar 
came  up  against  Jerusalem  for  the  third 
time,  deposed  the  young  prince  (whom  he 
carried  to  Babylon,  together  with  a  large 
portion  of  the  population  of  the  city,  and 
the  chief  of  the  Temple  treasures),  and 
made  his  uncle,  Zedekiah,  king  in  his  room. 
Tyre  still  held  out ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
thirteenth  year  from  the  time  of  its  first 
investment  that  the  city  of  merchants  fell 
(B.C.  585).  Ere  this  happened,  Jerusalem 
had  been  totally  destroyed.  This  consum- 
mation was  owing  to  the  folly  of  Zedekiah, 
who,  despite  the  warnings  of  Jeremiah, 
made  a  treaty  with  Apries  (Hophra),  king 
of  Egypt  (Ez.  xvii.  15),  and  on  the  strength 
of  this  alliance  renounced  his  allegiance 
to  the  king  of  Babylon.  Nebuchadnezzar 
commenced  the  final  siege  of  Jerusalem  in 
the  ninth  year  of  Zedekiah,  —  his  own  sev- 
enteenth year  (b.  c.  588),  and  took  it  two 
years  later  (b.  c.  586).  One  effort  to  carry 
out  the  treaty  seems  to  have  been  made  by 
Apries.  An  Egyptian  army  crossed  the 
frontier,  and  began  its  march  towards  Jeru- 
salem ;  upon  which  Nebuchadnezzar  raised 
tlie  siege,  and  set  off  to  meet  the  new  foe. 
According  to  Josephus  a  battle  was  fought, 
in  which  Apries  was  completely  defeated ; 
but  the  Scriptural  account  seems  rather  to 
imply  that  the  Egyptians  retired  on  the  ad- 
vance of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  recrossed 
the  frontier  without  risking  an  engagement 
(Jer.  xxxvii.  5-8).  After  an  eighteen 
months'  siege  Jerusalem  fell.  Zedekiah 
escaped  from  the  city,  but  was  captured 
near  Jericho  (ib.  xxxix.  5),  and  brought  to 
Nebuchadnezzar  at  Eiblah  in  the  territory 
of  Hamath,  where  his  eyes  were  put  out  by 
the  king's  order,  while  his  sons  and  his  chief 
nobles  were  slain.  Nebuchadnezzar  tlien 
returned  to  Babylon  with  Zedekiali,  wliom 
he  imprisoned  for  the  remainder  of  his  life ; 
leaving  Nebuzar-adan,  tlie  captain  of  his 
guard,  to  complete  the  destruction  of  tlie 
city  and  the  pacification  of  Judaea.  Geda- 
liali,  a  Jew,  was  appointed  governor,  but  he 


NEBUSHASBAN 


446 


NEHEMIAH 


was  shortly  murdered,  and  the  rest  of  the 
Jews  either  fled  to  Egypt  or  were  carried 
by  Nebuzar-adan  to  Babylon.  The  military 
successes  of  Nebuchadnezzar  cannot  be 
traced  minutely  beyond  this  point.  It  may 
be  gathered  from  the  prophetical  Scriptures 
and  from  Josephus,  that  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  was  rapidly  followed  by  the  fall 
of  Tyre  and  the  complete  submission  of 
Phoenicia  (Ez.  xxvi.-xxviii.)  ;  after  which 
the  Babylonians  carried  their  arms  into 
Egypt,  and  inflicted  severe  injuries  on  that 
fertile  country  (Jer.  xlvi.  13-26 ;  Ez.  xxix. 
2-20).  We  are  told  that  the  first  care  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  on  obtaining  quiet  pos- 
session of  his  kingdom  after  the  first  Syrian 
expedition,  was  to  rebuild  the  temple  of 
Bel  (Bel-Mcrodnch)  at  Babylon  out  of  the 
spoils  of  the  Syrian  war.  He  next  pro- 
ceeded to  strengthen  and  beautify  the  city, 
which  he  renovated  throughout,  and  sur- 
rounded with  several  lines  of  fortification, 
himself  adding  one  entirely  new  quarter. 
Having  finished  the  walls  and  adorned  the 
gates  magnificently,  he  constructed  a  new 
palace.  In  the  grounds  of  this  palace  he 
formed  the  celebrated  "  hanging  garden." 
But  he  did  not  confine  his  efforts  to  the  or- 
namentation and  improvement  of  his  capital. 
Throughout  the  empire,  at  Borsippa,  Sip- 
para,  Cutha,  Chilinad,  Duraba,  Teredon, 
and  a  multitude  of  other  places,  he  built  or 
rebuilt  cities,  repaired  temples,  constructed 
^uays,  reservoirs,  canals,  and  aqueducts, 
on  a  scale  of  grandeur  and  magnificence 
surpassing  everything  of  the  kind  recorded 
in  history,  unless  it  be  the  constructions  of 
one  or  two  of  the  greatest  Egyptian  mon- 
archs.  The  wealth,  greatness,  and  general 
prosperity  of  Nebuchadnezzar  are  striking- 
ly placed  before  us  in  the  book  of  Daniel. 
Towards  the  close  of  his  reign  the  glory 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  suffered  a  temporary 
eclipse.  As  a  punishment  for  his  pride  and 
vanity,  that  strange  form  of  madness  was 
sent  upon  him  which  the  Greeks  called  Ly- 
canthropy,  wherein  the  sufferer  imagines 
himself  a  beast,  and  quitting  the  haunts  of 
men,  insists  on  leading  the  life  of  a  beast 
(Dan.  iv.  33).  After  an  interval  of  four 
or  perhaps  seven  years  (Dan.  iv.  16),  Neb- 
uchadnezzar's malady  left  him.  We  are 
told  that  "  his  reason  returned,  and  for  the 
glory  of  his  kingdom  his  honor  and  bright- 
ness returned ;  "  and  he  "was  established 
in  his  kingdom,  and  excellent  majesty  was 
added  to  him"  (Dan.  iv.  36).  He  died  in 
the  year  b.  c  561,  at  an  advanced  age  (eigh- 
ty-three or  eighty-four),  having  reigned 
forty-three  years.  A  son,  Evil-Merodach, 
succeeded  him. 

Nebxishas'ban,  one  of  the  officers  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  at  the  time  of  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem.  He  was  Kab-saris,  i.  e.  chief 
of  the  eunuchs  (Jer.  xxxix.  13).  Nebu- 
shasban'a  oflflce  and  title  were  the  same  as 


those  of  Ashpcnaz  (Dan.  i.  3),  whom  he 
probably  succeeded. 

Nebuzar'adan,  the  Eab-tabbachim, 
i.  e.  chief  of  the  slaughterers  (A.  V.  "  cap- 
tain of  the  guard"),  a  high  officer  in  the 
court  of  NebuchadnezzaV.  On  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  he  was  left  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar in  charge  of  the  city  (comp.  Jer.  xxxix. 
11).  He  seems  to  have  quitted  Judaea  when 
he  took  down  the  chief  people  of  Jerusalem 
to  his  master  at  Riblah  (2  K.  xxv.  18-20). 
In  four  years  he  again  appeared  (Jer.  lii. 
30).  Nebuchadnezzar  in  his  twenty-third 
year  made  a  descent  on  the  regions  cast  of 
Jordan,  including  the  Ammonites  and  Moab- 
ites,  who  escaped  when  Jerusalem  was  de- 
stroyed. Thence  he  proceeded  to  Egypt, 
and,  either  on  the  way  thither  or  on  the  re- 
turn, Nebuzar-adan  again  passed  through 
the  country  and  carried  off"  more  captives 
(Jer.  lii.  30). 

Ne'cho,  2  Chr.  XXXV.  20,  22 ;  xxxvi.  4. 
[Pharaoh-Nechc] 

Nedabi'ah.  Apparently  one  of  the 
sons  of  Jeconiah,  or  Jehoiachin,  king  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  iii.  18). 

Neg'inah,  properly  Neginath,  occujs 
in  the  title  of  Ps.  Ixi.,  "  to  the  chief  musi- 
cian upon  Neginath."  The  LXX.  and 
Vulg.  evidently  read  "Ncginoth"  in  the 
plural,  which  occurs  in  the  titles  of  Ps.  iv., 
vi.,  liv.,  Iv.,  Ixvii.,  Ixxvi.,  and  the  margin  of 
Hab.  iii.  19,  and  is  perhaps  the  true  reading. 
Whether  the  word  be  singular  or  plural,  it 
is  the  general  term  by  which  all  stringed 
instruments  are  described.  "  The  chief 
musician  on  Neginoth"  was  therefore-  the 
conductor  of  that  portion  of  the  Temple- 
choir  who  played  upon  the  stringed  instru- 
ments, and  who  are  mentioned  in  Ps.  Ixviii. 
25. 

Neg'inoth.    [Neginah.] 

Nehel'amite,  The.  The  designation 
of  a  man  named  Shemaiah,  a  false  prophet, 
who  went  with  the  captivity  to  Babylon 
(Jer.  xxix.  24,  31,  32).  The  name  is  no 
doubt  formed  from  that  either  of  Shemaiah's 
native  place,  or  the  progenitor  of  his  fam- 
ily ;  Avhich  of  the  two  is  uncertain. 

Nehemi'ah.  1.  Son  of  Hachaliah,  and 
apparently  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  All  that 
we  know  certainly  concerning  him  is  con- 
tained in  the  book  which  bears  his  name. 
We  first  find  him  at  Shushan,  the  winter 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Persia,  in  high  of- 
fice as  the  cupbearer  of  king  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus.  In  the  20th  year  of  the  king's 
reign,  t.  e.  b.  c.  445,  certain  Jews  arrived 
from  Judaea,  and  gave  Nehemiah  a  deplora- 
ble account  of  the  state  of  Jerusalem.  He 
immediately  conceived  the  idea  of  going 
to  Jerusalem  to  endeavor  to  better  their 
state,  and  obtained  the  king's  consent  to 
his  mission.  Having  received  his  appoint- 
ment as  governor  of  Judaea,  he  started 
upon  liis  journey,  l-.eing  under  promise  to 


XEHEMIAH 


447 


NEHEMIAH,  BOOK  OF 


roturn  to  Persia  within  a  given  time.  Ne- 
lieniiah's  great  work  was  rebuilding,  for  the 
first  time  since  their  destruction  by  Nebu- 
zaradan,  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  restor- 
ing that  city  to  its  former  state  and  dignity 
as  a  fortified  town.  It  is  impossible  to  over- 
estimate the  importance  to  the  future  polit- 
ical and  ecclesiastical  prosperity  of  the  Jew- 
ish nation  of  this  great  achievement  of  tlieir 
patriotic  governor.  How  low  the  commu- 
nity of  the  Palestine  Jews  had  fallen  is  ap- 
parent from  the  fact  that  from  the  6th  of 
Darius  to  the  7th  of  Artaxerxes  there  is  no 
history  of  them  wliatever.  The  one  step 
which  could  resuscitate  the  nation,  preserve 
the  Mosaic  institutions,  and  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  future  independence,  was  the  resto- 
ration of  the  city  walls.  To  this  great  ob- 
ject therefore  Nehemiah  directed  his  whole 
energies  without  an  hour's  unnecessary  de- 
lay. In  a  wonderfully  short  time  the  walls 
seemed  to  emerge  from  the  heaps  of  burnt 
rubbisii,  and  to  encircle  the  city  as  in  the 
days  of  old.  It  soon  became  apparent  how 
wisely  Nehemiah  had  acted  in  hastening  on 
the  work.  On  his  very  first  arrival,  as 
governor,  Sanballat  and  Tobiah  had  given 
unequivocal  proof  of  their  mortification  at 
his  appointment.  But  when  the  restoration 
was  seen  to  be  rapidly  progressing,  their 
indignation  knew  no  bounds.  They  made 
a  great  conspiracy  to  fall  upon  the  builders 
with  an  armed  force  and  put  a  stop  to  the 
undertaking.  The  project  was  defeated  by 
the  vigilance  and  prudence  of  Nehemiah. 
Various  stratagems  were  then  resorted  to 
to  get  Nehemiah  away  from  Jerusalem,  and 
if  possible  to  take  his  life.  But  that  which 
most  nearly  succeeded  was  the  attempt  to 
bring  him  into  suspicion  with  the  king  of 
Persia,  as  if  he  intended  to  set  himself  up 
as  an  independent  king  as  soon  as  the 
walls  were  completed.  The  artful  letter 
of  Sanballat  so  far  wrought  upon  Arta- 
xerxes that  he  issued  a  decree  stopping  the 
work  till  further  orders.  It  is  probable 
that  at  the  same  time  he  recalled  Nehemi- 
ah, or  perhaps  his  leave  of  absence  had  pre- 
viously expired.  But  after  a  delay,  perhaps 
of  several  years,  he  was  permitted  to  return 
to  Jerusalem,  and  to  crown  his  work  by 
repairing  the  Temple  and  dedicating  the 
walls.  Nehemiah  does  not  indeed  mention 
this  adverse  decree;  nor  should  we  have 
suspected  his  absence  at  all  from  Jerusalem 
but  for  the  incidental  allusion  in  ch.  ii.  6, 
xiii.  6,  coupled  with  the  long  interval  of 
years  between  the  earlier  and  later  chap- 
ters of  the  book.  It  seems  that  the  work 
stopped  immediately  after  the  events  nar- 
rated in  vi.  16-19,  and  that  chapter  vii. 
goes  on  to  relate  the  measures  adopted  by 
him  upon  his  return  with  fresh  powers.  — 
During  his  government  Nehemiah  firmly 
repressed  the  exactions  of  the  nobles,  and 
the  usury  of  the  rich,  and  rescued  the  poor 


Jews  from  spoliation  and  slavery.  He  re- 
fused to  receive  liis  lawful  allowance  aa 
governor  from  the  people,  in  consideration 
of  their  poverty,  during  the  whole  twelve 
years  that  he  was  in  ofiice,  but  kept  at  his 
own  charge  a  table  for  150  Jews,  at  which 
any  who  returned  from  captivity  were  wel- 
come. He  made  most  careful  provision  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  ministering  priests 
and  Levites,  and  for  the  due  and  constant 
celebration  of  Divine  worship.  He  insisted 
upon  the  sanctity  of  the  precincts  of  the 
Temple  being  preserved  inviolable,  and  per- 
emptorily ejected  the  powerful  Tobiah  from 
one  of  the  chambers  which  Eliashib  had 
assigned  to  him.  He  then  replaced  the 
stores  and  vessels  which  had  been  removed 
to  make  room  for  him,  and  appointed  proper 
Levitical  officers  to  superintend  and  distrib- 
ute them.  With  no  less  firmness  and  impar- 
tiality he  expelled  from  all  sacred  functions 
those  of  the  high-priest's  family  who  had 
contracted  heathen  marriages,  and  rebuked 
and  punished  those  of  the  common  people 
who  had  likewise  intermarried  with  for- 
eigners ;  and  lastly,  he  provided  for  keeping 
holy  the  Sabbath  day,  which  was  shame- 
fully profaned  by  many,  both  Jews  and  for- 
eign merchants,  and  by  his  resolute  con- 
duct succeeded  in  repressing  the  lawless 
traffic  on  the  day  of  rest.  Beyond  the  32d 
year  of  Artaxerxes,  to  which  Nehemiah's 
own  narrative  leads  us,  we  have  no  account 
of  him  whatever.  2.  One  of  the  leaders 
of  the  first  expedition  from  Babylon  to  Je- 
rusalem under  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  2 ;  Neh. 
vii.  7).  3.  Son  of  Azbuk,  and  ruler  of  the 
half  part  of  Beth-zur,  who  helped  to  repair 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  16). 

Nehemi'ah,  Book  of,  like  the  pre- 
ceding one  of  Ezra,  is  clearly  and  certainly 
not  all  by  the  same  hand.  [Ezra,  Book 
OF.]  By  far  the  principal  portion,  indeed, 
is  the  work  of  Nehemiah ;  but  other  por- 
tions are  either  extracts  from  various  chron- 
icles and  registers,  or  supplementary  nar- 
ratives and  reflections,  some  apparently  by 
Ezra,  others,  perhaps,  the  work  of  the  same 
person  who  inserted  the  latest  genealogical 
extracts  from  the  public  chronicles.  —  The 
main  history  contained  in  the  book  of  Ne- 
hemiah covers  about  12  years,  viz.,  from 
the  20th  to  the  32d  year  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  i.  e.  from  b.  c.  445  to  433. 
The  whole  narrative  gives  us  a  grapliic  and 
interesting  account  of  the  state  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  returned  captives  in  the  writer's 
times,  and,  incidentally,  of  the  nature  of 
the  Persian  government  and  the  condition 
of  its  remote  provinces.  The  documents 
appended  to  it  also  give  some  further  infor- 
mation as  to  the  times  of  Zerubbabel,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  as  to  the  continuation  of  the 
genealogical  registers  and  the  succession 
of  the  high-priesthood  to  the  close  of  the 
Persian  empire  on  tlie  other.     The  view 


KEHEMIxlH,  BOOK  OF 


448 


NEPHISH 


given  of  the  rise  of  two  factions  among  the 
Jews  —  the  one  the  strict  religious  party, 
the  other  the  gentilizing  party  —  sets  before 
us  the  germ  of  much  that  we  meet  with  in 
a  more  developed  state  in  later  Jewish  his- 
tory. Again,  in  tliis  history  as  well  as  in 
the  book  of  Ezra,  we  see  the  bitter  enmity 
between  the  Jews  and  Sanuiritans  acquir- 
ing strength  and  definitive  form  on  both 
religious  and  political  grounds.  The  book 
also  throws  much  light  upon  the  domestic 
institutions  of  the  Jews.  Some  of  its  details 
give  us  incidenUiUy  information  of  great 
liistorieal  imjwrtance.  (a.)  The  account 
of  the  building  and  dedication  of  the  wall, 
iii.,  xii.,  contains  the  most  valuable  mate- 
rials for  settling  the  tojwgraphy  of  Jerusa- 
lem to  be  found  in  Scripture.  (6.)  The 
list  of  returned  captives  who  came  under 
different  leaders  from  the  time  of  Zerubba- 
bel  to  that  of  Nehemiah  (amounting  in  all 
to  only  42.360  adult  males,  and  7337  ser- 
vants),  which  is  given  in  ch.  vii.,  conveys 
a  faithful  picture  of  the  political  weakness 
of  tlie  Jewish  nation  as  compared  with  the 
times  when  Judah  alone  numbered  470,000 
fighting  men  (1  Chr.  xxi.  6).  (c.)  The 
lists  of  leaders,  priests,  Levites,  and  of 
those  who  signed  tlie  covenant,  reveal  inci- 
dentally much  of  the  national  spirit  as  well 
as  of  tlie  social  habits  of  the  captives,  de- 
rived from  older  times.  Thus  the  fact  that 
twelve  leaders  are  named  in  Neh.  vii.  7  in- 
dicates tlie  feeling  of  the  captives  that  they 
represented  the  tu-elre  tribes,  a  feeling  fur- 
ther evidenced  in  the  expression  "  the  men 
of  the  people  of  Israel."'  (d.)  Other  miscel- 
laneous information  contained  in  this  book 
embraces  tlie  hereditary  crafts  practised  by 
certain  priestly  families,  e.  g.  the  apothe- 
caries, or  makers  of  tlie  sacred  ointments 
aud  incense  (iii.  8),  and  the  goldsmiths 
(iii.  8),  and  who  may  have  been  tlie  ances- 
tors, so  to  speak,  of  the  money-changers  in 
the  Temple  (John  ii.  14,  15) ;  the  situation 
of  the  garden  of  the  kings  of  Judah  by  wliich 
Zedekiah  escaped  (2  K.  xxv.  4),  as  seen  iii. 
15 ;  and  stjvtistics,  reminding  one  of  Domes- 
day-Book. In  respect  to  language  and 
style,  this  book  is  very  similar  to  the  Chron- 
icles and  Ezra.  Nehemiah  has,  it  is  true, 
quite  his  own  manner,  and  certain  phrases 
and  modes  of  expression  peculiar  to  him- 
self. He  has  also  some  few  words  and 
forms  not  found  elsewhere  in  Scripture; 
but  the  general  Hebrew  style  is  exactly  that 
of  the  books  pui-porting  to  be  of  the  same 
age.  The  Book  of  Nehemiah  has  always 
had  an  undisputed  place  in  the  Canon,  be- 
ing included  by  the  Hebrews  under  the 
general  head  of  the  Book  of  Ezra,  and  as 
Jerome  t<?lls  us  in  the  Prolog.  Gal.  by  the 
Greeks  and  Latins  under  the  name  of  the 
second  Book  of  Ezra.  There  is  no  quota- 
tion from  it  in  the  N.  T.,  and  it  has  been 


comparatively  neglected  by  both  the  Greek 
and  Latin  fatliers. 

Ne  hiloth.  The  title  of  Ps.  v.  in  the 
A.  V.  is  rendered  "  to  the  chief  musician 
upon  Nehiloth."  It  is  most  likely  that 
Nohiloth  is  the  general  term  for  perforated 
wind-instruments  of  all  kinds,  as  Neginoth 
denotes  all  msinner  of  stringed  instruments. 

Ne'hum.  One  of  those  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbal>el  (Neli.  vii.  7). 

Nehush'ta.  The  daughter  of  Elna- 
tlian  of  Jerusalem,  wife  of  Jehoiakim,  an«! 
mother  of  Jchoiacliin,  kings  of  Judah  (2  K. 
xxiv.  8). 

Nehush'tan,  the  name  by  which  the 
brazen  serpent,  made  by  Moses  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  xxi.  0),  was  worshipped  in 
the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  K.  xviii.  4).  It  ia 
evident  that  our  translators  by  their  ren- 
dering, "  and  he  called  it  Nehushtan,"  un- 
derstood tliat  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is 
Hezekiah,  and  that  when  he  destroyed  the 
brazen  serpent  he  gave  it  the  name  Ne- 
hushtan, "  a  brazen  thing,"  in  toki^o  of  his 
utter  contempt.  But  it  is  better  to  under- 
stand the  Hebrew  as  referring  to  tlie  name 
by  which  the  serpent  was  generally  known, 
tlie  subject  of  tlie  verb  being  indefinite  — 
"  and  one  called  it  '  Nehushtan.'  " 

Ne'iel,  a  place  which  formed  one  of  the 
landmarks  of  the  boundary  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27  only).  It  occurs  be- 
tween JiPHTHAH-EL  and  Cabcl.  If  the 
former  of  these  be  identified  with  JtfAi,  and 
the  latter  with  KahU,  8  or  9  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Akka^  then  Neiel  may  possibly  be  repre- 
sented by  MVar,  a  village  conspicuously 
placed  on  a  lof^y  mountain  brow,  just  half 
way  between  the  two. 

ITe'keb,  one  of  the  towns  on  the  boun- 
dary of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33).  It  lay 
between  Adami  and  Jabneel.  A  great 
number  of  commentators  luvve  taken  this 
name  as  being  connected  with  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Neko'da.  1.  The  descendants  of  Nck- 
oda  returned  among  the  Nethinim  after  the 
captivity  (Ezr.  ii.  48;  Neh,  vii.  60).  3. 
The  sons  of  Nekoda  were  among  those 
who  went  up  after  the  captivity  from  Tel- 
melah,  Tel-harsa,  and  other  places,  but 
were  unable  to  prove  tJieir  descent  firoin 
Israel  (Ezr.  ii.  60;  Neh.  vii.  62). 

Nemu  el.  1.  AReubenite,  sonofEliab, 
and  eldest  brother  of  Dathan  and  Abiram 
(Num.  xxvi.  9).  2.  The  eldest  son  of 
Simeon  (Num.  xxvi.  12;  1  Chr.  iv.  24), 
from  whom  were  descended  the  family  of 
the  Nemuelites.  In  Gen.  xlvi.  10  he  is 
called  JemueIv 

Ne'pheg.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Izhar 
the  son  of  Koliath  (Ex.  vi.  21).  2.  One 
of  David's  sons  born  to  him  in  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  V.  15;  1  Chr.  iii.  7,  xiv.  6). 

Ne'phish.      An    inaccurate    variatioD 


NEPniSHESIM 


449 


IfEiniNIM 


(found  in  1  Chr.  v.  19  only)  of  the  name 
X-iPHisn. 

Ifephish'esiin.  The  children  of  Ne- 
phUhexim  were  among  the  Nethinini  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii.  52). 

Neph'thalizo.  A  form  of  the  name 
NaphUli  (Tob.  vii.  3;  Matt.  iv.  13,  15; 
Rev.  vii.  6). 

Neph'toah,  The  Water  of    The 

spring  or  source  of  the  water  or  (inaccu- 
rately) waters  of  Nephtoah,  was  one  of  the 
landmarks  in  the  boundary-line  which  sep- 
arated Judah  from  Benjamin  (Jot«h.  xv.  9, 
xviii.  15).  It  lay  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  in 
which  direction  it  seems  to  hare  been  satis- 
factorily identified  in  Ain  Lifta,  a  spring 
situated  a  little  distance  abore  the  village 
of  the  same  name. 

19'ephU'siin.  The  same  as  Nephishc- 
8IM,  of  which  name  according  to  Gesenius 
it  U  the  proper  form  (Ezr.  ii.  50). 

"Ser,  son  of  Jehiel,  according  to  I  Chr. 
▼iii.  33,  father  of  Kish  and  Abner,  and 
grandfather  of  king  Saul.  Abner  was, 
therefore,  uncle  to  Saul,  a«  is  expressly 
stated  1  Sam.  xiv.  50. 

Ne'reus,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  saluted 
by  St.  Paul,  Rom.  xvi.  15.  According  to 
tradition  he  was  beheaded  at  Terracina, 
probably  in  the  reign  of  Nerva. 

If  er'jgal,  one  of  the  chief  Assjrrian  and 
Babylonian  deities,  seems  to  have  corre- 
sponded closely  to  the  classical  Mars  (2  K. 
xvii.  30).  He  was  of  Babylonian  origin, 
and  his  name  signifies,  in  the  early  Cushite 
dialect  of  that  country,  "  the  great  man," 
or  "  the  great  hero."  His  monumental  titles 
are  —  "  the  storm-ruler,"  "  the  king  of  bat-  , 
tie,"  "  the  champion  of  the  gods,"  "  the 
male  principle  "  (or  "  the  strong  begetter"), 
♦'  the  tutelar  god  of  Babylonia,"  and  "  the 
god  of  the  chase."  It  is  conjectured  that 
he  may  represent  the  deified  Nimrod. 

Ner'gal-share'zer  occurs  only  in  Jer. 
xxxix.  3  and  13.  There  appear  to  have 
been  two  persons  of  the  name  among  the 
"  princes  of  the  king  of  Babylon,"  who 
accompanied  Nebuchadnezzar  on  his  last 
expedition  against  Jerusalem.  One  of  these 
is  not  marked  by  any  additional  title ;  but 
the  other  has  the  honorable  distinction  of 
Rabmag,  and  it  is  to  him  alone  that  any 
particular  interest  attaches.  In  sacred 
Scripture  he  appears  among  the  persons, 
who,  by  command  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  re- 
leased Jeremiah  from  prison  :  profane  his- 
tory gives  us  reason  to  believe  that  he  was 
a  personage  of  great  importance,  who  not 
long  afterwards  mounted  the  Babylonian 
throne.  This  identification  depends  in  part 
ujwn  the  exact  resemblance  of  name,  which 
is  found  on  Babylonian  bricks  in  the  form 
of  NergaUshar-uzur ;  but  mainly  it  rests 
upon  the  title  of  Rubu-emga,  or  Rab-Mag, 
which  this  king  bears  in  his  inscriptions. 
Ho  is  the  same  as  the' monarch  called  Neri-  , 
29 


glissar  or  Neriglissoor,  who  murdered  Evil- 
Merodach,  the  son  of  Nel>achadnezzar,  and 
succeeded  him  upon  the  throne.  His  reign 
lasted  from  b.  c.  5.59  tt}  b.  c.  5.>6. 

IVeth.'inim.  As  applied  specifically  to 
a  distinct  body  of  men  connec-ted  with  the 
services  of  the  Temple,  this  name  first 
meets  ns  in  the  later  bcK^ks  of  the  O.  T. ;  in 
1  Chr.,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah.  The  word, 
and  the  ideas  embodied  in  it,  may,  however, 
be  traced  to  a  much  earlier  period.  As  de- 
rived from  the  verb  nAthan  (=  give,  set 
apart,  dedicate),  it  was  applied  to  those 
who  were  specially  appointed  to  the  litur- 
gical offices  of  the  .Tabernacle.  We  must 
not  forget  that  the  Levites  were  given  to 
Aaron  and  his  sons,  t.  e.  to  the  priests  a« 
an  order,  and  were  accordingly  the  first 
Nethinim  (Num.  iii.  9,  viii.  19).  At  first 
they  were  the  only  attendants,  and  their 
work  must  have  been  laborious  enough. 
The  first  conquests,  however,  brought  them 
their  share  of  the  captive  slaves  of  the 
Midianites,  and  320  were  given  to  them  as 
having  charge  of  the  Tabernacle  (Num. 
xxxi.  47),  while  32  only  were  assigned  spe- 
cially to  the  priests.  This  disposition  to 
devolve  the  more  laborious  offices  of  their 
ritual  upon  slaves  of  another  race  showed 
itself  again  in  the  treatment  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites.  No  addition  to  the  number  thus  em- 
ployed appears  to  have  been  made  during 
tlie  period  of  the  Judges,  and  they  contin- 
ued to  be  known  by  their  old  name  as  the 
Gibeonites.  Either  the  massacre  at  Nob 
had  involved  the  Gibeonites  as  well  as  the 
priests  (1  Sam.  xxii.  19),  or  else  they  had 
fallen  victims  to  some  other  outburst  of 
Saul's  fury,  and,  though  tiiere  were  survi- 
vors (2  Sam.  xxi.  2),  the  number  was  likely 
to  be  quite  inadequate  for  the  greater  state- 
liness  of  the  new  worship  at  Jerusalem.  It 
is  to  this  period  accordingly  that  the  origin 
of  the  class  bearing  this  name  may  he- 
traced.  The  Nethinim  were  those  "  whonii 
David  and  the  princes  appointed  (Heb> 
gave)  for  the  service  of  the  Levites  "  (Ezr.. 
viii.  20).  Analogy  would  lead  us  to  con- 
clude that,  in  this  as  in  the  former  in- 
stances, these  were  either  prisoners  takea 
in  war,  or  else  some  of  the  remnant  of  the- 
Canaanites.  From  this  time  the  Nethinink 
probably  lived  within  the  precincts  of  the- 
Temple,  doing  its  rougher  work,  and  8» 
enabling  the  Levites  to  take  a  higher  posi- 
tion as  the  religious  representatives  and 
instructors  of  the  people.  The  example 
set  by  David  was  followed  by  his  successor. 
Assuming,  as  is  probable,  that  the  later 
Rabbinic  teaching  represents  the  traditions 
of  an  earlier  period,  the  Nethinim  appear 
never  to  have  lost  the  stigma  of  their  Ca- 
naanitc  origin.  They  were  all  along  a  ser- 
vile and  subject  caste.  The  only  period  at 
which  they  rise  into  anything  like  promi- 
nence is  that  of  the  return  from  the  cap- 


FETOPHA.H 


450 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


tivity.  In  that  return  the  priests  were 
cons{)icuous  and  numerous,  but  the  Levites, 
for  some  reason  unknown  to  us,  hung  back. 
The  services  of  the  Nethinim  were  conse- 
quently of  more  importance  (Ezr.  viii.  17), 
but  in  tlieir  case  also,  the  small  number  of 
those  that  joined  (392  under  Zerubbabel, 
220  under  Ezra,  including  "  Solomon's  ser- 
vants ")  indicates  that  many  preferred  re- 
maining in  the  land  of  their  exile  to  return- 
ing to  their  old  service.  Those  that  did 
come  were  consequently  thought  worthy  of 
special  mention. 

Neto'phah,  a  town  the  name  of  which 
occurs  only  in  the  catalogue  of  those  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  Captivi- 
ty (Ezr.  ii.  22 ;  Neh.  vii.  26 ;  1  Esdr.  v.  18). 
But,  though  not  directly  mentioned  till  so 
late  a  period,  Netophah  was  really  a  much 
older  place.  Two  of  David's  guard  (1  Chr. 
Xxvii.  13,  15)  were  Netophatliites.  The 
•'  villages  of  the  Netophathites  "  were  the 
Residence  of  the  Levites  (1  Chr.  ix.  16). 
From  another  notice  we  learn  that  the  par- 
ticular Levites  who  inhabited  these  villages 
were  singers  (Neh.  xii.  28).  To  judge  from 
Neh.  vii.  26  the  town  was  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of,  or  closely  connected  with,  Bethle- 
hem. 

Netoph'athi,  Neh.  xii.  28.  The  same 
word  wliich  in  other  passages  is  rendered 
"  the  Netophathite." 

Netoph'athite,  The,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  28, 
29 ;  2  K.  XXV.  23 ;  1  Chr.  xi.  30,  xxvii.  13, 
15 ;  Jer.  xl.  8.  The  plural  form,  the  Ne- 
TOPHATiuTES  (the  Hebrew  word  being  the 
same  as  above)  occurs  in  1  Chr.  ii.  54, 
ix.  16. 

Nettle.  The  Hebrew  word  so  translat- 
ed in  Job  XXX.  7 ;  Prov.  xxiv.  31,  was  per- 
haps some  species  of  wild,  mustard.  The 
Hebrew  word  translated  netUe  in  Is.  xxxiv. 
13;  Hos.  ix.  6;  Prov.  xxiv.  31,  maybe  un- 
derstood to  denote  some  species  of  nettle 
(  Urtica) . 

New  Moon.  The  first  day  of  the  lu- 
nar month  was  observed  as  a  holy  day.  In 
addition  to  the  daily  sacrifice  there  were 
offered  two  young  bullocks,  a  ram,  and  sev- 
en lambs  of  the  first  year  as  a  burnt-offer- 
ing, with  the  proper  meat-offerings  and 
drink-offerings,  and  a  kid  as  a  sin-offering 
(Num.  xxviii.  11-15).  As  on  the  Sabbath, 
trade  and  handicraft  work  were  stopped 
(Am.  viii.  5),  and  the  Temple  was  opened 
for  public  worship  (Ez.  xlvi.  3;  Is.  Ixvi. 
23).  The  trumpets  were  blown  at  the  of- 
fering of  the  special  sacrifices  for  the  day, 
as  on  the  solemn  festivals  (Num.  x.  10;  Ps. 
Jxxsi.  3).  It  was  an  occasion  for  state- 
ibaij;iuets  (1  Sam.  xx.  5-24).  In  later,  if 
not  in  earlier  times,  fasting  was  intermitted 
at  the  new  moons  (Jud.  viii.  6).  The  new 
moons  are  generally  mentioned  so  as  to 
show  that  they  were  regarded  as  a  peculiar 
class  of  holy  days,  listTuguished  from  the 


solemn  feasts  and  the  Sabbaths  (Ez.  xlv.  17? 
1  Chr.  xxiii.  31 ;  2  Chr.  ii.  4,  viii.  13,  xxxi. 
3;  Ezr.  iii.  5;  Neh.  x.  33).  The  seventh 
new  moon  of  the  religious  year,  being  that 
of  Tisri,  commenced  the  civil  year,  and 
had  a  significance  and  rights  of  its  own.  It 
was  a  day  of  holy  convocation.  By  what 
method  the  commencement  of  the  month 
was  ascertained  in  the  time  of  Moses  is  un- 
certain. The  Mishna  describes  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  determined  seven  times 
in  the  year  by  observing  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  moon,-  which,  according  to 
Maimonides,  derived  its  origin,  by  tradition, 
from  Moses,  and  continued  in  use  as  long 
as  the  Sanhedrim  existed.  On  the  30th 
day  of  the  month  watchmen  were  placed 
on  commanding  heights  round  Jerusalem  to 
watch  the  sky.  As  soon  as  each  of  them 
detected  the  moon,  he  hastened  to  a  house 
in  the  city,  which  was  kept  for  the  purpose, 
and  was  there  examined  by  the  president 
of  the  Sanhedrim.  When  the  evidence  of 
the  appearance  was  deemed  satisfactory, 
the  president  rose  up  and  formally  an- 
nounced it,  uttering  the  words,  "  It  is  con- 
secrated." The  information  was  imm;?di- 
ately  .sent  throughout  the  land  from  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  by  beacon-fires  on  the 
tops  of  the  hills.  The  religious  observance 
of  the  day  of  the  new  moon  may  plainly  be 
regarded  as  the  consecration  of  a  natural 
division  of  time. 

New  Testament.  The  origin,  his- 
tory, and  characteristics  of  the  constituent 
books  and  of  the  great  versions  of  the  N. 
T.,  the  mutual  relations  of  the  Gospels, 
and  the  formation  of  the  Canon,  are  dis- 
cussed in  other  articles.  It  is  proposed 
now  to  consider  the  Text  of  the  N.  T. 
The  subject  naturally  divides  itself  into 
the  following  heads,  which  will  be  exam- 
ined in  succession :  I.  The  history  of  the 
written  Text.  II.  The  history  of  the  print- 
ed Text.  III.  The  language  of  the  New 
Testament. 

I.  The  History  of  the  Written  Text. 
1.  The  early  history  of  the  Apostolic  writ- 
ings externally,  as  far  as  it  can  be  traced, 
is  the  same  as  that  of  other  contemporary 
books.  St.  Paul,  like  Cicero  or  Pliny,  of- 
ten employed  the  services  of  an  amanuen- 
sis, to  whom  he  dictated  his  letters,  affixing 
the  salutation  "with  his  own  hand"  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  21 ;  2  Thess.  iii.  17  ;  Col.  iv.  18).  In 
one  case  the  scribe  has  added  a  clause  in 
his  own  name  (Rom.  xvi.  22).  If  we  pass 
onwards  one  step,  it  does  not  appear  that 
any  special  care  was  taken  in  the  first  age 
to  preserve  the  books  of  the  N.  T.  from  the 
various  injuries  of  time,  or  to  insure  per- 
fect accuracy  of  transcription.  They  were 
given  as  a  heritage  to  man,  and  it  was 
some  time  before  men  felt  the  full  value 
of  the  gift.  The  original  copies  seera  to 
have  soon  perished.      2.    In  the  natural 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


451 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


course  of  things  the  Apostolic  autographs  ■ 
would  be  likely  to  perish  soon.  The  ma- 
terial which  was  commonly  used  for  let- 
ters, the  papyrus-paper,  to  which  St.  John 
incidentally  alludes  (2  John  12 ;  comp.  3 
John  13),  was  singularly  fragile,  and  even 
the  stouter  kinds,  likely  to  be  used  for  the 
historical  books,  were  not  fitted  to  bear  con- 
stant use.  The  papyrus  fragments  which 
have  come  down  to  the  present  time  have 
been  preserved  under  peculiar  circum- 
stances, as  at  Herculaneura  or  in  the 
Egyptian  tombs.  3.  In  the  time  of  the 
Diocletian  persecution  (a.  d.  303)  copies 
of  the  Christian  Scriptures  were  sufficient- 
ly numerous  to  furnish  a  special  object  for 
persecutors,  and  a  characteristic  name  to 
renegades  who  saved  themselves  by  sur- 
rendering the  sacred  books.  Partly,  per- 
haps, owing  to  the  destruction  thus  caused, 
but  still  more  from  the  natural  effects  of 
time,  no  MS.  of  the  N.  T.  of  the  first  three 
centuries  remains.  But  though  no  frag- 
ment of  the  N.  T.  of  the  first  century  still 
remains,  the  Italian  and  Egyptian  papyri, 
which  are  of  that  date,  give  a  clear  notion 
of  the  caligraphy  of  the  period.  In  these 
the  text  is  written  in  columns,  rudely  di- 
vided, in  somewhat  awkward  capital  letters 
Quncials),  without  any  punctuation  or  di- 
vision of  words.  Tlie  iota,  which  was 
afterwards  subscribed,  is  commonly,  but 
not  always,  adscribed  ;  and  there  is  no  trace 
of  accents  or  breathings.  4.  In  addition 
to  the  later  MSS.,  the  earliest  versions  and 
patristic  quotations  give  very  important  tes- 
timony to  the  character  and  history  of  the 
ante-Nicene  text.  Express  statements  of 
readings  which  are  found  in  some  of  the 
most  ancient  Christian  writers  are,  indeed, 
the  first  direct  evidence  which  we  have, 
and  are  consequently  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. But  till  the  last  quarter  of  the 
second  century  this  source  of  information 
fails  us.  Not  only  are  the  remains  of 
Christian  literature  up  to  that  time  ex- 
tremely scanty,  but  the  practice  of  verbal 
quotation  from  the  N.  T.  was  not  yet  prev- 
alent. As  soon  as  definite  controversies 
arose  among  Christians,  the  text  of  the  N. 
T.  assumed  its  true  importance.  5.  Sev- 
eral very  important  conclusions  follow  from 
this  earliest  appearance  of  textual  criticism. 
It  is  in  the  first  place  evident  that  various 
readings  existed  in  the  books  of  the  N.  T. 
at  a  time  prior  to  all  extant  authorities. 
History  affords  no  trace  of  the  pure  Apos- 
tolic originals.  Again,  from  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  first  variations  noticed,  which 
are  :)ften  extremely  minute,  in  one  or  more 
of  the  primary  documents  still  left,  we  may 
be  certain  that  no  important  changes  have 
been  made  in  the  sacred  text  which  we 
cannot  now  detect.  6.  Passing  from  these 
isolated  quotations  we  find  the  first  great 
witnesses  to  the  apostolic  text  in  the  early 


Syriae  and  Latin  versions,  and  in  the  rich 
quotations  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  (fcir. 
A.  D.  220)  and  Origen  (a.  d.  184-254). 
From  the  extant  works  of  Origen  alone  no 
inconsiderable  portion  of  the  whole  N.  T. 
might  be  transcribed.  7.  Two  chief  causes 
contributed  especially  to  corrupt  the  text 
of  the  Gospels,  the  attempts  to  harmonize 
parallel  narratives,  and  the  influence  of 
tradition.  8.  But  Origen  stands  as  far 
first  of  all  the  ante-Nicene  fathers  in  criti- 
cal authority  as  he  does  in  commanding 
genius,  and  his  writings  are  an  almost  in- 
exhaustible storehouse  for  the  history  of 
the  text.  9.  In  thirteen  cases  Origen  has 
expressly  noticed  varieties  of  reading  ia 
the  Gospels  (Matt.  viii.  28,  xvi.  20,  xviii. 
1,  xxi.  5,  xxi.  9,  15,  xxvii.  17;  Mark  iii. 
18 ;  Luke  i.  46,  ix.  48,  xiv.  19,  xxiii.  45 ; 
John  i.  3,  4,  28).  In  three  of  these  pas- 
sages the  variations  wliich  he  notices  are 
no  longer  found  in  our  Greek  copies.  Matt, 
xxi.  9  or  15 ;  Mark  iii.  18  (ii.  14)  ;  Luke 
i.  46 ;  in  seven  our  copies  are  still  divided ; 
in  two  (Matt.  viii.  28 ;  John  i.  28)  the  read- 
ing which  was  only  found  in  a  few  MSS. 
is  now  widely  spread :  in  the  remaining 
place  (Matt,  xxvii.  17),  a  few  copies  of  no 
great  age  retain  the  interpolation  which  was 
found  in  his  time  "  in  very  ancient  copies." 
10.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  Origen's 
time  the  variations  in  the  N.  T.  MSS.  were 
beginning  to  lead  to  the  formation  of  specific 
groups  of  copies.  11.  The  most  ancient 
MSS.  and  versions  now  extant  exhibit  the 
characteristic  differences  wliich  have  been 
found  to  exist  in  different  parts  of  the 
works  of  Origen.  These  cannot  have  had 
their  source  later  than  the  beginning  of 
the  third  century,  and  probably  were  much 
earlier.  Bengel  was  the  first  (1734)  who 
pointed  ouf  the  affinity  of  certain  groups 
of  MSS.,  which,  as  he  remarks,  must  have 
arisen  before  the  first  versions  were  made. 
The  honor  of  carefully  determining  the  re- 
lations of  critical  authorities  for  the  N.  T. 
text  belongs  to  Griesbach.  According  to 
him  two  distinct  recensions  of  the  Gospels 
existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  cen- 
tury :  the  Alexandrine  and  the  Western. 
12.  From  the  consideration  of  the  earliest 
history  of  the  N.  T.  text  we  now  pass  to 
the  aera  of  MSS.  The  quotations  of 
DiONYSius  Alex,  (f  a.  d.  264),  Petrus 
Alex,  (f  c.  a.  d.  312),  Methobujs  (t  a.  d. 
311),  and  Eusebios  (f  a.  d.  340),  confirm 
the  prevalence  of  the  ancient  type  of  text ; 
but  the  public  establishment  of  Christianity 
in  the  Roman  empire  necessarily  led  to  im- 
portant changes.  The  nominal  or  real  ad- 
herence of  tlie  higher  ranks  to  the  Christi.in 
faith  must  have  largely  increased  the  de- 
mand for  costly  MSS.  As  a  natural  con- 
sequence the  rude  Hellenistic  forms  gave 
way  before  the  current  Greek,  and  at  the 
same  time  it  is  reasonable  to  b«lie"'e  that 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


452 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


Bmoother  and  fuller  constructions  were  sub- 
stituted for  the  rougher  turns  of  the  apos- 
tolic language.  In  this  way  the  foundation 
of  the  Byzantine  text  was  laid.  Meanwhile 
the  multiplication  of  copies  in  Africa  and 
Syria  was  checked  by  Mohammedan  con- 
quests. 13.  The  appearance  of  the  oldest 
MSS.  has  been  already  described  (§  3). 
The  MSS.  of  the  4th  century,  of  which 
Codex  Vaticanus  may  be  taken  as  a  type, 
present  a  close  resemblance  to  these.  The 
writing  is  in  elegant  continuous  (capitals) 
uncials,  in  three  columns,  without  initial 
letters  or  iota  subscript,  or  adscript.  A 
small  interval  serves  as  a  simple  punctua- 
tion ;  and  there  are  no  accents  or  breath- 
ings by  tlio  hand  of  the  first  writer,  though 
these  have  been  added  subsequently.  Un- 
cial writing  continued  in  general  use  till 
the  middle  of  the  10th  century.  From  the 
11th  century  downwards  cursive  writing 
prevailed.  The  earliest  cursive  Biblical 
MS.  is  dated  9U  a.  d.  The  MSS.  of  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  abound  in  the  con- 
tractions which  afterwards  passed  into  the 
early  printed  books.  The  oldest  MSS.  are 
written  on  the  thinnest  and  finest  vellum  : 
in  later  copies  the  parchment  is  thick  and 
cparse.  Papyrus  was  very  rarely  used 
after  the  9th  century.  In  the  10th  century 
cotton  paper  was  generally  employed  in 
Europe ;  and  one  example  at  least  occurs 
of  its  use  in  the  9th  century.  In  the  12th 
century  the  common  linen  or  rag  paper 
came  into  use.  One  other  kind  of  materi- 
al requires  notice — re-dressed  parchment. 
Even  at  a  very  early  period  the  original 
text  of  a  parchment  MS.  was  often  erased, 
that  the  material  might  be  used  afresh.  In 
lapse  of  time  the  original  writing  frequent- 
ly re-appears  in  faint  lines  belpw  the  later 
text,  and  in  this  way  many  precious  frag- 
ments of  Biblical  MSS.,  which  had  been 
once  obliterated  for  the  transcription  of 
other  works,  have  been  recovered;  14.  The 
division  of  the  Gospels  into  *'  chapters " 
must  have  come  into  general  use  some 
time  before  the  5th  century.  The  divis- 
ion of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  into  chapters 
came  into  use  at  a  later  time.  It  is  com- 
monly referred  to  Euthalius,  who,  how- 
ever, says  that  he  borrowed  the  divisions 
of  the  Pauline  Epistles  from  an  earlier 
father ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  division  of  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epis- 
tles which  he  published  was  originally  the 
■work  of  Pamphilus  the  Martyr.  The  Apoc- 
alypse was  divided  into  sections  by  Andre- 
as of  Caesarea  about  a.  d.  500.  The  titles 
of  the  sacred  books  are  from  their  nature 
additions  to  the  original  text.  The  distinct 
names  of  the  Gospels  imply  a  collection, 
and  the  titles  of  the  Epistles  are  notes  by 
the  possessors,  and  not  addresses  by  the 
writers.  15.  Very  few  MSS.  contain  the 
whole  N.  T.,  twenty -seven  in  all  out  of  the 


vast  mass  of  extant  documents.  Besides 
the  MSS.  of  the  N.  T.,  or  of  parts  of  i., 
there  are  also  Lectionaries,  which  contain 
extracts  arranged  for  the  Church-servicea. 
16.  The  number  of  uncial  MSS.  remain- 
ing, though  great  when  compared  with  the 
ancient  MSS.  extant  of  other  writings,  is 
inconsiderable.  Tischendorf  reckons  40 
in  the  Gospels.  To  these  must  be  added 
Cod.  Sinait.,  which  is  entire;  a  new  MS. 
of  Tischendorf,  which  is  nearly  entire ;  and 
Cod.  Zacynth.,  which  contains  consider- 
able fragments  of  St.  Luke.  In  the  Acts 
there  are  9.  In  the  Catholic  Epistles 
5.  In  the  Pauline  Epistles  there  are  14. 
In  the  Apocalypse  3.  17.  A  complete  de- 
scription of  these  MSS.  is  given  in  the 
great  critical  editions  of  the  N.  T. :  here 
those  only  can  be  briefly  noticed  which  are 
of  primary  importance,  the  first  place  be- 
ing given  to  the  latest  discovered  and  most 
complete  Codex  Sinaiticus.  —  Codex  Si- 
naiticus  (=  Cod.  Frid.  Aug.  of  LXX.), 
at  St.  Petersburg,  obtained  by  Tischen- 
dorf from  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine, 
Mount  Sinai,  in  1859.  The  N.  T.  is  entire, 
and  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  parts  of 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  are  added.  It  is 
probably  the  oldest  of  the  MSS.  of  the  N. 
T.,  and  of  the  4th  century.  Codex  Alex- 
andrinus  (Brit.  Mus.),  a  MS.  of  the  entire 
GreetuBible,  with  the  Epistles  of  Clement 
added.  It  was  given  by  Cyril  Lucar,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  to  Charles  I.  in 
1628,  and  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
It  contains  the  whole  of  the  N.  T.  with 
some  chasms.  It  was  probably  written  in 
the  first  half  of  the  5th  century.  Codex 
Vaticanus  (1209),  a  MS.  of  the  entire 
Greek  Bible,  which  seems  to  have  been  in 
the  Vatican  Library  almost  from  its  com- 
mencement (c.  A.  D.  1450).  It  contains 
the  N.  T.  entire  to  Heb.  ix.  14,  xu&a :  the 
rest  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the 
Pastoral  Epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse  were 
added  in  the  15th  century.  The  MS.  is 
assigned  to  the  4th  century.  Codex  Eplira- 
emi  rescriptus  (Paris,  Bibl.  Imp.  9),  a 
palimpsest  MS.  which  contains  fragments 
of  the  LXX.  and  of  every  part  of  the  N.  T. 
In  the  12th  century  the  original  writing 
was  effaced,  and  some  Greek  writings  of 
Ephraem  Syrus  were  written  over  it.  The 
MS.  was  brought  to  Florence  from  the 
East  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century, 
and  came  thence  to  Paris  with  Catherine 
de'  Medici.  The  only  entire  books  which 
have  perished  are  2  Thess.  and  2  John, 
&c.  18.  The  number  of  the  cursive  MSS. 
(minuscules)  in  existence  cannot  be  accu- 
rately calculated.  Tischendorf  catalogues 
about  500  of  the  Gospels,  200  of  the  Acts 
and  Catholic  Epistles,  250  of  the  Pauline 
Epistles,  and  a  little  less  than  100  of  the 
Apocalypse  (exclusive  of  lectionaries)  ;  but 
this  enumeration  can  only  be  accepted  as 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


453 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


a  rough  approximation.  19.  Having  sur- 
veyed in  outline  the  history  of  the  trans- 
mission of  the  written  text,  and  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  MSS.  in  wliich  it  is 
preserved,  we  are  in  a  position  to  consider 
the  extent  and  nature  of  the  variations 
wliich  exist  in  different  copies.  It  is  im- 
possible to  estimate  the  number  of  these  ex- 
actly, but  they  cannot  be  less  than  120,000 
in  all,  though  of  these  a  very  large  pro- 
portion consists  of  differences  of  spelling 
and  isolated  aberrations  of  scribes,  and  of 
the  remainder  comparatively  few  altera- 
tions are  sufficiently  well  supported  to  cre- 
ate reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  final  judg- 
ment. Probably  there  are  not  more  than 
1600-2000  places  in  which  the  true  reading 
is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  20.  Various 
readings  are  due  to  different  causes  :  some 
arose  from  accidental,  others  from  inten- 
tional alterations  of  the  original  text.  21. 
Other  variations  are  due  to  errors  of  sight. 
Others  may  be  described  as  errors  of  im- 
pression or  memory.  The  copyist,  after 
reading  a  sentence  from  the  text  before 
him,  often  failed  to  reproduce  it  exactly. 
Variations  of  order  are  the  most  frequent, 
and  very  commonly  the  most  puzzling 
questions  of  textual  criticism.  Examples 
occur  in  every  page,  almost  in  every  verse, 
of  the  N.  T.  22.  Of  intentional  changes 
some  affect  the  expression,  others  the  sub- 
stance of  the  passage.  23.  The  number 
of  readings  which  seem  to  have  been  al- 
tered for  distinctly  dogmatic  reasons  is  ex- 
tremely small.  In  spite  of  the  great  revo- 
lutions in  thought,  feeling,  and  practice 
through  which  the  Christian  Church  passed 
in  fifteen  centuries,  the  copyists  of  the  N. 
T.  faithfully  preserved,  according  to  their 
ability,  the  sacred  trust  committed  to  them. 
There  is  not  any  trace  of  intentional  re- 
vision designed  to  give  support  to  current 
opinions  (Matt.  xvii.  21 ;  Mark  ix.  29 ;  1 
Cor.  vii.  5,  need  scarcely  be  noticed).  24. 
The  great  mass  of  various  readings  are 
simply  variations  in  form.  There  are, 
however,  one  or  two  greater  variations  of 
a  different  character.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  John  vii.  53-viii.  12;  Mark 
xvi.  9-end;  Rom.  xvi.  25-27.  The  first 
stands  quite  by  itself;  and  there  seems  to 
be  little  doubt  that  it  contains  an  authentic 
narrative,  but  not  by  the  hand  of  St.  John. 
The  two  others,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  last  chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel,  sug- 
gest the  possibility  that  the  apostolic  writ- 
ings may  have  undergone  in  some  cases 
authoritative  revision.  25.  Manuscripts, 
it  must  be  remembered,  are  but  one  of  the 
three  sources  of  textual  criticism.  The  ver- 
sions and  patristic  quotations  are  scarcely 
less  important  in  doubtful  cases. 
-  II.  The  History  of  the  Printed 
Text.  —  1.  The  history  of  the  printed  text 
of  the  N   T.  may  be  divided  into  three  pe- 


riods. The  first  of  these  extends  from  the 
labors  of  the  Complutensian  editors  to  thoso 
of  Mill ;  the  second  from  Mill  to  Scholz ; 
the  third  from  Lachmann  to  the  present 
time.  The  criticism  of  the  first  period  was 
necessarily  tentative  and  partial :  the  mate- 
rials available  for  the  construction  of  the 
text  were  few,  and  imperfectly  known.  The 
second  period  marks  a  great  progress  :  the 
evidence  of  MSS.,  of  versions,  of  Fathers, 
was  collected  with  the  greatest  diligence  and 
success;  authorities  were  compared  and 
classified;  principles  of  observation  and 
judgment  were  laid  down.  But  the  in- 
fluence of  the  former  period  still  lingered. 
The  third  period  was  introduced  by  the  dec- 
laration of  a  new  and  sounder  law.  It  was 
laid  down  that  no  right  of  possession  could 
be  pleaded  against  evidence.  The  "  re- 
ceived" text,  as  such,  was  allowed  no 
weight  whatever.  Its  authority,  on. this 
view,  must  depend  solely  on  critical  worth. 
From  first  to  last,  in  minute  details  of  order 
and  ortliography,  as  well  as  in  graver  ques- 
tions of  substantial  alteration,  the  text  must 
be  formed  by  a  free  and  unfettered  judg- 
ment. Earliest  Editions.  1.  Tlie  Com- 
plutensian Polyglot.  —  The  glory  of  print- 
ing the  first  Greek  Testament  is  due  to  the 
princely  Cardinal  Ximenes.  This  great 
prelate  as  early  as  1502  engaged  the  ser- 
vices of  a  number  of  scholars  to  superintend 
an  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  in  the  original 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  with  the  addition  of 
the  Chaldee  Targum  of  Onkelos,  the  LXX. 
version,  and  the  Vulgate.  The  volume 
containing  the  N.  T.  was  printed  first,  and 
was  completed  on  Jan.  10, 1514.  The  whole 
work  was  not  finished  till  July  10,  1517. 

2.  The  edition  of  Erasmus.  —  The  edition 
of  Erasmus  was  the  first  published  edition 
of  the  N.  T.  Erasmus  had  paid  consider- 
able attention  to  the  study  of  the  N.  T., 
when  he  received  an  application  from 
Froben,  a  printer  of  Basle  with  whom  he 
was  acquainted,  to  prepare  a  Greek  text  for 
the  press.  The  request  was  made  on  April 
17,  1515,  while  Erasmus  was  in  England. 
Thetdetails  of  the  printing  were  not  settled 
in  September  in  the  same  year,  and  the 
whole  work  was  finished  in  February,  1516. 

3.  The  edition  of  Stephens.  —  The  scene 
of  our  history  now  changes  from  Basle  to 
Paris.  In  1543,  Simon  de  Colines  (Coli- 
NAEUs)  published  a  Greek  text  of  the  N.  T., 
corrected  in  about  150  places  on  fresh  MS. 
authority.  Not  long  aft«r  it  appeared,  R. 
Estienne  (Stephanus)  published  his  first 
edition  (1546),  which  was  based  on  a  colla- 
tion of  MSS.  in  the  Royal  Library  with  the 
Complutensian  text.  4.  The  editions  of 
Beza  and  Elzevir.  —  Nothing  can  illustrate 
more  clearly  the  deficiency  among  scholars 
of  the  first  elements  of  the  textual  criticism 
of  the  N.  T.  than  the  annotations  of  Beza 
(1556).    This  great  divine  obtained  firom 


KEW  TESTAMENT 


464 


NICODEMUS 


H  Stephens  a  copy  of  the  N.  T.  in  which 
he  had  noted  down  various  readings  from 
about  twenty-five  MSS.  and  from  the  early 
editions,  but  he  used  the  collection  rather 
for  excgetical  than  for  critical  purposes. 
The  Greek  text  of  Beza  (dedicated  to  Queen 
Elizabeth)  was  printed  by  H.  Stephens  in 
1565,  and  again  in  1576;  but  his  chief  edi- 
tion iTHS  tiie  third,  printed  in  1582,  which 
contained  readings  from  the  Codices  Bezae 
and  Claromontanus. 

III.  The  Language  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament.—  1.  The  eastern  conquests  of 
Alexander  opened  a  new  field  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Greek  language.  2.  At  no 
place  could  the  corruption  have  been  great- 
er or  more  rapid  than  at  Alexandria,  where 
a  motley  population,  engaged  in  active  com- 
merce, adopted  Greek  as  their  common 
medium  of  communication.  And  it  is  in 
Alexandria  that  we  must  look  for  the  origin 
of  the  language  of  the  New  Testament. 
Two  distinct  elements  were  combined  in 
this  marvellous  dialect,  which  was  destined 
to  preserve  forever  the  fullest  tidings  of 
the  Gospel.  On  the  one  side  there  was 
Hebrew  conception,  on  the  other  Greek 
expression.  The  thoughts  of  the  East  were 
wedded  to  the  words  of  the  West.  Tliis 
was  accomplished  by  the  gradual  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  into  the  vernac- 
ular Greek.  3.  The  Greek  of  the  LXX., 
like  the  English  of  the  A.  V.  or  the  German 
of  Luther,  naturally  determined  the  Greek 
dialect  of  the  mass  of  the  Jews.  It  is  more 
correct  to  call  the  N.  T.  dialect  Hellenistic 
than  Alexandrine,  though  the  form  by 
which  it  is  characterized  may  have  been 
peculiarly  Alexandrine  at  first.  4.  The 
position  of  Palestine  was  peculiar.  The 
Aramaic  (Syro-Chaldaic),  which  was  the 
national  dialect  after  the  Return,  existed 
side  by  side  with  the  Greek.  It  was  in  this 
language,  we  may  believe,  that  our  Lord 
was  accustomed  to  teach  the  people ;  and  it 
ajjpears  that  He  used  the  same  in  the  more 
private  acts  of  His  life  (Mark  iii.  17,  v.  41, 
vii.  34 ;  Matt,  xxvii.  46 ;  John  i.  43 ;  cf. 
John  XX.  16).  But  the  habitual  use  of  the 
LXX.  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  familiarity 
of  the  Palestinian  Jews  with  the  Greek  dia- 
lect; and  the  judicial  proceedings  before 
Pilate  must  have  been  conducted  in  Greek. 
6.  The  literal  sense  of  the  Apostolic  writ- 
ings must  be  gained  in  the  same  way  as  the 
literal  sense  of  any  other  writings  —  by  the 
fullest  use  of  every  appliance  of  scholar- 
ship, and  the  most  complete  confidence  in 
the  necessary  and  absolute  connection  of 
words  and  thoughts.  No  variation  cfr  phrase, 
no  peculiarity  of  idiom,  no  change  of  tense, 
no  change  of  order,  can  be  neglected.  The 
truth  lies  in  the  whole  expression,  and  no 
one  can  presume  to  set  aside  any  part  as 
trivial  or  indifierent.     6.  The  importance 


of  investigating  most  patiently  and  most 
faithfully  the  literal  meaning  of  the  sacred 
text  must  be  felt  with  tenfold  force,  when 
it  is  remembered  that  the  literal  sense  is 
the  outward  embodiment  of  a  spiritual 
sense,  which  lies  beneath  and  quickens 
every  part  of  Holy  Scripture.     [Bible.] 

New  Year.     [Trumpets,  Peast  of.] 

Nezi'ahi.  The  descendants  of  Neziah 
were  among  the  Nethinim  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  54;  Neh.  vii.  56). 

Ne'zib,  a  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  43 
only),  in  the  district  of  the  Shefelah  or 
Lowland,  one  of  the  same  group  with  Kei- 
lah  and  Mareshah.  To  Eusebius  and  Jer- 
ome it  was  evidently  known.  They  place 
it  on  the  road  between  Eleutheropolis  and 
Hebron,  7  or  9  (Euseb.)  miles  from  the 
former,  and  there  it  still  stands  under  the 
almost  identical  name  of  Beit  Nusib,  or 
Chirheh  Nasih, 

Nib'haz,  a  deity  of  the  Avites,  intro- 
duced by  them  into  Samaria  in  the  time  of 
Shalmaneser  (2  K.  xvii.  31).  There  is  no 
certain  information  as  to  the  character  of 
the  deity,  or  the  form  of  the  idol  so  named. 
The  Rabbins  derived  the  name  fi-om  a  He- 
brew root  ndbach,  "to  bark"  and  hence 
assigned  to  it  the  figure  of  a  dog,  or  a  dog- 
headed  man.  There  is  no  &  priori  improb- 
ability in  this  :  the  Egyptians  worshipped  the 
dog.  Some  indications  of  the  worship  of 
the  dog  have  been  found  in  Syria,  a  colos- 
sal figure  of  a  dog  having  formerly  existed 
between  Berytus  and  Tripolis. 

Nib'shan,  one  of  the  six  cities  of  Ju- 
dah (Josh.  XV.  62)  which  were  in  the  dis- 
trict of  the  Midbar  (A.  V.  "  wilderness  "). 

Niea'nor.  1.  Son  of  Patroclus  (2 
Mace.  viii.  9),  a  general  who  was  engaged 
in  the  Jewish  wars  under  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  and  Demetrius  I.  (1  Mace.  iii.  38,  iv., 
vii.  26,  49).  2.  One  of  the  first  seven  dea- 
cons (Acts  vi.  5). 

Nieode'raus,  a  Pharisee,  a  ruler  of  the 
Jews,  and  teacher  of  Israel  (John  iii.  1, 10), 
whose  secret  visit  to  our  Lord  was  the  oc- 
casion of  the  discourse  recorded  only  by 
St.  John.  A  constitutional  timidity  is  dis- 
cernible in  the  character  of  the  inquiring 
Pharisee.  Thus  the  few  words  which  he 
interposed  against  the  rash  injustice  of  his 
colleagues  are  cautiously  rested  on  a  gen- 
eral principle  (John  vii.  60).  And  even 
when  the  power  of  Christ's  love,  manifested 
on  the  cross,  had  made  the  most  timid  dis- 
ciple bold,  Nicodemus  does  not  come  for- 
ward with  his  splendid  gifts  of  affection 
until  the  example  had  been  set  by  one  of  his 
own  rank,  and  wealth,  and  station  in  society 
(xix.  39).  In  these  three  notices  of  Nico- 
demus a  noble  candor  and  a  simjjle  love  of 
truth  shine  out  in  the  midst  of  hesitation 
and  fear  of  man.  We  can  therefore  easily 
believe  the  tradition  that  after  the  resurrec- 


KICOLAITANS  455  NILE 

;it..i  he  became  a  professed  disciple  of  Christ,  I  acter  to  find  that  stress  is  laid  in  the  first 

tans.  ■  It  will  lux  .  .,58 

iur  we  can  get  !  u  toic:at>.'  ilicm  is  wvd  nii?h 

'•'i!"T  th<'  ff'Ct  'S  .  iory  '"f  .'.  irin;*  beer'  finrht'u! 


•s,  for  tue  iriimtiotis  oh  the 

no  viilue.  It  "ould  ^ieem  from 

...  li,  iliat  the  Nic(iltuitti\3  held  ihgit  il 

I wful  "  to  eat  thinj:8  ?acrific-ed  lo  idols, 

amiuii  fornication,"  in  opposition  to 

('  of  the  chui-ch  rendered  in  Act-i 


'latfd   city  uf  J^jiirus.     Tliis  citj 
I'y  of  Victory")    was    built    by 
■■■'   ■■     •   ory  of  the  ^    -!     •  '    ' 
^uuin^uiu  • 


.;  proiiaLi^;  la  ihc  t^iiuich  at 
tiii.  1). 

^i>AT.] 

-hawk.     The  Hebrew  word  so 

I.,  .-.    Ti      ;('  ■      ;  1,  iif     %.\      1.'  1 


NIMSHI 


457 


NINEVEH 


of  the  dates  and  names  of  their  founders, 
and  we  can  assign  the  highest  antiquity  to 
the  towns  represented  by  the  mounds  of 
Niffer  (perhaps  the  early  Babel,  though 
also  identified  with  Calneh),  Warka  (the 
Biblical  Erech),  Mugheir  (Ur),  and  Sen- 
kerth  (EUasar),  while  the  name  of  Accad 
is  preserved  in  the  title  Kiiizt-Akkad, 
bj'  which  the  founder  or  embellisher  of 
those  towns  was  distinguished.  The  date 
of  their  foundation  may  be  placed  at 
about  B.  c.  2200.  3.  In  the  third  place, 
the  Bal)ylonian  empire  extended  its  sway 
northwards  along  the  course  of  the  Ti- 
gris at  a  period  long  anterior  to  the  rise 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  in  the  13th  centu- 
ry B.  c. 

Nim'shi.  The  grandfather  of  Jehu, 
who  is  generally  called  "  the  son  of  Nim- 
shi"  (1  K.  xix.  16;  2  K.  ix.  2,  14,  20;  2 
Chr.  xxii.  7). 

Nin'eveh,  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  and  empire  of  Assyria.  The 
name  appears  to  be  compounded  from 
that  of  an  Assyrian  deity,  "Nin,"  corre- 
sponding, it  is  conjectured,  with  the  Greek 
Hercules,  and  occurring  in  the  names  of 
several  Assyrian  kings,  as  in  "  Ninus," 
the  mythic  founder,  according  to  Greek 
tradition,  of  the  city.  Nineveh  is  first 
mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  in  connection  with 
the  primitive  dispersement  and  migrations 
of  the  human  race.  Asshur,  or,  accord- 
ing to  the  marginal  reading,  which  is  gen- 
erally preferred,  Nimrod,  is  there  described 
(Gen.  X.  11)  as  extending  his  kingdom 
from  the  land  of  Shinar,  or  Babylonia, 
in  the  south,  to  Assyria  in  the  north,  and 
founding  four  cities,  of  which  the  most 
famous  was  Nineveh.  Hence  Assyria  was 
subsequently  known  to  the  Jews  as  "  the 
land  of  Nirarod  "  (cf.  Mic.  v.  6),  and  was 
believed  to  have  been  first  peopled  by  a 
colony  from  Babylon.  The  kingdom  of 
Assyria  and  of  the  Assyrians  is  referred  to 
in  the  O.  T.  as  connected  with  the  Jews  at 
a  very  early  period ;  as  in  Num.  xxiv.  22, 
24,  and  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  8 ;  but  after  the  notice 
of  the  foundation  of  Nineveh  in  Genesis  no 
further  mention  is  made  of  the  city  until  the 
time  of  the  book  of  Jonah,  or  the  8th  cen- 
tury B.  c.  In  this  book  neither  Assyria  nor 
the  Assyrians  are  mentioned,  the  king  to 
whom  the  prophet  was  sent  being  termed 
the  "king  of  Nineveh,"  and  his  subjects 
•'  the  people  of  Nineveh."  Assyria  is  first 
called  a  kingdom  in  the  time  of  Menahem, 
about  B.  c.  770.  Nalmm  (?  b.  c.  645)  di- 
rects his  prophecies  against  Nineveh ;  only 
once  against  the  king  of  Assyria,  ch.  iii.  18. 
In  2  K.  (xix.  36)  and  Is.  xxxvii.  37,  the  city 
is  first  distinctly  mentioned  as  the  residence 
of  the  monarch.  Sennacherib  was  slain 
there  when  worshipping  in  the  temple  of 
Nisroch  his  god.  Zephaniah,  about  b.  c. 
630,  couples  the  capital  and  the  kingdom 


together  (ii.  13)  ;  and  this  is  the  last  men- 
tion of  Nineveh  as  an  existing  city.  The 
destruction  of  Nineveh  occurred  b.  c.  606. 
The  city  was  then  laid  waste,  its  monu- 
ments destroyed,  and  its  inhabitants  scat- 
tered or  carried  away  into  captivity.  It 
never  rose  again  from  its  ruins.  This  total 
disappearance  of  Nineveh  is  fully  confirmed 
by  the  records  of  profane  history.  Herod- 
otus (i.  193)  speaks  of  the  Tigris  as  "  the 
river  upon  which  the  town  of  Nineveh 
formerly  stood."  The  historians  of  Alex- 
ander, with  the  exception  of  Arrian,  do  not 
even  allude  to  the  city,  T)ver  the  ruins  of 
which  the  conqueror  must  have  actually 
marched.  It  is  evident  that  the  later  Greek 
and  Roman  writers,  such  as  Strabo,  Ptolemy, 
and  Pliny,  could  only  have  derived  any  in- 
dependent knowledge  they  possessed  of 
►Nineveh  from  traditions  of  no  authority. 
The  political  history  of  Nineveh  is  that  of 
Assyria,  of  wliich  a  sketch  has  already  been 
given.  [Assyria.]  —  Previous  to  recent 
excavations  and  researches,  the  ruins  which 
occupied  the  presumed  site  of  Nineveh 
seemed  to  consist  of  mere  shapeless  heaps 
or  mounds  of  earth  and  rubbish.  Unlike 
the  vast  masses  of  brick  masonry  which 
mark  the  site  of  Babylon,  they  showed  ex- 
ternally no  signs  of  artificial  construction, 
except  perhaps  here  and  there  the  traces  of 
a  rude  wall  of  sun-dried  bricks.  Some  of 
these  mounds  were  of  enormous  dimensions 
—  looking  in  the  distance  rather  like  natural 
elevations  than  the  work  of  men's  hands. 
They  diflfer  greatly  in  form,  size,  and  height. 
Some  are  mere  conical  heaps,  varying  from 
50  to  150  feet  high ;  others  have  a  broad  flat 
summit,  and  very  precipitous  cliff-like  sides, 
furrowed  by  deep  ravines  worn  by  the  win- 
ter rains.  Such  mounds  are  especially  nu- 
merous in  the  region  to  the  east  of  the 
Tigris,  in  which  Nineveh  stood,  and  some 
of  them  mast  mark  the  ruins  of  the  Assyrian 
capital.  The  only  difliculty  is  to  determine 
which  ruins  are  to  be  comprised  within 
the  actual  limits  of  the  ancient  city.  The 
principal  ruins  are —  1,  the  group  immedi- 
ately opposite  Mosul,  including  the  great 
mounds  of  Kouyunjik  and  Nehbi  Yunus  ; 
2,  that  near  the  junction  of  the  Tigris  and 
Zab,  comprising  the  mounds  of  Nimroud 
and  Athur ;  3,  ^Aorsafiarf,  about  10  miles  to 
the  eastof  the  former  river ;  4,  Sherecf  Khan, 
about  5i  miles  to  the  north  of  Kouyunjik  ; 
and  5,  Selamiyah,  3  miles  to  the  north 
of  Nimroud.  We  will  describe  the  most  im- 
portant. The  ruins  opposite  Mosul  consist 
of  an  enclosure  formed  by  a  continuous  line 
of  mounds,  resembling  a  vast  embankment 
of  earth,  but  marking  the  remains  of  a  wall, 
the  western  face  of  which  is  interrupted  by 
the  two  great  mounds  of  Kouyunjik  and 
Nebbi  Yunus.  To  the  east  of  this  enclosure 
are  the  remains  of  an  extensive  line  of  de- 
fences, consisting  of  moats  and  rampart/u 


NtNEVEH 


458 


NINEVEH 


The  inner  wall  forms  an  irregular  quad- 
rangle with  very  unequal  sides  —  the  north- 
ern being  2333  yards,  the  western,  or  the 
river  face,  4533,  the  eastern  (where  the  wall 
is  almost  the  segment  of  a  circle)  6300 
yards,  and  the  southern  but  little  more  than 
1000;  altogether  13,200  yards,  or  7  English 
miles  4  furlongs.    The  present  height  of 


this  earthen  wall  is  between  40  an  1  50  feet. 
Ximroud  consists  of  a  similar  enclosure  of 
consecutive  mounds  —  the  remains  of  an- 
cient walls.  The  system  of  defences  is 
however  very  inferior  in  importance  and 
completeness  to  that  of  Kouyunjik.  The 
indications  of  towers  occur  at  regular  in- 
tervals ;  108  may  still  be  traced  on  the  N. 


Mound  of  Nimroud. 


and  E.  sides.  The  area  forms  an  irregular 
square,  about  2331  yards  by  2095,  contain- 
ing about  1000  acres.  The  N.  and  E.  sides 
were  defended  by  moats,  the  W.  and  S. 
walls  by  the  river,  which  once  flowed  im- 
mediately beneath  them.  On  the  S.  W. 
face  is  a  great  mound,  700  yards  by  400, 
and  covering  about  GO  acres,  with  a  cone  or 
pyramid  of  earth,  about  140  feet  high,  rising 
in  the  N.  W.  corner  of  it.  At  the  S.  E. 
angle  of  the  enclosure  is  a  group  of  lofty 
mounds,  called  by  the  Arabs,  after  Nim- 
roud's  lieutenant,  Athur  (cf.  Gen.  x.  11). 
The  first  traveller  who  carefully  examined 
the  supposed  site  of  Nineveh  was  Mr.  Rich, 
formerly  political  agent  for  the  East  India 
Company  at  Bagdad ;  but  his  investigations 
were  almost  entirely  confined  to  Kouyunjik 
and  the  surrounding  mounds,  of  which  he 
made  a  survey  in  1820.  In  1843  M.  Botta, 
the  French  consul  at  Mosul,  fully  explored 
the  ruins.  They  consisted  of  the  lower 
part  of  a  number  of  halls,  rooms,  and  pas- 
sages, for  the  most  part  wainscoted  with 
slabs  of  coarse  gray  alabaster,  sculptured 
with  figures  in  relief,  the  principal  en- 
trances being  formed  by  colossal  human- 
headed  winged  bulls.  No  remains  of  exterior 
architecture  of  any  great  importance  were 
discovered.  The  calcined  limestone  and 
the  great  accumulation  of  charred  wood  and 
charcoal  showed  that  the  building  had  been 
destroyed  by  fire.  Its  upper  part  had  en- 
tirely disappeared,  and  its  general  plan 
could  anly  be  restored  by  the  remains  of  the 
lower  story.  The  collection  of  Assyrian 
sculptures  in  the  Louvre  came  from  these 
ruins.  M.  Botta's  discoveries  at  Khorsabad 
were  followed  by  those  of  Mr.  Layard  at 
Nimroud  and  Kouyunjik,  made  between  the 
years  1845  and  1850.  The  mound  of  Nim- 
roud was  found  to  contain  the  ruins  of  sev- 


eral distinct  edifices,  erected  at  different 
periods.  In  general  plan  and  in  construc- 
tion they  resembled  the  ruins  at  Khorsabad 
—  consisting  of  a  number  of  halls,  cham- 
bers, and  galleries,  panelled  with  sculptured 
and  inscribed  alabaster  slabs,  and  opening 
one  into  the  other  by  doorways  generally 
formed  by  pairs  of  colossal  human-headed 
winged  bulls  or  lions.  The  exterior  archi- 
tecture could  not  be  traced.  —  The  Assyrian 
edifices  were  so  nearly  alike  in  general 
plan,  construction,  and  decoration,  that  one 
description  will  sufllce  for  all.  They  were 
built  upon  artificial  mounds  or  platforms, 
varying  in  height,  but  generally  from  30  to 
50  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
country,  and  solidly  constructed  of  regular 
layers  of  sun-dried  bricks,  as  at  Nimroud, 
or  consisting  merely  of  earth  and  rubbish 
heaped  up,  as  at  Kouyunjik.  This  platform 
was  probably  faced  with  stone  masonrj',  re- 
mains of  which  were  discovered  at  Nimroud, 
and  broad  flights  of  steps  or  inclined  ways 
led  up  to  its  summit.  Although  only  the 
general  plan  of  the  ground-floor  can  now  bo 
traced,  it  is  evident  that  the  palaces  had 
several  stories  built  of  wood  and  sun-dried 
bricks,  which,  when  the  building  was  de- 
serted and  allowed  to  fall  to  decay,  gradu- 
ally buried  the  lower  chambers  with  their 
ruins,  and  protected  the  sculptured  slabs 
from  the  eff"ects  of  the  weather.  The 
depth  of  soil  and  rubbish  above  the  ala- 
baster slabs  varied  from  a  few  inches  to 
about  20  feet.  It  is  to  this  accumulation 
of  rubbish  above  them  that  the  bass-reliefs 
owe  their  extraordinary  preservation.  The 
portions  of  the  edifices  still  remaining  con- 
sist of  halls,  chambers,  and  galleries,  open- 
ing for  the  most  part  into  large  uncov- 
ered courts.  The  wall,  above  the  wain- 
scoting of  alabaster,  was  plastered,  and 


NINEVEH 


459 


NINEVEH 


painted  with  figures  and  ornamenta.  The 
sculptures,  with  the  exception  of  the  hu- 
man-headed lions  and  bulls,  were  for  the 
most  part  in  low  relief.  The  colossal  fig- 
ures u>ually  represent  the  king,  his  attend- 
ants, and  the  gods ;  the  smaller  sculptures, 
which  either  cover  the  whole  face  of  tiie 
slab,  or  are  divided  into  two  compart- 
ments by  bands  of  inscriptions,  repre- 
sent battles,  sieges,  the  chase,  single  com- 
bats with  wild  beasts,  religious  ceremo- 
nies, &c.,  &c.  All  refer  to  public  or  na- 
tional events ;  the  hunting-scenes  evidently 
recording  the  prowess  and  personal  valor 
of  the  king  as  the  head  of  the  people  — 
"  the  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord."  The 
sculptures  appear  to  have  been  painted  — 
remains  of  color  having  been  found  on 
most  of  them.  Thus  decorated,  without 
and  within,  the  Assyrian  palaces  must  have 
displayed  a  barbaric  magnificence,  not  how- 
ever devoid  of  a  certain  grandeur  and  beau- 
ty which  no  ancient  or  modern  edifice  has 
probably  exceeded.  These  great  edifices, 
the  depositories  of  the  national  records,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  at  the  same  time  the 
abode  of  the  king  and  the  temple  of  the 
gods.  —  Site  of  the  City.  — Much  diversity 
of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  identification  of 
the  ruins  which  may  be  properly  included 
within  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh.  Ac- 
cording to  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  and  those  who 
concur  in  his  interpretation  of  the  cuneiform 
characters,  each  group  of  mounds  already 
mentioned  represents  a  separate  and  dis- 
tinct city.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been 
conjectured,  with  much  probability,  that 
these  groups  of  mounds  are  not  ruins  of 
separate  cities,  but  of  fortified  royal  resi- 
dences, each  combining  palaces,  temples, 
propylaea,  gardens,  and  parks,  and  having 
its  peculiar  name ;  and  that  they  all  formed 
part  of  one  great  city  built  and  added  to  at 
different  periods,  and  consisting  of  distinct 
quarters  scattered  over  a  very  large  area, 
and  frequently  very  distant  one  from  the 
other.  Nineveh  might  thus  be  compared 
with  Damascus,  Ispahan,  or  perhaps  more 
appropriately  with  Delhi.  It  is  thus  alone 
that  the  ancient  descriptions  of  Nineveh,  if 
any  value  wiiatever  is  to  be  attached  to 
them,  can  be  reconciled  with  existing  re- 
mains. As  at  Bab3'lon,  no  great  consec- 
utive wall  of  enclosure  comprising  all  the 
ruins  has  been  discovered  at  Nineveh,  and 
no  such  wall  ever  existed.  —  Prophecies  re- 
lating to  Nineveh,  and  Illustrations  of  the 
O.  T.  —  These  are  exclusively  contained 
in  the  books  of  Nahum  and  Zephaniah; 
for  although  Isaiah  foretells  the  downfall 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  (ch.  x.  and  xiv.), 
ho  makes  no  mention  of  its  capital.  Na- 
hum threatens  the  entire  destruction  of  the 
city,  so  that  it  shall  not  rise  again  from  its 
ruins :  "  With  an  overrunning  flood  he 
will  uiake  au  utter  end  of  the  place  there- 


of." "  He  will  make  an  utt  »r  end  :  afflic- 
tion shall  not  rise  up  the  second  time  "  (i. 
8,  9).  "Thy  people  is  scattered  upon  the 
mountains,  and  no  one  gathereth  them. 
There  is  no  healing  of  thy  bruise  "  (iii.  18, 
19).  Some  commentators  believe  that 
"  the  overrunning  flood "  refers  to  the 
agency  of  water  in  the  destruction  of  the 
walls  by  an  extraordinary  overflow  of  the 
Tigris,  and  the  consequent  exposure  of 
the  city  to  assault  through  a  breach ;  others, 
that  it  applies  to  a  large  and  devastating 
army.  5lost  of  the  edifices  discovered  had 
been  destroyed  by  fire,  but  no  part  of  the 
walls  of  either  Nimroud  or  Kouyunjik  ap- 
pears to  have  been  washed  away  by  the 
river.  The  likening  of  Nineveh  to  "  a 
pool  of  water  "  (ii.  8)  has  been  conjectured 
to  refer  to  the  moats  and  dams  by  which  a 
portion  of  the  country  around  Nineveh 
could  be  flooded.  The  city  was  to  be  part- 
ly destroyed  by  fire.  "  The  fire  shall  de- 
vour thy  bars,"  "  then  shall  the  fire  devour 
thee"  (iii.  13,  15).  The  gateway  in  the 
northern  #all  of  the  Kouyunjik  enclosure 
had  been  destroyed  by  fire  as  well  as  the 
palaces.  The  population  was  to  be  sur- 
prised when  unprepared,  "  while  they  are 
drunk  as  drunkards  they  shall  be  devoured 
as  stubble  fully  dry "  (i.  10).  Diodorus 
states  that  the  last  and  fatal  assault  was 
made  when  they  were  overcome  with  wine. 
The  captivity  of  the  inhabitants  and  their 
removal  to  distant  provinces  are  predicted 
(iii.  18).  The  palace-temples  were  to  be 
plundered  of  their  idols  :  "  Out  of  the  house 
of  thy  gods  will  I  cut  off  the  graven  image 
and  the  molten  image  "  (i.  14),  and  the  city 
sacked  of  its  wealth  :  "  Take  ye  the  spoil 
of  silver,  take  the  spoil  of  gold  "  (ii.  9). 
For  ages  the  Assyrian  edifices  have  been 
despoiled  of  their  sacred  images.  Only 
one  or  two  fragments  of  the  precious  met- 
als were  found  in  the  ruins.  Nineveh, 
after  its  fall,  was  to  be  "  empty,  and  void, 
and  waste "  (ii.  10) ;  "it  shall  come  to 
pass,  that  all  they  that  look  upon  thee  shall 
flee  from  thee,  and  say,  Nineveh  is  laid 
waste  "  (iii.  7).  .  These  epithets  describe  the 
present  state  of  the  site  of  the  city.  But 
the  fullest  and  the  most  vivid  and  poetical 
picture  of  its  ruined  and  deserted  condi- 
tion is  that  given  by  Zephaniah,  who  prob- 
ably lived  to  see  its  fall  (ii.  13,  14,  15). 
The  canals  which  once  fertilized  the  soil  are 
now  dry.  Except  when  the  earth  is  greea 
after  the  periodical  rains,  the  site  of  the  city, 
as  well  as  the  surrounding  country,  is  an 
arid  yellow  waste.  Many  allusions  in  the 
O.  T.  to  the  dress,  arms,  modes  of  warfare, 
and  customs  of  the  people  of  Nineveh,  aa 
well  as  of  the  Jews,  are  explained  by  the 
Nineveh  monuments.  Thus  (Nah.  ii.  3), 
"  The  shield  of  his  mighty  men  is  nude  red, 
the  valiant  men  are  in  scarlet."  Tl  e  shields 
and  the  dresses  of  the  warriors  are  general- 


NINEVEH 


460 


NINEVEH 


}y  painted  red  in  the  sculpt  ares.  The  mag- 
nificent description  of  the  assault  upon  tlie 
city  (iii.  1,  2,  3)  is  illustrated  in  almost 
every  particular.  1  he  mounds  built  up 
against  the  walls  of  a  besieged  town  (Is. 
xxxvii.  33;  2  K.  xix.  32;  Jer.  xxxii.  21; 
&,€.),  the  battering-ram  (Ez.  iv.  2),  the 
various  kinds  of  armor,  helmets,  shields, 
spears,  and  swords,  used  in  battle  during  a 
siege;  the  chariots  and  horses  (Nah.  iii.  3), 
are  all  seen  in  various  bass-reliefs.  The 
interior  decoration  of  the  Assyrian  palaces 
is  described  by  Ezekiel,  himself  a  captive 
in  Assyria  and  an  eye-witness  of  their 
magnificence  (xxiii.  14,  15)  ;  a  description 
strikingly  illustrated  by  the  sculptured  like- 
nesses of  the  Assyrian  kings  and  warriors. 
The  mystic  figures  seen  by  the  prophet  in 
his  vision  (ch.  i.),  uniting  the  man,  the  lion, 
the  ox,  and  the  engle,  may  have  been  sug- 
gested by  the  eagle-headed  idols,  and  man- 
headed  bulls  and  lions,  and  the  sacred 
emblem  of  the  "wheel  within  wheel"  by 
the  winged  circle  or  globe  frequently  repre- 
sented in  the  bass-reliefs.  Ai-ts.  —  The 
origin  of  Assyrian  art  is  a  subject  at  present 
involved  in  mystery,  and  one  which  offers  a 
wide  field  for  speculation  and  research. 
Those  who  derive  the  civilization  and  polit- 
ical system  of  the  Assyrians  from  Babylonia 
would  trace  their  arts  to  the  same  source. 
One  of  the  principal  features  of  their  archi- 
tecture, the  artificial  platform  serving  as  a 
substructure  for  their  national  edifices,  may 
have  been  taken  from  a  people  inhabiting 
plains  perfectly  flat,  such  as  those  of  Shi- 
nar,  ratlier  than  an  undulating  country  in 
which  natural  elevations  are  not  uncom- 
mon, such  as  Assyria  proper,  In  none  of 
the  arts  of  the  Assyrians  have  any  traces 
hitherto  been  found  of  progressive  change. 
In  sculpture,  as  probably  in  painting  also, 
if  we  possessed  the  means  of  comparison, 
the  same  thing  is  observable  as  in  the  re- 
mains of  ancient  Egypt.  The  earliest  works 
hitherto  discovered  show  the  result  of  a 
lengthened  period  of  gradual  development, 
which,  judging  from  the  slow  progress  made 
by  untutored  man  in  the  arts,  must  have 
extended  over  a  vast  number  of  years. 
They  exhibit  the  arts  of  the  Assyrians  at 
the  highest  stage  of  excellence  they  prob- 
ably ever  attained.  The  only  change  we 
can  trace,  as  in  Egypt,  is  one  of  decline  or 
*'  decadence."  The  arts  of  the  Assyrians, 
especially  their  architecture,  spread  to  sur- 
rounding nations,  as  is  usually  the  case 
when  one  race  is  brought  into  contact  with 
another  in  a  lower  state  of  civilization. 
They  appear  to  have  crossed  the  Euphrates, 
and  to  have  had  more  or  less  influence  on 
the  countries  between  it  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  Assyrian  inscriptions  seem 
to  indicate  a  direct  dependence  of  Judaea 
upon  Assyria  from  a  very  early  period. 
From  the  descriptions  of  the  temple   and 


"  houses  "  of  Solomon  (cf.  I  K.  vi.,  vii. ;  3 
Chr.  iii.,  iv.),  it  would  appear  that  there  was 
much  similarity  between  them  and  the  pal- 
aces of  Nineveh,  if  not  in  the  exterior  arch- 
itecture, certainly  in  the  interior  decora- 
tions. The  Jewish  edifices  were,  hovever, 
very  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  Assyrian. 
Of  objects  of  art  (if  we  may  use  the  term) 
contained  in  the  Temple  we  have  the  de- 
scription of  the  pillars,  of  the  brazen  sea, 
and  of  various  bronze  or  copper  vessels. 
The  Assyrian  character  of  these  objects  is 
very  remarkable.  The  influence  of  Assyria 
to  the  eastward  was  even  more  considerable, 
extending  far  into  Asia.  Amongst  the  As- 
syrians, the  arts  were  principally  employed, 
as  amongst  all  nations  in  their  earlier 
stages  of  civilization,  for  religious  and 
national  purposes.  The  colossal  figures  at 
the  doorways  of  the  palaces  were  mythic 
combinations  to  denote  the  attributes  of  a 
deity.  The  "  Man-Bull "  and  the  •'  Man- 
Lion,"  are  conjectured  to  be  the  godg 
"  Nin  "  and  "  Nergal,"  presiding  over  war 
and  the  chase;  the  eagle-headed  and  fish- 
headed  figures  so  constantly  repeated  in  the 
sculptures,  and  as  ornaments  of  vessels  of 
metal,  or  in  embroideries  —  Nisroch  and 
Dagon.  The  bass-reliefs  almost  invariably 
record  some  deed  of  the  king,  as  head  of 
the  nation,  in  war,  and  in  combat  with  wild 
beasts,  or  his  piety  in  erecting  vast  palace- 
temples  to  the  gods.  Hitherto  no  sculp- 
tures specially  illustrating  the  private  life 
of  the  Assyrians  have  been  discovered, 
except  one  or  two  incidents,  such  as  men 
baking  bread  or  tending  horses.  Tliis  may 
be  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  no  traces 
whatever  have  yet  been  found  of  their  burial 
places,  or  even  of  their  mode  of  dealing  with 
the  dead.  Writing  and  Language.  —  The 
ruins  of  Nineveh  have  furnished  a  vast 
collection  of  inscriptions  partly  carved  on 
marble  or  stone  slabs,  and  partly  impressed 
upon  bricks,  and  upon  clay  cylinders,  or 
six-sided  and  eight-sided  prisms,  barrels, 
and  tablets,  which,  used  for  the  purpose 
when  still  moist,  were  afterwards  baked  in 
a  furnace  or  kiln.  (Comp.  Ez.  iv.  4.)  The 
character  employed  was  the  arrow-headed 
or  cuneiform  —  so  called  from  each  letter 
being  formed  by  marks  or  elements  resem- 
bling an  arrow-head  or  a  wedge.  This 
mode  of  writing,  believed  by  some  to  be 
of  Turanian  or  Scythic  origin,  prevailed 
throughout  the  provinces  comprised  in  tiie 
Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  ancient  Persian  empires,  from 
the  earliest  times  to  which  any  known 
record  belongs,  or  at  least  20  centuries  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  down  to  the  period 
of  the  conquests  of  Alexander.  The  Assyr- 
ian and  Babylonian  alphabet  (if  the  term 
may  be  applied  to  above  200  signs)  is  of  the 
most  complicated,  imperfect,  and  arbitrary 
nature  —  some  characters  being  phonetic. 


NINEVITES 


461 


NOAH 


others  syllabic,  others  ideographic  —  the 
same  character  being  frequently  used  in- 
differently. The  people  of  Nineveh  spoke 
a  Sheuiitic  dialect,  connected  with  the  He- 
brew and  with  the  so-called  Chaldee  of  the 
Books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra.  This  agrees  with 
the  testimony  of  the  O.  T.  The  Assyrian 
inscriptions  usually  contain  the  chronicles 
of  the  king  who  built  or  restored  the  edifice 
in  which  they  are  found,  records  of  his  wars 
and  expeditions  into  distant  countries,  of 
the  amount  of  tribute  and  spoil  taken  from 
conquered  tribes,  of  the  building  of  temples 
and  palaces,  and  invocations  to  the  gods  of 
Assyria.  These  inscribed  bricks  are  of  the 
greatest  value  in  restoring  the  royal  dynas- 
ties. The  most  important  inscription  iiith- 
erto  discovered  in  connection  with  Bibli- 
cal history,  is  that  upon  a  pair  of  colossal 
human-headed  bulls  from  Kouyunjik,  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  containing  the 
records  of  Sennacherib,  and  describing, 
amongst  other  events,  his  wars  with  Heze- 
kiah.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  series  of  bass- 
reliefs  believed  to  represent  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Lachish.  A  list  of  nineteen  or 
twenty  kings  can  already  be  compiled,  and 
the  annals  of  the  greater  number  of  them 
will  probably  be  restored  to  the  lost  history 
of  one  of  the  most  powerful  empires  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  of  one  which  appears  to 
have  exercised  perhaps  greater  influence 
than  any  other  upon  the  subsequent  condi- 
tion and  development  of  civilized  man. 

Nin'evites,  the  inhabitants  of  Nineveh 
(Luke  xi.  30). 

Ni'san.     [Months.] 

Nis'roch,  an  idol  of  Nineveh,  in  whose 
temple  Sennacherib  was  worshipping  when 
assassinated  by  his  sons,  Adrammelech  and 
Sharezer  (2  K.  xix.  37;  Is.  xxxvii.  38). 
The  word  signifies  "  the  great  eagle."  It  is 
identified  with  the  eagle-headed  human 
figure,  which  is  one  of  the  most  prominent 
on  the  earliest  Assyrian  monuments,  and  is 
always  represented  as  contending  with  and 
conquering  the  lion  or  the  bull. 

Nitre  occurs  in  Prov.  xxv.  20,  "  and  as 
vinegar  upon  nitre ; "  and  in  Jer.  ii.  22. 
The  substance  denoted  is  not  that  which  we 
now  understand  by  the  term  nitre,  i.  e. 
nitrate  of  potassa  —  "  saltpetre  "  —  but  the 
nifrum  of  the  Latins,  and  the  natron  or 
native  carbonate  of  soda  of  modern  chemis- 
try. The  latter  part  of  the  passage  in  Prov- 
erbs is  well  explained  by  Shaw,  who  says 
(  Trav.  ii.  387),  "the  unsuitableness  of  the 
eniging  of  songs  to  a  heavy  heart  is  very 
finely  compared  to  the  contrariety  there  is 
l)etween  vinegar  and  natron. 

K"0.       [NO-AMON.] 

Noadi'ah.  1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Binnui, 
who  with  Meremoth,  Eleazar,  and  Jozabad, 
weighed  the  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  be- 
longing to  the  Temple  which  were  brought 
back  from  Babylon  (Ezr.  viii.  33).    2.  The 


prophetess  Noadiah  joined  Sanballat  and 
Tobiali  in  their  attempt  to  intimidate  Ne- 
heniiah  (Neh.  vi.  Ii). 

No'ah,  the  tenth  in  descent  from  Adam, 
in  the  line  of  Seth,  was  the  son  of  Lamecli, 
and  grandson  of  Methuselah.  In  the  reason 
which  Lamech  gives  for  calling  his  son 
Noah,  there  is  a  play  upon  the  name  which 
it  is  impossible  to  preserve  in  English.  He 
called  his  name  Noah  (Noach,  rest),  saying, 
"Tills  same  shall  comfort  us."  Of  Noah 
himself  we  hear  nothing  till  he  is  500  years 
old,  wlien  it  is  said  he  begat  three  sons, 
Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet.  In  consequence 
of  the  grievous  and  hopeless  wickedness  of 
the  world  at  this  time,  God  resolved  to  de- 
stroy it.  "  My  Spirit,"  He  says,  "  shall 
not  always  '  dwell '  or  '  bear  sway  '  in  man 
—  inasmuch  as  he  is  but  flesh."  The  mean- 
ing of  which  seems  to  be,  that  whilst  God 
had  put  His  Spirit  in  man,  i.  e.  not  only  the 
breath  of  life,  but  a  spiritual  part  capable 
of  recognizing,  loving,  and  worshipping 
Him,  man  had  so  much  sunk  down  into  the 
lowest  and  most  debasing  of  fleshly  pleas- 
ures, as  to  have  almost  extinguished  the 
higher  light  within  him.  Then  follows, 
"  But  his  days  shall  be  a  hundred  and 
twenty  years,"  which  has  been  interpreted 
by  some  to  mean,  that  still  a  time  of  grace 
shall  be  given  for  repentance,  viz.  120  years 
before  the  Flood  shall  come ;  and  by  others, 
that  the  duration  of  human  life  should  in 
future  be  limited  to  this  terra  of  years, 
instead  of  extending  over  centuries  as 
before.  This  last  seems  the  most  nat- 
ural interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  words* 
Of  Noah's  life  during  this  age  of  almost 
universal  apostasy  we  are  told  but  little. 
It  is  merely  said,  that  he  was  a  right- 
eous man  and  perfect  in  his  genera- 
tions (t.  e.  amongst  his  contemporaries), 
and  that  he,  like  Enoch,  walked  witii  God. 
St.  Peter  calls  him  "  a  preacher  of  right- 
eousness "  (2  Pet.  ii.  5).  Besides  this  we 
are  merely  told  that  he  had  three  sons,  each 
of  whom  had  married  a  wife ;  that  he  built 
the  Ark  in  accordance  with  Divine  direc- 
tion ;  and  that  he  was  600  years  old  when 
the  iiood  came  (Gen.  vi.,  vii.).  Both  about 
tlie  Ark  and  the  Flood  so  many  questions 
have  been  raised,  that  we  must  consider 
each  of  these  separately.  The  Ark.  —  The 
precise  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word 
{tibAli)  is  uncertain.  The  word  occurs 
only  in  Genesis  and  in  Exodus  (ii.  3).  In 
all  probability  it  is  to  the  old  Egyptian  that 
we  are  to  look  for  its  original  form.  Bun- 
sen,  in  his  vocabulary,  gives  Iha,  "  a  chest," 
tpt,  "  a  boat,"  and  in  the  Copt.  Vers,  of 
Exod.  ii.  3,  5,  Ihehi  is  the  rendering  of 
iSb&h.  This  "  chest,"  or  "  boat,"  was  to  be 
made  of  gopher  (i.  e.  cypress)  wood,  a  kind 
of  timber  which  both  for  its  liglitness  and  its 
durability  was  employed  by  the  Phoenicians 
for  building  their  vessels.     The  planks  of 


NOAH 


162 


NOAH 


the  ark,  after  being  put  together,  were  to 
be  protected  by  a  coating  of  pitch,  or  rather 
bitumen,  which  was  to  be  laid  on  both  in- 
side and  outside,  as  the  most  effectual 
means  of  making  it  water-tight,  and  per- 
haps also  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks 
of  marine  animals.  The  ark  was  to  consist 
of  a  number  of  "  nests  "  or  small  compart- 
ments, with  a  view,  no  doubt,  to  the  con- 
venient distribution  of  the  different  animals 
and  their  food.  These  were  to  be  arranged 
in  three  tiers,  one  above  another;  "with 
lower,  second,  and  third  (stories)  shalt  thou 
make  it."  Means  were  also  to  be  provided 
for  letting  light  into  the  ark.  In  the  A.  V. 
we  read,  "  A  window  shalt  thou  make  to 
the  ark,  and  in  a  cubit  shalt  thou  finish  it 
above  "  —  words  which,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, convey  no  very  intelhgible  idea. 
The  original,  however,  is  obscure,  and  has 
been  differently  interpreted.  What  the 
"  window,"  or  "  light-hole  "  was,  is  very 
puzzling.  It  was  to  be  at  the  top  of  the 
ark,  apparently.  If  the  words  "  unto  a 
cubit  shalt  thou  finish  it  above,"  refer  to 
the  window,  and  not  to  the  ark  itself,  they 
seem  to  imply  that  this  aperture,  or  sky- 
light, extended  to  the  breadth  of  a  cubit  the 
whole  length  of  the  roof.  But  if  so,  it 
could  not  have  been  merely  an  open  slit, 
for  that  would  have  admitted  the  rain.  Are 
we  then  to  suppose  that  some  transparent, 
or  at  least  translucent,  substance  was  em- 
ployed? It  would  almost  seem  so.  But 
besides  the  window  there  was  to  be  a  door. 
This  ^as  to  be  placed  in  the  side  of  the 
ark.  Of  the  shape  of  the  ark  nothing  is 
said ;  but  its  dimensions  are  given.  It  was 
to  be  300  cubits  in  length,  50  in  breadth, 
and  30  in  height.  Taking  21  inches  for  the 
cubit,  the  ark  would  be  525  feet  in  length, 
87  feet  6  inches  in  breadth,  and  52  feet  6 
inches  in-height.  This  is  very  considerably 
larger  than  the  largest  British  man-of-war. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  this  huge 
structure  was  only  intended  to  float  on  the 
water,  and  was  not  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word  a  ship.  It  had  neither  mast,  sail, 
nor  rudder ;  it  was  in  fiict  nothing  but  an 
enormous  floating  house,  or  oblong  box 
rather.  Two  objects  only  were  aimed  at 
in  its  construction  :  the  one  was  that  it 
should  have  ample  stowage,  and  the  other 
that  it  should  be  able  to  keep  steady  upon 
the  water.  After  having  given  Noah  the 
necessary  instructions  for  the  building  of 
the  ark,  God  tells  him  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  designed.  The  earth  is  to  be 
destroyed  by  water.  "  And  I,  behold  I  do 
bring  the  flood  —  waters  upon  the  earth  — 
to  destroy  all  flesh  wherein  is  the  breath  of 
life  .  .  .  but  I  Avill  establish  my  covenant 
with  thee,"  &c.  (vi.  17,  18).  The  inmates 
of  the  ark  are  then  specified.  They  are  to 
be  Noah  and  his  wife,  and  his  three  sons 
with  their  wives.    Noah  is  also  to  take  a 


pair  of  each  kind  of  animal  into  the  ark 
with  him  that  he  may  preserve  them  alive ; 
birds,  domestic  animals,  and  creeping  things 
are  particularly  mentioned.  He  is  to  pro- 
vide for  the  wants  of  each  of  tliese  stores 
"  of  every  kind  of  food  that  is  eaten."  It 
is  added,  "Thus  did  Noah;  according  to 
all  that  God  commanded  him,  so  did  he." 
A  remarkable  addition  to  these  directions 
occurs  in  the  following  chapter.  The  pairs 
of  animals  are  now  limited  to  one  of  unclean 
animals,  whilst  of  clean  animals  and  birds 
(ver.  2) ,  Noah  is  to  take  to  him  seven  pairs. 
Are  we  then  to  understand  that  Noah  lit- 
erally conveyed  a  pair  of  all  the  animals  of 
the  world  into  the  ark?  This  question  vir- 
tually contains  in  it  another,  viz.,  whether 
the  deluge  was  universal,  or  only  partial  ? 
If  it  was  only  partial,  then  of  course  it  was 
necessary  to  find  room  but  for  a  compara- 
tively small  number  of  animals ;  and  the 
dimensions  of  the  ark  are  ample  enough  for 
the  required  purpose.  But  it  is  not  only 
the  inadequate  size  of  the  ark  to  contain 
all,  or  anything  like  all,  the  progenitors  of 
our  existing  species  of  animals,  which  is 
conclusive  against  a  universal  deluge.  An- 
other fact  points  with  still  greater  force,  if 
possible,  in  the  same  direction,  and  that  is 
the  manner  in  which  we  now  find  these  an- 
imals distributed  over  the  earth's  surface. 
We  now  know  that  every  great  continent 
has  its  own  peculiar  fauna ;  that  the  origi- 
nal centres  of  distribution  must  have  been 
not  one,  but  many ;  further,  that  the  area.s 
or  circles  around  these  centres  must  have 
been  occupied  by  their  pristine  animals  in 
ages  long  anterior  to  that  of  the  Noachian 
Deluge.  It  is  quite  plain,  then,  that  if  all 
the  animals  of  the  world  were  literally 
gathered  together  in  the  ark,  and  so  saved 
from  the  waters  of  a  universal  deluge,  this 
could  only  have  been  effected  (even  sup- 
posing there  was  space  for  them  in  the 
ark)  by  a  most  stupendous  miracle.  But 
the  narrative  does  not  compel  us  to  adopt 
so  tremendous  an  hypothesis.  We  shall 
see  more  clearly  when  we  come  to  con- 
sider the  language  used  with  regard  to 
the  Flood  itself,  that  even  that  language, 
strong  as  it  undoubtedly  is,  does  not  oblige 
us  to  suppose  that  the  Deluge  was  uni-- 
versal.  The  Flood.  —  The  ark  was  fin- 
ished, and  all  its  living  freight  was  gathered 
into  it  as  in  a  place  of  safety.  Jehovah 
shut  him  in,  says  the  chronicler,  speaking 
of  Noah.  And  then  there  ensued  a  solemn 
pause  of  seven  days  before  the  threatened 
destruction  was  let  loose.  At  last  the  Flood 
came ;  the  waters  were  upon  the  earth.  The 
narrative  is  vivid  and  forcible,  though  en- 
tirely wanting  in  that  sort  of  description 
which  in  a  modern  historian  or  poet  would 
have  occupied  the  largest  space.  But  one 
impression  is  left  upon  the  mind  with  pecu- 
liar vividness,  from  the  very  simplicity  of 


NOAH 


463 


NOAH 


the  narrative,  and  it  is  that  of  utter  desola- 
tion. From  vii.  17  to  the  end  of  the  chap- 
ter a  very  simple  but  very  powerful  and 
impressive  description  is  given  of  the  appall- 
ing catastrophe.  The  waters  of  the  Flood 
increased  for  a  period  of  190  days  (40-j-150, 
comparing  vii.  12  and  24).  And  then  "God 
remembered  Noah,"  and  made  a  wind  to 
pass  over  the  earth,  so  that  the  waters  were 
assuaged.  The  ark  rested  on  the  seventeenth 
day  of  the  seventh  month  on  tlie  mountains 
of  Ararat.  After  this  the  waters  gradually 
decreased  till  the  first  day  of  the  tenth 
month,  when  the  tops  of  the  mountains  were 
Been.  It  was  tiien  that  Noah  sent  forth,  first, 
tlie  raven,  which  flew  hither  and  thitlier, 
resting  probably  on  the  mountain-tops,  but 
not  returning  to  the  ark ;  and  next,  after  an 
interval  of  seven  days  (cf.  ver.  10),  the 
dove,  "  to  see  if  thewaters  were  abated  from 
the  ground"  (i.  e.  the  lower  plain  country). 
"  But  the  dove  found  no  rest  for  the  sole  of 
her  foot,  and  she  returned  unto  him  into  the 
ark."  After  waiting  for  another  seven  days 
he  again  sent  forth  the  dove,  which  returned 
this  time  with  a  fresh  olive-leaf  in  her 
mouth,  a  sign  that  the  waters  were  still 
lower.  And  once  more,  after  another  inter- 
val of  seven  days,  he  sent  forth  the  dove, 
and  she  "  retiirned  not  again  unto  him  any 
more,"  having  found  a  home  for  herself  upon 
the  earth.  —  Whether  the  Flood  was  univer- 
sal or  partial  has  given  rise  to  much  contro- 
versy i  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was 
universal,  so  far  as  man  was  concerned  :  we 
mean  tliat  it  extended  to  all  the  then  known 
world.  The  literal  truth  of  the  narrative 
obliges  us  to  believe  that  the  whole  human 
race,  except  eight  persons,  perislied  by  the 
waters  of  the  Flood.  In  the  New  Testament 
our  Lord  gives  the  sanction  of  His  own  au- 
thority to  the  liistorical  truth  of  the  narra- 
tive (Matt.  xxiv.  37 ;  Luke  xvii.  26),  declar- 
2t  ?  that  the  state  of  the  world  at  His  second 
con_  _^5  shall  be  such  as  it  was  in  the  days 
of  Nci_.  St.  Peter  speaks  of  the  "  long- 
suffering  of  God,"  which  "waited  in  the 
days  of  Noah  while  the  ark  was  a  preparing, 
wherein  few,  that  is,  eight  souls,  were  saved 
by  water,"  and  sees  in  the  waters  of  the 
Flood  by  which  tlie  ark  was  borne  up  a  type 
of  Baptism,  by  which  the  Church  is  separat- 
ed from  the  world  (1  Pet.  iii.  20,  21).  And 
again,  in  his  Second  Epistle  (2  Pet.  ii.  5), 
he  cites  it  as  an  instance  of  the  righteous 
judgment  of  God,  who  spared  not  the  old 
world.  But  the  language  of  the  Book  of 
Genesis  does  not  compel  us  to  suppose  that 
the  whole  surface  of  the  globe  was  actually 
covered  with  water,  if  the  evidence  of  geol- 
ogy requires  us  to  adopt  the  hypothesis  of  a 
partial  deluge.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that 
the  writer,  when  he  speaks  of  "  all  flesh," 
"  all  in  whose  nostrils  was  the  breath  of 
life,"  refers  only  to  his  own  locality.  This 
•ort  of  language  is  common  enough  in  the 


Bible  when  only  a  small  part  of  the  globe  If 
intended.  Thus,  for  instance,  it  is  said  that 
"  all  countries  came  into  Egypt  to  Joseph 
to  buy  corn ;  "  and  that  "  a  decree  went  out 
from  Caesar  Augustus  that  all  the  world 
should  be  taxed."  In  these  and  many  simi- 
lar passages  the  expressions  of  the  writer 
are  obviously  not  to  be  taken  in  an  exactly 
literal  sense.  Even  the  apparently  very 
distinct  phrase  "  all  the  high  hills  that  wore 
under  the  whole  heaven  were  covered  "  may 
be  matched  by  another  precisely  similar, 
where  it  is  said  that  God  would  put  the  fear 
and  the  dread  of  Israel  upon  every  nation 
under  heaven.  —  The  truth  cf  the  Biblical 
narrative  is  confirmed  by  the  numerous  tra- 
ditions of  other  nations,  which  have  pre- 
served the  memory  of  a  great  and  destruc- 
tive flood,  from  which  but  a  small  part  of 
mankind  escaped.  They  seem  to  point  back 
to  a  common  centre,  whence  they  were  car- 
ried by  the  different  families  of  man,  as  they 
wandered  east  and  west.  The  traditions 
which  come  nearest  to  the  Biblical  account 
are  those  of  the  nations  of  Western  Asia. 
Foremost  among  these  is  the  Chaldean.  It 
is  preserved  in  a  fragment  of  Berosus,  and 
tells  how  Xisuthrus  built  a  vessel  in  which 
he  was  saved  from  a  great  deluge,  with 
different  animals,  birds,  and  quadrupeds. 
Other  notices  of  a  Flood  may  be  found  (a) 
in  the  Phoenician  mythology,  where  the 
victory  of  Pontus  (the  sea)  over  Demarous 
(the  earth)  is  mentioned :  (&)  in  the  Sibyl- 
line Oracles,  partly  borrowed  no  doubt  from 
the  Biblical  narrative,  and  partly  perhaps 
from  some  Babylonian  story.  To  these 
must  be  added  (c)  the  Phyrgian  story  of 
king  Annakos  or  Nannakos  (Enoch)  in 
Iconium,  who  reached  an  age  of  more  than 
300  years,  foretold  the  Flood,  and  wept  and 
prayed  for  his  people,  seeing  the  destruction 
that  was  coming  upon  them.  There  is  a 
medal  of  Apamea  in  Phrygia,  struck  as  late 
as  the  time  of  Septimius  Severus,  in  which 
the    Phrygian    deluge  is  commemorated. 


Uedal  or  Apamea  in  Phrygia,  representing  th«  Deluge. 

This  medal  represents  a  kind  of  square 
vessel  floating  in  the  water.  Through  an 
opening  in  it  are  seen  two  persons,  a  man 
and  a  M'oman.  Upon  the  top  of  this  chest 
or  ark  is  perched  a  bird,  whilst  another  fliea 


NOAH 


464 


NON 


towards  it  carrying  a  branch  between  its 
feet.  Before  the  vessel  are  represented  the 
same  pair  as  having  just  quitted  it,  and  got 
upon  the  dry  land.  Singularly  enough, 
too,  on  some  specimens  of  this  medal  the 
letters  Nfl,  or  NiZE,  have  been  found  on 
the  vessel,  as  in  the  preceding  cut.  Afier 
the  Flood.  —  Noah's  first  act  after  he  left 
the  ark  was  to  build  an  altar,  and  to  offer 
sacrifices.  This  is  the  first  altar  of  which 
we  read  in  Scripture,  and  the  first  burnt 
sacrifice.  Then  follows  the  blessing  of  God 
upon  Noah  and  his  sons.  All  living  crea- 
tures are  now  given  to  man  for  food ;  but 
express  provision  is  made  that  the  blood  (in 
which  is  the  life)  should  not  be  eaten. 
Next,  God  makes  provision  for  the  security 
of  human  life.  The  blood  of  man,  in  which 
is  his  life,  is  yet  more  precious  than  the 
blood  of  beasts.  Hence  is  laid  the  first 
foundation  of  the  civil  power.  Thus  with 
the  beginning  of  a  new  world  God  gives,  on 
the  one  hand,  a  promise  which  secures  the 
stability  of  the  natural  order  of  the  uni- 
A'erse,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  consecrates 
human  life  with  a  special  sanctity  as  resting 
upon  these  two  pillars  —  the  brotherhood 
of  men,  and  man's  likeness  to  God.  Of 
the  seven  precepts  of  Noah,  as  they  are 
called,  the  observance  of  which  was  re- 
quired of  all  Jewish  proselytes,  three  only 
are  here  expressly  mentioned.  It  is  in  the 
terms  of  the  blessing  and  the  covenant 
made  with  Noah  after  the  Flood  that  we 
find  the  strongest  evidence  that  it  extend- 
ed to  all  the  then  known  world.  Noah  is 
clearly  the  head  of  a  new  human  family, 
the  representative  of  the  whole  race.  It  is 
as  such  that  God  makes  his  covenant  with 
him  ;  and  hence  selects  a  natural  phenom- 
enon as  the  sign  of  that  covenant.  The 
bow  in  the  cloud,  seen  by  every  nation  un- 
der heav-en,  is  an  unfailing  witness  to  the 
truth  of  God.  —  Noah  now  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  betook  himself  to  agricultural  pur- 
suits. It  is  particularly  noticed  that  he 
planted  a  vineyard.  Whether  in  ignorance 
of  its  properties  or  otherwise,  we  are  not  in- 
formed, but  he  drank  of  the  juice  of  the 
grape  till  he  became  intoxicated  and  shame- 
fully exposed  himself  in  his  own  tent.  One 
of  his  sons,  Ham,  mocked  openly  at  his 
father's  disgrace.  The  others,  with  dutiful 
care  and  reverence,  endeavored  to  hide  it. 
When  he  recovered  from  the  effects  of  his 
intoxication,  he  declared  that  a  curse  should 
rest  upon  the  sons  of  Ham.  With  the  curse 
on  his  youngest  son  was  joined  a  blessing 
on  the  other  two.  After  this  prophetic 
blessing  we  hear  no  more  of  the  patriarch 
but  the  sum  of  his  years. 

No'ah.  One  of  the  five  daughters  of 
Zelopheliad  (Num.  xxvi.  33,  xxvii.  1,  xxxvi. 
11:  Josh.  xvii.  3). 

No-a'mon  (Nah.  iii.  8),  No  (Jer.  xlvi. 
25;  Ez.  XXX.  14,  15,  IG),  a  city  of  Egypt, 


better  known  under  the  name  of  Thebes, 
or  Diospolis  Magna.  The  second  part  of 
the  first  form  is  the  name  of  Amen,  the 
chief  divinity  of  Thebes,  mentioned  or  al- 
luded to  in  connection  with  this  place  in 
Jeremiah,  "  Behold,  I  will  punish  Amon 
in  No,  and  Pharaoh,  and  Egypt,  with  their 
gods  and  their  kings ;  "  and  perhaps  also 
alluded  to  in  Ezekiel  (xxx.  15).  There  is 
a  difficulty  as  to  the  meaning  of  No.  It 
seems  most  reason.able  to  suppose  that  No 
is  a  Shemitic  name,  and  that  Amon  is  add- 
ed in  Nahum  (I.  c.)  to  distinguish  Thebes 
from  some  other  place  bearing  the  same 
name,  or  on  account  of  the  connection  of 
Amen  with  that  city.  The  description  of 
No-Amon,  as  "  situate  among  the  rivers, 
the  waters  round  about  it"  (Nah.  I.  c), 
remarkably  characterizes  Thebes. 

Nob  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  11 ;  Neh.  xi.  32),  a 
sacerdotal  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
and  situated  on  some  eminence  near  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  one  of  the  places  where  the 
tabernacle,  or  ark  of  Jehovah,  was  kept  for 
a  time  during  the  dnys  of  its  wanderings  (2 
Sam.  vi.  1,  &c.).  But  the  event  for  which 
Nob  was  most  noted  in  the  Scripture  annals, 
was  a  frightful  massacre  which  occurred 
there  in  the  reign  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxii. 
17-19). 

No'bah,  an  Israelite  warrior  (Num. 
xxxii.  42),  who  during  the  conquest  of  the 
territory  on  the  east  of  Jordan  possessed 
himself  of  the  town  of  Kenath  and  the 
villages  or  hamlets  dependent  upon  it,  and 
gave  them  his  own  name.  For  a  certain 
period  after  the  establishment  of  the  Isra- 
elite rule  the  new  name  remained  (Judg. 
viii.  11).  But  it  is  not  again  heard  of,  and 
the  original  appellation,  as  is  usual  in  such 
cases,  appears  to  have  recovered  its  hold, 
which  it  has  since  retained ;  for  in  the 
slightly  modified  form  of  Kunawdt  it  is  the 
name  of  the  place  to  the  present  day. 

Nod.     [Cain.] 

No'dab,  the  name  of  an  Arab  tribe 
mentioned  only  in  1  Chr.  v.  19,  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  war  of  the  Reubenites,  the 
Gadites,  and  the  half  of  the  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh,  against  the  Hagarites  (verses  9-22, 
ver.  19).  It  has  been  supposed  that  Nodab 
was  one  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael.  But  we 
have  no  other  mention  of  Nodab,  and  it  is 
probable  that  he  was  a  grandson  or  other 
descendant  of  the  patriarch,  and  that  the 
name,  in  the  time  of  the  record,  was  that 
of  a  tribe  sprung  from  such  descendant. 

No'e,  the  patriarch  Noah  (Tob.  iv.  12 ; 
Matt.  xxiv.  37,  38  ;  Luke  iii.  36,  xvii.  2G,  27). 

No'gah.  One  of  the  thirteen  sons  of 
David  who  were  born  to  him  in  Jerusalem 
(1  Chr.  iii.  7,  xiv.  6). 

No'hah.  The  fourth  son  of  Benjamin 
(1  Chr.  viii.  2). 

Non.  Nun,  the  father  of  Joshua  (1 
Chr.  vii.  27). 


NOPH 


465 


NUMBERS 


Noptl.     [Memphis.] 

No  phah,  a  place  mentioned  only  in 
Num.  xxi.  30,  in  the  remarkable  song  ap- 
parently composed  by  the  Amorites  after 
their  conquest  of  Heshbon  from  the  Moab- 
ites,  and  therefore  of  an  earlier  date  than 
the  Israelite  invasion.  It  is  named  with 
Dil>on  and  Medeba,  and  was  possibly  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Heshbon.  A  name 
very  similar  to  Nophah  is  Nobah,  which  is 
twice  mentioned.  Ewald  decides  that  No- 
phah is  identical  with  the  latter  of  these. 

Nose-jewel  (Gen.  xxiv.  22 ;  Ex.  xxxv. 
22,  "ear-ring;"  Is.  iii.  21;  Ez.  xvi.  12, 
"jewel  on  the  forehead"),  a  ring  of  metal, 
sometimes  of  gold  or  silver,  passed  usually 
through  the  right  nostril,  and  worn  by  way 
of  ornament  by  women  in  the  East.  Upon 
it  are  strung  be.ads,  coral,  or  jewels.  In 
Egypt  it  is  now  almost  confined  to  the 
lower  classes. 

Number.  Like  most  Oriental  nations, 
it  is  probable  that  the  Hebrews  in  their 
written  calculations  made  use  of  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet.  That  they  did  so  in  post- 
Babylonian  times  we  have  conclusive  evi- 
dence in  the  Maccabaean  coins ;  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  this  was  the  case  also 
in  earlier  times.  But  though,  on  the  one 
hand,  it  is  certain  that  in  all  existing  MSS. 
of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  O.  T.  the  nu- 
merical expressions  are  written  at  length, 
yet,  on  the  other,  the  variations  in  the 
several  versions  between  themselves  and 
from  the  Hebrew  text,  added  to  the  evident 
inconsistencies  in  numerical  statement  be- 
tween certain  passages  of  that  text  itself, 
seem  to  prove  that  some  shorter  mode  of 
writing  was  originally  in  vogue,  liable  to 
be  misunderstood,  and  in  fact  misunder- 
stood by  copyists  and  translators.  These 
variations  appear  to  have  proceeded  from 
the  alphabetic  method  of  writing  numbers. 
There  can  be  little  doubt,  however,  that 
some  at  least  of  the  numbers  mentioned  in 
Scripture  are  intended  to  be  representative 
rather  than  determinative.  Certain  num- 
bers, as  7,  10,  40,  100,  were  regarded  as 
giving  the  idea  of  completeness.  Without 
entering  into  St.  Augustine's  theory  of  this 
usage,  we  may  remark  that  the  notion  of 
representative  numbers  in  certain  cases  is 
one  extremely  common  among  Eastern 
nations,  who  have  a  prejudice  against 
counting  their  possessions  accurately ;  that 
it  enters  largely  into  many  ancient  systems 
of  chronology,  and  that  it  is  found  in  the 
philosophical  and  metaphysical  speculations 
not  only  of  the  Pythagorean  and  other 
ancient  schools  of  iiliilosophy,  both  Greek 
and  Roman,  but  also  in  those  of  the  later 
Jewish  writers,  of  the  Gnostics,  and  also 
of  such  Christian  writers  as  St.  Augustine 
himself.  We  proceed  to  give  some  instances 
of  numbers  used,  (a)  representatively,  and 
thus  probably  by  design  indefinitely,  or, 
80 


(b)  definitely,  but,  as  we  may  say,  prefer- 
entially, I.  e.  because  some  meaning  (which 
we  do  not  in  all  cases  u.idcrstand)  was 
attached  to  them.  1.  Seven,  as  denoting 
either  plurality  or  completeness,  is  so  fre- 
quent as  to  make  a  selection  only  of  in 
stances  necessary,  e.  g.  seven-fold.  Gen.  iv. 
24 ;  seven  times,  i.  e.  completely,  Lev.  xxvi. 
24;  Ps.  xii.  6;  seven  {i.e.  many)  ways, 
Deut.  xxviii.  25.  2.  Ten  as  a  preferential 
number  is  exemplified  in  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments and  the  law  of  Tithe.  3. 
Seventy,  as  compounded  of  7X10,  appears 
frequently,  e.  g.  seventy  fold  (Gen.  iv.  24 ; 
Matt,  xviii.  22).  Its  definite  use  appears 
in  the  offerings  of  70  shekels  (Num.  vii. 
13,  19,  and  foil.);  the  70  elders  (xi.  16); 
70  years  of  captivity  (Jer.  xxv.  11).  4. 
Five  appears  in  the  table  of  punishments, 
of  legal  requirements  (Ex.  xxii.  1 ;  Lev.  v. 
16,  xxii.  14,  xxvii.  15;  Num.  v.  7,  xviii.  i 
16),  and  in  the  five  empires  of  Daniel 
(Dan.  ii.).  5.  Fmir  is  used  in  reference 
to  the  4  winds  (Dan.  vii.  2) ;  and  the  so- 
called  4  corners  of  the  earth ;  the  4  crea- 
tures, each  with  4  wings  and  4  faces,  of 
Ezekiel  (i.  5,  and  foil.)  ;  4  rivers  of  Para- 
dise (Gen.  ii.  10) ;  4  beasts  (Dan.  vii.,  and 
Rev.  iv.  6) ;  the  4  equal-sided  Temple- 
chamber  (Ez.  xl.  47).  6.  Three  was  re- 
garded, both  by  the  Jews  and  other  nations, 
as  a  specially  complete  and  mystic  number. 
7.  Twelvfi  (3  X  4)  appears  in  12  tribes,  12 
stones  in  the  high-priest's  breastplate,  12 
Apostles,  12  foundation-stones,  and  12 
gates  (Rev.  xxi.  19-21).  8.  Lastly,  the 
mystic  number  666  (Rev.  xiii.  18). 

Numbering.     [Census.] 

Numbers,  the  Fourth  Book  of  tlie  Law 
or  Pentateuch.  It  takes  its  name  in  the 
LXX.  and  Vulg.  (whence  our  "  Numbers  ") 
from  the  double  numbering  or  census  of  the 
people ;  the  first  of  which  is  given  in  chaps, 
i.-iv.,  and  the  second  in  chap.  xxvi.  —  A.. 
Contents.  —  The  Book  may  be  said  to  con- 
tain generally  the  history  of  the  Israelite* 
from  the  time  of  their  leaving  Sinai,  ia 
the  second  year  after  the  Exodus,  till  their 
arrival  at  the  borders  of  the  Proreused  LaarL 
in  the  fortieth  year  of  their  journeyings..  Ife 
consists  of  the  following  principal  divisions  :; 
I.  The  preparations  for  the  departure  ficeaa 
Sinai  (i.  1-x.  10).  II.  The  journey  from 
Sinai  to  the  borders  of  Cauaan  (x.  U-xiv. 
45).  III.  A  brief  notice  of  laws  given,  and', 
events  which  transpired,  during  the  thirty-, 
seven  j'cars'  wandering  in  the  wilderness 
(xv.  1-xix.  22).  IV.  The  history  of  the  last 
year,  from  the  second  arrival  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  Kadesh  till  they  reach  "the  plains 
of  Moab  by  Jordan  near  Jericho "  (xx.  1- 
xxxvi.  13).  I.  (a.)  The  object  of  the  en- 
campment at  Sinai  has  been  accomplished. 
It  is  now  time  to  depart  in  order  that  the  oij- 
ject  may  be  achieved  for  which  Israel  has 
been  sanctified.    That  object  ia  the  occupa- 


NUMBERS 


466 


NYMPH  AS 


tion  of  the  Promised  Land.  Therefore  Israel 
must  be  organized  as  Jehovah's  army ;  and  to 
this  end  a  mustering  of  all  who  are  capable 
of  bearing  arms  is  necessary.  Hence  the 
book  opens  with  the  numbering  of  the  peo- 
ple, chapters  i.-iv.  These  contain,  first, 
the  census  of  all  the  tribes  or  clans  (chap, 
i.)  ;  secondly,  the  arrangement  of  the  camp, 
and  the  order  of  march  (chap,  ii.)  ;  thirdly, 
the  special  and  separate  census  of  the  Le- 
vites  (chaps,  iii.,  iv.).  (6.)  Chapters  v., 
vi.  Certain  laws  apparently  supplementary 
to  the  legislation  in  Leviticus,  (c.)  Chap- 
ters vii.  1-x.  10.  Events  occurring  at  this 
time,  and  regulations  connected  with  them. 

II.  March  from  Sinai  to  the  borders  of  Ca- 
naan, (a.)  We  have  here,  first,  the  order 
of  march  described  (x.  14-28)  ;  the  appeal 
of  Moses  to  his  father-in-law,  Hobab,  to 
accompany  them  in  their  journeys  ;  and  the 
chant  which  accompanied  the  moving  and 
the  resting  of  the  ark  (vers.  35,  36).  (6.) 
An  account  of  several  of  the  stations  and 
of  the  events  which  happened  at  them  (x. 
11-xii.  15)  ;  the  Sending  of  the  spies  from 
the  wilderness  of  Paran  {et  Tyh),  their  re- 
port, the  refusal  of  the  people  to  enter  Ca- 
naan, their  rejection  in  consequence,  and 
their  rash  attack  upon  the  Amalekites, 
which  resulted  in  a  defeat  (xii.  16-xiv.  45). 

III.  What  follows  must  be  referred  appar- 
ently to  the  thirty-seven  years  of  wander- 
ings ;  but  we  have  no  notices  of  time  or 
place  (xv.  1-xix).  IV.  (a.)  The  narrative 
returns  abruptly  to  the  second  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  in  Kadesh.  Here  Miriam 
dies,  and  the  people  murmur  for  water,  and 
Moses  and  Aaron  are  not  allowed  to  enter 
the  Promised  Land  (xx.  1-13).  They  in- 
tended perhaps,  as  before,  to  enter  Canaan 
from  the  south.  They  therefore  desired  a 
passage  through  the  country  of  Edom.  The 
Edomites  refused  the  request,  and  turned 
out  in  arms  to  defend  their  border.  The 
Israelites  abandoned  the  attempt  as  hope- 
less and  turned  southward,  keeping  along 
the  western  borders  of  Idumaea  till  they 
reached  Ezion-geber  (xx.  14-21).  On  their 
way  southward  they  stop  at  Mount  Hor, 
of  rather  at  Moserah,  on  the  edge  of  the 
Edouiite  territory ;  and  from  this  spot  it 
diirottld  seem  that  Aaron,  accompanied  by 
his  brother  Moses  and  his  son  Eleazar, 
quitted  the  camp  in  order  to  ascend  the 
mountain.  After  Aaron's  death  the  march 
is  continued  southward.  (6.)  There  is  again 
■A  gap  in  the  narrative.  We  are  told  noth- 
ing of  the  march  along  the  eastern  edge  of 
Edom,  but  suddenly  find  ourselves  trans- 
ported to  the  borders  of  Moab.  Here  the 
Israelites  successiyelj  encounter  and  defeat 
the  kings  of  the  Amorites  and  of  Bashan 
(xxi.  10-35).  Their  successes  alarm  the 
king  of  Moab^  who,  distrusting  his  supe- 
riority in  the  field,  sends  for  a  magician  to 
curse  his  enemies;  beoce  the  episode  of 


Balaam  (xxii.  1-xxiv.  25).  Other  artifices 
are  employed  by  the  Moabitcs  to  weaken 
the  Israelites,  especially  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Moabitish  women  (xxv.  1).  The 
book  concludes  with  a  recapitulation  of  the 
various  encampments  of  the  Israelites  in 
the  desert  (xxxiii.  1-49)  ;  the  command  to 
destroy  the  Canaanites  (xxxiii.  50-56)  ;  tlie 
boundaries  of  the  Promised  Land,  and  the 
men  appointed  to  divide  it  (xxxiv.)  ;  the 
appointment  of  the  cities  of  the  Levites  and 
the  cities  of  refuge  (xxxv.) ;  and  further 
directions  respecting  heiresses.  B.  Integ- 
rity. —  This,  like  the  other  books  of  the 
Pentateuch,  is  supposed  by  many  critics 
to  consist  of  a  compilation  from  two  or 
three,  or  more,  earlier  documents.  But  the 
grounds  on  which  this  distinction  of  docu- 
ments rests  are  in  every  respect  most  un- 
satisfactory. The  Book  of  Numbers  is 
rich  in  fragments  of  ancient  poetry,  some 
of  them  of  great  beivuty,  and  all  throwing 
an  interesting  light  on  the  character  of  the 
times  in  which  they  were  composed.  Such, 
for  instance,  is  the  blessing  of  the  high- 
priest  (vi.  24-26).  Such  too  are  the  chants 
which  were  the  signal  for  the  Ark  to  move 
when  the  people  journeyed,  and  for  it  to 
rest  when  they  were  about  to  encamp.  In 
chap.  xxi.  we  have  a  passage  cited  from  a 
book  called  the  "  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Je- 
hovah." This  was  probably  a  collection  of 
ballads  and  songs  composed  on  different 
occasions  by  the  watch-fires  of  the  camp, 
and  for  the  most  part,  though  not  perhaps 
exclusively,  in  commemoration  of  the  vic- 
tories of  the  Israelites  over  their  enemies. 

Nun,  the  father  of  the  Jewish  captain 
Joshua  (Ex.  xxxiii.  11,  &c.)  His  genealo- 
gical descent  from  Ephraim  is  recorded  in 
1  Chr.  vii. 

Nurse.  It  is  clear,  both  from  Scrip- 
ture and  from  Greek  and  Roman  writers, 
that  in  ancient  times  the  position  of  the 
nurse,  wherever  one  was  maintained,  was 
one  of  much  honor  and  importance.  (See 
Gen.  xxiv.  69,  xxxv.  8 ;  2  Sam.  iv.  4 ;  2 
K.  xi.  2;  3  Mace.  i.  20).  The  same  term 
is  applied  to  a  foster-father  or  mother, 
e.  g.  Num.  xi.  12;  Ruth  iv.l6;  Is.  xlix.  28. 

Nuts  are  mentioned  among  the  good 
things  of  the  land  which  the  sons  of  Israel 
were  to  take  as  a  present  to  Joseph  in 
Egypt  (Gen.  xliii.  11).  There  can  scarcely 
be  a  doubt  that  the  Hebrew  word,  here 
translated  "  nuts,"  denotes  the  fruit  of  the 
Pistachio  tree  (Pistada  vera),  for  which 
Syria  and  Palestine  have  been  long  famous. 
In  Cant.  vi.  11,  a  different  Hebrew  word  is 
translated  "nuts."  In  all  probability  it 
here  refers  to  the  Walnut-tree.  According 
to  Josephus  the  walnut-tree  was  formerly 
common,  and  grew  most  luxuriantly  around 
the  lake  of  Gennesareth. 

Nyna'phas,  a  wealthy  and  zealous 
Christian  in  Laodicea,  Col.  iv.  15. 


OAK 


467 


OBADIAH 


O. 


Oak>  The  following  Hebrew  words, 
which  appear  to  be  merely  variods  forms 
of  the  same  root,  occur  in  the  O.  T.  as 
the  names  of  some  species  of  oak,  viz.  61, 
SlAh,  tl6n,  ildn,  alldh,  and  allon.  There  is 
much  di^culty  in  determining  the  exact 
meanings  of  the  several  varieties  of  the 
term  mentioned  above.  Celsius  has  en- 
deavored to  show  that  £1,  elim,  ildn,  Sldh, 
and  alldh,  all  stand  for  the  terebinth-tree 
(^Pistacia  iej'ebinthiis),  while  alldn  denotes 
an  oak.  RosenraQller  gives  the  terebinth 
to  ^Z,  and  6ldh,  and  the  oak  to  alldh,  alldn, 
and  il6n.  If  we  examine  the  claims  of  the 
terebinth  to  represent  the  tldh,  we  shall  see 
that  in  point  of  size  it  cannot  compete  with 
some  of  the  oaks  of  Palestine.  Dr.  Thomson 
(^The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  243)  remarks 
on  this  point:  "There  are  more  mighty 
oaks  here  in  this  immediate  vicinity  (^Mej- 
del  es-Shems)  than  there  are  terebinths  in 
all  Syria  and  Palestine  together."  Two 
oaks  (^Quercus  pseudo-coccifera  and  Q. 
aegilops)  are  well  worthy  of  the  name  of 
mighty  trees;  though  it  is  equally  true 
that  over  a  greater  part  of  the  country 
the  oaks  of  Palestine  are  at  present  mere- 
ly bushes. 

Oath.  The  principle  on  which  an  oath- 
is  held  to  be  binding  is  incidentally  laid 
down  in  Heb.  vi.  16,  viz.  as  an  ultimate 
appeal  to  divine  authority  to  ratify  an 
assertion.  There  the  Almighty  is  repre- 
sented as  promising  or  denouncing  with  an 
oath,  i.  e.  doing  so  in  the  most  positive  and 
solemn  manner.  On  the  same  principle, 
that  oath  has  always  been  held  most  bind- 
ing which  appealed  to  the  highest  authority, 
both  as  regards  individuals  and  communi- 
ties. As  a  consequence  of  this  principle, 
appeals  to  God's  name  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  heathen  deities  on  the  other,  are 
treated  in  Scripture  as  tests  of  allegiance 
(Ex.  xxiii.  13,  xxxiv.  6;  Deut.  xxix.  12, 
&c.).  So  also  the  sovereign's  name  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  form  of  o-bligation 
(Gen.  xlii.  15 ;  2  Sam.  xi.  11,  xiv.  19).  Oth- 
er forms  of  oath,  serious  or  frivolous,  are 
rjentioncd,  some  of  which  are  condemned 
by  our  Lord  (Matt.  v.  33,  xxiii.  16-22 ;  and 
see  Jam.  v.  12).  The  forms  of  abjuration 
mentioned  in  Scripture  are —  1.  Lifting  up 
the  hand.  Witnesses  laid  their  hands  on 
the  head  of  the  accused  (Gen.  xiv.  22; 
Lev.  xxiv.  14;  Deut.  xxxiii.  40;  Is.  iii.  7). 
2.  Putting  the  hand  under  the  thigh  of  the 
person  to  whom  the  promise  was  made 
(Gen.  xxiv.  2,  xlvii.  29).  3.  Oaths  were 
sometimes  taken  before  the  altar,  or,  as 
some  understand  the  passage,  if  the  per- 
sons wjere  not  in  Jerusalem,  in  a  position 
looking  towards  the  Temple  (1  K.  viii.  31 ; 


2  Chr.  vi.  22).  4.  Dividing  a  victim  and 
passing  between  or  distributing  the  pieces 
(Gen.  XV.  10,  17;  Jer.  xxxiv.  18).  — As 
the  sanctity  of  oaths  was  carefully  incul- 
cated by  the  Law,  so  the  crime  of  perjury 
was  strongly  condemned;  and  to  a  false 
witness  the  same  punishment  was  assigned 
which  was  due  for  the  crime  to  which  he  tes- 
tified (Ex.  XX.  7 ;  Lev.  xix.  12 ;  Deut.  xix. 
16-19;  Ps.  XV.  4;  Jer.  v.  2,  vii.  9;  Ez. 
xvi.  59;  Hos.  X.  4;  Zech,  viii.  17).  — The 
Christian  practice  in  the  matter  of  oaths 
was  founded  in  great  measure  on  the 
Jewish.  Thus  the  oath  on  the  Gospels 
was  an  imitation  of  the  Jewish  practice  of 
placing  the  hands  on  the  book  of  the  Law. 
—  The  stringent  nature  of  the  Roman 
military  oath,  and  the  penalties  attached  to 
infraction  of  it,  are  alluded  to,  more  or  less 
certainly,  in  several  places  in  the  N.  T.,  e.  g. 
M^tt.  viii.  9 ;  Acts  xii.  19,  xvi.  27,  xxvii.  42. 
Obadi'ah.  1.  The  sons  of  Obadiah  are 
enumerated  in  a  corrupt  passage  of  the 
genealogy  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chr. 
iii.  21).  2.  According  to  the  received 
text,  one  of  the  five  sons  of  Izrahiah,  a 
descendant  of  Issachar  and  a  chief  man  of 
his  tribe  (1  Chr.  vii.  3).  3.  One  of  the 
six  sons  of  Azel,  a  descendant  of  Saul 
(1  Chr.  viii.  38,  ix.  44).  4.  A  Levite,  son 
of  Shemaiah,  and  descended  from  Jeduthun 
(1  Chr.  ix.  16).  He  appears  to  have  been 
a  principal  musician  in  tho  Temple  choir  in 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  25).  5. 
The  second  of  the  lion-faced  Gadites,  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  9).  6. 
One  of  the  princes  of  Judah  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  7).  7.  The  son 
of  Jehiel,  of  the  sons  of  Joab,  who  came 
up  in  the  second  caravan  with  Ezra  (Ezr. 
viii.  9).  8.  A  priest,  or  family  of  priests, 
who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  x.  5).  0.  (^Servant  of  the  Lord), 
the  fourth  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets. 
We  know  nothing  of  him  except  what  we 
can  gather  from  the  short  book  which  bears 
his  name.  The  Hebrew  tradition  that  he 
is  the  same  person  as  the  Obadiah  of  Ahab's 
reign  (1  K.  xviii.  7-16),  is  destitute  of  all 
foundation.  The  question  of  his  date  must 
depend  upon  the  interpretation  of  the  lltli 
verse  of  his  prophecy.  He  there  speaks 
of  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  and  the  cap- 
tivity of  Jacob.  If  he  is  referring  to  the 
well-known  captivity  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
he  must  have  lived  at  the  time  of  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,  and  have  prophesied  subse- 
quently to  the  year  B.  c.  588.  If,  further, 
his  prophecy  against  Edom  found  its  first 
fulfilment  in  the  conquest  of  that  country  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  year  b.  c.  583,  we 
have  its  date  fixed.  It  must  have  been 
uttered  at  some  time  in  the  five  years 
which  intervened  between  those  two  dates. 
The  only  argument  of  any  weight  for  the 
I  early  date  of  Obadiah  is  his  position  in  tho 


OBAL 


468 


OG 


list  of  tlie  books  of  the  minor  prophets. 
Why  should  he  have  been  inserted  between 
Amos  and  Jonah  if  his  date  is  about  b.  c. 
585?  The  answer  seems  to  be,  that  the 
prophecy  of  Obadiah  is  an  amplification  of 
the  last  five  verses  of  Amos,  and  was  there- 
fore placed  next  after  the  book  of  Amos. 
The  book  of  Obadiah  is  a  sustained  denun- 
ciation of  the  Edomites,  melting  into  a 
vision  of  the  future  glories  of  Zion,  when 
the  arm  of  the  Lord  should  have  wrought 
her  deliverance  and  have  repaid  double 
upon  her  enemies.  10.  An  officer  of  high 
rank  in  the  court  of  Ahab,  who  is  described 
as  "  over  the  house,"  that  is,  apparently, 
lord  high  chamberlain,  or  mayor  of  the 
palace  (1  K.  xviii.  3).  His  influence  with 
the  king  must  have  been  great  to  enable 
him  to  retain  his  position,  though  a  devout 
worshipper  of  Jehovah,  during  the  fierce 
persecution  of  the  prophets  by  Jezebel. 
At  the  peril  of  his  life  he  concealed  a  hun^ 
dred  of  them  in  caves,  and  fed  them  there 
with  bread  and  water.  But  he  himself  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  suspected  (1  K. 
xviii.  4,  13).  The  occasion  upon  which 
Obadiah  appears  in  the  history  shows  the 
confidential  nature  of  his  office  (1  K. 
xviii.  7-16).  11.  The  father  of  Ishmaiah, 
•who  was  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulon  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  19).  12.  A 
Merarite  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  and 
'  one  of  the  overseers  of  the  workmen  in  the 
restoration  of  the  Temple  (2  Chr.  xxxiv. 
12). 

O'bal.  A  son  of  Joktan,  and,  like  the 
rest  of  his  family,  apparently  the  founder 
of  an  Arab  tribe  (Gen.  x.  28),  which  has 
not  yet  been  identified.  In  1  Chr.  i.  22  the 
name  is  written  Ebal,  which  has  been 
compared  with  the  Avalitae  and  the  Geba- 
nitae. 

O'bed.  1.  Son  of  Boaz  and  Euth  the 
Moabitess  (Ruth  iv.  17).  The  circum- 
stances of  his  birth,  which  make  up  all  that 
we  know  about  him,  are  given  with  much 
beauty  in  the  book  of  Buth,  and  form  a 
most  interesting  specimen  of  the  religious 
and  social  life  of  the  Israelites  in  the  days 
of  Eli.  The  name  of  Obed  occurs  only 
Ruth  iv.  17,  and  in  the  four  genealogies, 
Ruth  iv.  21,  22;  1  Chr.  ii.  12;  Matt.  i.  5; 
Luke  iii.  32.  In  all  these  five  passages, 
and  in  the  first  with  peculiar  emphasis,  he 
is  said  to  be  the  father  of  Jesse.  2.  A  de- 
iscendant  of  Jarha,  the  Egyptian  slave  of 
Sheshan  in  the  line  of  Jerahmeel.  He  was 
grandson  of  Zabad,  one  of  David's  mighties 
(1  Chr.  ii.  37,  38).  3.  One  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chr.  xi.  47).  4.  One  of 
the  gate-keepers  of  the  Temple;  son  of 
Sliemaiah  the  first-born  of  Obed-edom  (1 
Chr.  xxvi.  7).  5.  Father  of  Azariah,  one 
of  the  captains  of  hundreds  who  joined 
with  Jehoiada  in  the  revolution  by  which  i 
Athaliah  fell  (2  Chr.  xxui.  1).  | 


O'bed-e'dom.  1.  A  Lc  ite,  described 
as  a  Gittite  (2  Sam.  vi.  10,  11),  that  is, 
probably,  a  native  of  the  Levitical  city  of 
Gath-Rimmon  in  Manasseh,  which  was  as- 
signed to  the  Kohathites  (Josh.  xxi.  45). 
After  the  death  of  Uzzah,  the  ark,  which 
was  being  conducted  from  the  house  of 
Abinadab  in  Gibeah  to  the  city  of  David, 
was  carried  aside  into  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom,  where  it  continued  three  months. 
It  was  brought  thence  by  David  (1  Chr. 
XV.  25;  2  Sam.  vi.  12).  2.  "Obed-edom 
the  son  of  Jeduthun  "  (1  Chr.  xvi.  38),  a 
Merarite  Levite,  appears  to  be  a  different 
person  from  the  last-mentioned.  He  was  a 
Levite  of  the  second  degree  and  a  gate- 
keeper for  the  ark  (1  Chr.  xv.  18,  24),  ap- 
pointed to  sound  "  with  harps  on  the  Shem- 
inith  to  excel"  (1  Chr.  xv.  21,  xvi.  5). 

O'bil.  An  Ishmaelite  who  was  appro- 
priately appointed  keeper  of  the  herds  of 
camels  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvii. 
30). 
Oblation.  [Sacrifice.] 
O'both,  one  of  the  encampments  of  the 
Israelites,  east  of  Moab  (Num.  xxi.  10, 
xxxiii.  43).     Its  exact  site  is  unknown. 

Oc'ran.  An  Asherite,  father  of  Pagiel 
(Num.  i.  13,  ii.  27,  vii.  72,  77,  x.  2G). 

O'ded.  1.  The  father  of  Azariah  the 
prophet  in  the  reign  of  Asa  (2  Chr.  xv.  1). 
2.  A  prophet  of  Jehovah  in  Samaria,  at  the 
time  of  Pekah's  invasion  of  Judab  (2  Chr. 
xxviii.  9). 
Odol'lam.  [Adcllam.] 
Offerings.  [Sacrifice.] 
Ofl&cer.  It  is  obvious  that  most,  if  not 
all,  of  the  Hebrew  words  rendered  '*  offi- 
cer," are  either  of  an  indefinite  character, 
or  are  synonymous  terms  for  functionaries 
known  under  other  and  more  specific  names, 
as  "  scribe,"  "  eunuch,"  &c.  The  two  words 
so  rendered  in  the  N.  T.  each  bear  in  ordi- 
nary Greek  a  special  sense.  In  the  case  ot 
vntjoiTt]?  this  is  of  no  very  definite  kind,  but 
the  word  is  used  to  denote  an  inferior  officer 
of  a  court  of  justice,  a  messenger  or  bailiff, 
like  the  Roman  viator  or  lictor.  JJouxromi; 
at  Athens  were  officers  whose  duty  it  was 
to  register  and  collect  fines  imposed  by 
courts  of  justice;  and  "  deliver  to  the  offi- 
cer "  means,  give  in  the  name  of  the  debtor 
to  the  officer  of  the  court. 

Og,  an  Amoritish  kingof  Bashan,  whose 
rule  extended  over  sixty  cities  (Josh.  xiii. 
12).  He  was  one  of  the  last  representatives 
of  the  giant  race  of  Rephaim,  and  was,  with 
his  children  and  his  people,  defeated  and 
exterminated  by  the  Israelites  at  Edrei,  im- 
mediately after  the  conquest  of  Sihon  (Deut. 
iii.  1-13 ;  Num.  xxxii.  33.  Also  Deut.  i.  4, 
iv.  47,  xxxi.  4;  Josh.  ii.  10,  ix.  10,  xiii.  12, 
30).  The  belief  in  Og's  enormous  stature 
is  corroborated  by  an  appeal  to  his  iron  bed- 
stead preserved  in  "  Rabbath  of  the  children 
of  Ammon"  (Deut.  iii.  11).     Some -have 


OIL 


469 


OINTMENT 


eupposed  that  this  was  one  of  the  cominon 
fiat  beds  used  sometimes  on  the  housetops  of 
Eastern  cities,  but  made  of  iron  instead  of 
pahii-branches,  which  would  not  have  ^up- 
ported  the  giant's  weight.  It  is  more  prob- 
able that  the  words  mean  a  "  sarcophagus 
of  black  basalt,"  a  rendering  of  which  they 
undoubtedly  admit. 

Oil.  Of  the  numerous  substances,  —  an- 
imal and  vegetable,  —  which  were  known 
to  the  ancients  as  yielding  oil,  fte  olive- 
berry  is  the  one  of  which  most  frequent 
mention  is  made  in  the  Scriptures.  1. 
Gathering.  —  Great  care  is  necessary,  in 
gathering,  not  to  injure  either  the  fruit  it- 
self or  the  boughs  of  the  tree ;  and  with  this 
view  it  was  either  gathered  by  hand  or 
shaken  off  carefully  with  a  light  reed  or 
stick.  2.  Pressing.  —  In  order  to  make 
oil,  the  fruit  was  either  bruised  in  a  mortar, 
crushed  in  a  press  loaded  with  wood  or 
stones,  groimd  in  a  mill,  or  trodden  with  the 
feet.  The  "  beaten"  oil  of  Ex.  xxvii.  20; 
Lev.  xxiv.  2,  and  Ex.  xxix.  40 ;  Num.  xxviii. 
6,  was  probably  made  by  bruising  in  a  mor- 
tar. The  principal  uses  of  olive-oil  may  be 
thus  stated.  1.  As  food.  —  Dried  wheat, 
boiled  with  either  butter  or  oil,  but  more 
commonly  the  former,  is  a  common  dish  for 
all  classes  in  Syria.  2.  Cosmetic.  —  As  is 
the  case  generally  in  hot  climates,  oil  was 
used  by  the  Jews  for  anointing  the  body, 
e.  g.  after  the  bath,  and  giving  to  the  skin 
and  hair  a  smooth  and  comely  appearance, 
e.  g.  before  an  entertainment.  3.  Funereal. 
—  The  bodies  of  the  dead  were  anointed 
with  oil  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  proba- 
bly as  a  partial  antiseptic,  and  a  similar 
custom  appears  to  have  prevailed  among  the 
Jews.  4.  Medicinal.  —  The  prophet  Isaiah 
(i.  6)  alludes  to  the  use  of  oil  as  ointment 
in  medical  treatment ;  and  it  thus  furnished 
a  fitting  symbol,  perhaps  also  an  efflcieyt 
remedy,  when  used  by  our  Lord's  disciples 
in  the  miraculous  cures  which  they  were 
enabled  to  perform  (Mark  vi.  13).  With  a 
similar  intention,  no  doubt,  its  use  was  en- 
joined by  St.  James  (v.  14).  5.  Oil  for 
light.  —  The  oil  for  "the  light"  was  ex- 
pressly ordered  to  be  olive-oil,  beaten.  In 
the  same  manner  the  great  lamps  used  at 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  were  fed.  6. 
Ritual.  —  Oil  was  poured  on,  or  mixed  with 
the  flour  or  meal  used  in  offerings.  On  the 
other  hand,  certain  offerings  were  to  be  de- 
Toid  of  oil;  the  sin-offering.  Lev.  v.  11, 
and  the  offering  of  jealousy.  Num.  v.  15. 
The  principle  on  which  both  the  presence 
and  the  absence  of  oil  were  prescribed  is, 
clearly,  that  as  oil  is  indicative  of  gladness, 
BO  its  absence  denoted  sorrow  or  humiliation 
(Is.  Ixi.  3;  Joel  ii.  19;  Rev.  vi.  6).  Kings, 
priests,  and  prophets  were  anointed  with 
oil  or  ointment.  7.  As  so  important  a  ne- 
cessary of  life,  the  Jew  was  required  to 
iaclude  oil  among  his  first-fruit  offerings 


(Ex.  xxii.  29,  xxiii.  16;  Num.  xviii.  12; 
Deut.  xviii.  4;  2  Chr.  xxxi.  5).  Tithes  of 
oil  were  also  required  (Deut.  xii.  17 ;  2 
Chr.  xxxi.  5,  &c.).     [Olive.] 

Oil-tree  (Heb.  its  shemen).  The  He- 
brew words  occur  in  Neh.  viii.  15  (A.  V. 
"pine-branches"),  1  K.  vi.  23  ("olive- 
tree"),  and  in  Is.  xli.  19  ("oil-tree"). 
From  the  passage  in  Nehemiah,  where  the 
Hs  shemen  is  mentioned  as  distinct  from  the 
"olive-tree,"  it  may  perhaps  be  identified 
with  the  zackum-tvQe  of  the  Arabs,  the 
Balanites  Aegyptiaca,  a  well-known  and 
abundant  shrub  or  small  tree  in  the  plain 
of  Jordan.  The  zackum-oil  is  held  in  high 
repute  by  the  Arabs  for  its  medicinal  prop- 
erties.    [Olivb.] 


Balanitet  Aegyptiaca. 

Ointment.  1.  Cosmetic.  —  The  Greek 
and  Roman  practice  of  anointing  the  head 
and  clothes  on  festive  occasions  prevailed 
also  among  the  Egyptians,  and  appears  to 
have  had  place  among  the  Jews  (Ruth  iii. 
3;  Eccl.  vii.  1,  ix.  8;  Prov.  xxvii.  9,  16, 
&c.).  Oil  of  myrrh,  for  like  purposes,  is 
mentioned  Esth.  ii.  12.  2.  Funereal. —  Oint- 
ments as  well  as  oil  were  used  to  anoint 
dead  bodies  and  the  clothes  in  which  they 
were  wrapped  (Matt.  xxvi.  12 ;  Mark  xiv. 
3,  8 ;  Luke  xxiii.  56 ;  John  xii.  3,  7,  xix. 
40).  3.  Medicinal.  —  Ointment  formed  an 
important  feature  in  ancient  medical  treat- 
ment (Is.  i.  6).  The  mention  of  balm  of 
Gilead  and  of  eye-salve  {coUyo-ium)  points 
to  the  same  method  (Is.  i.  6 ;  John  ix.  6 ; 
Jer.  viii.  22;  Rev.  iii.  18,  &c.).  4.  Ritual. 
—  Besides  the  oil  used  in  many  ceremonial 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


470 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


observances,  a  special  ointiuent  was  appoint- 
ed to  be  used  in  consecration  (Ex.xxx.  23, 33, 
xxix.  7,  xxxvii.  29,  xl.  9,  15).  Strict  prohi- 
bition was  issued  against  using  this  unguent 
for  any  secular  purpose,  or  on  the  person  of 
a  foreigner,  and  against  imitating  it  in  any 
•way  whatsoever  (Ex.  xxx.  32,  33).  —  A  per- 
son whose  business  it  was  to  compound  oint- 
ments in  general  was  called  an  "  apothe- 
cary "  (Neh.  iii.  8;  Eccl.  x.  1;  Ecclus. 
xlix.  1).  The  work  was  sometimes  carried 
on  by  women  "  confectionaries  "  (1  Sam. 
viii.  13).  In  the  Christian  Church  the  an- 
cient usage  of  anointing  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  was  long  retained.  The  ceremony  of 
Chrism  or  anointing  was  also  added  to  bap- 
tism. 

Old  Testament.  A.  Text  op  the 
Old  Testament.  1.  History  of  the  Text. 
—  A  history  of  the  text  of  the  O.  T.  should 
properly  commence  from  the  date  of  the 
completion  of  the  canon.  As  regards  the 
form  in  which  the  sacred  writings  were 
preserved,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
text  was  ordinarily  written  on  skins,  rolled 
up  into  volumes,  like  the  modern  syna- 
gogue-rolls (Ps.  xl.  7 ;  Jer.  xxxvi.  14 ; 
Zech.  V.  1 ;  Ez.  ii.  9).  The  original  char- 
acter in  which  the  text  was  expressed  is 
that  still  preserved  to  us,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  four  letters,  on  the  Maccabaean 
coins,  and  having  a  strong  affinity  to  the 
Samaritan  character.  At  what  date  this 
was  exchanged  for  the  present  Aramaic 
or  square  character  is  still  as  undetermined, 
as  it  is  at  what  date  the  use  of  the  Aramaic 
language  in  Palestine  superseded  that  of 
the  Hebrew.  The  Old  Jewish  tradition, 
repeated  by  Origen  and  Jerome,  ascribed 
the  change  to  Ezra.  [Writing.]  Of  any 
logical  division,  in  the  written  text,  of  the 
prose  of  the  0.  T.  into  Pesukim,  or  verses, 
•we  find  in  the  Talmud  no  mention ;  and 
even  in  the  existing  synagogue-rolls  such 
division  is  generally  ignored.  In  the  poet- 
ical books,  the  Pesukim  mentioned  in  the 
Talmud  correspond  to  the  poetical  lines, 
not  to  our  modern  verses.  Of  the  docu- 
ments which  directly  bear  upon  the  history 
of  the  Hebrew  text,  the  two  earliest  are 
the  Samaritan  copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  and 
the  Greek  translation  of  the  LXX.  [Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch;  Septuagint.]  In 
the  translations  of  Aquila  and  the  other 
Greek  interpreters,  the  fragments  of  whose 
works  remain  to  us  in  the  Ilexapla,  we 
have  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  text 
differing  but  little  from  our  own :  so  also 
in  the  Targums  of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan. 
A  few  centuries  later  we  have,  in  the  Hex- 
apla,  additional  evidence  to  the  same  effect 
in  Origan's  transcriptions  of  the  Hebrew 
text.  And  yet  more  important  are  the 
proofs  of  the  firm  establishment  of  the 
text,  and  of  its  substantial  identity  with 
our  own,  supplied  by  the  translation  of  Jer- 


ome, who  was  instructed  by  the  Palestin- 
ian Jews,  and  mainly  relied  upon  theif 
authority  for  acquaintance  not  only  with 
the  text  itself,  but  also  with  the  traditional 
unwritten  vocalization  of  it.  This  brings 
us  to  the  middle  of  the  Talmudic  period. 
The  care  of  the  Talmudic  doctors  for  the 
text  is  shown  by  the  pains  with  wliich  they 
counted  up  the  number  of  verses  in  the 
different  books,  and  computed  which  were 
the  mid^e  verses,  words,  and  letters  in  the 
Pentateuch  and  in  the  Psalms.  The  scru- 
pulousness with  which  the  Talmudlsts  noted 
what  they  deemed  the  truer  readings,  and 
yet  abstained  from  introducing  tliem  into 
the  text,  indicates  at  once  both  the  diligence 
with  which  they  scrutinized  the  text,  and 
also  the  care  with  which,  even  while  ac- 
knowledging its  occasional  imperfections, 
they  guarded  it.  Critical  procedure  is  also 
evinced  in  a  mention  of  their  rejection  of 
manuscripts  which  were  found  not  to  agree 
with  others  in  their  readings ;  and  the  rules 
given  with  reference  to  the  transcription 
and  adoption  of  manuscripts  attest  the  care 
bestowed  upon  them.  It  is  evident  from 
the  notices  of  the  Talmud  that  a  number 
of  oral  traditions  had  been  gradually  accu- 
mulating respecting  both  the  integrity  of 
particular  passages  of  the  text  itself,  and 
also  the  manner  in  which  it  was  to  be  read. 
This  vast  heterogeneous  mass  of  traditions 
and  criticisms,  compiled  and  embodied  in 
writing,  forms  what  is  known  as  the  Maso- 
rah,  i.  e.  Tradition.  From  the  end  of  the 
Masoretic  period  onward,  the  Masorah  be- 
came the  great  authority  by  which  the 
text  given  in  all  the  Jewish  MSS.  was  set- 
tled. 2.  Manuscripts.  —  We  must  now 
give  an  account  of  the  O.  T.  MSS.  known 
to  us.  They  fell  into  two  main  classes : 
Synagogue-rolls  and  MSS.  for  private  use. 
Of  the  latter,  some  are  written  in  the 
square,  others  in  the  rabbinic  or  cursive 
character.  The  synagogue-rolls  contain, 
separate  from  each  other,  the  Pentateuch, 
the  Haphtaroth,  or  appointed  sections  of 
the  Prophets,  and  the  so-called  Megilloth, 
viz.  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclc- 
siastes,  and  Esther.  Private  MSS.  in  the 
square  character  are  in  the  book-form, 
either  on  parchment  or  on  paper,  and  of 
various  sizes,  from  folio  to  12mo.  Some 
contain  the  Hebrew  text  alone ;  others  add 
the  Targum,  or  an  Arabic  or  other  trans- 
lation, either  interspersed  with  the  text  or 
in  a  separate  column,  occasionally  in  the 
margin.  The  upper  and  lower  margins 
are  generally  occupied  by  the  Masorah, 
sometimes  by  rabbinical  commentaries,  &c. 
Thediite  of  a  MS.  is  ordinarily  given  in  the 
subscription ;  but  as  the  subscriptions  are 
often  concealed  in  the  Masorah  or  elsewhere, 
it  is  occasionally  difficult  to  find  them  :  occa- 
sionally also  it  is  difficult  to  decipher  them. 
No  satisfactory  criteria  bavo  been  yet  estab- 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


471 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


lislicd  by  which  the  ages  of  MSS.  are  to 
be  determined.  Few  existing  MSS.  are 
supposed  to  be  older  than  the  12th  century. 
Kennicott  and.Bruns  assigned  one  of  their 
coli.ntion  (No.  690)  to  the  10th  century; 
De  llossi  (lutes  it  a.  d.  1018 ;  on  the  other 
hand,  one  of  his  own  (No.  634)  he  adjudges 
to  the  8th  century.  Since  the  days  of 
Kennicott  and  De  Rossi  modern  research 
has  discovered  various  MSS.  beyond  tlie 
limits  of  Europe.  Of  many  of  these  there 
Bcems  no  reason  to  suppose  that  they  will 
add  much -to  our  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew 
text.  It  is  different  with  the  MSS.  exam- 
ined by  Pinner  at  Odessa.  One  of  these 
MSS.  (A.  No.  1),  a  Pentateuch  roll,  un- 
pointed, brought  from  Derbend  in  Daghes- 
tan,  appears  by  the  subscription  to  have 
been  written  previously  to  the  year  a.  d. 
580 ;  and,  if  so,  is  the  oldest  known  Bibli- 
cal Hebrew  MS.  in  existence.  The  forms 
of  the  letters  are  remarkable.  Another 
MS.  (B.  No.  3)  containing  the  Prophets, 
on  parchment,  in  small  folio,  although  only 
dating,  according  to  the  inscription,  from 
A.  D.  916,  and  furnished  with  a  Masorah,  is 
a  yet  greater  treasure.  Its  vowels  and  ac- 
cents are  wholly  different  from  those  now 
in  use,  both  in  form  and  in  position,  being 
all  above  the  letters :  they  have  according- 
ly been  the  theme  of  much  discussion 
among  Hebrew  scholars.  3.  Printed  Text. 
—  The  history  of  the  printed  text  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  commences  with  the  early 
Jewish  editions  of  the  separate  books. 
First  appeared  the  Psalter,  in  1477,  proba- 
bly at  Bologna,  in  4to.,  with  Kimclii's  com- 
mentary interspersed  among  the  verses. 
Only  the  first  four  psalms  had  the  vowel- 
points,  and  these  but  clumsily  expressed. 
At  Bologna  there  subsequently  appeared, 
in  1482,  the  Pentateuch,  in  folio,  pointed, 
with  the  Targum  and  the  commentary  of 
Rashi ;  and  the  five  Megilloth  (Ruth  —  Es- 
ther), in  folio,  with  the  commentaries  of 
Rashi  and  Aben  Ezra.  From  Soncino,  near 
Cremona,  issued  in  1486  the  Prophetae 
priorPs  (Joshua  —  Kings),  folio,  unpoint- 
ed, with  Kimchi's  commentary.  The  hon- 
or of  printing  the  first  entire  Hebrew  Bible 
belongs  to  the  above-mentioned  town  of 
Soncino.  The  edition  is  in  folio,  pointed 
and  accentuated.  Nine  copies  only  of  it 
are  now  known,  of  which  one  belongs  to 
Exeter  College,  Oxford.  This  was  followed, 
in  1494,  by  the  4to.  or  8vo.  edition  printed 
by  Gersom  at  Brescia,  remarkable  as  being 
the  edition  from  which  Luther's  German 
translation  was  made.  After  the  Brescian, 
the  next  primary  edition  was  that  contained 
in  the  Complutonsian  Polyglot,  published 
at  Complutum  (Alcala)  in  Spain,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  Carilinal  Ximenes,  dated  1514-17, 
but  not  issued  till  1522.  To  this  succeeded 
an  edition  which  has  had  more  influence 
than  any  on  the  text  of  later  times  —  the 


Second  Rabbinical  Bible,  printed  by  Bora* 
berg  at  Venice,  4  vols,  ibl.,  1525-G.  The 
editor  was  the  learned  Tunisian  Jew,  R. 
Jacob  ben  Chaim.  The  great  feature  of 
his  work  lay  in  the  correction  of  the  text 
by  the  precepts  of  the  Masorah,  in  which 
he  was  profoundly  skilled,  and  on  which, 
as  well  as  on  the  text  itself,  his  labors  were 
employed.  The  Hebrew  Bible  which  be- 
came the  standard  to  subsequent  generations 
was  that  of  Joseph  Athias,  a  learned  rabbi 
and  printer  at  Amsterdam.  His  text  was 
based  on  a  comparison  of  the  previous  edi- 
tions with  two  MSS. ;  one  bearing  date 
1299,  the  other  a  Spanish  MS.,  boasting  an 
antiquity  of  900  years.  It  appeared  at 
Amsterdam,  2  vols.  8  vo.  1661.  4.  Prin- 
ciples of  Criticism.  —  The  method  of  pro- 
cedure required  in  the  criticism  of  the  O. 
T.  is  widely  different  from  that  practised  in 
the  criticism  of  the  N.  T.  Our  O.  T.  tex- 
tus  receptus  is  a  far  more  faithful  represen- 
tation of  the  genuine  Scripture,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  meaas  of  detecting  and 
correcting  the  errors  contained  in  it  are 
more  precarious,  the  results  are  more  un- 
certain, and  the  ratio  borne  by  the  value  of 
the  diplomatic  evidence  of  MSS.  to  that  of 
a  good  critical  judgment  and  sagacity  is 
greatly  diminished.  It  is  indeed  to  the  di- 
rect testimony  of  the  MSS.  that,  in  endeav- 
oring to  establish  the.  true  text,  we  must 
first  have  recourse.  The  comparative  puri- 
ty of  the  Hebrew  text  is  probably  different 
in  different  parts  of  the  O.  T.  In  the  re- 
vision of  Dr.  Davidson,  who  has  generally 
restricted  himself  to  the  admission  of  cor- 
rections warranted  by  MS.,  Masoretic,  or 
Talmudic  authority,  those  in  the  book  of 
Genesis  do  not  exceed  11;  those  in  the 
Psalms  are  proportionately  three  times  as 
numerous ;  those  in  the  historical  books  and 
the  Prophets  are  proportionately  more  nu- 
merous than  those  in  the  Psalms. 

B.  Intehpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 1.  History  of  the  Interpretation.  — 
At  the  period  of  the  rise  of  Christianity  two 
opposite  tendencies  had  manifested  them- 
selves in  the  interpretation  of  the  O.  T. 
among  the  Jews ;  the  one  to  an  extreme  lit- 
eralism, the  other  to  an  arbitrary  allegorism. 
The  former  of  these  was  mainly  develrped 
in  Palestine,  where  the  Law  of  Moses  was, 
from  the  nature  of  things,  most  completely 
observed.  On  the  other  hand  at  Alexan- 
dria the  allegorizing  tendency  prevailed. 
Germs  of  it  had  appeared  in  the  apocryphal 
writings,  as  where  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom 
(xviii.  24)  the  priestly  vestments  <-  f  Aaron 
had  been  treated  as  symbolical  of  the  uni- 
verse. The  Alexandrian  interpreters  were 
striving  to  vindicate  for  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures a  new  dignity  in  the_  eyes  of  the 
Gentile  world,  by  showing  that  Moses  had 
anticipated  all  the  doctrines  of  the  philoso- 
phers of  Greece.    The  earliest  Christian 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


472 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


non-apostolic  treatment  of  the  O.  T.  was 
necessarily  mucii  dependent  on  that  which 
it  had  received  from  the  Jews.  Tertullian 
well  laid  it  down  as  a  canon  that  the  words 
of  Scripture  were  to  be  interpreted  only  in 
their  logical  connection,  and  with  reference 
to  the  occasion  on  which  they  were  uttered. 
The  Christian  interpreters  by  their  belief 
in  Christ  stood  on  a  vantage-ground  for  the 
comprehension  of  the  whole  burden  of  the 
O.  T.  to  which  the  Jews  had  never  reached ; 
and  thus,  however  they  may  have  erred  in 
the  details  of  their  interpretations,  they  were 
generally  conducted  by  them  to  the  right 
conclusions  in  regard  of  Christian  doctrine. 
It  was  at  Alexandria,  which  through  her 
previous  learning  had  already  exerted  the 
deepest  influence  on  the  interpretation  of 
the  O.  T.,  tliat  definite  principles  of  inter- 
pretation were  by  a  new  order  of  men, 
the  most  illustrious  and  influential  teachers 
in  the  Christian  Church,  first  laid  down. 
Clement  here  led  the.  way.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  scholar  Origen.  With  him 
biblical  interpretation  showed  itself  more 
decidedly  Christian.  Origen  recognizes  in 
Scripture,  as  it  were,  a  body,  soul,  and 
spirit,  answering  to  the  body,  soul,  and 
spirit  of  man  :  the  first  serves  for  the  edifi- 
cation of  the  simple,  the  second  for  that  of 
the  more  advanced,  the  third  for  that  of  the 
perfect.  The  influence  of  Origen's  writings 
was  supreme  in  the  Greek  Church  for  a 
hundred  years  after  his  death.  Augustine 
stood  somewhat  in  advance  of  Origen ;  care- 
fully preserving  in  its  integrity  the  literal 
sense  of  the  historical  narrative  of  Scrip- 
ture as  the  substructure  of  the  mystical, 
lest  otherwise  the  latter  should  prove  to  be 
but  a  building  in  the  air.  In  the  interpre- 
tation which  prevailed  through  the  middle 
ages,  the  mystical  sense  of  Scripture  was 
entirely  divorced  from  the  literal.  The  first 
impulse  to  the  new  investigation  of  the  lit- 
eral meaning  of  the  text  of  the  O.  T.  came 
from  the  great  Jewish  commentators,  most- 
ly of  Spanish  origin,  of  the  11th  and  follow- 
ing centuries;  Rashi  (f  1105),  Aben  Ezra 
(t  1167),  Kimchi  (f  1240),  and  others. 
2.  Principles  of  Interpretation.  —  From  the 
foregoing  sketch  it  will  have  appeared  that 
it  has  been  very  generally  recognized  that 
the  interpretation  of  the  O.  T.  embraces  the 
discovery  of  its  literal,  moral,  and  spiritual 
meaning.  It  has  given  occasion  to  mis- 
representation to  speak  of  the  existence  in 
Scripture  of  more  than  a  single  sense ; 
rather,  then,  let  it  be  said  that  there  are  in 
it  three  elements,  co-existing  and  coalescing 
with  each  other,  and  generally  requiring 
each  other's  presence  in  order  that  they  may 
be  severally  manifested.  Correspondingly 
too  there  are  three  portions  of  the  O.  T. 
in  which  the  respective  elements,  each  in 
its  turn,  shine  out  with  peculiar  lustre. 
The  literal  (and  historical)  element  is  most 


obviously  displayed  in  the  historical  narra- 
tive :  the  moral  is  specially  honored  in  the 
Law,  and  in  the  hortatory  addresses  of  the 
Prophets  :  the  predictions  of  the  Propliets 
bear  emphatic  witness  to  the  prophetical  or 
spiritual.  With  these  preliminary  observa- 
tions we  may  glance  at  the  several  branches 
of  the  interpreter's  task.  First,  then,  Scrip- 
ture has  its  outward  form  or  body,  all  the 
several  details  of  which  he  will  have  to  ex- 
plore and  to  analyze.  He  must  ascertain 
the  thing  outwardly  asserted,  commanded, 
foretold,  prayed  for,  or  the  like ;  and  this 
with  reference,  so  far  as  is  possible,  to  the 
historical  occasion  and  circumstances,  the 
time,  the  place,  the  political  and  social  posi- 
tion, the  manner  of  life,  the  surrounding 
influences,  the  distinctive  character,  and 
the  object  in  view,  alike  of  the  writers,  the 
persons  addressed,  and  the  persons  who  ap- 
pear upon  the  scene.  From  the  outward 
form  of  the  O.  T.  we  proceed  to  its  moral 
element  or  soul.  It  was  with  reference  to 
this  that  St.  Paul  declared  that  all  Scripture 
was  given  by  inspiration  of  God,  and  was 
profitable  for  doctrine,  for  reproof,  for  cor- 
rection, for  instruction  in  righteousness  (2 
Tim.  iii.  16)  ;  and  it  is  in  the  implicit  recog- 
nition of  the  essentially  moral  character  of 
the  whole,  that  our  Lord  and  His  apostles 
not  only  appeal  to  its  direct  precepts  (e.  g. 
Matt.  XV.  4;  xix.  17-19),  and  set  forth  the 
fulness  of  their  bearing  (c.  g.  Matt.  ix.  13), 
but  also  lay  bare  moral  lessons  in  O.  T. 
passages  which  lie  rather  beneath  the  sur- 
face than  upon  it  (Matt.  xix.  5,  6,  xxii.  32 ; 
John  X.  34,  35 ;  Acts  vii.  48,  49 ;  1  Cor.  ix. 
9,  10;  2  Cor.  viii.  13-15).  With  regard 
more  particularly  to  the  Law,  our  Lord 
shows  in  His  Sermon  on  the  Mount  how 
deep  is  the  moral  teaching  implied  in  its 
letter ;  and  in  His  denunciation  of  the  Phar- 
isees, upbraids  them  for  their  omission  of 
its  weightier  matters — judgment,  mercy, 
and  faith.  But  the  O.  T.  has  further  its 
spiritual  and  therefore  prophetical  element. 
Our  attention  is  here  first  attracted  to  the 
avowedly  predictive  parts  of  the  0.  T.,  of 
the  prospective  reference  of  wliich,  at  the 
time  that  they  were  uttered,  no  question  can 
exist,  and  the  majority  of  which  still  await- 
ed their  fulfilment  when  the  Redeemer  of 
the  world  was  born.  With  Christ  the  new 
era  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  com- 
menced. 

C.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment IN  THE  New  Testament.  —  The  New 
Testament  quotations  from  the  Old  form 
one  of  the  outward  bonds  of  connection  be- 
tween the  two  parts  of  the  Bible.  They 
are  manifold  in  kind.  In  the  quotations 
of  all  kinds  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
New,  we  find  a  continual  variation  from  the 
letter  of  the  older  Scriptures.  To  this  vari- 
ation three  causes  may  be  specified  as 
having  contributed:    First,  all  Jhe  N.  T. 


OLIVE 


473 


OLIVE 


imters  quoted  from  the  Septuagint;  cor- 
recting it  indeed  more  or  less  by  the  Hebrew, 
especially  when  it  was  needful  for  their 
purpose ;  occasionally  deserting  it  altogeth- 
er; still  abiding  by  it  to  so  large  an  extent 
as  to  shov  tliat  it  was  the  primary  source 
wlience  their  quotations  were  drawn.  Sec- 
ondly, the  N.  T.  writers  must  have  fre- 
quently quoted  from  memory.  Thirdly, 
combined  with  this,  there  was  an  alteration 
of  conscious  or  unconscious  design.  Some- 
times the  object  of  this  was  to  obtain  in- 
creased force.  Sometimes  an  O.  T.  passage 
is  abridged,  and  intiie  abridgment  so  adjust- 
ed, bj'  a  little  alteration,  as  to  present  an 
aspect  of  completeness,  and  yet  omit  what 
is  foreign  to  the  immediate  purpose  (Acts 
i.  20;  1  Cor.  i.  31).  At  other  times  a  pas- 
sage is  enlarged  by  the  incorporation  of  a 
passage  from  another  source  :  thus  in  Luke 
iv.  18,  19,  although  the  contents  are  pro- 
fessedly those  read  by  our  Lord  from  Is. 
bci.,  we  have  the  words  "  to  set  at  liberty 
them  that  are  bruised,"  introduced  from  Is. 
Iviii.  6  (Sept.)  :  similarly  in  Rom.  xi.  8, 
Deut.  xxix.  4  is  combined  with  Is.  xxix. 
10.  In  some  cases  still  greater  liberty  of 
alteration  is  assumed.  In  some  places 
again,  the  actual  words  of  the  original  are 
taken  up,  but  employed  with  a  new  mean- 
ing. Almost  more  remarkable  than  any 
alteration  in  the  quotation  itself,  is  the  cir- 
cumstance that  in  Mutt,  xxvii.  9,  Jeremiah 
should  be  named  as  the  author  of  a  proph- 
ecy really  delivered  by  Zechariah;  the 
reason  being  that  the  prophecy  is  based 
upon  that  in  Jer.  xviii.,  xix.,  and  that  with- 
out a  reference  to  this  original  source  the 
most  essential  features  of  the  fulfilment  of 
Zechariah's  prophecy  would  be  misunder- 
stood.    [Bible.] 

Olive.  No  tree  is  more  closely  associ- 
ated with  the  history  and  civilization  of 
man.  Many  of  the  Scriptural  associations 
of  the  olive-tree  are  singularly  poetical. 
It  has  this  remarkable  interest,  in  the  first 
place,  that  its  foliage  is  the  earliest  that  is 
mentioned  by  name,  when  the  waters  of  the 
flood  began  to  retire  (Gen.  viii.  11).  Next 
we  find  it  the  most  prominent  tree  in  the 
earliest  allegory  (Judg.  ix.  8,  9).  With 
David  it  is  tlie  emblem  of  prosperity  and 
the  divine  blessing  (I's.  lii.  8,  cxxviii.  3). 
So  with  the  later  prophets  it  is  the  symbol 
of  beauty,  luxuriance,  and  strength.  We 
must  bear  in  mind,  in  reading  this  imagery, 
tliat  the  olive  was  among  the  most  abun- 
dant and  characteristic  vegetation  of  Ju- 
daea. Turning  now  to  the  mystic  imagery 
of  Zechariah  (iv.  3,  11-14),  and  of  St. 
John  in  the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  xi.  3,  4),  we 
find  the  olive-tree  used,  in  both  cases,  in  a 
very  remarkable  way.  Finally,  in  the 
argumentation  of  St.  Paul  concerning  the 
relative  positions  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles 
in  the  coun&els  of  God,  this  tree  supplies 


the  basis  of  one  of  his  most  forcible  alle- 
gories (Rom.  xi.  16-25).  The  Gentiles 
are  the  "wild  olive  "  grafted  in  upon  the 
"good  olive,"  to  which  once  the  Jews  be- 
longed, and  with  which  they  may  again  be 
incorporated.  The  olive-tree  grows  freely 
almost  everywhere  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  but  it  was  peculiarly  abun- 
dant in  Palestine  (see  Deut.  vi.  11,  viii.  8, 
xxviii.  40).  Olive-yards  are  a  matter  of 
course  in  descriptions  of  the  country,  like 
vineyards  and  cornfields  (Judg.  xv.  5 ;  1 
Sam.  viii.  14).  The  kings  had  very  exten- 
sive ones  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  28).  Even  now 
the  tree  is  very  abundant  in  the  country. 
Almost  every  village  has  its  olive-grove. 
Certain  districts  may  be  specified  where  at 
various  times  this  tree  has  been  very  lux- 
uriant. The  cultivation  of  the  olive-tree 
had  the  closest  connection  with  the  domes- 
tic life  of  the  Israelites  (2  Chr.  ii.  10),  their 
trade  (Ez.  xxvii.  17 ;  Hos.  xii.  1),  and  even 
their  public  ceremonies  and  religious  wor- 
ship. The  oil  was  used  in  coronations : 
thus  it  was  an  emblem  of  sovereignty  (1 
Sam.  X.  1,  xii.  3,  5).  It  was  also  mixed 
with  the  offerings  in  sacrifice  (Lev.  ii.  1,  2, 
G,  15).  Eor  the  burning  of  it  in  common 
lamps  see  Matt.  xxv.  3,  4,  8.  The  use  of 
it  on  the  hair  and  skin  was  customary,  and 
indicative  of  cheerfulness  (Ps.  xxiii.  5 ; 
Matt.  vi.  17).  It  was  also  employed  me- 
dicinally in  surgical  cases  (Luke  x.  34). 
See  again  Mark  vi.  13 ;  Jam.  v.  14,  for  ita 
use  in  combination  with  prayer  on  behalf 
of  the  sick.  In  Solomon's  temple  the 
cherubim  were  "of  olive-tree"  (1  K.  vi. 
23),  as  also  the  doors  (vers.  31,  32)  and 
the  posts  (ver.  33).  As  to  the  berries 
(Jam.  iii.  12;  2  Esd.  xvi.  29),  which  pro- 
duce the  oil,  they  were  sometimes  gathered 
by  shaking  the  tree  (Is.  xxiv.  13),  some- 
times by  beating  it  (Deut.  xxiv.  20).  Then 
followed  the  treading  of  the  fruit  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  24;  Mic.  vi.  15).  Hence  the  men- 
tion of  "  oil-fats  "  (Joel  ii.  24).  The  wind 
was  dreaded  by  the  cultivator  of  the  olive, 
for  the  least  ruffling  of  a  breeze  is  apt  to 
cause  the  flowers  to  fall  (Job  xv.  33).  It 
is  needless  to  add  that  tlie  locust  was  a 
formidable  enemy  of  the  oUve  (Amos  iv. 
9).  It  happened  not  unfrequently  that 
hopes  were  disappointed,  and  that  "  the 
labor  of  the  olive  failed "  (Hab.  iii.  17). 
As  to  the  growth  of  the  tree,  it  thrives 
best  in  warm  and  sunny  situations.  It  is 
of  a  moderate  height,  with  knotty  gnarled 
trunks,  and  a  smooth  ash-colored  bark.  It 
grows  slowly,  but  it  lives  to  an  immense 
age.  Its  look  is  singularly  indicative  of 
tenacious  vigoi  ,•  and  this  is  the  force  of 
what  is  said  iu  Scripture  of  its  "green- 
ness," as  emblematic  of  strength  and  pros- 
perity. The  leaves,  too,  are  not  deciduous. 
Those  who  see  olives  for  the  first  time  are 
occasionally    disappointed     by    the    dusty 


OLIVES,  MOUNT  OP 


474 


OLIVES,  MOUNT  OP 


color  of  their  foliage;  but  those  who  are 
familiar  with  them  find  an  inexpressible 
charra  in  the  rippling  changes  of  their 
slender  graygreen  leaves. 

Olives,  Mount  of.  The  exact  ex- 
pression *'  the  Mount  of  Olives  "  occurs  in 
the  O.  T.  in  Zech.  xiv.  4  only ;  in  the  other 
places  of  the  O.  T.  in  which  it  is  referred 
to,  the  form  employed  is  the  "ascent  of 
the  olives  "  (2  Sam.  xv.  30 ;  A.  V.  inaccu- 
rately "the  ascent  of  Mount  Olivet"),  or 
simply  "the  Mount"  (Neh.  viii.  15),  "the 
mount  facing  Jerusalem"  (1  K.  xi.  7),  or 
"  the  mountain  which  is  on  the  east  side  of 
the  city  »  (Ez.  xi.  23).  In  the  N.  T.  three 
forme  of  the  word  occurs  1.  The  usual 
one,  "the  Mount  of  Olives."  2.  By  St. 
Luke  twice  (xix.  29,  xxi.  37),  "the  mount 
called  the  Mount  of  Olives."  3.  Also  by 
St.  Luke  (Acts  i.  12),  the  "  mount  called 
Olivet."  But  in  the  Greek  text,  both  in 
the  Gospel  and  the  Acts,  the  same  word  is 
used,  translated  by  the  Vulgate  "  Olive- 
tum,"  that  is,  the  Mount  of  Olives.  —  It  is 
the  well-known  eminence  on  the  east  of 
Jerusalem,  intimately  connected  with  some 
of  the  gravest  events  of  the  history  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  New  Testament,  the 
scene  of  the  flight  of  David  and  the  trium- 
phal progress  of  the  Son  of  David,  of  the 
idolatry  of  Solomon,  and  the  agony  and 
betrayal  of  Christ.  It  is  not  so  much  a 
"  mount "  as  a  ridge,  of  rather  more  than  a 
mile  in  length,  running  in  general  direction 
north  and  south,  covering  the  whole  eastern 
Bide  of  the  city.  At  its  northern  end  the 
ridge  bends  round  to  the  west,  so  as  to  form 
an  enclosure  to  the  city  on  that  side  also. 
But  there  is  this  difference,  that  whereas 
on  the  north  a  space  of  nearly  a  mile  of 
tolerably  level  surface  intervenes  between 
the  walls  of  the  city  and  the  rising  ground, 
on  the  east  the  mount  is  close  to  the  walls, 
parted  only  by  that  which  from  the  city  it- 
self seems  no  parting  at  all  —  the  narrow 
ravine  of  the  Kidron.  It  is  this  portion 
which  is  the  real  Mount  of  Olives  of  the 
history.  In  general  heiglit  it  is  not  very 
much  above  the  city :  300  feet  higher  than 
the  Temple  Mount,  hardly  more  than  100 
above  the  so-called  Zion.  The  word  "  ridge  " 
has  been  used  above  as  the  only  one  avail- 
able for  an  eminence  of  some  length  and 
even  height ;  but  that  word  is  hardly  accu- 
rate. There  is  nothing  "  ridge-like  "  in  the 
appearance  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  or  of 
any  other  of  the  limestone  hills  of  this  dis- 
trict of  Palestine ;  all  is  rounded,  swelling, 
and  regular  in  form.  At  a  distance  its  out- 
line is  almost  horizontal,  gradually  sloping 
away  at  its  southern  end;  but  when  seen 
from  below  the  eastern  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
it  divides  itself  into  three,  or  rather  per- 
haps four,  independent  summits  or  emi- 
nences. Proceeding  from  north  to  south, 
those  occur  in  the  following  order :  Galilee, 


or  Viri  Galilaei ;  Mount  of  the  Ascension ; 
Prophets,  subordinate  to  the  last,  and  al- 
most a  part  of  it;  Mount  of  Offence.  1. 
Of  these  the  central  one,  distinguished  by 
the  minaret  and  domes  of  the  Church  of  the 
Ascension,  is  in  every  way  the  most  impor- 
tant. Three  paths  lead  from  the  valley  to 
the  summit.  The  first  passes  under  the 
north  wall  of  the  enclosure  of  Gethsemane, 
and  follows  the  line  of  the  depression  be- 
tween the  centre  and  the  nortliern  hill.. 
The  second  parts  from  the  first  about  50 
yards  beyond  Gethsemane,  and  striking  off 
to  the  right  up  the  very  breast  of  the  hill, 
surmounts  the  projection  on  which  is  the 
traditional  spot  of  the  Lamentation  over 
Jerusalem,  and  thence  proceeds  directly 
upwards  to  the  village.  The  third  leaves 
the  other  two  at  the  N.  E.  corner  of  Geth- 
semane, and  making  a  considerable  detour 
to  the  south,  visits  the  so-called  "  Tombs 
of  the  Prophets,"  and,  following  a  very 
slight  depression  wliich  occurs,  at  that  part 
of  the  mount,  arrives  in  its  turn  at  the  vil- 
lage. Of  these  three  paths,  the  first,  from  # 
the  fact  that  it  follows  the  natural  shape 
of  the  ground,  is  unquestionably  older  than 
the  others,  which  deviate  in  pursuit  of  cer- 
tain artificial  objects.  Every  consideration 
is  in  favor  of  its  being  the  road  taken  by 
David  in  his  fiight.  It  is,  with  equal  proba- 
bility, that  usually  taken  by  our  Lord  and 
His  disciples  in  their  morning  and  evening 
transit  between  Jerusalem  and  Bethany, 
and  that  also  by  which  the  Apostles  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  after  the  Ascension. 
The  central  hill,  which  we  are  now  con- 
sidering, purports  to  contain  the  sites  of 
some  of  the  most  sacred  and  impressive 
events  of  Christian  history.  The  majority 
of  these  sacred  spots  now  command  little 
or  no  attention ;  but  three  still  remain,  suf- 
ficiently sacred  —  if  authentic  —  to  conse- 
crate any  place.  These  are :  (1.)  Geth- 
semane, at  the  foot  of  the  mount.  (2.) 
The  spot  from  which  our  Saviour  ascend- 
ed on  the  summit.  (3.)  The  place  of  the 
Lamentation  of  Christ  over  Jerusalem,  half 
way  up.  Of  these,  Gethsemane  is  the  only 
one  which  has  any  claim  to  be  authentic. 
[Gethsemane.]  2.  We  have  spoken  of 
the  central  and  principal  portion  of  the 
moant.  Next  to  it  on  the  southern  side, 
separated  from  it  by  a  slight  depression, 
up  which  the  path  mentioned  above  as  the 
third  takes  its  course,  is  a  hill  which  ap- 
pears neither  to  possess,  nor  to  have  pos- 
sessed, any  independent  name.  It  is  re- 
markable only  for  the  fact  that  it  contains 
the  "singular  catacomb"  known  as  the 
"  Tombs  of  the  Prophets,"  probably  in  al- 
lusion to  the  words  of  Christ  (Matt,  xxiii. 
29).  3.  The  most  southern  portion  of 
the  Mount  of  Olives  is  that  usually  known 
as  the  "  Mount  of  Offence,"  Mons  Of- 
fensioms.    It  rises  next  to  that  last  men* 


OLIVES,  MOUNT  OP 


475 


OMRI 


tioneil;  and  in  the  hollow  between  the  two, 
more  marked  than  the  depressions  between 
tlie  more  northern  portions,  runs  tiie  road 
from  Betliany,  wliich  was  without  doubt  the 
road  of  Ciirist's  entry  to  Jerusalem.  The 
title  Mount  of  Offence,  or  Scandal,  was  be- 
stowed on  the  supposition  that  it  is  the 
•'  Mount  of  Corruption  "  on  which  Solomon 
erected  the  high  places  for  the  gods  of  his 
foreign  wives  (2  K.  xxiii.  13;  IK.  xi.  7). 
The  southern  summit  is  considerably  lower 
than  the  centre  one.  i.  Tlie  only  one  of  the 
four  summits  remaining  to  be  considered  is 
that  on  the  north  of  the  "  Mount  of  Ascen- 
sion "  the  Karem  es  Seyad,  or  Vineyard  of 
the  Sportsman;  or,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
modern  Latin  and  Greek  Christians,  the  Viii 
Galilaei.  This  is  a  hill  of  exactly  the  same 
character  as  the  Mount  of  the  Ascension, 
and  so  nearly  its  equal  in  height  that  few 
travellers  agree  as  to  whicli  is  the  more 
lofty.  The  summits  of  the  two  are  about 
400  yards  aparti  It  stands  directly  oppo- 
site the  N.  E.  corner  of  Jerusalem,  and  is 
approached  by  the  path  between  it  and  the 
Mount  of  Ascension,  which  strikes  at  the 
top  into  a  cross-path  leading  to  el-Isawiyeh 
and  Anata.  The  Arabic  name  well  reflects 
the  fruitful  character  of  the  hill,  on  which 
there  are  several  vineyards,  besides  much 
cultivation  of  other  kinds.  The  Christian 
name  is  due  to  the  singular  tradition,  that 
here  the  two  angels  addressed  the  Apostles 
after  our  Lord's  ascension  —  "  Ye  men  of 
Galilee ! "  This  idea,  which  is  so  incom- 
patible, on  account  of  the  distance,  even 
with  the  traditional  spot  of  the  Ascension, 
is  of  late  existence  and  inexplicable  origin. 
—  The  presence  of  the  crowd  of  churches 
and  other  edifices  must  have  rendered  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  during  the  early  and 
middle  ages  of  Christianity,  entirely  unlike 
what  it  was  in  the  time  of  the  Jewish  king- 
dom or  of  our  Lord.  Except  the  high  places 
on  the  summit,  the  only  buildings  then  to 
be  seen  were  probably  the  walls  of  the 
vineyards  and  gardens,  and  the  towers  and 
presses  which  were  their  invariable  accom- 
paniment. But  though  the  churches  are 
nearly  all  demolished,  there  must  be  a  con- 
siderable difference  between  the  aspect  of 
the  mountain  now  and  in  those  days  when 
it  received  its  name  from  the  abundance  of 
its  olive-groves.  It  does  not  now  stand  so 
pre-eminent  in  this  respect  among  the  hills 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem.  It  is 
only  in  the  deeper  and  more  secluded  slope 
leading  up  to  the  northernmost  summit  that 
these  venerable  trees  spread  into  anything 
like  a  forest.  The  cedars  commemorated 
by  the  Talmud,  and  the  date-palms  implied 
in  the  name  Bethany,  liave  fared  still  worse ; 
tliere  is  not  one  of  eitlier  to  be  found  within 
many  miles.  Two  religious  ceremonies  per- 
formed there  must  have  done  much  to  in- 
crease the  numbers  who  resorted  to  the 


mount.  The  appearance  of  the  now  moon 
was  probably  watclied  for,  certainly  pro- 
claimed, from  the  summit.  The  second 
ceremony  referred  to  was  the  burning  of 
tlie  Red  Heifer.  Tliis  solemn  ceremonial 
was  enacted  on  the  central  mount,  and  in  a 
spot  so  carefully  specified  that  it  would 
seem  not  difficult  to  fix  it.  It  was  due  east 
of  the  sanctuary,  and  at  such  an  elevation 
on  the  mount  that  tlie  officiating  priest, 
as  he  slew  the  animal  and  sprinkled  her 
blood,  could  see  the  facade  of  the  sanctuary 
through  the  east  gate  of  the  Temple.  To 
this  spot  a  viaduct  was  constructed  across 
the  valley  on  a  double  row  of  arches,  so  as 
to  raise  it  far  above  all  possible  proximity 
with  graves  or  other  defilements.  It  was 
probably  demolished  by  the  Jews  them- 
selves on  the  approach  of  Titus,  or  even 
earlier,  when  Pompey  led  his  army  by  Jer- 
icho and  over  the  Mount  of  Olives.  This 
would  account  satisfactorily  for  its  not  be- 
ing alluded  to  by  Josephus. 

Ol'ivet  (2  Sam.  xv.  30;  Acts  i.  12). 
[Olives,  Mount  of.] 

Olym'pas,  a  Christian  at  Eome  (Rom. 
xvi.  15),  perhaps  of  the  household  of  Phi- 
lologus. 

O'mar,  son  of  Eliphaz  the  firstborn  of 
Esau,  and  "  duke  "  or  phy larch  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15;  1  Chr.  i.  36). 

Ome'ga,  the  last  letter  of  the  Greek  al- 
phabet, as  Alpha  is  the  first.  It  is  used 
metaphorically  to  denote  the  end  of  any- 
thing :  "I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  begin- 
ning and  the  ending,  .  .  .  the  first  and  the 
last"  (Rev.  i.  8,  11). 

O'mer.     [Weights  and  Measures.] 

Om'ri.  1.  Originally  "  captain  of  the 
host "  to  Elah,  was  afterwards  himself  king 
of  Israel,  and  founder  of  the  third  dynasty. 
When  Elah  was  murdered  by  Zimri  at  Tir- 
zah,  then  capital  of  the  northern  kingdom, 
Omri  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Gibbe- 
thon,  situated  in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  which 
had  been  occupied  by  the  Philistines.  As 
soon  as  the  army  heard  of  Elah's  death, 
they  proclaimed  Omri  king.  Thereupon  he 
broke  up  the  siege  of  Gibbethon,  and  at- 
tacked Tirzah,  where  Zimri  was  holding 
his  court  as  king  of  Israel.  The  city  was 
taken,  and  Zimri  perished  in  the  flames  of 
the  palace,  after  a  reign  of  seven  days. 
Omri,  however,  was  not  allowed  to  estab- 
lish his  dynasty  without  a  struggle  against 
Tibni,  whom  "  half  the  people  "  (1  K.  xvi. 
21)  desired  to  raise  to  the  throne.  The 
civil  war  lasted  four  years  (cf.  1  K.  xvi.  15, 
with  23).  After  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Tibni,  Omri  reigned  for  six  years  in  Tir- 
zah ;  but  at  tlie  end  of  that  time  he  trans- 
ferred his  residence,  probably  from  the 
proved  inability  of  Tirzah  to  stand  a  siege, 
to  the  mountain  Shomron,  better  known  by 
its  Greek  name  Samaria,  which  he  bougli^ 
for  two  talents  of  silver  iiom  a  rich  maU| 


ON 


476 


ONIAS 


otherwise  unknown,  called  Shemer.  At 
Samaria  Omri  reigned  for  six  years  more. 
He  seems  to  liave  been  a  vigorous  and  un- 
scrupulous ruler,  anxious  to  strengthen  his 
dynasty  by  intercourse  and  alliances  with 
foreign  states.  The  probable  date  of  Omri's 
accession  (t.  e.  of  the  deaths  of  Elah  and 
Zimri)  was  b.  c.  935  ;  of  Tibni's  defeat  and 
the  beginning  of  Omri's  sole  reign  b.  c.  931, 
and  of  his  death  b.  c.  919.  2.  One  of  the 
eons  of  Becher  the  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr. 
vii.  8).  3.  A  descendant  of  Pharez  the  son 
of  Judah(lChr.  ix.  4).  4.  Son  of  Michael, 
and  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  la  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  18). 

On,  the  son  of  Poleth,  and  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  who  took  part 
with  Korah,  Datlian,  and  Abiram  in  their 
revolt  against  Moses  (Num.  xvi.  1).  His 
name  dues  not  again  appear  in  the  narra- 
tive of  the  conspiracy,  nor  is  he  alluded  to 
when  reference  is  made  to  the  final  catas- 
tropl-- 

On,  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  which  is 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  under  at  least  two 
names,  Beth-Shemesh  (Jer.  xliii.  13), 
corresponding  to  the  ancient  Egyptian 
sacred  name  Ha-ea,  "  the  abode  of  the 
Bun,"  and  that  above,  corresponding  to  the 
common  name  An.  On  is  better  known 
under  its  Greek  name  Hcliopolis.  It  was 
situate  on  the  east  side  of  the  Pelusiac 
branch  of  the  Nile,  just  below  the  point  of 
the  Delta,  and  about  twenty  miles  north- 
east of  Mempliis.  The  chief  object  of 
worship  at  Heliopolis  was  the  sun,  whose 
temple,  described  by  Strabo,  is  now  only 
represented  by  the  single  beautiful  obelisk, 
which  is  of  red  granite,  68  feet  2  inches 
high  above  the  pedestal.  Heliopolis  was 
anciently  famous  for  its  learning,  and  Eu- 
doxus  and  Plato  studied  under  its  priests. 
The  first  mention  of  this  place  in  the  Bible 
is  in  the  history  of  Joseph,  to  whom  we 
read  Pharaoh  gave  "  to  wife  Asenath  the 
daughter  of  Potipherah,  priest  of  On  " 
(Gen.  xli.  45,  comp.  ver.  50,  and  xlvi.  20). 

O'nam.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Shobal 
the  son  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23 ;  1  Chr.  i. 
40).  2.  The  son  of  Jerahmeel  by  his  wife 
Atarah  (1  Chr.  ii.  26,  28). 

O'nan,  the  second  son  of  Judah  by  the 
Canaanitess,  "  the  daughter  of  Shua  "  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  4;  1  Chr.  ii.  3).  "What  he  did 
was  evil  in  the  eyes  of  Jehovah,  and  He 
slew  him  also,"  as  He  had  slain  his  elder 
brother  (Gen.  xxxviii.  9).  His  death  took 
place  before  the  family  of  Jacob  went  down 
into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi.  12;  Num.  xxvi.  19). 

Ones'imus  is  the  name  of  the  servant 
or  slave  in  whose  behalf  Paul  wrote  the 
Episile  to  Philemon.  He  was  a  native,  or 
certainly  an  inhabitant,  of  Colossae,  since 
Paul  in  writing  to  the  Church  there  speaks 
«f  him  (Col.  iv.  9)  as  "  one  of  you." 
Blares  were  numerous  in  Phrygia,  and  the 


name  itself  of  Phrygian  was  almost  synon- 
ymous with  that  of  slave.  Onesimus  was 
one  of  this  unfortunate  class  of  persons, 
as  is  evident  both  from  the  manifest  impli- 
cation in  Phil.  16,  and  from  the  general 
tenor  of  the  Epistle.  The  man  escaped 
from  his  master  and  fled  to  Rome,  where  in 
the  midst  of  its  vast  population  he  could 
hope  to  be  concealed.  Though  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  Onesimus  heard  the  gos- 
pel for  the  first  time  at  Rome,  it  is  beyond 
question  that  he  was  led  to  embrace  the 
gospel  there  through  the  apostle's  instru- 
mentality. The  language  in  ver.  10  of  the 
letter  is  explicit  on  this  point.  After  his 
conversion,  the  most  happy  and  friendly 
relations  sprung  up  between  the  teacher 
and  the  disciple.  The  situation  of  the 
apostle  as  a  captive  and  an  indefatigable 
laborer  for  the  promotion  of  the  gospel 
(Acts  xxviii.  30,  31)  must  have  made  him 
keenly  alive  to  the  sympathies  of  Christian 
friendship,  and  dependent  upon  others  for 
various  services  of  a  personal  nature,  ira 
portant  to  his  eflSciency  as  a  minister  of  the 
word.  Onesimus  appears  to  have  supplied 
this  twofold  want  in  an  eminent  degree. 
Whether  Paul  desired  his  presence  as  a 
personal  attendant  or  as  a  minister  of  the 
gospel,  is  not  certain  from  ver.  13  of  the 
Epistle. 

Onesiph'Oms  is  named  twice  only  in 
the  N.  T.,  viz.  2  Tim.  i.  16-18,  and  iv.  19, 
In  the  former  passage  Paul  mentions  hira 
in  terms  of  grateful  love,  as  having  a  noble 
courage  and  generosity  in  his  behalf,  amid 
his  trials  as  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  when  others 
from  whom  he  expected  better  things  had 
deserted  him  (2  Tim.  iv.  16) ;  and  in  the 
latter  passage  he  singles  out  "  the  house- 
hold of  Onesiphorus  "  as  worthy  of  a  special 
greeting.  It  has  been  made  a  question 
whether  this  friend  of  the  apostle  was  still 
living  when  the  letter  to  Timothy  was  writ- 
ten, because  in  both  instances  Paul  speaks 
of  "  the  household  "  (in  2  Tim.  i.  16)  and 
not  separately  of  Onesiphorus  himself. 
The  probability  is,  that  other  members  of 
the  family  were  also  active  Christians ;  and 
as  Paul  wished  to  remember  them  at  the 
same  time,  he  grouped  them  together  (2 
Tim.  iv.  19),  and  thus  delicately  recognized 
the  common  merit,  as  a  sort  of  family  dis- 
tinction. It  is  evident  from  2  Tim.  i.  18, 
that  Onesiphorus  had  his  home  at  Ephesus ; 
though  if  we  restrict  the  salutation  near  the 
close  of  the  Epistle  (iv.  19)  to  h  s  family 
he  himself  may  possibly  have  been  with 
Paul  at  Rome  when  the  latter  wrote  to 
Timothy. 

Oni'as,  the  name  of  five  high-priests  in 
the  period  between  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. 1.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jad- 
dua,  about  b.  c.  330-309.  According  to 
Josephus  he  was  father  of  Simon  the  Just. 
2.  The  son  of  Simon  the  Just.    He  was  a 


ONIAS,  CITY  OF 


477 


OPHIR 


minor  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death 
(about  B.  c.  290),  and  the  high-priesthood 
was  occupied  in  succession  by  his  uncles 
Eleazar  and  Manasseh  to  his  exclusion. 
He  entered  on  the  office  about  b.  c.  240, 
and  retained  ft  till  his  death,  about  B.  c. 
226,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Simon  II.  3.  The  son  of  Simon  II.,  who 
succei;ded  his  father  in  the  high-priesthood, 
about  B.  c.  198.  Seleucus  Philopator  was 
informed  by  Simon,  governor  of  the  Tem- 
ple, of  the  riches  contained  in  the  sacred 
treasury,  and  he  made  an  attempt  to  seize 
them  ))y  force.  At  the  prayer  of  Onias,  ac- 
cording to  the  tradition  (2  Mace,  iii.),  the 
sacrilege  was  averted ;  but  the  high-priest 
was  obliged  to  appeal  to  the  king  himself 
for  support  against  the  machinations  of 
Simon.  Not  long  afterwards,  Seleucus  died 
(b.  c.  175),  and  Onias  found  himself  sup- 
planted in  the  favor  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
by  his  brother  Jason,  who  received  the 
high-priesthood  from  the  king.  Jason,  in 
turn,  was  displaced  by  his  youngest  brother 
Menelaus,  who  procured  the  murder  of 
Onias  (about  b.  c.  171).  4.  The  youngest 
brother  of  Onias  III.,  who  bore  the  same 
name,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  for 
Menelaus.  5.  The  son  of  Onias  III.,  who 
sought  a  refuge  in  Egypt  from  the  sedition 
and  sacrilege  which  disgraced  Jerusalem. 
The  immediate  occasion  of  his  flight  was 
the  triumph  of  "the  sons  of  Tobias," 
gained  by  the  interference  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  Onias,  receiving  the  protec- 
tion of  Ptol.  Philometor,  endeavored  to 
give  a  unity  to  the  Hellenistic  Jews.  With 
this  object  he  founded  the  temple  at  Le- 
ontopolis. 

Oni'as,  The  City  of,  The  Region 
of  Onias,  the  city  in  which  stood  the  tem- 
ple built  by  Onias,  and  the  region  of  the 
Jewish  settlements  in  Egypt. 

Onions  occur  only  in  Num.  xi.  5,  as 
one  of  the  good  things  of  Egypt  of  which 
the  Israelites  regretted  the  loss.  Onions 
have  been  from  time  immemorial  a  favorite 
article  of  food  amongst  the  Egyptians.  The 
onions  of  Egypt  are  much  milder  in  flavor 
and  less  pungent  than  those  of  this  country. 

O'no,  one  of  the  towns  of  Benjamin,  Is 
first  found  in  1  Chr.  viii.  12,  where  Shamed 
or  Shamer  is  said  to  have  built  Ono  and 
Lod  with  their  "  daughter  villages."  A 
plain  was  attached  to  the  town,  called  "  the 
plain  of  Ono"  (Neh.  vi.  2),  perhaps  identi- 
cal with  the  "valley  of  craftsmen"  (Neh. 
xi.  30). 

Onycha  occurs  only  in  Ex.  xxx.  34,  as 
one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  sacred  per- 
fume. In  Ecclus.  xxiv.  15,  Wisdom  is 
compared  to  the  pleasant  odor  yielded  by 
"  galbanum,  onyx,  and  sweet  storax."  It 
is  probably  the  operculum  of  a  Strombus, 
perhaps  S.  lentiginosus. 

Onyx,  the  translation  of  the  Heb.  shfi 


ham ;  but  there  is  nothing  in  the  contexts 
of  the  several  passages  (Gen.  ii.  12 ;  Ex. 
xxviii.  9,  20 ;  1  Chr.  xxix.  2  ;  Ez.  xxviii  13) 
where  the  Hebrew  term  occurs  to  help  us 
to  determine  its  signification.  Some  wri- 
ters believe  that  the  "beryl"  is  intended; 
but  the  balance  of  authority  is  in  favor  of 
some  variety  of  the  onyx. 

O'phel,  a  part  of  ancient  Jerusalem. 
The  name  is  derived  by  the  lexicographers 
from  a  root  of  similar  sound,  which  has  the 
force  of  a  swelling  or  tumor.  It  does  not 
come  forward  till  a  late  period  of  Old  Test, 
history.  In  2  Chr.  xxvii.  3,  Jotham  is  said 
to  have  built  much  "  on  the  wall  of  Ophel." 
Manasseh,  amongst  his  other  defensive 
works,  "compassed  about  Ophel"  (Jbid. 
xxxiii.  14).  From  the  catalogue  of  Nehe- 
miah's  repairs  to  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  it 
appears  to  have  been  near  the  "  water- 
gate  "  (Neh.  iii.  26)  and  the  "  great  tower 
that  lieth  out"  (ver.  27).  Lastly,  the  for- 
mer of  these  two  passages,  and  Neh.  xi.  21, 
show  that  Ophel  was  the  residence  of  the 
Levites.  Josephus  in  his  account  of  tlie 
last  days  of  Jerusalem  mentions  it  four 
times  as  Ophla.  Ophel  was  the  swelling 
declivity  by  which  the  Mount  of  the  Tem- 
ple slopes  off  on  its  southern  side  into  the 
Valley  of  Hinnom  —  a  long,  narrowish, 
rounded  spur  or  promontory,  which  inter- 
venes between  the  mouth  of  th6  central 
valley  of  Jerusalem  (the  Tj^ropoeon)  and 
the  Kidron,  or  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  Half 
way  down  it  on  its  eastern  lace  is  the 
"Fount  of  the  Virgin,"  so  called;  and  at 
its  foot  the  lower  outlet  of  the  same  spring 
—  the  Pool  of  Siloam. 

O'phir.  1.  The  eleventh  in  order  of 
the  sons  of  Joktan,  coming  immediately 
after  Sheba  (Gen.  x.  29;  1  Chr.  i.  23). 
From  the  way  in  which  the  sons  of  Joktan 
are  here  described,  it  is  evident  that  this 
Ophir  corresponds  to  some  city,  region,  or 
tribe  in  Arabia.  2.  A  seaport  or  region 
from  which  the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Sol- 
omon obtained  gold,  in  vessels  which  went 
thither  in  conjunction  with  Tyrian  ships 
from  Ezion-geber,  near  Elath,  on  that 
branch  of  the  Red  Sea  which  is  now  called 
the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  The  gold  was  pro- 
verbial for  its  fineness,  so  that  "gold  of 
Ophir  "  is  several  times  used  as  an  expres- 
sion for  fine  gold  (Ps.  xlv.  10;  Job  xxviii. 
16;  Is.  xiii.  12;  1  Chr.  xxix.  4)  ;  and  in  one 
passage  (Job  xxii.  24)  the  word  "Ophir" 
by  itself  is  used  for  gold  of  Ophir,  and  for 
gold  generally.  In  addition  to  gold,  the 
vessels  brought  from  Ophir  almug-wood 
and  precious  stones.  The  precise  geograph- 
ical situation  of  Ophir  has  long  been  a 
subject  of  doubt  and  discussion.  The  two 
countries  which  have  divided  the  opinions 
of  the  learned  have  been  Arabia  and  India, 
while  some  have  placed  it  in  Africa.  There 
are  only  five  passages  in  theiiistorical  books 


OPHIR 


478 


ORGAN 


which  mention  Ophir  by  name ;  three  in  the 
Books  of  Kings  (1  K.  ix.  2G-29,  x.  11,  xxii. 
48),  and  two  in  the  Boolcs  of  Chronicles 
(2  Chr,  viii.  18,  ix,  10).  The  latter  were 
probably  copied  from  the  former.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  passages,  the  following  verse 
in  the  Book  of  Kings  has  very  frequently 
been  referred  to  Ophir :  "  For  the  king  (i.  e. 
Solomon)  had  at  sea  a  navy  of  Tharshish 
with  the  navy  of  Hiram  :  once  in  three  years 
came  the  navy  of  Tharshish  bringing  gold 
and  silver,  ivory,  and  apes,  and  peacocks  " 
(1  K.  X.  22).  But  there  is  not  sufficient 
evidence  to  show  that  the  fleet  mentioned 
in  this  verse  was  identical  with  the  fleet 
mentioned  in  1  K.  ix.  26-29,  and  1  K.  x.  11, 
as  bringing  gold,  almug-trees,  and  precious 
stones  from  Ophir.  If  the  three  passages 
of  the  Book  of  Kings  are  carefully  exam- 
ined, it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  information 
given  respecting  Ophir  is,  that  it  was  a 
place  or  region  accessible  by  sea  from 
Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea,  from  which 
imports  of  gold,  almug-trees,  and  precious 
stones  were  brought  back  by  the  Tyrian  and 
Hebrew  sailors.  Now  we  have  seen  above 
that  the  author  of  the  10th  chapter  of  Gen- 
esis certainly  regarded  Ophir  as  the  name 
of  some  city,  region,  or  tribe  in  Arabia. 
And  it  is  almost  equally  certain  that  the 
Ophii  :,f  Genesis  is  the  Ophir  of  the  Book 
of  Kings.  There  is  no  mention,  either  in 
the  Bible  or  elsewhere,  of  any  other  Ophir ; 
and  the  idea  of  there  having  been  two 
Ophirs  evidently  arose  from  a  perception  of 
the  obvious  meaning  of  the  10th  chapter  of 
Genesis,  on  the  one  hand,  coupled  with  the 
erroneous  opinion,  on  the  other,  that  the 
Ophir  of  the  Book  of  Kings  could  not  have 
been  in  Arabia.  Hence  the  burden  of 
proof  lies  on  any  one  who  denies  Ophir  to 
have  been  in  Arabia.  There  do  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  be  sufficient  data  for  deter- 
mining in  favor  of  any  one  emporium  or  of 
any  one  locality  rather  than  another  in 
Arabia,  as  having  been  the  Ophir  of  Solo- 
mon. The  Book  of  Kings  certainly  suggests 
the  inference  that  there  was  some  connec- 
<io7i  between  the  visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba 
and  the  voyage  to  Ophir,  but  this  would  be 
consistent  with  Ophir  being  either  contig- 
uous to  Sabaea,  or  situated  on  any  point 
of  the  southern  or  eastern  coasts  of  Arabia ; 
as  in  either  of  these  cases  it  would  have 
been  politic  in  Solomon  to  conciliate  the 
good  will  of  the  Sabaeans,  who  occupied  a 
long  tract  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea,  and  who  might  possibly  have  com- 
manded the  Straits  of  Bab-el-mandeb.  In 
answer  to  objections  against  the  obvious 
meaning  of  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis, 
the  alternatives  may  be  stated  as  follows. 
Either  Ophir,  although  in  Arabia,  produced 
gold  and  precious  stones ;  or,  if  it  shall  be 
hereafter  proved  in  the  progress  of  geologi- 
cal investigation  that  this  could  not  have 


been  the  case,  Ophir  furnished  gold  and 
precious  stones  as  an  emporium. 

Optl'lli,  a  town  of  Benjamin,  mentioned 
in  Josh,  xviii.  24,  the  same  svs  the  Gophna 
of  Josephus,  a  place  which  at  the  time  of 
Vespasian's  invasion  was  apparently  so  im- 
portant as  to  be  second  only  to  Jerusalem. 
It  still  survives  in  the  modern  Jifna  or 
Jufna,  2i  miles  north-west  of  Bethel. 

Opil'rall.  1.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  23;  1  Sam.  xiii.  17). 
Jerome  places  it  5  miles  east  of  Bethel.  It 
is  perhaps  et-  Taiyibeh,  a  small  village  on 
the  crown  of  a  conspicuous  hill,  4  miles 
E.^.E.o{Beiiin  (Bethel).  2.  More  fuUy 
Ophrah  of  the  Abi-ezrites,  the  native 
place  of  Gideon  (Judg.  vi.  11);  the  scene 
of  his  exploits  against  Baal  (ver.  24) ;  his 
residence  after  his  accession  to  power  (ix. 
5),  and  the  place  of  his  burial  in  the  family 
sepulchre  (viii.  32).  It  was  probably  in 
Manasseh  (vi.  15),  and  not  far  distant  from 
Shechera  (ix.  1,  5).  3.  The  son  of  Meomw 
thai  (1  Chr.  iv.  14). 

Orator.  1.  The  A.  V.  rendering  in  Is. 
iii.  3,  for  what  is  literally  "  skilful  in  whis  • 
per,  or  incantation."  2.  The  title  applied 
to  Tertullus,  who  appeared  as  the  advocate 
or  patronus  of  the  Jewish  accusers  of  St- 
Paul  before  Felix  (Acts  xxiv.  1). 

Orchard.     [Garden.] 

O'reb,  the  "  raven  "  or  **  crow,"  the  com- 
panion of  Zeeb,  the  "wolf,"  was  one  of  the 
chieftains  of  the  Midianite  host  which  in- 
vaded Israel,  and  was  defeated  and  driven 
back  by  Gideon.  The  defeat  is  but  slightly 
touched  upon  in  the  narrative  of  Judges, 
but  the  terras  in  which  Isaiah  refers  to  it 
(x.  26)  are  such  as  to  imply  that  it  was  a 
truly  awful  slaughter.  He  places  it  in  the 
same  rank  with  the  two  most  tremendous 
disasters  recorded  in  the  whole  of  the  his- 
tory of  Israel — the  destruction  of  the  Egyp- 
tians in  the  Red  Sea,  and  of  the  army  of 
Sennacherib  (comp.  Ps.  Ixxxiii.).  The 
slaughter  was  concentrated  round  the  rock 
at  which  Oreb  fell,  and  which  was  long 
known  by  his  name  (Judg.  vii.  25 ;  Is.  x.  26). 

O'reb,  The  Rock,  the  "raven's  crag," 
the  spot,  E.  of  Jordan,  at  which  the  Mid- 
ianite chieftain  Oreb,  with  thousands  of  liis 
countrymen,  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  Ephra- 
imites,  and  which  probably  acquired  its 
name  therefrom.  It  is  mentioned  in  Judg. 
vii.  25 ;  Is.  x.  26.  Perhaps  the  place  called 
'Orho,  which  in  the  Bereshith  Rahha  is 
stated  to  have  been  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Bcthshean,  may  have  some  connection 
with  it. 

O'ren.  One  of  the  sons  of  Jerahmeel, 
the  first-born  of  Hezron  (1  Chr.  ii.  25). 

Organ  (Gen.  iv.  21 ;  Job  xxi.  12,  xxx. 
31;  Ps.  cl.  4).  The  Hebrew  yford'ilg&h 
or  'uggdb,  thus  rendered  in  our  version, 
probably  denotes  a  pipe  or  perforated  wind- 
instrument,  as  the  root  of  the  word  indicates. 


ORION 


479 


OSTRICH 


In  Gen.  iv.  21  it  appears  to  be  a  general 
term  for  all  wind-instruments.  In  Job  xxi. 
12,  are  enumerated  the  three  kinds  of  musi- 
cal instruments  which  are  possible,  under 
the  general  terms  of  the  timbrel,  harp,  and 
organ.  Some  identify  it  with  the  Pandean 
pipes,  or  syrinx,  an  instrument  of  unques- 
tionably ancient  origin,  and  common  in  the 
East. 

Ori'on.  That  the  constellation  known 
to  the  Hebrews  by  the  name  cestl  is  the 
same  as  that  which  the  Greeks  called  Orion, 
and  the  Arabs  "  the  giant,"  there  seems 
little  reason  to  doubt  (Job  ix.  9,  xxxviii. 
31;  Am.  v.  8).  The  "  giant "  of  Oriental 
astronomy  was  Nimrod,  the  mighty  hunter, 
who  was  fabled  to  have  been  bound  in  the 
sky  for  his  impiety.  The  two  dogs  and  the 
hare,  which  are  among  the  constellations  in 
the  neigliborhood  of  Orion,  made  his  train 
complete.  There  is  possibly  an  allusion  to 
this  belief  in  "  the  bands  of  cesil "  (Job 
xxxviii.  31). 

Ornaments,  Personal.  The  num- 
ber, variety,  and  weight  of  the  ornaments 
ordinarily  worn  upon  the  person  form  one  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  Oriental  cos- 
tume, both  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 
The  monuments  of  ancient  Egypt  exhibit  the 
hands  of  ladies  loaded  with  rings,  earrings 
of  very  great  size,  anklets,  armlets,  bracelets 
of  the  most  varied  character,  richly  orna- 
mented necklaces,  and  chains  of  various 
kinds.  There  is  sufficient  evidence  in  the 
Bible  that  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine  were 
equally  devoted  to  finery.  In  the  Old 
Testament,  Isaiah  (iii.  18-23)  supplies  us 
with  a  detailed  description  of  the  articles 
with  which  the  luxurious  women  of  his 
day  were  decorated,  and  the  picture  is  filled 
up  by  incidental  notices  in  other  places. 
The  notices  which  occur  in  the  early  books 
of  the  Bible  imply  the  weight  and  abun- 
dance of  the  ornaments  worn  at  that  period. 
Eliezer  decorated  Rebekah  with  "a  golden 
nose-ring  of  half  a  shekel  weight,  and  two 
bracelets  for  her  hands  of  ten  skekels 
weight  of  gold  "  (Gen.  xxiv.  22).  Earrings 
were  worn  by  Jacob's  wives,  apparently  as 
charms,  for  they  are  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  idols  (Gen.  xxxv.  4).  The  orna- 
ments worn  by  the  patriarch  Judah  were  a 
'*  signet,"  which  was  suspended  by  a  string 
round  the  neck,  and  a  "  staff"  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  18) ;  the  staff  itself  was  probably 
ornamented.  The  first  notice  of  the  ring 
occurs  in  reference  to  Joseph,  when  he 
was  made  ruler  of  Egypt  (Gen.  xli.  42). 
The  number  of  personal  ornaments  worn 
by  the  Egyptians,  particularly  by  the  fe- 
males, is  incidentally  noticed  in  Ex.  iii.  22. 
The  poetical  portions  of  the  O.  T.  contain 
numerous  references  to  the  ornaments  worn 
by  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of  their  high- 
est prosperity.  The  appearance  of  the 
bride  is  thus  described  in  the  book  of  the 


Canticles  :  "  Thy  cheeks  are  comely  with 
heads,  thy  neck  with  perforated  (pearls)  ; 
we  will  make  thee  beads  of  gold  with  studs 
of  silver  "  (i.  10,  11).  Her  neck  rising  tall 
and  stately,  "  like  the  tower  of  David  builded 
for  an  armory,"  was  decorated  with  vari- 
ous ornaments  hanging  like  the  "thousand 
bucklers,  all  shields  of  mighty  men,  on  the 
walls  of  the  armory "  (iv.  4) ;  her  hair 
falling  gracefully  over  her  neck  is  de- 
scribed figuratively  as  a  "chain"  (iv.  9)  ; 
and  "  the  roundings  "  (not  as  in  the  A.  V. 
"the  joints")  of  her  thighs  are  likened  to 
the  pendant  of  an  earring,  which  tapers 
gradually  downwards  (vii.  1).  The  pas- 
sage of  Isaiah  (iii.  18-23)  may  be  rendered 
as  follows:  (18)  "In  that  day  the  Lord 
will  take  away  the  bravery  of  their  anJclefs, 
and  their  lace  caps,  and  their  necklaces; 
(19)  the  ear-penda7its,  and  the  hracclets, 
and  the  light  veils ;  (20)  the  turbans,  and 
the  step-chains,  and  the  girdles,  and  the  . 
scent-bottles,  and  the  amulets;  (21)  the 
rings  and  nose-rings  ;  (22)  the  state-dresses, 
and  the  cloaks,  and  the  shawls,  and  the 
purses;  (23)  the  mirrors,  and  the  fine 
linen  shirts,  and  the  turbans,  and  the  light 
dresses." 

Or'nan,  the  same  as  Araunah  (1  Chr. 
xxi.  15;  2  Chr.  iii.  1).     [Araunah.] 

Or'pah,  a  Moabite  woman,  wife  of  Chil- 
ion,  son  of  Naomi,  and  thereby  sister-in- 
law  to  Ru»H  (Ruth  i.  4,  14). 

O  shea.     [Joshua.] 

Ospray  (Heb.  ozniyydh).  The  Hebrew 
word  occurs  in  Lev.  xi.  13,  and  Deut.  xiv. 
12,  as  the  name  of  some  unclean  bird.  It 
is  probably  either  the  ospray  (Pandion 
haliaeetus)  or  the  white-tailed  eagle  (//a- 
liaeetus  albicella). 

Ossifrage  (Heb.  ^(?ws).  The  Hebrew 
word  occurs,  as  the  name  of  an  unclean 
bird,  in  Lev.  xi.  13,  and  Deut.  xiv.  12.  If 
much  weight  is  to  be  allowed  to  etymology, 
the  peres  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  may 
well  be  represented  by  the  ossifrage  or 
bone-breaker ;  for  peies  in  Hebrew  means 
"the  breaker."  And  the  ossifrage  (Gy- 
paetus  barbatus)  is  well  deserving  of  his 
name.  The  Lammergeyer,  or  bearded  vul- 
ture, as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  birds  of  prey. 

Ostrich.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  Hebrew  words  bath  haya'andh,  y&'cn, 
and  rdndn,  denote  this  bird  of  the  desert. 
1.  Bath  haya'andh  occurs  in  Lev.  xi. 
16,  Deut.  xiv.  15,  in  the  list  of  unclean 
birds ;  and  in  other  passages  of  Scripture. 
The  A.  V.  erroneously  renders  the  Hebrew 
expression,  which  signifies  either  "  daughter 
of  greediness  "  or  "daughter  of  shouting,"  by 
"  owl,"  or,  as  in  the  margin,  by  "  daughter 
of  owl."  In  Job  XXX.  29,  Is.  xxxiv.  13, 
and  xliii.  20,  the  margin  of  the  A  V.  cor- 
rectly reads  "  ostriches."  The  loud  crying 
of  the  ostrich  seems  to  be  referred  to  in 


OSTRICH 


480 


UTHNIEL 


Mic.  i.  8.  2.  Yd'en  occurs  in  Lam.  iv.  3, 
ftiiore  the  context  shows  that  the  ostrich  is 
intended.  ?.  EdnAn  occurs  in  Job  xxxix. 
13,  where  it  is  clear  from  the  whole  pas- 
sage (13-18)  that  ostriches  are  intended  by 
the  word.  The  A.  V.  erroneously  trans- 
lates the  word  "  peacocks ;  "  but  there  is 
a  different  Hebrew  name  for  peacocks, 
and  this  bird  was  probably  not  known  to 
the  people  of  Arabia  or  Syria  before  the 
time  of  Solomon.  The  "ostrich"  of  the 
A.  V.  in  Job  xxxix.  13  is  the  represen- 
tative of  the  Hebrew  nStseh,  "feathers." 
—  The  following  short  account  of  the 
nidiflcation  of  the  ostrich  (^Struihio  came- 
Ivs)  will  elucidate  those  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture which  ascribe  cruelty  to  this  bird  in 
neglecting  her  eggs  or  young.  Ostriches 
are  polygamous :  the  hens  lay  their  eggs 
promiscuously  in  one  nest,  which  is  merely 
a  hole  scratched  in  the  sand ;  the  eggs  are 
then  covered  over  to  the  depth  of  about  a 
foot,  and  are,  in  the  case  of  those  birds 
which  are  found  within  the  tropics,  gen- 
erally left  for  the  greater  part  of  the  day 
to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  parent-birds 
taking  their  turns  at  incubation  during  the 
night.  But  in  those  countries  which  have 
not  a  tropical  sun,  ostriches  frequently  incu- 
bate during  the  day,  the  male  taking  his 
turn  at  night,  and  watching  over  the  eggs 
with  great  care  and  affection,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  jackals  £yid  other 
of  the  smaller  carnivora  are  occasionally 
found  dead  near  tiie  nest,  having  been 
killed  by  the  ostrich  in  defence  of  tlie  eggs 
or  young.  The  habit  of  the  ostrich  leaving 
its  eggs  to  be  matured  by  the  sun's  heat  is 
usually  appealed  to  in  order  to  confirm  the 
Scriptural  account,  "  she  leaveth  her  eggs 
to  the  earth ;  "  but  this  is  probably  the  case 
only  with  the  tropical  birds.  And  even  if 
the  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  the  hab- 
its of  the  tropical  ostriches,  how  can  it  be 
said  that  "  she  forgetteth  that  the  foot  may 
crush  "  the  eggs,  when  they  are  covered  a 
foot  deep  or  more  in  the  sand?  We  believe 
the  true  explanation  of  this  passage  is  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  the  ostrich  deposits 
some  of  her  eggs  not  in  the  nest,  but  around 
it ;  these  lie  about  on  the  surface  of  the 
sand,  to  all  appearance  forsaken ;  they  are, 
however,  designed  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  young  birds.  And  this  remark  will  hold 
good  in  the  passage  of  Job  which  speaks  of 
the  ostrich  being  without  understanding.  It 
is  a  general  belief  amongst  the  Arabs  that 
the  ostrich  is  a  very  stupid  bird ;  indeed 
they  have  a  proverb,  "  Stupid  as  an  ostrich." 
Uut  it  by  no  means  deserves  such  a  charac- 
ter, as  travellers  have  frequently  testified. 
"  So  wary  is  the  bird,"  says  Mr,  Tristram, 
"  and  so  open  are  the  vast  plains  over  which 
it  roams,  that  no  ambuscades  or  artifices 
can  be  employed,  and  the  vulgar  resource 
of  dogged  perseverance  is  the  only  mode 


of  pursuit."  The  ostrich  is  the  largest  of 
all  known  birds,  and  perhaps  the  swiftest 
of  all  cursorial  animals.  The  feathers  so 
much  prized  are  tlie  Jong  white  plumes  of 
the  wings.  The  best  come  to  us  from  Bar- 
baiy  and  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Oth'ni,  son  of  Shemaiah,  the  first-born 
of  Obed-Edora  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  7). 

Oth'niel,  son  of  Kenaz,  and  younger 
brother  of  Caleb,  Josh.  xv.  17 ;  Judg.  i.  13, 
iii.  9 ;  1  Chr.  iv.  13.  But  these  passages  all 
leave  it  doubtful  whether  Kenaz  was  his 
father,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  the  more 
remote  ancestor  and  head  of  the  tribe, 
whose  descendants  were  called  Kenezites 
(Num.  xxxii.  12,  &c.),  or  sons  of  Kenaz. 
If  Jephunneh  was  Caleb's  father,  then  prob- 
ably he  was  father  of  Othniel  also.  The 
first  mention  of  Othniel  is  on  occasion  of 
the  taking  of  Kirjath-Sepher,  or  Debir,  as 
it  was  afterwards  called.  Debir  was  in- 
cluded in  the  mountainous  territory  near 
Hebron,  within  the  border  of  Judah,  as- 
signed to  Caleb  the  Kenezite  (Josh.  xiv. 
12-14)  ;  and  in  order  to  stimulate  the  valor 
of  the  assailants,  Caleb  promised  to  give 
his  daughter  Achsah  to  whosoever  should 
assault  and  take  the  city.  Othniel  won  the 
prize.  The  next  mention  of  him  is  in  Judg. 
iii.  9,  where  he  appears  as  the  first  judge  of 
Israel  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  and  their 
deliverer  from  the  oppression  of  Chushan- 
Rishathaim.  This  with  his  genealogy,  1 
Chr.  iv.  13,  14,  which  assigns  him  a  son, 
Hathath,  is  all  that  we  know  of  Othniel. 
But  two  questions  of  some  interest  arise 
concerning  him.  (1)  As  regards  his  rela- 
tionship to  Caleb,  the  doubt  arises  from  the 
uncertainty  whether  the  words  in  Judg.  iii. 
9,  "  Othniel  the  son  of  Kenaz,  Caleb's 
younger  brother,"  indicate  that  Othniel  him- 
self, or  that  Kenaz,  was  the  brother  of  Ca- 
leb. The  most  natural  rendering  makes 
Othniel  to  be  Caleb's  brother.  And  this  is 
favored  by  the  probability  that  Kenaz  was 
not  Othniel's  father,  but  the  father  and  head 
of  the  tribe.  (2)  And  this  leads  to  the  sec- 
ond question,  viz.  the  time  of  Othniel's 
judgeship.  Supposing  Caleb  to  be  about 
the  same  age  as  Joshua,  we  should  have  to 
reckon  about  25  years  from  Othniel's  mar- 
riage with  Achsah  till  the  death  of  Joshua 
at  the  age  of  110  years  (85+25=110). 
And  if  we  take  Africanus's  allowance  of  30 
years  for  the  elders  after  Joslma,  in  whose 
lifetime  "  the  people  served  the  Lord " 
(Judg.  ii.  7),  and  then  allow  8  years  for 
Chushan-Rishathaim's  dominion;  and  40 
years  of  rest  under  Othniel's  judgeship,  and 
suppose  Othniel  to  have  been  40  years  old 
at  his  marriage,  we  obtain  (40-}-25-|-30-f- 
8+40  =)  143  years  as  Othniel's  age  at  his 
death.  This,  we  are  quite  sure,  cannot  be 
right.  Nor  does  any  escape  from  the  diffi- 
culty very  readily  offer  itself.  If  we  judge 
only  by  ordinary  probabilities,  we  shall  sup- 


OVEN 


481 


OX 


pose  Othniol  to  have  survived  Joshua  not 
more  than  20,  or  at  the  outside,  30  years. 
Oven.  The  Eastern  oven  is  of  two  kinds 
-  fixed  and  portable.  The  former  is  found 
only  in  towns,  where  regular  bakers  are 
employed  (Hos.  vii.  4).  The  latter  is 
adapted  to  the  nomad  state.  It  consists 
of  a  large  jar  made  of  clay,  about  three 
feet  high,  and  widening  towards  the  bot- 
tom, with  a  hole  for  tlie  extraction  of  the 
ashes.  Each  household  possessed  such  an 
article  (Ex.  viii.  3) ;  and  it  was  only  in 
times  of  extreme  dearth  that  the  same 
oven  sufficed  for  several  families  (Lev. 
xxvi.  26).  It  was  heated  with  dry  twigs 
and  grass  (Matt.  vi.  30) ;  and  the  loaves 
were  placed  both  inside  and  outside  of  it. 


Egyptian  Oven. 

Owl,  the  representative  in  the  A.  V.  of 

the  Hebrew  words  bath  haya'andh,  yan- 
shxtph,  c6s,  kippdz,  and  lillth.  1.  Bath  ha- 
ya'andh. [Ostrich.]  2.  YanshUph,  or 
yanshdph,  occurs  in  Lev.  xi.  17,  Deut.  xiv. 
16,  as  the  name  of  some  unclean  bird,  and 


Otua  asealaphra. 


in  Is.  xxxiv.  11,  in  the  description  of  deso- 
late Edom,  "  the  yanshUph  and  the  raven 
shall  dwell  in  it."  The  A.  V.  translates 
yanshiiph  by  "  owl,"  or  "  great  owl."  The 
LXX.  and  Vulg.  read  ibis,  i.  e.  the  Ibis  re- 
81 


ligiosa,  the  sacred  bird  of  Egypt.  3.  Crf», 
the  name  of  an  unclean  bird  (Lev.  xi.  17 ; 
Deut.  xiv.  16) ;  it  occurs  again  in  Ts.  cii. 
6.  The  passage  in  Ps.  cii.  6  points  de- 
cidedly to  some  kind  of  owl.  Tlie  owl  we 
figure  is  the  Otus  ascalaphus,  the  Egyptian 
and  Asiatic  representative  of  our  great 
horned  owl  {Bubo  maximus').  4.  Kippdz 
occurs  only  in  Is.  xxxiv.  15  :  "  There  (t.  c. 
in  Edom)  the  kippdz  shall  make  her  nest, 
and  lay  and  hatch  and  gather  under  her 
shadow."  It  is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  iden- 
tify the  animal  denoted  by  this  word ;  but  it 
may  denote  some  species  of  owl.  5.  Lilith. 


Athene  meridionali$. 

The  A.  V.  renders  this  word  by  "  screech- 
owl  "  in  the  text  of  Is.  xxxiv.  14,  and  by 
"  night-monster  "  in  the  margin.  Accord- 
ing to  the  llabbins  the  lilith  was  a  noctur- 
nal spectre  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  wo- 
man that  carried  off  children  at  niglit  and 
destroyed  them.  If,  however,  some  animal! 
be  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  term,  the  screech- 
owl  {strix  flammea)  may  well  be  supposed' 
to  represent  it,  for  this  bird  is  found  in  the 
Bible  lands,  and  is,  as  is  well  known,  a  fre- 
quent inhabiter  of  ruined  places. 

Ox.  There  was  no  animal  in  the  rural 
economy  of  the  Israelites,  or  indeed  in  that 
of  the  ancient  Orientals  generally,  that  wa» 
held  in  higher  esteem  than  the  ox ;  and  de- 
servedly so,  for  the  ox  was  the  animal  upo» 
whose  patient  labors  depended  all  the  ordi- 
nary operations  of  farming.  Oxen  were  used 
for  ploughing  (Deut.  xxii.  10;  1  Sam.  xiv. 
14,  &c.)  ;  for  treading  out  corn  (Deut.  xxv. 
4;  Hos.  X.  11,  &c.)  ;  for  drauglit  purposes, 
when  they  were  generally  yoked  in  pairs 
(Num.  vii.  3  ;  1  Sam.  vi.  7,  &c.)  ;  as  beasts 
of  burden  (1  Chr.  xii.  40)  ;  their  flesh  was 
eaten  (Deut.  xiv.  4 ;  IK.  i.  9,  &c.) ;  they 
were  used  in  the  sacrifices ;  cows  supplied 
milk,  butter,  &c.  (Deut.  xxxii.  14 ;  Is.  vii. 
22;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).     Connected  with  the 


OZEM 


482 


PAINT 


importance  of  oxen  in  the  rural  economy 
of  the  Jews  is  the  strict  code  of  laws  which 
was  mercifully  enacted  by  God  for  their 
protection  and  preservation.  The  ox  that 
threshed  the  corn  was  by  no  means  to  be 
muzzled ;  he  was  to  enjoy  rest  on  the  Sab- 
bath as  well  as  his  master  (Ex.  xxiii.  12 ; 
Deut.  V.  14).  The  law  which  prohibited 
the  slaughter  of  any  clean  animal,  except- 
ing as  "an  offering  unto  the  Lord  before 
the  tabernacle,"  during  the  time  that  the 
Israelites  abode  in  the  wilderness  (Lev. 
xvii.  1-6),  no  doubt  contributed  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  their  oxen  and  sheep.  It  seems 
clear  from  Frov.  xv.  17,  and  1  K.  iv.  23, 
that  cattle  were  sometimes  stall-fed,  though 
as  a  general  rule  it  is  probable  that  they 
fed  in  the  plains  or  on  the  hills  of  Pales- 
tine. The  cattle  that  grazed  at  large  in  the 
open  country  would  no  doubt  often  become 
fierce  and  wild,  for  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  in  primitive  times  the  lion  and  other 
wild  beasts  of  prey  roamed  about  Pales- 
tine. Hence  the  force  of  the  Psalmist's 
complaint  of  his  enemies  (Ps.  xxii.  13). 

O'zem.  1.  The  sixth  son  of  Jesse,  the 
next  eldest  above  David  (1  Chr.  ii.  15). 
2.  Son  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chr.  ii.  25). 

Ozi'as.  1.  Uzzi,  one  of  the  ancestors 
of  Ezra  (2  Esd.  ii.  2).  2.  Uzziah,  king 
of  Judah  (Matt.  i.  8,  9). 

Oz'ni.  One  of  the  sons  of  Gad  (Num. 
xxvi.  IG),  and  founder  of  the  family  of  the 
Oznites,  Num.  xxvi.  16. 


P. 


Pa'arai.  In  the  list  of  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
35,  "Paaraithe  Arbite"  is  one  of  David's 
mighty  men.  In  1  Chr.  xi.  37,  he  is  called 
"Naarai  the  son  of  Ezbai,"  and  this  in 
Kennicott's  opinion  is  the  true  reading. 

Pa' dan.     Padan-Aram  (Gen.  xlviii.  7). 

Pa'dan-a'ram.  By  tliis  name,  which 
signifies  "  the  table-land  of  Aram,"  the 
Hebrews  designated  the  tract  of  country 
which  they  otherwise  called  Aram-naha- 
raim,  "Aram  of  the  two  rivers,"  the  Greek 
Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxiv.  10),  and  "  the 
field  (A.  V.  'country')  of  Aram"  (Hos. 
xii.  13).  The  term  was  perhaps  more  espe- 
cially applied  to  that  portion  which  bor- 
dered on  the  Euphrates,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  mountainous  districts  in  the  N. 
and  N.  E.  of  Mesopotamia.  It  is  elsewhere 
called  Padan  simply  (Gen.  xlviii.  7). 

Pa'don.  The  ancestor  of  a  family  of 
Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezr.  ii.  44;  Neh.  vii.  47). 

Pa'giel.  The  son  of  Ocran,  and  chief 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher  at  the  time  of  the 
Exodus  (Num.  i.  13,  ii.  27,  vii.  72,  77,  x. 
26). 

Pa'hath-mo'ab.    Head  of  one  of  the 


chief  houses  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Of  the 
individual,  or  the  occasion  of  his  receiving 
so  singular  a  name,  nothing  is  known  cer- 
tainly. But  as  we  read,  in  1  Chr.  iv.  22,  of 
a  family  of  Shilonites,  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah, who  in  very  early  times  "  had  domin- 
ion in  Moab,"  it  may  be  conjectured  that 
this  was  the  origin  of  the  name.  That  this 
family  was  of  high  rank  in  the  tribe  of 
Judah  we  learn  from  their  appearing /o?«r^/i 
in  order  in  the  two  lists,  Ezr.  ii.  6 ;  Nph. 
vii.  11,  and  from  their  chief  having  signed 
second  among  the  lay  princes,  in  Neh.  x. 
14.  It  was  also  the  most  numerous  (2818) 
of  all  the  families  specified,  except  the 
Benjamite  house  of  Senaah  (Neh.  vii.  38). 

Pa'i.    [Pac] 

Paint  (as  a  cosmetic).  The  use  of  cos- 
metic dyes  has  prevailed  in  all  ages  in 
Eastern  countries.  We  have  abundant  evi- 
dence of  the  practice  of  painting  the  eyes 
both  in  ancient  Egypt  and  in  Assyria ;  and 
in  modern  times  no  usage  is  more  general. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  been 
by  any  means  universal  among  the  He- 
brews. The  notices  of  it  are  few ;  and  in 
each  instance  it  seems  to  have  been  used 
as  a  meretricious  art,  unworthy  of  a  woman 
of  high  character.  Thus  Jezebel  "  put  her 
eyes  in  painting "  (2  K.  ix.  30,  margin) ; 
Jeremiah  says  oif  the  harlot  city,  "Though 
thou  rentest  thy  eyes  with  painting  "  (Jcr. 
iv.  30) ;  and  Ezekiel  again  makes  it  a  char- 
acteristic of  a  harlot  (Ez.  xxiii.  40).  The 
expressions  used  in  these  passages  are 
worthy  of  observation,  as  referring  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  process  was  effected. 
It  is  thus  described  by  Chandler  ( Travels, 
ii.  140)  :  "  A  girl,  closing  one  of  her  eyes, 
took  the  two  lashes  between  the  forefinger 
and  thumb  of  the  left  hand,  pulled  them 
forward,  and  then  thrusting  in  at  the  ex- 
ternal corner  a  bodkin  which  had  been  im- 
mersed in  the  soot,  and  extracting  it  again, 
the  particles  before  adhering  to  it  remained 
witliin,  and  were  presently  ranged  round 
the  organ."  The  e3'^es  were  thus  literally 
" put  in  paint,"  and  were  "rent"  open  in 
the  process.  A  broad  line  was  also  drawn 
round  the  eye.  The  effect  was  an  appar- 
ent enlargement  of  the  eye ;  and  the  ex- 
pression in  Jer.  iv.  30  has  been  by  some 
understood  in  this  sense.  The  Bible  gives 
no  indication  of  the  substance  out  of  which 
the  dye  was  formed.  The  old  versions 
agree  in  pronouncing  the  dye  to  have  been 
produced  from  antimony.  Antimony  is 
still  used  for  the  purpose  in  Arabia  and  in 
Persia,  but  in  Egj'pt  the  koJil  is  a  soot  pro- 
duced by  burning  either  a  kind  of  frankin- 
cense or  the  shells  of  almonds.  The  dye- 
stuff  was  moistened  with  oil,  and  kept  in  a 
small  jar,  which  we  may  infer  to  have  been 
made  of  horn,  from  the  proper  name  Kcr- 
en-happuch,  "  horn  for  paint "  (Job  xlii. 
14).    Whelier  the  custom  of  staining  the 


PALACE 


483 


PALESTINE 


hanJs  and  feet,  particularly  the  nails,  now 
so  prevalent  in  the  East,  was  known  to  the 
Hebrews,  is  doubtful.  The  plant  henna, 
which  is  used  for  that  purpose,  was  cer- 
tainly known  (Cant.  i.  14;  A.  V.  "  cam- 
phire  "),  and  the  expressions  in  Cant.  v.  14 
may  possibly  refer  to  the  custom. 

Palace.  There  are  few  tasks  more 
difficult  or  puzzling  than  the  attempt  to  re- 
store an  ancient  building  of  which  we  pos- 
sess nothing  but  two  verbal  descriptions ; 
and  these  difficulties  are  very  much  en- 
hanced wiien  one  account  is  written  in  a 
language  like  Hebrew,  the  scientific  terms 
in  which  are,  from  our  ignorance,  capable 
of  the  widest  latitude  of  interpretation,  and 
the  other,  though  written  in  a  language 
of  which  we  have  a  more  definite  knowl- 
edge, was  composed  by  a  person  who  never 
could  have  seen  the  buildings  he  was  de- 
scribing. The  site  of  the  Palace  of  Solo- 
mon was  almost  certainly  in  the  city  itself, 
on  the  brow  opposite  to  the  Temple,  and 
overlooking  it  and  the  whole  city  of  David. 
It  is  impossible,  of  course,  to  be  at  all  cer- 
tain what  was  either  the  form  or  the  exact 
disposition  of  such  a  palace ;  but,  as  we 
have  the  dimensions  of  the  three  principal 
buildings  given  in  the  Book  of  Kings,  and 
confirmed  by  Josephus,  we  may,  by  taking 
these  as  a  scale,  ascertain  pretty  nearly 
that  the  building  covered  somewhere  about 
150,000  or  160,000  square  feet.  Whether 
it  was  a  square  of  400  feet  each  way,  or  an 
oblong  of  about  550  feet  by  300,  must  al- 
ways be  more  or  less  a  matter  of  conjec- 
ture. The  principal  building  situated  with- 
in the  palace  was,  as  in  all  Eastern  palaces, 
the  great  hall  of  state  and  audience,  called 
"  The  House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon," 
apparently  from  the  four  rows  of  cedar  pil- 
lars by  which  it  was  supported.  It  was  100 
cubits  long,  50  wide,  and  30  high.  Next  in 
importance  was  the  Hall  or  "Porch  of 
Judgment,"  a  quadi'angular  building  sup- 
ported by  columns,  as  we  learn  from  Jose- 
phus, which  apparently  stood  on  the  other 
side  of  the  great  court,  opposite  the  House 
of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon.  The  third  edi- 
fice is  merely  called  a  "  Porch  of  Pillars." 
Its  dimensions  were  60  by  30  cubits.  Its 
use  cannot  be  considered  as  doubtful,  as  it 
was  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  an  Eastern 
palace.  It  was  the  ordinary  place  of  busi- 
ness of  the  palace,  and  the  reception-room 
when  the  king  received  ordinary  visitors, 
and  sat,  except  on  great  state  occasions,  to 
transact  the  business  of  the  kingdom.  Be- 
hind this,  we  are  told,  was  the  inner  court, 
adorned  with  gardens  and  fountains,  and 
surrounded  by  cloisters  for  shade;  and 
there  were  other  courts  for  the  residence 
of  the  attendants  and  guards,  and  for  the 
women  of  his  harem.  Apart  from  this  pal- 
ace, but  attached,  as  Joi^ephus  tells  us,  to 
the  Hall  of  Judgment,  was  the  palace  of 


Pharaoh's  daughter  —  too  proud  and  im- 
portant a  personage  to  be  grouped  with 
the  ladies  of  the  harem,  and  requiring  a 
residence  of  her  own.  The  recent  discov- 
eries at  NinevTeh  have  enabled  us  to  under- 
stand many  of  the  architectural  details  of 
this  palace,  which  before  they  were  made 
were  nearly  wholly  inexplicable.  Solomon 
constructed  an  ascent  from  his  own  house 
to  the  Temple,  "  the  house  of  Jehovah  "  (1 
K.  X.  5),  which  was  a  subterranean  passage 
250  feet  long  by  42  feet  wide,  of  which  the 
remains  may  still  be  traced. 

Pa'lal,  the  son  of  Uzai,  who  assisted  in 
restoring  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

Palesti'na  and  Pal'estine.  These  two 
forms  occur  in  the  A.  V.  but  four  times  in 
all,  always  in  poetical  passages ;  the  first 
in  Ex.  XV.  14,  and  Is.  xiv.  29,  31 ;  the  sec- 
ond, Joel  iii.  4.  In  each  case  the  Hebrew 
is  Pelesheth,  a  word  found,  besides  tlie 
above,  only  in  Ps.  Ix.  8,  Ixxxiii.  7,  Ixxxvii. 
4,  and  cviii.  9,  in  all  which  our  translators 
have  rendered  it  by  "  Philistia"  or  "  Philis- 
tines." Palestine  in  the  A.  V.  really  means 
nothing  but  Philistia.  The  original  He- 
brew word  Pelesheth,  to  the  Hebrews,  sig- 
nified merely  tlie  long  and  broad  strip  of 
maritime  plain  inhabited  by  their  encroach- 
ing neighbors ;  nor  does  it  appear  that  at 
first  it  signifies  more  to  the  Greeks.  As 
lying  next  the  sea,  and  as  being  also  the 
high  road  from  Egypt  to  Phoenicia  and  the 
richer  regions  north  of  it,  the  Philistine 
plain  became  sooner  known  to  the  western 
world  than  the  country  farther  inland,  and 
was  called  by  them  Syria  Palaestina  —  Phi- 
listine Syria.  From  thence  it  was  gradual- 
ly extended  to  tlie  country  farther  inland, 
till  in  the  Roman  and  later  Greek  authors, 
both  heathen  and  Christian,  it  becomes  tlie 
usual  appellation  for  the  whole  country  of 
the  Jews,  both  west  and  east  of  Jordan. 
The  word  is  now  so  commonly  employed 
in  our  more  familiar  language  to  designate 
the  whole  country  of  Israel,  that,  although 
biblically  a  misnomer,  it  has  been  cliosen 
here  as  the  most  convenient  heading  under 
which  to  give  a  general  description  of  the 
Holy  Land,  embracing  those  points  which 
have  not  been  treated  tinder  the  separate 
headings  of  cities  or  tribes.  This  descrip- 
tion will  most  conveniently  divide  itself  into 
three  sections :  I.  The  Names  applied  to 
the  country  of  Israel  in  the  Bible  and  else- 
where. II.  The  Land :  its  situation,  as- 
pect, climate,  physical  characteristics,  in 
connection  with  its  history ;  its  structure, 
botany,  and  natural  history.  III.  The  His- 
tory of  the  country  is  so  fully  given  under 
its  various  headings  throughout  the  work, 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  recapitulate  it 
here. 

I.  The  Names.  —  l?alestine,  then,  is  des- 
ignated in  the  Bible  by  more  than  ona 


PALESTINE 


484 


PALESTINE 


name  :  1.  During  the  Patriarchal  period, 
the  Conquest,  and  tlie  age  of  the  Judges, 
and  also  where  those  early  periods  are  re- 
ferred to  in  the  later  literature  (asPs.  cv.  II), 
it  is  spoken  of  as  "  Canaan,"  or  more  fre- 
quently '*  the  land  of  Canaan,"  meaning 
thereby  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan,  as 
opposed  to  "  the  land  of  Gilead  "  on  the 
east.  2.  During  the  monarchy  the  name 
usually,  though  not  frequently,  employed, 
is  "  land  of  Israel"  (1  Sam.  xiii.  19;  2  K. 
V.  2,  4,  &c.).  It  is  Ezekiel's  favorite  ex- 
pression. The  pious  and  loyal  aspirations 
of  Hosea  find  vent  in  the  expression,  "  land 
of  Jehovah"  (Hos.  ix.  3).  In  Zechariah 
it  is  "  the  holy  land  "  (Zech.  ii.  12)  ;  and  in 
Daniel  "the  glorious  laud"  (Dan.  xi.  41). 
In  Amos  (ii.  10)  alone  it  is  "  the  land  of 
the  Amorite."  Occasionally  it  appears  to 
be  mentioned  simply  as  "the  land;"  as 
in  Ruth  i.  1 ;  Jer.  xxii.  27 ;  1  Mace.  xiv.  4 ; 
Luke  iv.  25,  and  perhaps  even  xxiii.  44.  3. 
Between  the  Captivity  and  the  time  of  our 
Lord  the  name  "  Judaea"  had  extended  it- 
self from  the  southern  portion  to  the  whole 
of  the  country,  even  that  beyond  Jordan 
(Matt.  xix.  1 ;  Mark  x.  1).  In  the  book  of 
Judith  it  is  applied  to  the  portion  between 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon  and  Samaria  (xi. 
19),  as  it  is  in  Luke  xxiii.  5;  though  it  is 
also  used  in  the  stricter  sense  of  Judaea 
proper  (John  iv.  3,  vii.  1).  In  this  nar- 
rower sense  it  is  employed  throughout  1 
Mace,  (see  especially  ix.  50,  x.  30,  38,  xi. 
34).  4.  The  Roman  division  of  the  coun- 
try hardly  coincided  with  the  Biblical  one, 
and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Romans  had 
any  distinct  name  for  that  which  we  un- 
derstand by  Palestine.  6.  Soon  after  the 
Christian  era  we  find  the  name  Palaestina 
in  possession  of  the  country.  6.  The  name 
most  frequently  used  tliroughout  the  middle 
ages,  and  down  to  our  own  time,  is  Terra 
Sa7icta  —  the  Holy  Land.  II.  The  Land. 
—  The  Holy  Land  is  not  in  size  or  physi- 
cal characteristics  proportioned  to  its  moral 
and  historical  position,  as  the  theatre  of 
tlie  most  momentous  events  in  the  world's 
history.  It  is  but  a  strip  of  coimtry  about 
the  size  of  Wales,  less  than  140  miles  in 
length,  and  barely  40  in  average  breadth,  on 
the  very  frontier  of  the  East,  hemmed  in  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  enormous  trench  of  the  Jordan 
valley  on  the  other,  by  which  it  is  effec- 
tually cut  off  from  the  main  land  of  Asia 
behind  it.  On  the  north  it  is  shut  in  by  tlie 
high  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  anti-Lebanon, 
and  by  the  chasm  of  the  Litany.  On  the 
south  it  is  no  less  enclosed  by  the  arid  and 
inhospitable  deserts  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  1.  Its  position  on 
the  Map  of  the  World  —  as  the  world  was 
when  the  Holy  Land  first  made  its  appear- 
ance in  history  —  is  a  remarkable  one. 
^i.}  It  is  on  the  very  outpost  —  on  the  ex- 


tremest  western  edge  of  the  East.  On  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  it  stands,  as  if 
it  had  advanced  as  far  as  possible  towards 
the  West,  separated  therefrom  by  that 
which,  when  the  time  arrived,  proved  to  be 
no  barrier,  but  the  readiest  medium  of 
communication  —  the  wide  waters  of  the 
"  Great  Sea."  Thus  it  was  open  to  all  the 
gradual  influences  of  the  rising  communi- 
ties of  the  West,  while  it  was  saved  from 
the  retrogression  and  decrepitude  which 
have  ultimately  been  the  doom  of  all  pure- 
ly Eastern  States  whose  connections  were 
limited  to  the  East  only,  (ii.)  There  was 
however  one  channel,  and  but  one,  by  wliich 
it  could  reach  and  be  reached  by  the  great 
Oriental  empires.  The  only  road  by  which 
the  two  great  rivals  of  the  ancient  world 
could  approach  one  another  —  by  which 
alone  Egypt  could  get  to  Assyria,  and  As- 
syria to  Egypt  —  lay  along  the  broad  flat 
strip  of  coast  which  formed  the  maritime 
portion  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  thence  by 
the  Plain  of  the  Lebanon  to  the  Euphrates, 
(iii.)  After  this  the  Holy  Land  became 
(like  the  Netherlands  in  Europe)  the  con- 
venient arena  on  which  in  successive  ages 
the  hostile  powers  who  contended  for  the 
empire  of  the  East  fought  their  battles. 
2.  It  is  essentially  a  mountainous  country. 
Not  that  it  contains  independent  mountain 
chains,  as  in  Greece,  for  example,  but  that 
every  part  of  the  highland  is  in  greater  or 
less  undulation.  But  it  is  not  only  a  moun- 
tainous country.  The  mass  of  hills  which 
occupies  the  centre  of  the  country  is  bor- 
dei-ed  or  framed  on  both  sides,  east  and 
west,  by  a  broad  belt  of  lowland,  sunk  deep 
below  its  own  level.  The  slopes  or  cliffs 
which  form,  as  it  were,  the  retaining  walls 
of  this  depression,  are  furrowed  and  cleft 
by  the  torrent  beds  which  discharge  the 
waters  of  the  hills,  and  form  the  means  of 
communication  between  the  upper  and  low- 
er level.  On  the  west  this  lowland  inter- 
poses between  the  mountains  and  tlie  sea, 
and  is  the  Plain  of  Philistia  and  of  Sha- 
ron. On  the  east  it  is  the  broad  bottom  of 
the  Jordan  Valley,  deep  down  in  which 
rushes  the  one  river  of  Palestine  to  its  grave 
in  the  Dead  Sea.  Such  is  the  first  general 
impression  of  the  physiognomy  of  the  Holy 
Land.  It  is  a  physiognomy  compounded 
of  the  three  main  features  already  named 
—  the  plains,  the  highland  hills,  and  the 
torrent  beds  :  features  which  are  marked  in 
the  words  of  its  earliest  describers  (Num. 
xiii.  29;  Josh.  xi.  IG,  xii.  8),  and  which 
must  be  comprehended  by  every  one  who 
wishes  to  understand  the  country,  and  the 
intimate  connection  existing  between  its 
structure  and  its  history.  3.  About  half 
way  up  the  coast  the  maritime  plain 
is  suddenly  interrupted  by  a  long  ridge 
thrown  out  from  the  central  mass,  rising 
considerably  above  the  general  level,  and 


PALESTINE 


485 


PALESTINE 


terminating  in  a  bold  promontory  on  the 
very  edge  of  the  Mediterranean.  This  ridge 
is  MocNT  Caumel.  On  its  upper  side,  the 
plain,  as  if  to  compensate  for  its  temporary 
displacement,  invades  the  centre  of  the 
country,  and  forms  an  undulating  hollow- 
right  across  it  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  Jordan  valley.  This  central  lowland, 
which  divides  with  its  broad  depression  the 
mountains  of  Ephraim  from  the  mountains 
of  Galilee,  is  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  or 
Jezreel,  the  great  battle-field  of  Palestine. 
North  of  Carmel  the  lowland  resumes  its 
position  by  the  sea- side  till  it  is  again  in- 
terrupted and  finally  put  an  end  to  by  the 
northern  mountains,  which  push  their  way 
out  of  the  sea,  ending  in  the  white  promon- 
tory of  tiie  Ras  NakhAra.  Above  this  is 
the  ancient  Phoenicia.  4.  The  country 
thus  roughly  portrayed,  and  which,  as  be- 
fore stated,  is  less  than  140  miles  in  length, 
and  not  more  than  40  in  average  breadth, 
is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  whole  land 
of  Israel.  The  northern  portion  is  Gali- 
lee ;  the  centre,  Samaria  ;  the  south,  Ju- 
daea. This  is  the  land  of  Canaan  which 
was  bestowed  on  Abraham ;  the  covenanted 
home  of  his  descendants.  The  two  tribes 
and  a  half  remained  on  the  uplands  beyond 
Jordan ;  and  the  result  was,  that  these  tribes 
soon  ceased  to  have  any  close  connection 
with  the  others,  or  to  form  any  virtual  part 
of  the  nation.  But  even  this  definition 
might  without  impropriety  be  further  cir- 
cumscribed ;  for  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  Old  Testament  times  the  chief  events  of 
the  history  were  confined  to  the  district 
south  of  Esdraelon,  which  contained  the 
cities  of  Hebron,  Jerusalem,  Bethel,  Shiloh, 
Shechem,  and  Samaria,  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
and  Mount  Carmel.  The  battles  of  the  Con- 
quest and  the  early  struggles  of  the  era  of 
the  Judges  once  passed,  Galilee  subsided 
into  obscurity  and  unimportance  till  the 
time  of  Christ.  6.  The  highland  district, 
surrounded  and  intersected  by  its  broad 
lowland  plains,  preserves  from  north  to 
south  a  remarkably  even  and  horizontal 
profile.  Its  average  height  may  be  taken 
as  1500  to  1800  feet  above  the  Mediterra- 
nean. It  can  hardly  be  denominated  a 
plateau,  yet  so  evenly  is  the  general  level 
preserved,  and  so  thickly  do  the  hills  stand 
behind  and  between  one  another,  that,  when 
seen  from  the  coast  or  the  western  part  of 
the  maritime  plain,  it  has  quite  the  appear- 
ance of  a  wall.  This  general  monotony  of 
profile  is,  however,  accentuated  at  intervals 
by  certain  centres  of  elevation.*  Between 
these  elevated  points  runs  the  watershed 
of  the  country,  sending  off  on  either  hand 

•  BefrinninK  from  the  eouth,  the»e  elevationa  are  Hebron, 
80211  feet  above  the  Mediterranean;  Jerusalem,  'JfilO,  and 
Mount  of  Olives,  2724,  with  Aebu  Samwil  on  the  north,  2650  ; 
Bethel,  24l«l !  Si'mjiV,  2085:  Elial  and  Gerizim,  27IW  ;  "Little 
Hermon"  and  Tabor  (on  the  north  side  of  the  Plain  of  £a- 
drwiou;,  IWXI  i  iki/'eU,  ■£!&  {  JeOel  Jiuntuk,  itXO.  | 


—  to  the  Jordan  valley  on  the  east  and  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  west  —  the  long,  tor- 
tuous arms  of  its  many  torrent  beds.  The 
valleys  on  the  two  sides  of  the  watershed 
differ  considerably  in  character.  Those  on 
the  east  are  extremely  steep  and  rugged. 
This  is  the  case  during  the  whole  length  of 
the  southern  and  middle  portions  of  the 
country.  It  is  only  when  the  junction  be- 
tween the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  and  the  Jordan 
Valley  is  reached,  that  the  slopes  become 
gradual"  and  the  ground  fit  for  the  manoeu- 
vres of  anything  but  detached  bodies  of  foot 
soldiers.  But,  rugged  and  difficult  as  they 
are,  they  form  the  only  access  to  the  upper 
country  from  this  side,  and  every  man  or 
body  of  men  who  reached  the  territory  of 
Judah,  Benjamin,  or  Ephraim,  from  the 
Jordan  Valley,  must  have  climbed  one  or 
other  of  them.  The  western  valleys  are 
more  gradual  in  their  slope.  The  level  of 
the  external  plain  on  this  side  is  higher, 
and  therefore  the  ftiU  less,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  distance  to  be  traversed  is 
much  greater.  Here  again  the  valleys  are 
the  only  means  of  communication  between 
the  lowland  and  the  highland.  From  Jaffa 
and  the  central  part  of  the  plain  there  are 
two  of  these  roads  "  going  up  to  Jerusalem ;" 
the  one  to  the  right  by  Ramleh  and  the 
Wady  Aly ;  the  other  to  the  left  by  Lydda, 
and  thence  by  the  Beth-horons,  or  the  Wady 
Suleiman,  and  Gibeon.  The  former  of  these 
is  modern,  but  the  latter  is  the  scene  of 
many  a  famous  incident  in  the  ancient  his- 
tory. 6.  When  the  highlands  of  the  coun- 
try are  more  closely  examined,  a  consider- 
able difference  will  be  found  to  exist  in  the 
natural  condition  and  appearance  of  their 
different  portions.  The  south,  as  being 
nearer  the  arid  desert,  and  farther  removed 
from  the  drainage  of  the  mountains,  is  drier 
and  less  productive  than  the  north.  The 
tract  below  Hebron,  which  forms  the  link 
between  the  hills  of  Judah  and  the  desert, 
was  known  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  by  a 
term  originally  derived  from  its  dryness 
(Negeb).  This  was  the  south  country. 
As  the  traveller  advances  north  of  this  tract 
there  is  an  improvement;  but  perhaps  no 
country  equally  cultivated  is  more  monoto- 
nous, bare,  or  uninviting  in  its  aspect,  than 
a  great  part  of  the  highlands  of  Judah  and 
Benjamin  during  the  largest  portion  of  the 
year.  The  spring  covers  even  those  bald 
gray  rocks  with  verdure  and  color,  and  fills 
the  ravines  with  torrents  of  rushing  water ; 
but  in  summer  and  autumn  the  look  of  tliex 
country  from  Hebron  up  to  Bethel  is  very 
dreary  and  desolate.  At  Jerusalem  this 
reaches  its  climax.  To  the  west  and  north- 
west of  the  highlands,  where  the  sea-breezes 
are  felt,  there  is  considerably  more  vegeta- 
tion. 7.  Hitherto  we  have  spoken  of  the 
central  and  northern  portions  of  Judaea. 
Its  eastern  portion  —  a  tract  some  nine  or 


PALESTINE 


486 


PALESTINE 


ten  miles  in  width  by  about  thirty-five  in 
length  —  which  intervenes  between  the  cen- 
tre and  the  abrupt  descent  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
is  fiir  more  wild  and  desolate,  and  that  not 
for  a  portion  of  the  year  only,  but  through- 
out it.  This  must  have  been  always  what 
it  is  now  —  an  uninhabited  desert,  because 
uninhabitable.  8.  No  descriptive  sketch 
of  this  part  of  the  country  can  be  complete 
which  does  not  allude  to  the  caverns,  char- 
acteristic of  all  limestone  districts,  but  here 
existing  in  astonishing  numbers.  Every 
hill  and  ravine  is  pierced  with  them,  some 
very  large  and  of  curious  formation  — 
perhaps  partly  natural,  partly  artificial  — 
others  mere  grottos.  Many  of  them  are 
connected  with  most  important  and  inter- 
esting events  of  the  ancient  history  of  the 
country.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  dis- 
trict now  under  consideration.  Machpelah, 
Makkedah,  AduUam,  Engedi,  names  in- 
separably connected  with  the  lives,  adven- 
tures, and  deaths  of  Abraham,  Joshua, 
David,  and  other  Old  Testament  worthies, 
are  all  within  the  small  circle  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Judaea.  Moreover,  there  is  perhaps 
hardly  one  of  these  caverns,  however  small, 
which  has  not  at  some  time  or  other  fur- 
nished a  hiding-place  to  some  ancient 
Hebrew  from  the  sweeping  incursions  of 
Philistine  or  Amalekite.  9.  The  bareness 
and  dryness  which  prevail  more  or  less 
in  Judaea  are  owing  partly  to  the  ab- 
sence of  wood,  partly  to  its  proximity  to 
the  desert,  and  partly  to  a  scarcity  of 
water,  arising  from  its  distance  from  the 
Lebanon.  But  to  this  discouraging  as- 
pect there  are  some  important  exceptions. 
The  valley  of  Urtas,  south  of  Bethlehem, 
contains  springs  which  in  abundance  and 
excellence  rival  even  those  of  Nahlus  ;  the 
huge  "  Pools  of  Solomon  "  are  enough  to 
supply  a  district  for  many  miles  round 
them ;  and  the  cultivation  now  going  on  in 
that  neighborhood  shows  what  might  be 
done  with  a  soil  which  requires  only  irriga- 
tion and  a  moderate  amount  of  labor  to  evoke 
a  boundless  produce.  10.  It  is  obvious 
that  in  tlie  ancient  days  of  the  nation,  when 
Judah  and  Benjamin  possessed  the  teeming 
population  indicated  in  the  Bible,  the  con- 
dition and  aspect  of  the  country  must  have 
been  very  different.  Of  this  there  are  not 
wanting  sure  evidences.  There  is  no  coun- 
try in  which  the  ruined  towns  bear  so  large 
a  proportion  to  those  still  existing.  Hardly 
a  hill-top  of  the  many  within  sight  that  is 
not  covered  with  vestiges  of  some  fortress 
or  city.  But,  besides  this,  forests  appear 
to  have  stood  in  many  parts  of  Judaea 
until  the  repeated  invasions  and  sieges 
caused  their  fall;  and  all  this  vegetation 
must  have  reacted  on  the  moisture  of  the 
climate,  and,  by  preserving  the  water  in 
many  a  ravine  and  natural  reservoir  where 
now  it  is  rapidly  dried  by  the  fierce  sun  of 


the  early  summer,  must  have  influenced 
materially  tlie  look  and  the  resources  of  the 
country.  11.  Advancing  northwards  from 
Judaea,  the  country  (Samaria)  becomes 
gradually  more  open  and  pleasant.  Plains 
of  good  soil  occur  between  the  hills,  at 
first  small,  but  afterwards  comparatively 
large.  The  hills  assume  here  a  more  varied 
aspect  than  in  the  southern  districts,  springs 
are  more  abundant  and  more  permanent, 
until  at  last,  when  the  district  of  Jebel 
Nablits  is  reached  —  the  ancient  Mount 
Ephraira  —  the  traveller  encounters  an  at- 
mosphere and  an  amount  of  vegetation  and 
water  which  are  greatly  superior  to  anything 
he  has  met  with  in  Judaea,  and  even  suffi- 
cient to  recall  much  of  the  scenery  of  the 
West.  Perhaps  the  springs  are  the  only 
objects  which  in  themselves,  and  apart 
from  their  associations,  really  strike  an 
English  traveller  with  astonishment  and 
admiration.  Such  glorious  fountains  as 
those  oi  Ain-jalud  or  the  Eas  el-Mukdtia  — 
where  a  great  body  of  the  clearest  water 
wells  silently  but  swiftly  out  from  deep 
blue  recesses  worn  in  the  foot  of  a  low 
cliff  of  limestone  rock,  and  at  once  forms 
a  considerable  stream  —  are  very  rarely  to 
be  met  with  out  of  irregular,  rocky,  moun- 
tainous countries,  and  being  such  unusual 
sights,  can  hardly  be  looked  on  by  the 
traveller  without  surprise  and  emotion. 
The  valleys  which  lead  down  from  the 
upper  level  in  this  district  to  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  are  less  precipitous  than  in 
Judaea.  The  eastern  district  of  the  Jehel 
NablUs  contain  some  of  the  most  fertile 
and  valuable  spots  in  the  Holy  Land. 
Hardly  less  rich  is  the  extensive  region 
which  lies  n(?rth-west  of  the  city  of  Shechem 
(^Nabliis),  between  it  and  Carmel,  in  which 
the  mountains  gradually  break  down  into 
the  Plain  of  Sharon.  But  with  all  its  rich- 
ness, and  all  its  advance  on  the  southern 
part  of  the  country,  there  is  a  strange 
dearth  of  natural  wood  about  this  central 
district.  It  is  this  which  makes  the  wooded 
sides  of  Carmel  and  the  park-like  scenery 
of  the  adjacent  slopes  and  plains  so  re- 
markable. 12.  No  sooner,  however,  is  the 
Plain  of  Esdraelon  passed,  than  a  consid- 
erable improvement  is  perceptible.  The 
low  hills  which  spread  down  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Galilee,  and  form  the  barrier 
between  the  jilains  of  Akka  and  Esdraelon, 
are  covered  with  timber,  of  moderate  size, 
it  is  true,  but  of  tliick,  vigorous  growth,  and 
pleasant  to  the  eye.  Eastward  of  these 
hills  rises  the  round  mass  of  Tabor,  dark 
with  its  copses  of  oak,  and  set  off  by  con- 
trast with  the  bare  slopes  of  Jehel  ed-Duhy 
(the  so-called  "Little  Hermon")  and  the 
white  hills  of  Nazareth.  North  of  Tabor 
and  Nazareth  is  the  plain  of  el-Bidtauf,  an 
upland  tract  hitherto  very  imperfectly  de- 
scribed, but  apparently  of  a  similar  uaturo 


PALESTINE 


487 


PALESTINE 


to  Esdraelon,  though  much  more  elevated. 
The  notices  of  tliis  ronuintic  district  in  the 
Bible  are  but  scanty ;  in  fact,  till  the  date 
of  the  New  Testament,  when  it  had  ac- 
quired the  name  of  Galilee,  it  may  be  said, 
for  all  purposes  of  history,  to  be  hardly 
mentioned.  And  even  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment times  the  interest  is  confined  to  a 
very  small  portion  —  the  south  and  south- 
west corner,  containing  Nazareth,  Cana, 
and  Nain,  on  the  confines  of  Esdraelon, 
Capernaum,  Tiberias,  and  Gennesareth,  on 
tlie  margin  of  the  Lake.  13.  Few  things 
are  a  more  constant  source  of  surprise  to 
the  stranger  in  the  Holy  Land  than  the 
manner  in  which  the  hill-tops  are,  through- 
out, selected  for  habitation.  A  town  in  a 
valley  is  a  rare  exception.  On  the  other 
hand,  scarce  a  single  eminence  of  the  multi- 
tude always  in  sight  but  is  crowned  with  its 
city  or  village,  inhabited  or  in  ruins,  often  so 
placed  as  if  not  accessibility,  but  inaccessi- 
bility, had  been  the  object  of  its  builders. 
And  indeed  such  was  their  object.  These 
groups  of  naked,  forlorn  structures,  piled 
irregularly  one  over  the  other  on  the  curve 
of  the  hill-top,  are  the  lineal  descendants,  if 
indeed  they  do  not  sometimes  contain  the 
actual  remains,  of  the  "  fenced  cities,  great 
and  walled  up  to  heaven,"  which  are  so  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  records  of  the  Is- 
raelite conquest.  These  hill-towns  were  not 
what  gave  the  Israelites  their  main  difficulty 
in  the  occupation  of  the  country.  Wherever 
strength  of  arm  and  fleetness  of  foot  availed, 
there  those  hardy  warriors,  fierce  as  lions, 
sudden  and  swift  as  eagles,  sure-footed  and 
fleet  as  the  wild  deer  ori  the  hills  (1  Chr.  xii. 
9;  2  Sam.  i.  23,  ii.  18),  easily  conquered. 
It  was  in  the  plains,  where  the  horses  and 
chariots  of  the  Canaanites  and  Philistines 
had  space  to  manoeuvre,  that  they  failed 
in  dislodging  the  aborigines.  "  Judah  drove 
out  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountain,  but 
could  not  drive  out  the  inhabitants  of  the 
valley,  because  they  had  chariots  of  iron 
.  .  .  neither  could  Manasseh  drive  out  the 
inhabitants  of  Bethshean  .  .  .  nor  Megid- 
do,"  in  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  ..."  nor 
could  Epiiraim  drive  out  the  Canaanites  that 
dwelt  in  Gezer,"  on  the  maritime  plain  near 
Ramleh  ..."  nor  could  Asher  drive  out 
the  inhabitants  of  Accho  "...  "  and  the 
Amorites  forced  the  children  of  Dan  into 
the  mountain,  for  they  would  not  suffer 
them  to  come  down  into  the  valley  "  (Judg. 
i.  ll)-35).  Thus  in  this  case  the  ordinary 
conditions  of  conquest  were  reversed  —  the 
conquerors  took  the  hills,  the  conquered 
kept  the  plains.  To  a  people  so  exclusive 
as  the  Jews  there  must  have  been  a  con- 
stant satisfaction  in  the  elevation  and  in- 
accessibility of  their  higiiland  regions.  This 
is  evident  in  every  page  of  their  literature, 
which  is  tinged  throughout  with  a  high- 
laud  coloring.    The  "  mountains  "  were  to 


"  bring  peace,"  the  "  little  hills,  justice  to 
the  people : "  when  plenty  came,  the  corn 
was  to  flourish  on  the  "  top  of  the  moun- 
tains "  (Ps.  Ixxii.  3,  16).  In  like  manner 
the  mountains  were  to  be  joyful  before 
Jehovah  when  He  came  to  judge  his  people 
(Ps.  xcviii.  8).  What  gave  its  keenest 
sting  to  the  Babylonian  conquest,  was  tlie 
consideration  that  the  "  mountains  of 
Israel,"  the  "  ancient  high  places,"  were 
become  a  "prey  and  a  derision;"  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  one  of  the  most  joyful 
circumstances  of  the  restoration  is,  that  the 
mountains  "  shall  yield  their  fruit  as  before, 
and  be  settled  after  their  old  estates  "  (Ez. 
xxxvi.  1,  8,  11).  We  have  the  testimony 
of  the  heathens  that  in  their  estimation  Je- 
hovah was  the  "  God  of  the  mountains  "  (1 
K.  XX.  28),  and  they  showed  their  apprecia- 
tion of  the  fact  by  fighting,  when  possible, 
in  the  lowlands.  The  contrast  is  strongly 
brought  out  in  the  repeated  expression  of 
the  psalmists.  "  Some,"  like  the  Canaan- 
ites and  Philistines  of  the  lowlands,  "  put 
their  trust  in  chariots,  and  some  in  horses ; 
but  we  "  —  we  mountaineers,  from  our 
"  sanctuary  "  on  the  heights  of  our  "  Zion  " 

—  "  will  remember  the  name  of  Jehovah 
our  God,"  "  the  God  of  Jacob  our  father," 
the  shepherd  warrior,  whose  only  weapons 
were  sword  and  bow  —  the  God  wlio  is  now 
a  high  fortress  for  us  —  "at  whose  com- 
mand both  chariot  and  horse  are  fallen," 
"  who  burnetii  the  chariots  in  the  fire " 
(Ps.  XX.  1,  7,  xlvi.  7-11,  ixxvi.  2,  G).  —  U. 
A  few  words  must  be  said  in  general  de- 
scription of  the  maritime  lowland,  which  in- 
tervenes between  the  sea  and  the  highlands. 
This  region,  only  sliglitly  elevated  above 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  extends 
without  interruption  from  el-Arish,  south 
of  Gaza,  to  Mount  Carmel.  It  naturally 
divides  itself  into  two  portions,  each  of 
about  half  its  length;  the  lower  one  the 
wider,  the  upper  one  the  narrower.  The 
lower  half  is  the  Plain  of  the  Philistines 

—  Philistia,  or,  as  the  Hebrews  called  it, 
the  Shefelah  or  Lowland.  The  upper  half 
is  the  Sharon  or  Saron  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  The  Phimstine  Plain  is  on 
an  average  15  or  16  miles  in  width  from  the 
coast  to  the  first  beginning  of  the  belt  of 
hills  which  forms  the  gradual  approach  to 
the  high  land  of  the  mountains  of  Judah. 
The  larger  towns,  as  Gaza  and  Ashdod, 
which  stand  near  the  shore,  are  surround- 
ed with  huge  groves  of  olive,  sycamore, 
and  palm,  as  in  the  days  of  King  David  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  28).  The  whole  plain  ap- 
pears to  consist  of  brown  loamy  soil,  light, 
but  rich,  and  almost  without  a  stone.  It  is 
now,  as  it  was  when  the  Philistines  pos- 
sessed it,  one  enormous  cornfield ;  an  ocean 
of  wheat  covers  the  wide  expanse  between 
the  hills  and  the  sand  dunes  of  the  sea- 
shore, without  interruption  of.  any  kind  — 


PALESTINE 


488 


PALESTINE 


no  l)reiik  or  liedge,  liardly  even  a  single 
olive-tree.  Its  fertility  is  marvellous ;  for 
tlie  prodigious  erops  wliich  it  raises  are  pro- 
dueed,  and  probably  iiave  been  produced 
almost  year  by  year  for  tlie  last  forty  cen- 
turies, without  any  of  tiie  appliances  wiiicli 
we  find  necessary  for  success.  The  Plain 
OK  Su.vRON  is  much  narrower  tlian  Pliilis- 
tia.  It  is  about  10  miles  wide  from  the  sea 
to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  wliich  are  here 
of  a  more  abrupt  cluiracter  than  tiiose  of 
Philistia,  and  without  the  intermediate  liilly 
region  there  occurring.  15.  The  one  an- 
cient port  of  the  Jews,  the  "  beautiful "  city 
of  Joppa,  occupied  a  position  central  be- 
tween tlic  Shefelah  and  Sharon.  Roads  led 
from  these  various  cities  to  each  other,  to 
Jerusalem,  Neapolis,  and  Sebaste  in  the  in- 
terior, and  to  Ptolemais  and  Gaza  on  the 
north  and  south.  The  commerce  of  Damas- 
cus, and,  beyond  Damascus,  of  Persia  and 
India,  passed  this  way  to  Egypt,  Kome,  and 
the  infant  colonies  of  the  west ;  and  that  traf- 
fic and  the  constant  movement  of  troops 
backwards  and  forwards  must  have  made 
this  plain  one  of  tiie  busiest  and  most  popu- 
lous regions  of  Syria  at  the  time  of  Christ. 
IG.  The  characteristics  already  described  are 
hardly  peculiar  to  Palestine.  But  there  is 
one  feature,  as  yet  only  alluded  to,  in  which 
she  stands  alone.  This  feature  is  the  Jok- 
DAX  —  the  one  river  of  the  country.  The 
river  is  elsewhere  described  [Jordan]  ;  but 
it  and  the  valley  through  wliich  it  rushes 
down  its  extraordinary  descent  must  be 
here  briefly  characterized.  This  valley 
begins  with  the  river  at  its  remotest  springs 
of  llasbeiya  on  the  N.  W.  side  of  Hermon, 
and  accompanies  it  to  tlie  lower  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  a  length  of  about  150  miles. 
During  the  whole  of  this  distance  its  course 
is  straight,  and  its  direction  nearly  due 
north  and  south.  The  springs  of  Hasbeiya 
are  1700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea  is  1317  feet  below  it,  so  that  between 
these  two  points  the  valley  falls  with  more 
or  less  regularity  through  a  height  of  more 
than  3000  feet.  But  though  the  river  dis- 
appears at  this  point,  the  valley  still  con- 
tinues its  descent  below  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea  till  it  reaches  a  farther  depth  of 
1308  feet.  So  that  the  bottom  of  this  ex- 
traordinary crevasse  is  actually  more  than 
2G0O  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ocean. 
In  width  the  valley  varies.  In  its  upper 
and  shallower  portion,  as  between  Banias 
and  the  lake  of  Merom  (^Huleh),  it  is  about 
five  miles  across.  Between  the  lake  of 
Merom  and  the  sea  of  Galilee  it  contracts, 
and  becomes  more  of  an  ordinary  ravine  or 
glen.  It  is  in  its  third  and  lower  portion 
that  the  valley  assumes  its  more  definite  and 
regular  character.  During  the  greater  part 
of  this  portion,  it  is  about  seven  miles  wide 
from  the  Qpe  wall  to  the  other.    The  east- 


ern mountains  preserve  their  straight  line 
of  direction,  and  their  massive  horizontal 
wall-like  aspect,  during  almost  the  whole 
distance.  The  western  mountains  are  more 
irregular  in  height,  their  slopes  less  verti- 
cal. North  of  Jericho  they  recede  in  a 
kind  of  wide  amphitheatre,  and  the  valley 
becomes  twelve  miles  broad  —  a  breadth 
which  it  thenceforward  retiiins  to  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Buried  as 
it  is  between  such  lofty  ranges,  and  shielded 
from  every  breeze,  the  climate  of  the  Jor- 
dan valley  is  extremely  hot  and  relaxing. 
Its  enervating  influence  is  shown  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Jericho.  All  the  irrigation 
necessary  for  the  cultivation  wliich  formerly 
existed  is  obUiined  from  the  torrents  of  the 
western  mountains.  For  all  purposes  to 
which  a  river  is  ordinarily  applied  the  Joi"- 
dan  is  useless.  The  Dead  Sea,  which  is 
the  final  receptacle  of  the  Jordan,  is  de- 
scribed elsewhere.  [Sea,  The  Salt.]  17. 
Monotonous  and  uninviting  as  much  of  the 
Holy  Land  will  appear,  from  the  above  de- 
scription, to  readers  accustomed  to  the  con- 
stant verdure,  the  succession  of  flowers,  last- 
ing almost  throughout  the  year,  the  ample 
streams  and  the  varied  surface  of  the  south- 
ern part  of  our  country  —  we  must  remem- 
ber that  its  aspect  to  the  Israelites  after  that 
weary  march  of  forty  years  through  the 
desert,  and  even  by  the  side  of  the  bright- 
est recollections  of  Egypt  that  they  could 
conjure  up,  must  have  been  very  different. 
They  entered  the  country  at  the  time  of 
the  Passover,  when  it  was  arrayed  in  the 
full  glory  and  freshness  of  its  brief  spring- 
tide, before  the  scorching  sun  of  summer 
had  had  time  to  wither  its  flowers  and  cm- 
brown  its  verdure.  Taking  all  these  cir- 
cumstances into  account,  and  allowing  for 
the  bold  metaphors  of  Oriental  speech,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  feel  that  those  way-worn 
travellers  could  have  chosen  no  fitter  words 
to  express  what  their  new  country  was  to 
them  than  those  which  they  so  often  employ 
in  the  accounts  of  the  conquest —  "  a  land 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  the  glory  of 
all  lands."  18.  In  the  preceding  descrip- 
tion, allusion  has  been  made  to  many  of  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  Holy  Land. 
But  it  is  impossible  to  close  this  account 
without  mentioning  a  defect  which  is  even 
more  characteristic  —  its  lack  of  monu- 
ments and  personal  relics  of  the  nation  who 
possessed  it  for  so  many  centuries,  and 
gave  it  its  claim  to  our  veneration  and  affec- 
tion. When  compared  with  other  nations 
of  equal  antiquity,  —  Egypt,  Greece,  As- 
syria —  the  contrast  is  truly  remarkable.  In 
Egypt  and  Greece,  and  also  in  Assyria,  as 
far  as  our  knowledge  at  present  extends, 
we  find  a  series  of  buildings,  reaching  down 
from  the  most  remote  and  mysterioi  s  anti- 
quity, a  chain,  of  which  hardly  a  link  is 
wanting,  and  which  records  the  progreo^  o( 


PALESTINE 


489 


PALMER-WORM 


the  people  in  civilization,  art,  and  religion, 
as  certainly  as  the  buildings  of  the  mediae- 
val architects  do  that  of  the  various  nations 
at  modern  Europe.  But  in  Palestine  it  is 
not  U)o  much  to  say  that  there  does  not 
exist  a  single  edifice,  or  part  of  an  edifice, 
of  wliich  we  can  be  sure  that  it  is  of  a  date 
anterior  to  the  Christian  era.  And  as  with 
tlie  buildings,  so  with  other  memorials. 
With  one  exception,  the  museums  of  Eu- 
rope do  not  possess  a  single  piece  of  pot- 
tery or  metal  work,  a  single  weapon  or 
household  utensil,  an  ornament  or  a  piece 
of  armor,  of  Israelite  make,  which  can 
give  us  tiie  least  conception  of  the  manners 
or  outwird  appliances  of  the  nation  before 
the  date  of  tlie  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus.  The  coins  form  the  single  excep- 
tion. M.  Renan  has  named  two  circum- 
stances which  must  have  had  a  great  effect 
in  suppressing  art  or  architecture  amongst 
the  ancient  Israelites,  while  their  very  ex- 
istence proves  that  the  people  had  no  genius 
in  that  direction.  These  are  (1)  the  pro- 
hibition of  sculptured  representations  of 
living  creatures,  and  (2)  the  command  not 
to  build  a  temple  anywhere  but  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  Geology.  —  Of  the  geological 
structure  of  Palestine  it  has  been  said  with 
truth  that  our  information  is  but  imper- 
fect and  indistinct,  and  that  much  time 
must  elapse,  and  many  a  cherished  hy- 
pothesis be  sacrificed,  before  a  satisfactory 
explanation  can  be  arrived  at  of  its  more 
remarkable  phenomena.  The  Botany.  — 
The  botany  of  Syria  and  Palestine  differs 
but  little  from  that  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  rich  and  varied  on  the 
globe.  What  differences  it  presents  are  due 
to  a  slight  admixture  of  Persian  forms  on 
the  eastern  frontier,  of  Arabian  and  Egyp- 
tian on  the  southern,  and  of  Arabian  and 
Indian  tropical  plants  in  the  low  torrid  de- 
pression of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea.  On 
the  other  hand,  Palestine  forms  the  south- 
ern and  eastern  limit  of  the  Asia  Minor 
flora,  and  contains  a  multitude  of  trees, 
shrubs,  and  herbs  that  advance  no  farther 
south  and  east.  Amongst  trees,  oaks  are 
by  far  the  most  prevalent,  and  are  the  only 
ones  that  form  continuous  woods,  except  the 
Pintis  mariiima  and  P.  Halepensis  (Alep- 
po Pine).  The  trees  of  the  genus  Pistacia 
rank  next  in  abundance  to  tlie  Oak,  and  of 
these  there  are  three  species  in  Syria.  The 
Carob  or  Locust-tree  {Ceratonia  Siliqua), 
ranks  perhaps  next  in  abundance  to  the 
foregoing  trees.  The  Sycamore-fig  is  com- 
mon in  the  neighborhood  of  towns,  and  at- 
tains a  large  size ;  its  wood  is  much  used, 
especially  in  Egypt,  where  the  mummy- 
cases  were  formerly  made  of  it.  Poplars, 
especially  the  aspen  and  wliite  poplar,  are 
extremely  common  by  streams.  The  Wal- 
nut is  more  common  in  Syria  than  in  Pal- 
estine.    Of  planted  trees  and  large  shrubs, 


the  first  in  importance  is  the  Vine,  which 
is  most  abundantly  cultivated  all  over  tlie 
country,  and  produces,  as  in  the  time  of  tlie 
Canaanites,  enormous  bunches  of  grapes. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  southern 
districts,  those  of  Eshcol  being  still  partic- 
ularly famous.  Next  to  the  vine,  or  even 
in  some  respects  its  superior  in  importance, 
ranks  the  Olive,  which  nowhere  grows  in 
greater  luxuriance  and  abundance  tlian  in 
Palestine,  where  the  olive  orchards  form 
a  prominent  feature  throughout  the  land- 
scape, and  have  done  so  from  time  im- 
memorial. The  Fig  forms  another  most 
important  crop  in  Syria  and  Palestine. 
Zoology.  —  It  will  be  sufficient  in  tliis 
article  to  give  a  general  survey  of  the 
fauna  of  Palestine,  as  the  reader  will  find 
more  particular  information  in  the  sev- 
eral articles  which  treat  of  the  various 
animals  under  their  respective  names. 
Jackals  and  foxes  are  common ;  the  hyena 
and  wolf  are  also  occasionally  observed; 
the  lion  is  no  longer  a  resident  in  Pal- 
estine or  Syria.  A  species  of  squirrel 
which  the  Arabs  terra  Orkidaun,  "  the 
leaper,"  has  been  noticed  on  the  lower  and 
middle  parts  of  Lebanon :  two  kinds  of 
hare ;  rats  and  mice,  which  are  said  to 
abound ;  the  jerboa ;  the  porcupine ;  the 
short-tailed  field-mouse,  may  be  considered 
as  the  representatives  of  the  Rodentia.  Of 
the  Pachydermata,  the  wild  boar,  which  is 
frequently  met  with  on  Tabor  and  Little 
Hermon,  appears  to  be  the  only  living  wild 
example.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  at 
present  any  wild  ox  in  Palestine.  Of  do- 
mestic animals  we  need  only  mention  the 
Arabian  or  one-humped  camel;  asses,  and 
mules,  and  horses,  all  of  which  are  in  gen- 
eral use.  The  buffalo  {Bubalus  buffalo)  is 
common.  The  ox  of  the  country  is  small 
and  unsightly  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jeru- 
salem, but  in  the  richer  pastures  tiie  cattle, 
though  small,  are  not  unsiglitly ;  the  com- 
mon sheep  of  Palestine  is  the  broad-tail, 
with  its  varieties ;  goats  are  extremely 
common  everywhere.  Palestine  abounds- in 
numerous  kinds  of  birds.  Vultures,  eagles, 
falcons,  kites,  owls  of  different  kinds,  rep- 
resent the  Raptorial  order.  In  the  south 
of  Palestine  especially,  reptiles  of  various 
kinds  abound.  It  has  been  remarked  that 
in  its  physical  character  Palestine  jiresents 
on  a  small  scale  an  epitome  of  the  natural 
features  of  all  regions,  mountainous  and 
desert,  northern  and  tropical,  maritime  and 
inland,  pastoral,  arable,  and  volcanic. 

Pal'lu.  The  second  son  of  Reuben, 
father  of  Eliab  (Ex.  vi.  14 ;  Num.  xxvi.  5, 
8 ;  1  Chr.  v.  3)  and  founder  of  the  fami- 
ly of 

Pal'luites,  The  (Num.  xxvi.  5). 

Palmer-worm  (Heb.  gdzdm)  occurs 
Joel  i.  4,  ii.  25  ;  Am.  iv.  9.  It  is  maintained 
by  many  that  gdzdm  denotes  some  speciea 


PALM-TREE 


490 


PALSY 


of  locust,  but  it  is  more  probably  a  cater- 
pillar. 

Palra-tree  (Heb.  tAmAr).  Under  this 
generic  term  many  species  are  botanically 
included ;  but  we  have  here  only  to  do  with 
the  Date-palm,  the  Phoenix  Dactylifera  of 
Linnaeus.  While  this  tree  was  abundant 
generally  in  the  Levant,  it  was  regarded 
by  the  ancients  as  peculiarly  characteristic 
of  Palestine  and  the  neighboring  regions. 
The  following  places  may  be  enumerated 
from  the  Bible  as  having  some  connection 
with  the  palm-tree,  either  in  the  derivation 
of  the  name,  or  in  the  mention  of  the  tree 
as  growing  on  the  spot.  (1.)  At  Elim,  one 
of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites  between 
Egypt  and  Sinai,  it  is  expressly  stated  that 
there  were  "  twelve  wells  (fountains)  of 
water,  and  threescore  and  ten  palm-trees  " 
(Ex.  XV.  27 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  9).  (2.)  Next, 
it  should  be  observed  that  Elath  (Deut.  ii. 
8;  1  K.  ix.  26;  2  K.  xiv.  22,  xvi.  6;  2  Chr. 
viii.  17,  xxvi.  2)  is  another  plural  form  of 
the  same  word,  and  may  likewise  mean 
"the  palm-trees."  (3.)  No  place  in  Scrip- 
ture is  so  closely  associated  with  the  sub- 
ject before  us  as  Jericho.  Its  rich  palm- 
groves  are  connected  with  two  very  different 
periods,  —  with  that  of  Moses  (Deut.  xxxiv. 
3 ;  Judg.  i.  16)  and  Joshua,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  that  of  the  Evangelists,  on  the 
other.  What  the  extent  of  these  palm- 
groves  may  have  been  in  the  desolate  pe- 
riod of  Jericho  we  cannot  tell;  but  they 
were  renowned  in  the  time  of  the  Gos- 
pels and  Josephus.  The  Jewish  historian 
mentions  the  luxuriance  of  these  trees 
again  and  again.  (4.)  The  name  of  Haze- 
zon-Tamar,  "the  felling  of  the  palm-tree," 
is  clear  in  its  derivation.  This  place  is 
mentioned  in  the  history  both  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xiv.  7)  and  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr. 
XX.  2).  (5.)  Another  place  having  the 
same  element  in  its  name,  and  doubtless 
tlie  same  characteristic  in  its  scenery,  was 
Baal-Tamar  (Judg.  XX.  33).  (6.)  We 
must  next  mention  the  Tamar,  "  the  palm," 
which  is  set  before  us  in  the  vision  of  Eze- 
kiel  (xlvii.  19,  xlviii.  28).  (7.)  There  is 
little  doubt  that  Solomon's  Tadmor,  after- 
wards the  famous  Palmyra,  on  another  des- 
ert frontier  far  to  the  N.  E.  of  Tamar,  is 
primarily  the  same  word.  (8.)  Nor,  again, 
are  the  places  of  the  N.  T.  without  their 
associations  with  this  characteristic  tree  of 
Palestine.  Bethany  means  "  the  house 
of  dates ;  "  and  thus  we  are  reminded  that 
the  palm  grew  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  This  helps  our  realiza- 
tion of  our  Saviour's  entry  into  Jerusalem, 
when  the  people  "took  branches  of  palm- 
trees  and  went  forth  to  meet  Him  "  (John 
xii.  13;  comp.  Neh.  viii.  15).  (9.)  The 
word  Phoenicia,  which  occurs  twice  in  the 
N.  T.  (Acts  xi.  19,  XV.  3)  is  in  all  proba- 
bility derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  a 


palm.  (10.)  Lastly,  Phoenix  in  the  island 
of  Crete,  the  harbor  which  St.  Paul  was 
prevented  by  the  storm  from  reaching  (Acts 
xxvii.  12),  has  doubtless  the  same  deriva- 
tion. —  From  the  passages  where  there  is 
a  literal  reference  to  the  palm-tree,  we  may 
pass  to  the  emblematical  uses  of  it  in  Scrip- 
ture. Under  this  head  may  be  classed  the 
following:  (1.)  The  striking  appearance  of 
the  tree,  its  uprightness  and  beauty,  would 
naturally  suggest  the  giving  of  its  name 
occasionally  to  women  (Gen.  xxxviii.  6 ; 
2  Sam.  xiii.  1,  xiv.  27).  (2.)  We  have 
notices  of  the  employment  of  this  form  in 
decorative  art,  both  in  the  real  temple  of 
Solomon  and  in  the  visionary  temple  of 
Ezekiel.  This  work  seems  to  have  been  in 
relief.  It  was  a  natural  and  doubtless  cus- 
tomary kind  of  ornamentation  in  Eastern 
arcliitecture.  (3.)  With  a  tree  so  abundant 
in  Judaea,  and  so  marked  in  its  growth  and 
appearance,  as  the  palm,  it  seems  rather 
remarkable  that  it  does  not  appear  more 
frequently  in  the  imagery  of  the  O.  T. 
There  is,  however,  in  the  Psalms  (xcii.  12) 
the  familiar  comparison,  "  The  righteous 
shall  flourish  like  the  palra-tree,"  which 
suggests  a  world  of  illustration,  whether 
respect  be  had  to  the  orderly  and  regular 
aspect  of  the  tree,  its  fruitfulness,  the  per- 
petual greenness  of  its  foliage,  or  the  height 
at  which  the  foliage  grows,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble from  earth  and  as  near  as  possible  to 
heaven.  Perhaps  no  point  is  more  worthy 
of  mention,  if  we  wish  to  pursue  the  com- 
parison, than  the  elasticity  of  the  fibre  of 
the  palm,  and  its  determined  growth  up- 
wards, even  when  loaded  with  weights. 
(4.)  The  passage  in  Rev.  vii.  9,  whore  the 
glorified  of  all  nations  are  described  as 
"  clotlied  with  white  robes  and  palms  in 
their  hands,"  might  seem  to  us  a  purely 
classical  image.  But  palm-branclies  were 
used  by  Jews  in  token  of  victory  and  peace 
(1  Mace.  xiii.  51;  2  Mace.  x.  7,  xiv.  4). 
As  to  the  industrial  and  domestic  uses  of 
the  palm,  it  is  well  known  that  they  are 
very  numerous  :  but  there  is  no  clear  allu- 
sion to  them  in  the  Bible.  That  the  ancient 
Orientals,  however,  made  use  of  wine  and 
honey  obtained  from  the  palm-tree  is  evi- 
dent from  Herodotus,  Strabo,  and  Pliny. 
It  is  indeed  possible  that  the  honey  men- 
tioned in  some  places  may  be  palm-sugar. 
(In  2  Chr.  xxxi.  5  the  margin  has  "dates.") 
There  may  also  in  Cant.  vii.  8,  "I  will  go 
up  to  the  palm-tree,  I  will  take  hold  of  the 
boughs  tliereof,"  be  a  reference  to  climbing 
for  the  fruit.  So  in  ii.  3  and  elsewhere 
(e.  g.  Ps.  i.  3)  the  fruit  of  the  palm  may  be 
intended :  but  this  cannot  be  proved.  It  is 
curious  that  this  tree,  once  so  abundant  in 
Judaea,  is  now  comparatively  rare,  except 
in  the  Philistine  plain,  and  in  the  old  Phoe- 
nicia about  Beyrout. 
Palsy.    The  palsy  meets  us  in  tlie  N. 


PALTI 


491 


PARABLE 


T.  only,  and  in  features  too  familiar  to  need 
special  remark.  The  words  "  grievously 
tormented"  (Matt.  viii.  6)  may  refer  to 
paralysis  agitans,  or  even  St.  Vitus'  dance, 
in  both  of  which  the  patient,  being  never 
Btill  for  a  moment  save  when  asleep,  might 
well  be  so  described.  Tiie  woman's  case 
who  was  "bowed  together"  by  "a  spirit 
of  infirmity,"  may  probably  have  been  that 
of  a  paralytic  (Luke  xiii.  11). 

Pal'ti.  The  Benjamite  spy;  son  of 
llaplm  (Num.  xiii.  9). 

Pal'tieL  The  son  of  Azzan  and  prince 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Num.  xxxiv.  26). 
He  was  one  of  the  twelve  appointed  to  di- 
vide the  land  of  Canaan  among  the  tribes 
west  of  Jordan. 

Pal'tite,  The.  Helez  "  the  Paltite"  is 
named  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  26  among  David's 
mighty  men. 

Pamphyl'ia,  one  of  the  coast-regions 
in  the  south  of  Asia  Minor,  having  Cilicia 
on  the  east,  and  Ltcia  on  the  west.  In 
St.  Paul's  time  it  was  not  only  a  regular 
province,  but  the  Emperor  Claudius  had 
united  Lycia  with  it,  and  probably  also  a 
good  part  of  Pisidia.  It  was  in  Pamphylia 
that  St.  Paul  first  entered  Asia  Minor,  after 
preaching  the  Gospel  in  Cyprus.  He  and 
Barnabas  sailed  up  the  river  Cestrus  to 
Perga  (Acts  xiii.  13).  The  two  mission- 
aries finally  left  Pamphj'lia  by  its  chief 
seaport,  Attalia.  Many  years  afterwards 
St.  Paul  sailed  near  the  coast  (Acts  xxvii.  5). 

Pan.  Of  the  six  words  so  rendered  in 
A.  v.,  two,  mach&baih  and  masreth,  seem 
to  imply  a  shallow  pan  or  plate,  such  as  is 
used  by  Bedouins  and  Syrians  for  baking 
or  dressing  rapidly  their  cakes  of  meal, 
such  as  were  used  in  legal  oblations ;  the 
others,  especially  sir,  a  deeper  vessel  or 
caldron  for  boiling  meat,  placed  during  the 
process  on  three  stones. 

Pan'nag,  an  article  of  commerce  ex- 
ported from  Palestine  to  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii. 
17),  the  nature  of  which  is  a  pure  matter 
of  conjecture,  as  the  term  occurs  nowhere 
else.  A  comparison  of  the  passage  in  Eze- 
kiel  with  Gen.  xliii.  II,  leads  to  the  suppo- 
sition that  pannag  represents  some  of  the 
spices  grown  in  Palestine. 

Paper.     [Whiting.] 

Pa  phos,  a  town  at  the  west  end  of 
Cyprus,  connected  by  a  road  with  Sal- 
amis  at  the  east  end.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
travelled  on  their  first  missionary  expedi- 
tion, "through  the  isle,"  from  the  latter 
place  to  the  former  (Acts  xiii.  6).  The 
great  characteristic  of  Paphos  was  the  wor- 
ship of  Aphrodite  or  Venus,  who  was  here 
fabled  to  have  risen  from  the  sea.  Her 
temple,  however,  was  at  "  Old  Paphos," 
now  called  Kuklia.  The  harbor  and  the 
chief  town  were  at  "  New  Paphos,"  at 
some  little  distance.  The  place  is  still 
called  Baffa. 


Papyrus.     [Reed.] 

Parable.  The  word  Parable,  in  Gr. 
ParaboU  {.luQa^ioXi',),  does  not  of  itself  im« 
ply  a  narrative.  The  juxtaposition  of  two 
things,  differing  in  most  points,  but  agree- 
ing in  some,  is  suflScient  to  bring  the  com- 
parison thus  produced  within  the  etymology 
of  the  word.  In  Hellenistic  Greek  it  ac- 
quired a  meaning  co-extensive  with  that 
of  the  Hebrew  mdshdl.  That  word  (=  s»- 
militude)  had  a  large  range  of  application, 
and  was  applied  sometimes  to  the  shortest 
proverbs  (1  Sam.  x.  12,  xxiv.  13 ;  2  Chr. 
vii.  20),  sometimes  to  dark  prophetic  utter- 
ances (Num.  xxiii.  7,  18,  xxiv.  3 ;  Ez.  xx. 
49),  sometimes  to  enigmatic  maxims  (Ps. 
Ixxviii.  2;  Prov.  i.  6),  or  metaphors  ex- 
panded into  a  narrative  (Ez.  xii.  22).  In 
the  N.  T.  itself  the  word  is  used  with  a  like 
latitude.  By  the  Jewish  Rabbis  the  para- 
ble was  made  the  instrument  for  teaching 
the  young  disciple  to  discern  the  treasures 
of  wisdom,  of  which  the  "  accursed  "  mul- 
titude were  ignorant.  The  teaching  of 
our  Lord  at  the  commencement  of  His 
ministry  was,  in  every  vay,  the  opposite 
of  this.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  may  be 
taken  as  the  type  of  the  "words  of  grace" 
which  he  spoke,  "  not  as  the  scribes."  So 
for  some  months  He  taught  in  the  syna- 
gogues and  on  the  sea-shore  of  Galilee,  as 
He  had  before  taught  in  Jerusalem,  and 
as  yet  without  a  parable.  But  then  there 
comes  a  change.  The  direct  teaching  was 
met  with  scorn,  unbelief,  hardness,  and  He 
seems  for  a  time  to  abandon  it  for  that 
which  took  the  form  of  parables.  The 
question  of  the  disciples  (Matt.  xiii.  10) 
implies  that  they  were  astonished.  Their 
Master  was  speaking  to  the  multitude  in 
the  parables  and  dark  sayings  which  the 
Rabbis  reserved  for  their  chosen  disciples 
Here,  for  them,  were  two  grounds  of  won- 
der. Here,  for  us,  is  the  key  to  the  expla- 
nation which  He  gave,  that  He  had  chosen 
this  form  of  teaching  because  tlie  people 
were  spiritually  blind  and  deaf  (Matt.  xiii. 
13),  and  in  order  that  they  might  remain 
so  (Mark  iv.  12).  The  worth  of  parables, 
as  instruments  of  teaching,  lies  in  their  be- 
ing at  once  a  test  of  character,  and  in  their 
presenting  each  form  of  character  with  that 
which,  as  a  penalty  or  blessing,  is  adapted 
to  it.  They  withdraw  the  light  from  those 
who  love  darkness.  They  protect  the  truth 
which  they  enshrine  from  the  mockery  of 
the  scoffer.  They  leave  sometliing  qven 
with  the  careless  which  may  be  interpreted 
and  understood  afterwards.  They  reveal, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  seekers  after  truth. 
These  ask  the  meaning  of  the  parable,  and 
will  not  rest  till  the  teacher  has  explained 
it.  In  this  way  the  parable  did  its  work, 
found  out  the  fit  hearers,  and  led  them  on. 
In  the  parables  which  remain  it  is  possible 
to  trace  something  •  like  an  order.    (A.) 


PARABLE 


492 


PARADISE 


There  is  the  group  which  have  for  their 
subject  the  laws  of  tlie  Divine  Kingdom. 
Under  this  liead  we  have  —  1.  Tlie  Sower 
(Matt.  xiii. ;  Mark  iv. ;  Luke  viii.).  2.  The 
Wheat  and  the  Tares  (Matt.  xiii.).  3.  The 
Mustard-Seed  (Matt.  xiii. ;  Mark  iv.).  4. 
The  Seed  cast  into  the  Ground  (Mark  iv.). 
6.  The  Leaven  (Matt.  xiii.).  6.  The  Hid 
Treasure  (Matt.  xiii.).  7.  The  Pearl  of 
Great  Price  (Matt.  xiii.).  8.  The  Net  cast 
into  the  Sea  (Matt.  xiii.).  (B.)  When  the 
next  parables  meet  us  they  are  of  a  different 
type  and  occupy  a  different  position.  They 
are  drawn  from  the  life  of  men  rather  than 
from  the  world  of  nature.  They  are  such 
as  these  —  9.  The  Two  Debtors  (Luke 
vii.).  10.  The  Merciless  Servant  (Matt, 
xviii.).  11.  The  Good  Samaritan  (Luke  X.). 
12.  The  Friend  at  Midnight  (Luke  xi.).  13. 
The  Rich  Fool  (Luke  xii.).  14.  The  Wed- 
ding Feast  (Luke  xii.).  15.  The  Fig-Tree 
(Luke  xiii.).  IG.  The  Great  Supper  (Luke 
xiv.).  17.  The  Lost  Slieep  (Matt,  xviii.; 
Luke  XV.).  18.  The  Lost  Piece  of  Money 
(Luke  XV.).  19.  The  Prodigal  Son  (Luke 
XV.).    20.  The  Unjust  Steward  (Luke  xvi.). 

21.  The  Rich  M.an  and  Lazarus  (Luke  xvi.). 

22.  The  Unjust  Judge  (Luke  xviii.).  23.  The 
Pharisee  and  the  Publican  (Luke  xviii.). 
24.  The  Laborers  in  the  Vineyard  (Matt. 
XX.).  (C.)  Towards  the  close  of  our  Lord's 
ministry,  the  parables  are  again  theocratic, 
but  the  phase  of  the  Divine  Kingdom,  on 
which  they  chiefly  dwell,  is  that  of  its  final 
consummation.  To  this  class  we  may  refer 
—  25.  The  Pounds  (Luke  xix.).  26.  The 
Two  Sons  (Matt.  xxi.).  27.  The  Vineyard 
let  out  to  Husbandmen  (Matt.  xxi. ;  Mark 
xii.;  Luke  xx.).  28.  The  Marriage-Feast 
(Matt.  xxii.).  29.  The  Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins  (Matt.  xxv.).  30.  The  Talents 
(Matt.  xxv.).  31.  The  Sheep  and  the 
Goats  (Matt.  xxv.).  It  is  characteristic  of 
the  several  Gospels  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  parables  of  the  first  and  third  groups 
belong  to  St.  Matthew,  emphatically  the 
Evangelist  of  the  kingdom.  Those  of  the 
second  are  found  for  the  most  part  in  St. 
Luke.  —  Lastly,  there  is  the  law  of  inter- 
pretation. It  has  been  urged  by  some  wri- 
ters, that  there  is  a  scope  or  purpose  for 
each  parable,  and  that  our  aim  must  be  to 
discern  this,  not  to  find  a  special  signifi- 
cance in  each  circumstance  or  incident.  It 
may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  this 
canon  of  interpretation  is  likely  to  lead  us 
to  the  full  meaning  of  this  portion  of  our 
»^<ord's  teaching.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  in  the  great  patterns  of  interpretation 
which  He  himself  has  given  us,  there  is 
more  than  this.  Not  only  the  sower  and 
the  seed  and  the  several  soils  have  their 
counterparts  in  the  spiritual  life,  but  the 
birds  of  the  air,  the  thorns,  the  scorching 
heat,  have  each  of  them  a  significance.  It 
may  be  inferred  from  these  two  instances 


that  we  are,  at  least,  justified  in  looking  for 
a  meaning  even  in  the  seeming  accessories 
of  a  parable.  The  very  form  of  the  teach- 
ing makes  it  probable  that  there  may  be,  in 
any  case,  more  than  one  legitimate  expla- 
nation. A  parable  may  be  at  once  ethical, 
and  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  term  pro- 
phetic. There  is  thus  a  wide  field  open  to 
the  discernment  of  the  interpreter.  There 
are  also  restraints  upon  the  mere  fertility 
of  his  imagination.  (1.)  The  analogies 
must  be  real,  not  arbitrary.  (2.)  The  par- 
ables are  to  be  considered  as  parts  of  a 
whole,  and  the  interpretation  of  one  is  not 
to  override  or  encroiich  upon  the  lessons 
taught  by  others.  (3.)  Tlie  direct  teaching 
of  Christ  presents  the  standard  to  which  all 
our  interpretations  are  to  be  referred,  and 
by  which  they  are  to  be  measured. 

Paradise  is  a  word  of  Persian  origin, 
and  is  used  in  the  Septuagint  as  tiie  trans- 
lation of  Eden.  [Eden.]  It  is  a  matter 
of  some  interest  to  ascertain  with  what  as- 
sociations the  word  was  connected  in  the 
minds  of  the  Jews  of  Palestine  and  other 
countries  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  teach- 
ing; what  sense  therefore  we  may  attach  to 
it  in  the  writings  of  the  N.  T.  In  tliis  as 
in  other  instances  we  may  distinguish  three 
modes  of  thought.  (1.)  To  the  Idealist 
school  of  Alexandria,  of  which  Pliilo  is  the 
representative,  Paradise  was  notliing  more 
than  a  symbol  and  an  allegory.  Spiritual 
perfection  was  the  only  paradise.  The  trees 
that  grew  in  it  were  the  thoughts  of  the 
spiritual  man.  (2.)  The  Rabbis  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour  taught  that  there  was  a  re- 
gion of  the  world  of  the  dead,  of  Sheol,  in 
the  heart  of  the  earth.  Gehenna  was  on 
one  side,  with  its  flames  and  torments ; 
Paradise  on  the  other,  the  intermediate 
home  of  the  blessed.  (3.)  Out  of  the  dis- 
cussions and  theories  of  the  Rabbis,  there 
grew  a  broad  popular  belief,  fixed  in  the 
hearts  of  men,  accepted  without  discussion^ 
blending  with  their  best  hopes.  In  the  com- 
mon beUef  Paradise  was  a  far-off  land,  a 
region  where  there  was  no  scorching  heat, 
no  consuming  cold ;  and  the  common  prayer 
for  the  dying  or  the  dead  was  that  their 
souls  might  rest  in  Paradise,  in  the  garden 
of  Eden.  It  is  with  this  popular  belief 
that  the  language  of  t'ae  N.  T.  connects 
itself.  The  old  word  is  kept,  and  is  raised 
to  a  new  dignity  or  power.  It  is  significant, 
indeed,  that  the  word  "  Paradise  "  no  rhere 
occurs  in  the  public  teaching  of  our  Lord, 
or  in  His  intercourse  with  His  own  disci- 
ples. Connected  as  it  had  been  with  tlie 
thoughts  of  a  sensuous  happiness,  it  was 
not  the  fittest  or  t'le  best  word  for  those 
whom  He  was  training  to  rise  out  of  sensu- 
ous thoughts  to  the  higher  regions  of  the 
spiritual  life.  For  them,  accordingly,  the 
kingdom  of  Heaven,  the  kingdom  of  God, 
are  the  words  most  dwelt  on.     With  the 


PARAH 


493 


PARTHIANS 


thief  dying  on  the  cross  the  case  was  dif- 
ferent (Luke  xxiii.  43.).  We  can  assume 
nothing  in  the  robber-outlaw  but  the  most 
rudimentary  forms  of  popular  belief.  The 
answer  to  his  prayer  gave  him  what  he 
needed  most,  the  assurance  of  immediate 
rest  and  peace.  The  word  Paradise  spoke 
to  him,  as  to  other  Jews,  of  repose,  shelter, 
joy  —  tlie  greatest  contrast  possible  to  the 
thirst,  and  agony,  and  shame  of  the  hours 
upon  the  cross.  There  is  a  like  signiffcance 
in  the  general  absence  of  the  word  from 
tlie  language  of  the  Epistles.  Here  also  it 
is  found  nowhere  in  the  direct  teaching.  It 
occurs  only  in  passages  that  are  apocalyp- 
tic, and  therefore  almost  of  necessity  sym- 
bolic (2  Cor.  xii.  3;  comp.  Rev.  ii.  7).  (4.) 
The  eager  curiosity  which  prompts  men  to 
press  on  into  the  things  behind  tiie  veil,  has 
led  them  to  construct  hypotheses  more  or 
less  definite  as  to  the  intermediate  state, 
and  these  have  affected  the  thoughts  which 
Christian  writers  have  connected  with  the 
word  Paradise.  The  word  enters  largely, 
as  might  be  expected,  into  the  apocryphal 
literature  of  the  early  Church.  Where  the 
true  Gospels  are  most  reticent,  the  mythical 
are  most  exuberant. 

Pa'rah,  one  of  the  cities  in  the  territory 
allotted  to  Benjamin,  named  only  in  the 
lists  of  the  conquest  (Josh,  xviii.  23). 

Pa'ran,  El-pa'ran.  1.  The  name  Pa- 
ran  corresponds  probably  in  general  outline 
with  the  desert  Et-Tih.  [Kadesh.]  Be- 
tween the  wilderness  of  Paran  and  that  of 
Zin  no  strict  demarcation  exists  in  the  nar- 
rative, nor  do  the  natural  features  of  tlie 
region  yield  a  well-defined  boundary.  The 
name  of  Paran  seems,  as  in  the  story  of 
Ishmael  (Gen.  xxi.  21),  to  have  predomi- 
nated towards  the  western  extremity  of  the 
nortliern  desert  frontier  of  Et-  Tih,  and  in 
Num.  xxxiv.  4  the  wilderness  of  Zin,  not 
Paran,  is  spoken  of  as  the  southern  border 
of  the  land  or  of  the  tribe  of  .Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  3).  Was  there,  then,  a  Paran  proper, 
or  definite  spot  to  which  the  name  was  ap- 
plied? From  Deut.  i.  1  it  would  seem 
tiiere  must  have  been.  This  is  confirmed 
by  1  K.  xi.  18,  from  which  we  further  learn 
the  fact  of  its  being  an  inhabited  region ; 
and  the  position  required  by  the  context 
here  is  one  between  Midian  and  Egypt. 
Padan  proper  is  probably  the  Wady  Fciran. 
2.  "Mount"  Paran  occurs  only  in  two 
poetic  passages  (Deut.  xxxiii.  2;  Hab.  iii. 
3j.  It  probably  denotes  the  north-western 
member  of  the  Sinaitic  mountain-group, 
which  lies  adjacent  to  the  Wady  Feiran. 

Par'bar.  A  word  occurring  in  Hebrew 
and  A.  V.  only  in  I  Chr.  xxvi.  18.  It  would 
seem  that  Parbar  was  some  place  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Temple  enclosure,  the 
same  side  with  the  causeway  and  the  gate 
Sliallccheth.  The  latter  was  close  to  the 
causeway.  Parbai  «herefore  must  have  been 


south  of  Shallecheth.  As  to  the  meaning; 
of  the  name,  the  Kabbis  generally  agree  in 
translating  it  "  the  outside  place;"  while 
modern  authorities  take  it  as  equivalent  to 
the  parv&rim,  in  2  K.  xxiii.  11  (A.  V.  "  sub- 
urbs ").  Accepting  this  interpretation,  there 
is  no  difficulty  in  identifying  the  Parbar 
with  the  suburb  mentioned  by  Josephus  in 
describing  Herod's  Temple,  as  lying  in  the 
deep  valley  ^hich  separated  the  west  wall 
of  the  Temple  from  the  city  opposite  it. 

Parchment.     [Writing.] 

Parlor.  A  word  in  English  usage  mean- 
ing the  common  room  of  the  family,  and 
hence  probably  in  A.  V.  denoting  the  king's 
audience-chamber,  so  used  in  reference  to 
Eglon  (Judg.  iii.  20-25). 

Parmash'ta.  One  of  the  ten  sons  of 
Haman,  slain  by  the  Jews  in  Shushan  (Esth. 
ix.  9). 

Par'menas.  One  of  the  seven  dea- 
cons, "  men  of  honest  report,  full  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom "  (Acts  vi.  5). 
There  is  a  tradition  tliat  he  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom at  Philippi  in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

Par'nach,  father  or  ancestor  of  Eliza- 
phan  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  (Num. 
xxxiv.  25). 

Pa'rosh.  The  descendants  of  Parosh, 
in  number  2172,  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  3;  Neh.  vii.  8). 
Another  detachment  of  150  males,  with 
Zechariah  at  their  head,  accompanied  Ezra 
(Ezr.  viii.  3).  They  assisted  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25), 
and  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  X.  14). 

Parshari'datha,  the  eldest  of  Haman's 
ten  sons  who  were  slain  by  the  Jews  in 
Shushan  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

Parthians  occurs  only  in  Acts  ii.  9, 
where  it  designates  Jews  settled  in  Parthia. 
Parthia  Proper  was  the  region  stretching 
along  the  southern  flank  of  the  mountains 
which  separate  the  great  Persian  desert  from 
the  desert  of  Kharesm.  It  lay  south  of 
Hyrcania,  east  of  Media,  and  north  of  Sa- 
gartia.  The  ancient  Parthians  are  called  a 
"  Scythic"  race,  and  probably  belonged  to 
the  great  Turanian  family.  After  being 
subject  in  succession  to  the  Persians  and 
the  Seleucidae,  they  revolted  in  b.  c.  25G, 
and  under  Arsaces  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing their  independence.  Parthia,  in  the  mind 
of  the  writer  of  the  Acts,  would  designate 
this  empire,  which  extended  from  India  to 
the  Tigris,  and  from  the  Chorasmian  desert 
to  the  shores  of  the  Southern  Ocean. 
Hence  the  prominent  position  of  the  name 
Parthians  in  the  list  of  those  present  at 
Pentecost.  Parthia  was  a  power  almost 
rivalling  Rome  —  the  only  existing  power 
which  had  tried  its  strength  against  Rome 
and  not  been  worsted  in  the  encounter. 
The  Parthian  dominion  lasted  for  nearly 
\  five    centuries,  commencing  ia    the  tliiij 


PARTRIDGE 


494 


PASSOVER 


century  before,  and  terminating  in  the  third 
century  after,  our  era. 

Partridge  (Heb.  1c6H)  occurs  only  1 
Sam.  xxvi.  20,  and  Jer.  xvii.  11.  The 
"  hunting  this  bird  upon  the  mountains  "  (1 
Sam.  xxvi.  20)  entirely  agrees  with  the 
habits  of  two  well-known  species  of  par- 
tridge, viz.  Caccabis  saxatilis  (the  Greek 
partridge)  and  Ammoperdix  Ileyii.  The 
expression  in  Ecclus.  xi.  30,  "  like  as  a 
partridge  taken  (and  kept)  in  a  cage," 
clearly  refers  to  "a  decoy  partridge." 
Our  common  partridge  {Perdix  cinerea) 
does  not  occur  in  Palestine. 


Partridge.    (Oaecabis  taxoHUt.} 

Pamah,  the  father  of  Jehoshaphat, 
Solomon's  commissariat  officer  in  Issachar 
(1  K.  iv.  17). 

Parva'im,  the  name  of  an  unknown 
place  or  country  whence  the  gold  was  pro- 
cured for  the  decoration  of  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple (2  Chr.  iii.  6).  We  may  notice  the 
conjecture  that  it  is  derived  from  the  San- 
scrit pftrva,  "  eastern,"  and  is  a  general 
term  for  the  East. 

Pa'sach,  son  of  Japhlet,  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  33). 

Pas-dam'mlm.    [Ephes-dammim.] 

Pase'ah.  1.  Son  of  Eshton,  in  an  ob- 
scure fragment  of  the  genealogies  of  Ju- 
dah  (1  Chr.  iv.  12).  2.  The  "  sons  of 
Paseah "  were  among  the  Nethinim  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  49). 

Pash'lir.  1.  One  of  the  families  of 
priests  of  the  chief  house  of  Malchijah 
(Jer.  xxi.  1,  xxxviii.  1 ;  1  Chr.  ix.  12,  xxiv. 
9;  Neh.  xi.  12).  In  the  time  of  Neheraiah 
this  family  appears  to  have  become  a  chief 
house,  "and  its  head  the  head  of  a  course 
(Ezr.  ii.  38;  Neh.  vii.  41,  x.  3).  The  in- 
dividual from  whom  the  family  was  named 
was  probably  Pashur,  the  son  of  Malchiah, 
who  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah  was  one  of 
the  chief  princes  of  the  court  (Jer.  xxxviii. 
1).  He  was  sent,  with  others,  by  Zedekiah 
to  Jeremiah  at  the  time  when  Nebuchad- 
nezzar was  preparing  his  attack  upon  Jeru- 
salem (Jer.  xxi.).    Again,  somewhat  later, 


Pashur  joined  with  several  other  chief  men 
in  petitioning  the  king  that  Jeremiah  might 
be  put  to  death  as  a  traitor  (Jer.  xxxviii.). 
2.  Another  person  of  this  name,  also  a 
priest,  and  "  chief  governor  of  the  house 
of  the  Lord,"  is  mentioned  in  Jer.  xx.  1. 
He  is  described  as  "  the  son  of  Immer  " 
(1  Chr.  xxiv.  14),  probably  the  same  as 
Amariah  (Neh.  x.  3,  xii.  2,  &c.).  In  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim  he  showed  himself  as 
hostile  to  Jeremiah  as  his  namesake  the  son 
of  Malchiah  did  afterwards,  and  put  him  in 
the  stocks  by  the  gate  of  Benjamin.  For 
this  indignity  to  God's  prophet,  Pashur  was 
told  by  Jeremiah  that  his  name  was  changed 
to  Magor-missabib  {Terror  on  every  side), 
and  that  he  and  all  his  house  should  be  car- 
ried captives  to  Babylon  and  there  die 
(Jer.  XX.  1-6). 

Passage.  Used  in  plur.  (Jer.  xxii.  20), 
probably  to  denote  the  mountain  region  of 
Abarim,  on  the  east  side  of  Jordan.  It  also 
denotes  a  river-ford  or  a  mountain  gorge 
or  pass. 

Passover,  the  first  of  the  three  great 
annual  Festivals  of  the  Israelites,  celebrated 
in  the  month  Nisan,  from  the  14th  to  the 
21st.  The  following  are  the  principal  pas- 
sages in  the  Pentateuch  relating  to  the 
Passover:  Ex.  xii.  1-51,  xiii.  3-10,  xxiii. 
14-19,  xxxiv.  18-26 ;  Lev.  xxiii.  4-14 ;  Num. 
ix.  1-14,  xxviii.  16-25;  Deut.  xvi.  1-6.  I. 
Institdtion  and  First  Celebration  of 
THE  Passover.  —  When  the  chosen  people 
were  about  to  be  brought  out  of  Egypt,  the 
word  of  the  Lord  came  to  Moses  and  Aaron, 
commanding  them  to  instruct  all  the  con- 
gregation of  Israel  to  prepare  for  their 
departure  by  a  solemn  religious  ordinance. 
On  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  of  Abib,  the 
head  of  each  family  was  to  select  from  tlie 
flock  either  a  lamb  or  a  kid,  a  male  of  the 
first  year,  without  blemish.  If  his  family 
was  too  small  to  eat  the  whole  of  the  lamb, 
he  was  permitted  to  invite  his  nearest  neigh- 
bor to  join  the  party.  On  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  month  he  was  to  kill  his  lamb, 
while  the  sun  was  setting.  He  was  then  to 
take  blood  in  a  basin,  and  with  a  sprig  of 
hyssop  to  sprinkle  it  on  the  two  side-posts 
and  the  lintel  of  the  door  of  the  house.  The 
lamb  was  then  thoroughly  roasted,  whole. 
It  was  expressly  forbidden  that  it  should  be 
boiled,  or  that  a  bone  of  it  should  be  broken. 
Unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs  were  to 
be  eaten  with  the  flesh.  No  male  who  was 
uncircumcised  was  to  join  the  company. 
Each  one  was  to  have  his  loins  girt,  to  hold 
a  staff"  in  his  hand,  and  to  have  shoes  on  his 
feet.  He  was  to  eat  in  haste,  and  it  would 
seem  that  he  was  to  stand  during  the  meal. 
The  number  of  the  party  was  to  be  calcu- 
lated as  nearly  as  possible,  so  that  all  the 
flesh  of  the  lamb  might  be  eaten  ;  but  if  any 
portion  of  it  happened  to  remain,  it  was  to 
be  burned  in  the  morning.    No  morsel  of  it 


PASSOVER 


495 


PASSOVER 


was  to  be  carried  out  of  the  house.  The 
legislator  was  further  directed  to  inform 
the  people  of  God's  purpose  to  smite  the 
first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  to  declare  that 
the  Passover  was  to  be  to  them  an  ordi- 
nance forever,  to  give  them  directions 
respecting  the  order  and  duration  of  the 
festival  in  future  times,  and  to  enjoin  upon 
them  to  teach  their  children  its  meaning, 
from  generation  to  generation.  When  the 
message  w.as  delivered  to  the  people  they 
bowed  their  heads  in  worship.  The  lambs 
were  selected,  on  the  fourteenth  they  were 
slain,  and  the  blood  sprinkled,  and  in  the 
following  evening,  after  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  month  had  commenced,  the  first  paschal 
meal  was  eaten.  At  midnight  the  first-born 
of  the  Egyptians'  were  smitten.  The  king 
and  his  people  were  now  urgent  that  the 
Israelites  should  start  immediately,  and 
readily  bestowed  on  them  supplies  for 
the  journey.  In  such  haste  did  the  Israel- 
ites depart,  on  that  very  day  (Num.  xxxiii. 
8),  that  they  packed  up  their  kneading- 
troughs  containing  the  dough  prepared  for 
the  morrow's  provisions,  which  was  not  yet 
leavened.  II.  Observance  of  the  Pass- 
over IN  LATER  TIMES.  —  1.  In  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  chapters  of  Exodus  there  are 
not  only  distinct  references  to  the  obser- 
Tance  of  the  festival  in  future  ages  (e.  g.  xii. 
3,  14,  17,  24-27,  42,  xiii.  2,  5,  8-10),  but 
tliere  are  several  injunctions  which  were 
evidently  not  intended  for  the  first  Passover, 
and  which  indeed  could  not  possibly  have 
been  observed.  In  the  later  notices  of  the 
festival  in  the  books  of  the  law  there  are 
particulars  added  which  appear  as  modifi- 
cations of  the  original  institution  (Lev. 
xxiii.  10-14 ;  Num.  xxviii.  16-25 ;  Deut. 
xvi.  1-6).  Hence  it  is  not  without  reason 
that  the  Jewish  writers  have  laid  great 
stress  on  the  distinction  between  "the 
Egyptian  Passover"  and  "the  perpetual 
Passover."  2.  The  following  was  the  gen- 
eral order  of  the  observances  of  the  Pass- 
over in  later  times  :  On  the  14th  of  Nisan 
every  trace  of  leaven  was  put  away  from 
the  houses,  and  on  the  same  day  every  male 
Israelite  not  laboring  under  any  bodily  in- 
firmity or  ceremonial  impurity,  was  com- 
manded to  appear  before  the  Lord  at  the 
national  sanctuary  with  an  offering  of  money 
in  proportion  to  his  m6ans  (Ex.  xxiii.  15 ; 
Deut.  xvi.  16,  17).  Devout  women  some- 
times attended,  as  is  proved  by  the  instances 
of  Hannah  and  Mary  (1  Sam.  i.  7;  Luke  ii. 
41,  42).  As  the  sun  was  setting,  the  lambs 
were  slain,  and  the  fat  and  blood  given  to 
the  priests  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  5,  6).  The  lamb 
was  then  roasted  whole,  and  eaten  with 
unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs ;  no  por- 
tion of  it  was  to  be  lefl  until  the  morning. 
The  same  night,  after  the  15th  of  Nisan  had 
commenced,  the  fat  was  burned  by  the  priest 
and  the  blood  sprinkled  on  the  altar  (2  Chr. 


XXX.  16,  xxxT.  11).  On  the  15th,  the  night 
being  passed,  there  was  a  holy  convocation, 
and  during  that  day  no  work  might  be  done, 
except  the  preparation  of  necessary  food 
(Ex.  xii.  16).  On  this  and  the  six  following 
days  an  off'ering  in  addition  to  the  daily  sac- 
rifice was  made  of  two  young  bullocks,  a 
ram,  and  seven  lambs  of  the  first  yeai,  with 
meat-offerings,  for  a  burnt-offering,  and  a 
goat  fora  sin-off'ering  (Num.  xxviii.  1^-23). 
On  the  16th  of  the  month,  "  the  morrow  .after 
the  sabbath "  (i.  e.  after  the  day  of  holy 
convocation),  the  first  sheaf  of  harvest 
was  oflFered  and  waved  by  the  priest  before 
the  Lord,  and  a  male  lamb  was  offered  as  a 
burnt  sacrifice  with  a  meat  and  drink  offer- 
ing. Nothing  necessarily  distinguished  the 
four  following  days  of  the  festival,  except  the 
additional  burnt  and  sin-off'erings,  and  the 
restraint  from  some  kinds  of  labor.  On  the 
seventh  day.  the  21st  of  Nisan,  there  was  a 
holy  convocation,  and  the  day  appears  to 
have  been  one  of  peculiar  solemnity.  As 
at  all  the  festivals,  cheerfulness  was  to  pre- 
vail during  the  whole  week,  and  all  care 
was  to  be  laid  aside  (Deut.  xxvii.  7).  3. 
(a.)  The  Paschal  Lamb.  —  After  the  first 
Passover  in  Egypt  there  is  no  trace  of  the 
lamb  having  been  selected  before  it  was 
wanted.  In  later  times  we  are  certain  that 
it  was  sometimes  not  provided  before  the 
14th  of  the  month  (Luke  xxii.  7-9 ;  Mark 
xiv.  12-16).  The  law  formally  allowed  the 
alternative  of  a  kid  (Ex.  xii.  5),  but  a  lamb 
was  preferred,  and  was  proisably  nearly 
always  chosen.  It  was  to  be  faultless,  and 
a  male,  in  accordance  with  the  established 
estimate  of  animal  perfection  (see  Mai.  i. 
14).  Either  the  head  of  the  family,  or  any 
other  person  who  was  not  ceremonially 
unclean  (2  Chr.  xxx.  17),  took  it  into  the 
court  of  the  Temple  on  his  shoulders.  As 
the  paschal  lamb  could  be  legally  slain,  and 
the  blood  and  fat  offered,  only  in  the  na- 
tional sanctuary  (Deut.  xvi.  2),  it  of 
course  ceased  to  be  oflTored  by  the  Jews 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The 
spring  festival  of  the  modern  Jews  strictly 
consists  only  of  the  feast  of  unleavened 
bread.  (6.)  The  Unleavened  Bread. — It 
might  be  made  of  wheat,  spelt,  barley, 
oats,  or  rye,  but  not  of  rice  or  millet.  It 
appears  to  have  been  usually  made  of  the 
finest  wheat  flour.  It  was  probably  formed 
into  dry,  thin  biscuits,  not  unlike  those 
used  by  the  modern  Jews,  (c.)  The  Bitler 
Herbs  and  the  Sauce. — According  to  the 
Mishna  the  bitter  herbs  (Ex.  xii.  8)  might 
be  endive,  chicory,  wild  lettuce,  or  nettles. 
These  plants  were  important  articles  of 
food  to  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  sauce 
into  which  the  herbs,  the  bread,  and  the 
meat  were  dipped  as  they  were  eaten  (John 
xiii.  26 ;  Matt.  xxvi.  23)  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  Pentateuch,  (d.)  The  Four  Cups 
of  Wine.  —  There  is  no  mention  of  wine 


PASSOVER 


496 


PASSOVER 


in  connection  with  the  Passover  in  the 
Pentateuch;  but  the  Mishna  strictly  en- 
joins that  there  should  never  be  less  than 
four  cups  of  it  provided  at  the  paschal 
meal  even  of  the  poorest  Israelite.  Two 
of  them  appear  to  be  distinctly  mentioned 
Luke  xxii.  17,  20.  "  The  cup  of  blessing  " 
(1  Cor.  X.  16)  was  probably  the  latter  one 
of  these,  and  is  generally  considered  to 
have  been  the  third  of  the  series,  after 
which  a  grace  was  said ;  though  a  compar- 
ison of  Luke  xxii.  20  (where  it  is  called 
"  the  cup  after  supper  ")  with  a  passage  in 
the  Talmud,  and  the  designation  "  cup  of 
the  Ilallel"  suggests  that  it  was  the  fourth 
and  last  cup.  (e.)  The  TMlel.  —  The  ser- 
vice of  praise  sung  at  the  Passover  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Law.  The  name  is  con- 
tracted from  Hallelujah.  It  consisted  of 
the  series  of  Psalms  from  cxiii.  to  cxviii. 
The  first  portion,  comprising  Ps.  cxiii.  and 
cxiv.,  was  sung  in  the  early  part  of  the 
meal,  and  the  second  part  after  the  fourth 
cup  of  wine.  This  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  "  hymn  "  sung  by  our  Lord  and  His 
Apostles  (Matt.  xxvi.  30;  Mark  xiv.  26). 
(f.)  Mode  and  Order  ofihe  Paschal  Meal.  — 
Adopting  as  much  from  Jewish  tradition  as 
is  not  inconsistent  or  improbable,  the  fol- 
lowing appears  to  have  been  the  usual  cus- 
tom :  All  work,  except  that  belonging  to  a 
few  trades  connected  with  daily  life,  was 
suspended  for  some  hours  before  the  even- 
ing of  the  14th  Nisan.  It  was  not  lawful 
to  eat  any  ordinary  food  after  midday. 
No  male  was  admitted  to  the  table  unless 
he  was  circumcised,  even  if  he  was  of  the 
seed  of  Israel  (Ex.  xii.  48).  It  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  luimber  of  a  party  to  be  not 
less  than  ten.  Wlien  the  meal  was  pre- 
pared, the  family  was  placed  round  the 
table,  the  paterfamilias  taking  a  place  of 
honor,  prob<ably  somewhat  raised  above  the 
rest.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the 
ancient  Hebrews  sat  as  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  do  at  their  ordinary  meals.  Our 
Lord  and  His  Apostles  conformed  to  the 
usual  custom  of  their  time,  and  reclined 
(Luke  xxii.  14,  &c.).  When  the  party  was 
arranged  the  first  cup  of  wine  was  filled,  and 
a  blessing  was  asked  by  tlie  bead  of  the  fam- 
ily on  the  feast,  as  well  as  a  special  one  on  the 
cup.  The  bitter  herbs  were  then  placed  on 
the  table,  and  a  portion  of  them  eaten,  either 
with  or  without  the  sauce.  The  unleavened 
bread  was  handed  round  next,  and  after- 
wards the  lamb  was  placed  on  the  table  in 
front  of  the  head  of  the  family.  Before  the 
lamb  was  eaten  the  second  cup  of  wine  was 
lilled,  and  the  son,  in  accordance  with  Ex. 
xii.  2G,  asked  his  father  the  meaning  of  the 
feast.  In  reply,  an  account  was  given  of 
the  sufferings  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  and 
of  their  deliverance,  with  a  particular  expla- 
nation of  Deut.  xxvi.  5,  and  the  first  part  of 
the  Hallel  (Ps.  cxiii.,  cxiv.)  was  sung.   This 


being  gone  through,  the  lamb  was  carved 
and  eaten.  The  third  cup  of  wine  was 
poured  out  and  drunk,  and  soon  afterwards 
the  fourth.  The  second  part  of  tlie  Ilallel 
(Ps.  cxv.  to  cxviii.)  was  then  sung.  A  fifth 
wine-cup  appears  to  have  been  occasionally 
produced,  but  perhaps  only  in  later  times. 
What  was  termed  the  greater  Hallel  (Ps. 
cxx.  to  cxxxviii.)  was  sung  on  such  occa- 
sions. The  Israelites  who  lived  in  the 
country  appear  to  have  been  accommodated 
at  the  feast  by  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem 
in  their  houses,  so  far  as  there  was  room 
for  them  (Luke  xxii.  10-12;  Matt.  xxvi. 
18).  Those  who  could  not  be  received  into 
the  city  encamped  without  the  walls  in 
tents,  as  the  pilgrims  now  do  at  Mecca. 
{g.)  The  first  Sheaf  of  Harvest.  — The 
offering  of  the  Omer,  or  sheaf,  is  mentioned 
nowhere  in  the  Law  except  Lev.  xxiii.  10- 
14.  It  is  there  commanded  that  when  the 
Israelites  reached  the  land  of  promise,  they 
should  bring,  on  the  16th  of  the  month, 
"  the  morrow  after  the  sabbath  "  (t.  e.  the 
day  of  holy  convocation),  the  first  sheaf  of 
tiie  harvest  to  the  priest,  to  be  waved  by 
him  before  the  Lord.  The  sheaf  was  of 
barley,  as  being  the  grain  which  was  first 
ripe  (2  K.  iv.  42).  (/i.)  The  Chagigah.  — 
The  daily  sacrifices  are  enumerated  in  the 
Pentateuch  only  in  Num.  xxviii.  19-23,  but 
reference  is  made  to  them  Lev.  xxiii.  8. 
Besides  these  public  offerings,  tliere  was 
another  sort  of  sacrifice  connected  with  the 
Passover,  as  well  as  with  the  other  great 
festivals,  called  in  the  Talmud  Chagigah, 
i.e.  " festivity."  It  was  a  voluntary  peace- 
offering  made  by  private  individuals.  The 
victim  might  be  taken  either  from  the  flock 
or  the  herd.  It  might  be  either  male  or 
female,  but  it  must  be  without  blemish. 
The  offerer  laid  his  hand  upon  its  head,  and 
slew  it  at  the  door  of  the  sanctuary.  Tiie 
blood  was  sprinkled  on  the  altar,  and  the 
fat  of  the  inside,  with  the  kidneys,  was 
burned  by  the  priest.  The  breast  was  given 
to  the  priest  as  a  wave-offering,  and  the 
right  shoulder  as  a  heave-offering  (Lev.  iii. 
1-5,  vii.  29-34).  What  remained  of  the 
victim  might  be  eaten  by  the  offerer  and 
his  guests  on  the  day  on  which  it  was  slain, 
and  on  the  day  following ;  but  if  any  por- 
tion was  left  till  the  third  day  it  was  burned 
(Lev.  vii.  16-18).  The  eating  of  the  Cha- 
gigah was  an  occasion  of  social  festivity 
connected  with  the  festivals,  and  especially 
with  the  Passover,  (i.)  Release  of  Prison- 
ers.  —  It  is  a  question  whether  the  release 
of  a  prisoner  at  the  Passover  (Matt,  xxvii. 
15 ;  Mark  xv.  6 ;  Luke  xxiii.  17 ;  John  xviii. 
39)  was  a  custom  of  Roman  origin  resem- 
bling what  took  place  at  the  lectisternium 
(Liv.  v.  13),  and,  in  later  times,  on  tiie 
birthday  of  an  emperor,  or  whether  it  was 
an  old  Hebrew  usage  belonging  to  the  fes- 
tival, which  Pilate  allowed  the  Jews  to  re- 


PASSOVEK 


497 


PASSOVER 


tain,  (k.)  The  Second,  or  Little  Passover. 
—  When  the  Passover  was  celebrated  the 
second  year,  in  the  wilderness,  certain  men 
were  prevented  from  keeping  it,  owing  to 
their  being  defiled  by  contact  with  a  dead 
body.  Being  thus  prevented  from  obeying 
the  Divine  command,  they  came  anxiously 
to  Moses  to  inquire  what  they  should  do. 
He  was  accordingly  instructed  to  institute 
a  second  Passover,  to  be  observed  on  the 
14th  of  the  following  month,  for  the  benefit 
of  any  who  had  been  hindered  from  keep- 
ing the  regular  one  in  Nisan  (Num.  ix. 
11).  The  Talmudists  called  this  the  Little 
Passover.  (Z.)  Observances  of  the  Pass- 
over recorded  in  Scripture.  —  Of  these, 
seven  are  of  chief  historical  importance : 

1.  The  first  Passover  in  Egypt  (Ex.  xii.). 

2.  The  first  kept  in  the  desert  (Num.  ix.). 

3.  That  celebrated  by  Joshua  at  Gilgal 
(Josh.  v.).  4.  That  which  Hezekiah  ob- 
served on  the  occasion  of  his  restoring  the 
national  worship  (2  Chr.  xxx.).  This  Pass- 
over was  not  held  till  the  second  month, 
the  proper  time  for  the  Little  Passover.  5. 
The  Passover  of  Josiah,  in  the  eighteenth 
year  of  his  reign  (2  Chr.  xxxv.).  6.  That 
celebrated  by  Ezra  after  the  return  from 
Babylon  (Ezr.  vi.)  7.  The  last  Passover 
of  our  Lord's  life.  III.  The  Last  Sup- 
per. —  1.  Was  the  supper  which  our  Lord 
ate  with  his  disciples  on  the  Thursday  even- 
ing the  true  Paschal  Supper,  or  did  the  latter 
fall  on  the  following  evening,  the  same  as 
that  of  His  crucifixion?  No  point  in  the 
Gospel  history  has  been  more  disputed. 
The  truth  of  the  former  view  could  never 
have  been  questioned,  had  we  possessed  the 
first  three  Gospels  only.  They  expressly 
call  the  Supper  of  the  Thursday  evening  the 
Passover;  and  even  if  St.  John  does  not 
so  call  it,  no  inference  can  be  drawn  from 
his  silence,  any  more  than  from  his  not 
mentioning  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  considering  the  supplementary  na- 
ture of  his  Gospel.  There  are,  however, 
other  passages  in  St.  John's  narrative  of 
our  Saviour's  passion,  which  seem  to  sug- 
gest the  inference  that  the  Passover  was  yet 
to  be  eaten  on  the  Friday  evening;  but  all 
these  passages  admit  of  another  explanation. 
If  we  admit  that  the  last  supper  was  on  the 
13th  of  Nisan,  our  Lord  must  have  been 
crucified  on  the  14th,  the  day  on  which  the 
paschal  lamb  was  slain  and  eaten.  He  lay 
in  the  grave  on  the  loth  (which  was  a 
"high  day"  or  double  sabbath,  because  the 
weekly  sabbath  coincided  with  the  day  of 
holy  convocation),  and  the  Sunday  of  the 
resurrection  was  the  16th.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising that  some  modern  critics  should 
have  given  up  as  hopeless  the  task  of  rec- 
onciling this  difficulty.  2.  The  reconcili- 
ations which  have  been  attempted  fall  under 
three  principal  heads  :  i.  Those  which  re- 
gard the  supper  at  which  our  Lord  washed 

32 


the  feet  of  His  disciples  (John  xiii.),  as 
having  been  a  distinct  meal  eaten  one  or 
more  days  before  the  regular  Passover,  of 
which  our  Lord  partook  in  due  course 
according  to  the  synoptical  narratives,  ii. 
Those  in  which  it  is  endeavored  to  establish 
that  the  meal  was  eaten  on  the  13th,  and 
that  our  Lord  was  crucified  on  the  evening 
of  the  true  paschal  supper,  iii.  Those  in 
which  the  most  obvious  view  of  the  first 
three  narratives  is  defended,  and  in  which  it 
is  attempted  to  explain  the  apparent  con- 
tradictions in  St.  John,  and  the  difficulties 
in  reference  to  the  law.  (i.)  The  first 
method  has  the  advantage  of  furnishing  the 
most  ready  way  of  accounting  for  St. 
John's  silence  on  the  institution  of  the  Holy 
Communion ;  but  any  explanation  founded 
on  the  supposition  of  two  meals  appears  to 
be  rendered  untenable  by  the  context,  (ii.) 
The  current  of  opinion  in  modern  times  has 
set  in  favor  of  taking  the  more  obvious 
interpretation  of  the  passages  in  St.  John, 
that  the  supper  was  eaten  on  the  13th,  and 
that  our  Lord  was  crucified  on  the  14th. 
Those  who  thus  hold  that  the  supper  was 
eaten  on  the  13th  day  of  the  month  have 
devised  various  ways  of  accounting  for  the 
circumstance,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  important :  (a.)  It  is  assumed 
that  a  party  of  the  Jews,  probably  the  Sad- 
ducees  and  those  who  inclined  towards  them, 
used  to  eat  the  Passover  one  day  before  the 
rest,  and  that  our  Lord  approved  of  their 
practice.  (6.)  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  great  body  of  the  Jews  had  gone  wrong 
in  calculating  the  true  Passover-day,  pla- 
cing it  a  day  too  late,  and  that  our  Lord  ate 
the  Passover  on  what  was  really  the  14th, 
but  what  commonly  passed  as  the  13th. 
(c.)  Calvin  supposed  that  on  this  occasion, 
though  our  Lord  thought  it  right  to  adhere 
to  the  true  legal  time,  the  Jews  ate  the  Pass- 
over on  the  15th instead  of  the  14th,  in  order 
to  escape  from  the  burden  of  two  days  of 
strict  observance  (the  day  "of  holy  convoca- 
tion and  the  weekly  sabbath)  coming  to- 
gether, (rf.)  Grotius  thought  that  the  meal 
was  a  nan/u  fiir^uonvTixCv  (like  the  paschal 
feast  of  the  modern  Jews,  and  such  as  might 
have  been  observed  during  the  Babylonian 
captivity),  not  a  nuo/a  Si'oiuuv.  (e.)  A  view 
which  has  been  received  with  favor  far 
more  generally  than  either  of  the  preceding 
is,  that  the  Last  Supper  was  instituted  by 
Clirist  for  the  occasion,  in  order  that  He 
might  Himself  suffer  on  the  proper  evening 
on  which  the  paschal  lamb  was  slain.  Eras- 
mus and  others  have  called  it  an  "  antici- 
patory Passover ;  "  but  if  this  view  is  to 
stand,  it  seems  better,  in  a  formal  treat- 
ment of  the  subject,  not  to  call  it  a  Passover 
at  all.  (iii.)  They  who  take  the  facts  as 
they  appear  to  lie  on  the  surface  of  the 
synoptical  narratives  start  from  a  simpler 
point.   They  have  to  show  that  the  passages 


PASSOVER 


498 


PASSOVER 


in  St.  Jolm  may  be  fairly  interpreted  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  interfere  with  their 
own  conclusion,  (a.)  John  xiii.  1,  2.  Does 
nno  Ti]?  'toi>Ti)i  limit  the  time  only  of  the 
proposition  in  the  first  verse,  or  is  the  limi- 
tation to  be  carried  on  to  verse  2,  so  as  to 
refer  to  the  supper?  In  the  latter  case  the 
natural  conclusion  is,  that  the  meal  was  one 
eaten  before  the  paschal  supper.  Others 
take  nLn/iX  to  mean  the  seven  days  of  un- 
leavened bread  as  not  including  the  eating 
of  the  lamb,  and  justify  this  limitation  by 
St.  Luke  xxii.  1 ;  but  not  a  few  of  those 
who  take  this  side  of  the  main  question 
regard  the  first  verse  as  complete  in  itself. 
On  the  whole,  Neander  himself  admits  that 
nothing  can  safely  be  inferred  from  John 
xiii.  1,  2,  in  favor  of  the  supper  having 
taken  place  on  the  13th.  (b.)  John  xiii. 
29.  It  is  urged  that  the  things  of  which 
they  had  "  need  against  the  feast,"  might 
have  been  the  provisions  for  the  Chagigah, 
perhaps  with  what  else  was  required  for  the 
seven  days  of  unleavened  bread.  The  usual 
day  for  sacrificing  the  Chagigah  was  the 
loth,  which  was  tiien  commencing.  But 
there  is  another  difiiculty  in  the  disciples 
thinking  it  likely  either  that  purchases 
could  be  made,  or  that  alms  could  be  given 
to  the  poor,  on  a  day  of  holy  convocation. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  letter  of  the 
law  in  regard  to  trading  was  habitually  re- 
laxed in  the  case  of  what  was  required  for 
religious  rites  or  for  burials,  (c.)  John  xviii. 
28.  The  Jews  refused  to  enter  the  praetori- 
um  lest  they  should  be  defiled,  and  so  dis- 
qualified from  eating  the  Passover.  Neander 
and  others  deny  that  this  passage  can  possi- 
bly refer  to  anything  but  the  paschal  supper. 
But  it  is  alleged  that  the  words  may  either 
be  taken  in  a  general  sense  as  meaning  "that 
they  might  go  on  keeping  the  passover,"  or 
that  TO  Jtixa/a  may  be  understood  specifical- 
ly to  denote  the  Chagigah.  (d.)  John  xix. 
14.  "  The  preparation  of  the  Passover  "  at 
first  sight  would  seem  as  if  it  must  be  the 
preparation  for  the  Passover  on  the  14th,  a 
time  set  apart  for  making  ready  foV  the 
paschal  week,  and  for  the  paschal  supper 
in  particular.  It  is  naturally  so  understood 
by  those  who  advocate  the  notion  that  the 
last  supper  was  eaten  on  the  13th.  But 
they  who  take  the  opposite  view  alBrm  that, 
though  there  was  a  regular  "  preparation" 
for  the  sabbath,  there  is  no  mention  of 
any  "preparation"  for  the  festivals.  It 
seems  to  be  essentially  connected  with  the 
sabbath  itself  (John  xix.  31).  The  phrase 
in  Jolm  xix.  14  may  thus  be  understood  as 
th3  preparation  of  the  sabbath  which  fell 
in  the  Passover  week.  If  these  arguments 
are  admitted,  the  day  of  the  preparation 
mentioned  in  the  Gospels  might  have  fallen 
on  the  day  of  holy  convocation,  the  15th  of 
Nisan.  (c.)  John  xix.  31.  "  That  sabbath 
day  was  a  high  day."    It  is  assumed  by 


those  who  fix  the  supper  on  the  13th  that 
the  term  was  applied,  owing  to  the  15tli 
being  "  a  double  sabbath,"  from  the  coin- 
cidence of  the  day  of  holy  convocation  with 
the  weekly  festival.  Those,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  identify  the  supper  with  the 
paschal  meal,  contend  that  the  special  dig- 
nity of  the  day  resulted  from  its  being  that 
on  which  the  Omer  was  ofiered,  and  from 
which  were  reckoned  the  fifty  days  to  Pen- 
tecost. (/.)  The  difficulty  of  supposing 
that  our  Lord's  apprehension,  trial,  and 
crucifixion  took  place  on  the  day  of  holy 
convocation  has  been  strongly  urged.  But 
the  statements  which  refer  to  Jewish  usage 
in  regard  to  legal  proceedings  on  sacred 
days  as  are  very  inconsistent  with  each 
other.  Some  of  them  make  the  difficulty 
equally  great  whether  we  suppose  the  trial 
to  have  taken  place  on  the  14th  or  the  15th. 
In  others  tiiere  are  exceptions  permitted 
which  seem  to  go  far  to  meet  the  case  be- 
fore us.  But  we  have  better  proof  than 
either  the  Mishna  or  the  Gemara  can  afford 
that  the  Jews  did  not  hesitjite,  in  the  time 
of  the  Roman  domination,  to  carry  arms 
and  to  apprehend  a  prisoner  on  a  solemn 
feast  day.  We  find  them  at  the  feast  of 
Tabernacles,  on  the  "great  day  of  the 
feast,"  sending  out  officers  to  take  our 
Lord,  and  rebuking  them  for  not  bringing 
Him  (John  vii.  32-45).  St.  Peter  also  was 
seized  during  the  Passover  (Acts  xii.  3,  4). 
And,  again,  the  reason  alleged  by  the  rulers 
for  not  apprehending  Jesus  was,  not  the 
sanctity  of  the  festival,  but  the  fear  of  an 
uproar  among  the  multitude  which  was 
assembled  (Matt.  xxvi.  5).  On  the  whole, 
notwitlistanding  the  express  declaration  of 
the  Law  and  of  the  Mishna  that  the  days 
of  holy  convocation  were  to  be  observed 
precisely  as  the  sabbath,  except  in  the 
preparation  of  food,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
considerable  license  was  allowed  in  regard 
to  them,  as  we  have  already  observed.  3.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  the  narrative  of  St. 
John,  as  far  as  the  mere  succession  of 
events  is  concerned,  bears  consistent  testi- 
mony in  favor  of  the  last  supper  having 
been  eaten  on  the  evening  before  the  Pass- 
over. That  testimony,  however,  does  not 
appear  to  be  so  distinct,  and  so  incapable 
of  a  second  interpretation,  as  that  of  the 
synoptical  Gospels,  in  favor  of  the  meal 
having  been  the  paschal  supper  itself,  at 
the  legal  time  (see  especially  Matt.  xxvi. 
17;  Mark  xiv.  1,  12;  Luke  xxii.  7).  IV. 
Meaning  OF  THE  Passover.  —  1.  Each  of 
the  three  great  festivals  contained  a  refer- 
ence to  the  annual  course  of  nature.  Two 
at  least  of  them — the  first  and  the  last  — 
also  commemorated  events  in  the  history  of 
the  chosen  people.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  the  relation  to  the  natural  year  ex- 
pressed in  the  Passover  was  less  marked 
than  that  in  Pentecost  or  Tabernacles,  wbile 


PASSOVER 


499 


PASSOVER 


Its  historical  import  was  deeper  and  more 
pointed.  That  part  of  its  ceremonies  which 
has  a  direct  agricultural  reference  —  the 
offering  of  the  Ouier  —  holds  a  very  sub- 
ordinate place.  2.  Tlie  deliverance  from 
Egypt  was  regarded  as  the  starting-point 
of  the  Hebrew  nation.  The  Israelites  were 
then  raised  from  the  condition  of  bondmen 
under  a  foreign  tyrant  to  that  of  a  free 
people  owing  allegiance  to  no  one  but  Je- 
hovah. The  proi)liet  in  a  later  age  spoke 
of  the  event  as  a  creation  and  a  redemption 
of  the  nation.  God  declares  Himself  to  be 
"  the  Creator  of  Israel."  The  Exodus  was 
thus  looked  upon  as  the  birth  of  the  nation ; 
the  Passover  was  its  annual  birthday  feast. 
It  was  the  yearly  memorial  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  people  to  Him  who  had  saved 
their  first-born  from  the  destroyer,  in  order 
that  they  might  be  made  holy  to  Himself. 
3.  (a.)  The  paschal  lamb  must  of  course 
be  regarded  as  the  leading  feature  in  the 
ceremonial  of  the  festival.  Some  Protes- 
tant divines  during  the  last  two  centuries 
(Calov,  Carpzov)  have  denied  that  it  was  a 
sacrifice  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word. 
But  most  of  their  contemporaries  (Cud- 
worth,  Bochart,  Vitringa),  and  nearly  all 
modern  critics,  have  held  that  it  was  in  the 
strictest  sense  a  sacrifice.  The  chief  char- 
acteristics of  a  sacrifice  are  all  distinctly 
ascribed  to  it.  It  was  offered  in  the  holy 
place  (Deut.  xvi.  5,  6) ;  the  blood  was 
sprinkled  on  the  altar,  and  the  fat  was 
burned  (2  Chr.  xxx.  16,  xxxv.  11),  The 
language  of  Ex.  xii.  27,  xxiii.  18,  Num.  ix. 
7,  Deut.  xvi.  2,  5,  together  with  1  Cor.  v. 
7,  would  seem  to  decide  the  question  be- 
yond the  reach  of  doubt.  As  the  original 
institution  of  the  Passover  in  Egypt  pre- 
ceded the  establishment  of  the  priesthood 
and  the  regulation  of  the  service  of  the 
tabernacle,  it  necessarily  fell  short  in 
several  particulars  of  the  observance  of 
the  festival  according  to  the  fully  devel- 
oped ceremonial  law.  The  head  of  the 
family  slew  the  lamb  in  his  own  house,  not 
in  the  holy  place ;  the  blood  was  sprinkled 
on  the  doorway,  not  on  the  altar.  But 
when  the  law  was  perfected,  certain  partic- 
ulars were  altered  in  order  to  assimilate 
the  Passover  to  the  accustomed  order  of 
religious  service.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  the  paschal  lamb  was  regarded  as  the 
great  annual  peace-offering  of  the  family, 
a  thank-offering  for  the  existence  and  pres- 
ervation of  the  nation  (Ex.  xiii.  14-16), 
the  typical  sacrifice  of  the  elected  and  rec- 
onciled children  of  the  promise.  A  ques- 
tion, perhaps  not  a  wise  one,  has  been  raised 
regarding  the  purpose  of  the  sprinkling  of 
the  blood  on  the  lintels  and  door-posts. 
Some  have  considered  that  it  was  meant 
as  a  mark  to  guide  the  destroying  angel. 
Others  suppose  that  it  was  merely  a  sign 
to  confirm  the  faith  of  the  Israelites  in 


their  safety  and  deliverance.  Surely  nei- 
ther of  these  views  can  stand  alone.  The 
sprinkling  must  have  been  an  act  of  faith 
and  obedience  which  God  accepted  with 
favor.  That  it  also  denoted  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  children  of  Israel  from  the 
abominations  of  the  Egyptians,  and  so  had 
the  accustomed  significance  of  the  sprin- 
kling of  blood  under  the  law  (Heb.  ix.  22), 
is  evidently  in  entire  consistency  with  this 
view.  No  satisfactory  reason  has  been  as- 
signed for  the  command  to  choose  the  lamb 
four  days  before  the  paschal  supper.  That 
the  lamb  was  to  be  roasted,  and  not  boiled, 
has  been  supposed  to  commemorate  the 
haste  of  the  departure  of  the  Israelites. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  determine  the  reason 
of  the  command,  "  Not  a  bone  of  him  shall 
be  broken."  The  lamb  was  to  be  a  symbol 
of  unity ;  the  unity  of  the  family,  the  unity 
of  the  nation,  the  unity  of  God  with  His 
people  whom  He  had  taken  into  covenant 
with  Himself.  (6.)  The  unleavened  bread 
ranks  next  in  importance  to  the  paschal 
lamb.  The  notion  has  been  very  generally 
held,  or  taken  for  granted,  both  by  Chris- 
tian and  Jewish  writers  of  all  ages,  that 
it  was  intended  to  remind  the  Israelites 
of  the  unleavened  cakes  which  they  were 
obliged  to  eat  in  their  hasty  flight  (Ex.  xii. 
34,  39) ;  but  there  is  not  the  least  intima- 
tion to  tliis  effect  in  the  sacred  narrative. 
It  has  been  considered  by  some  that  the 
unleavened  bread  and  the  bitter  herbs  alike 
owe  their  meaning  to  their  being  regarded 
as  unpalatable  food ;  but  this  seems  to  be 
wholly  inconsistent  with  the  pervading  joy- 
ous nature  of  the  festival.  On  the  whole 
we  are  warranted  in  concluding  that  un- 
leavened bread  had  a  peculiar  sacrificial 
character,  according  to  the  Law.  It  seems 
more  reasonable  to  accept  St.  Paul's  refer- 
ence to  the  subject  (1  Cor.  v.  6-8)  as  fur- 
nishing the  true  meaning  of  the  symbol. 
Fermentation  is  decomposition,  a  dissolu- 
tion of  unity.  The  pure  dry  biscuit  would 
be  an  apt  emblem  of  unchanged  duration, 
and,  in  its  freedom  from  foreign  mixture, 
of  purity  also,  (c.)  The  bitter  herbs  are 
generally  understood  by  the  Jewish  writers 
to  signify  the  bitter  sufferings  which  the 
Israelites  had  endured  (Ex.  i.  14).  But 
it  has  been  remarked  by  Abenezra  that 
these  herbs  are  a  good  and  wholesome  ac- 
companiment for  meat,  and  are  now,  and 
appear  to  have  been  in  ancient  times,  com- 
monly so  eaten,  {d.')  The  offering  of  the 
Omer,  though  it  is  obviously  that  part  of 
the  festival  which  is  immediately  connected 
with  the  course  of  the  seasons,  bore  a  dis- 
tinct analogy  to  its  historical  significance. 
It  may  have  denoted  a  deliverance  from 
winter,  as  the  lamb  signified  deliverance 
from  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  wliich  might 
well  be  considered  as  a  winter  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  nation.    Again,  the  consecra- 


PATARA 


500 


PATRIARCHS 


tion  of  the  first-fruits,  the  first-born  of  the 
soil,  is  an  easy  type  of  the  consecration  of 
the  first-born  of  the  Israelites.  4.  No  other 
shadow  of  good  things  to  come  contained 
in  tlie  Law  can  vie  with  the  festival  of  the 
Passover  in  expressiveness  and  complete- 
ness. Hence  we  arc  so  often  reminded  of 
it,  more  or  less  distinctly,  in  the  ritual  and 
language  of  the  Church.  Its  outline,  con- 
sidered in  reference  to  the  great  deliver- 
ance of  the  Israelites  which  it  commemo- 
rated, and  many  of  its  minute  details,  have 
been  appropriated  as  current  expressions 
of  the  truths  which  God  has  revealed  to  us 
in  the  fulness  of  time  in  sending  His  Son 
upon  earth.  It  is  not  surprising  that  eccle- 
siastical writers  should  have  pushed  the 
comparison  too  far,  and  exercised  their 
fancy  in  the  application  of  trifling  or  ac- 
cidental particulars  either  to  the  facts  of 
our  Lord's  life  or  to  truths  connected  with 
it.  But,  keeping  within  the  limits  of  sober  in- 
terpretation indicated  by  Scripture  itself,  the 
application  is  singularly  full  and  edifying. 
The  crowning  application  of  the  paschal 
rites  to  the  truths  of  which  they  were  the 
shadowy  promises  appears  to  be  that  which 
is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  our  Lord's 
death  occurred  during  the  festival.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Divine  purpose,  the  true 
Lamb  of  God  was  slain  at  nearly  the  same 
time  as  "  the  Lord's  Passover,"  in  obedience 
to  the  letter  of  the  law.  It  does  not  seem 
needful  that,  in  order  to  give  point  to  this 
coincidence,  we  should  (as  some  have  done) 
draw  from  it  an  d,  priori  argument  in  favor 
of  our  Lord's  crucifixion  having  taken  place 
on  the  14th  of  Nisan.  It  is  enough  to 
know  that  our  own  Holy  Week  and  Easter 
stand  as  the  anniversary  of  the  same  great 
facts  as  were  foreshown  in  those  events  of 
which  the  yearly  Passover  was  a  com- 
memoration. As  compared  with  the  otlier 
festivals,  the  Passover  was  remarkably  dis- 
tinguished by  a  single  victim  essentially  its 
own,  sacrificed  in  a  very  peculiar  manner. 
In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  the  place  it 
held  iij  the  ecclesiastical  year,  it  had  a  for- 
mal dignity  and  character  of  its  own.  It  was 
the  representative  festival  of  the  year,  and 
in  this  unique  position  it  stood  in  a  certain 
relation  to  circumcision  as  the  second  sac- 
rament of  the  Hebrew  church  (Ex.  xii.  44). 

Pat'ara,  a  Lycian  city  situated  on  the 
south-western  shore  of  Lycia,  not  far  from 
tlie  left  bank  of  the  river  Xanthus.  The 
coast  here  is  very  mountainous  and  bold. 
Immediately  opposite  is  the  island  of 
Rhopes.  Patara  was  practically  the  sea- 
port of  the  city  of  Xanthus,  which  was  ten 
miles  distant.  These  Jiotices  of  its  posi- 
tion and  maritime  importance  introduce  us 
to  the  single  mention  of  the  place  in  the 
Bible  (Acts  xxi.  1,  2). 

Path'ros,  gent,  noun  Pathktjsim,  a 
part  of  Egypt,  and  a  Mizraite  tribe.    In.  the 


list  of  the  Mizraites,  the  Pathn.»im  occur 
after  the  Naphtuhim,  and  before  the  Caslu- 
him ;  the  latter  being  followed  by  the  notice 
of  the  Philistines,  and  by  the  Caphtorim 
(Gen.  X.  13,  14;  1  Chr.  i.  12).  Pathros  is 
mentioned  in  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  (xi. 
11),  Jeremiah  (xliv.  1,  15),  and  Ezekiel 
(xxix.  14,  XXX.  13-18).  It  was  probably 
part  of  or  all  Upper  Egypt,  and  we  may 
trace  its  name  in  the  Pathyrite  nome,  in 
which  Thebes  was  situate. 

■Pathru'sim.     [Pathros.] 

Pat'mos  (Rev.  i.  9),  a  rugged  and  bare 
island,  is  one  of  the  Sporades,  and  in  that 
part  of  the  Aegean  which  is  called  the  Ica- 
rian  Sea.  Such  a  scene  of  banishment  for 
St.  John  in  the  reign  of  Domitiaa  is  quite 
in  harmony  with  what  we  read  of  the  cus- 
tom of  the  period.  Patmos  is  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts,  a  northern  and  a 
southern,  by  a  very  narrow  isthmus,  wliere, 
on  the  east  side,  are  the  harbor  and  the 
town.  On  the  hill  to  the  south,  crowning 
a  commanding  height,  is  the  celebrated 
monastery,  which  bears  the  name  of  "  John 
the  Divine."  Half  way  up  the  ascent  is  the 
cave  or  grotto  where  tradition  says  that  St. 
John  received  the  Revelation. 

Patriarchs.  The  name  Patriarch  is 
applied  in  the  N.  T.  to  Abraham  (Heb.  vii. 
4),  to  the  sons  of  Jacob  (Acts  vii.  8,  9), 
and  to  David  (Acts  ii.  29) ;  and  is  appar- 
ently intended  to  be  equivalent  to  the 
phrase,  the  "head"  or  "prince  of  a  tribe," 
so  often  found  in  the  O.  T.  It  is  used  in 
this  sense  by  the  LXX.  in  1  Chr.  xxiv.  31, 
xxvii.  22;  2  Chr.  xxiii.  20,  xxvi.  12.  In 
common  usage  the  title  of  patriarch  is  as- 
signed especially  to  those  whose  lives  are 
recorded  in  Scripture  previous  to  the  time 
of  Moses.  The  patriarchal  times  are  nat- 
urally divided  into  the  ante-diluvian  and 
post-diluvian  periods.  1.  In  the  former 
the  Scripture  record  contains  little  except 
the  list  of  the  line  from  Seth,  through  Euos, 
Cainan,  Mahalaleel,  Jared,  Enoch,  Methu- 
selah, and  Lamech,  to  Noah ;  with  the  ages 
of  each  at  their  periods  of  generation  and 
at  their  deaths.  To  some  extent  parallel  to 
this,  is  given  the  line  of  Cain ;  Enoch,  Irad, 
Mehujael,  Methusael,  Lamech,  and  the  sons 
of  Lamech,  Jabal,  Jubal,  and  Tubal-Cain. 
To  the  latter  line  are  attributed  the  first 
signs  of  material  civilization,  the  building 
of  cities,  the  division  of  classes,  and  the 
knowledge  of  mechanical  arts ;  while  the 
only  moral  record  of  their  history  obscurely 
speaks  of  violence  and  bloodshed.  One  of 
the  main  questions  raised  as  to  the  antedilu- 
vian period  turns  on  the  longevity  assigned 
to  the  patriarchs.  With  the  single  excep- 
tion of  Enoch  (whose  departure  from  the 
earth  at  365  years  of  age  is  exceptional  in  ev- 
ery sense),  their  ages  vary  from  777  (La- 
mech) to  969  (Methuselah).  This  statement 
of  ages  is  clear  and  definite.    If  the  Divine 


PATRIARCHS 


501 


PAUL 


origin  of  Scripture  be  believed,  its  author- 
ity must  be  accepted  in  this  as  in  other 
cases,  and  the  list  of  the  ages  of  the  patri- 
archs be  held  to  be  (what  it  certainly  claims 
to  be)  a  statement  of  real  facts.  2.  It  is  in 
the  post-diluvian  periods  that  more  is  gath- 
ered as  to  the  nature  of  the  patriarchal  his- 
tory. It  is  at  first  general  in  its  scope. 
The  "Covenant"  given  to  Noah  is  one, 
free  from  all  condition,  and  fraught  with 
natural  blessings,  extending  to  all  alike. 
But  the  history  soon  narrows  itself  to  that 
of  a  single  tribe  or  family,  and  afterwards 
touches  the  general  history  of  the  ancient 
world  and  its  empires  only  so  far  as  it  bears 
upon  this.  It  is  in  this  last  stage  that  the 
principle  of  the  patriarchal  dispensation  is 
most  clearly  seen.  It  is  based  on  the  sa- 
credness  of  family  ties  and  paternal  author- 
ity. This  authority,  as  the  only  one  which 
is  natural  and  original,  is  inevitably  the 
foundation  of  the  earliest  form  of  society, 
and  is  probably  seen  most  perfectly  in  wan- 
dering tribes,  where  it  is  not  affected  by 
local  attachments  and  by  the  acquisition  of 
wealth.  In  Scripture  this  authority  is  con- 
secrated by  an  ultimate  reference  to  God, 
as  the  God  of  the  patriarch,  the  Father 
(that  is)  both  of  him  and  his  cliildren.  At 
the  same  time,  this  faith  was  not  allowed  to 
degenerate,  as  it  was  prone  to  do,  into  an 
appropriation  of  God,  as  the  mere  tutelary 
God  of  the  tribe.  Stiil  the  distinction  and 
preservation  of  the  chosen  family,  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  paternal  authority,  are 
the  special  purposes,  which  give  a  key  to 
the  meaning  of  history,  and  of  the  institu- 
tions recorded.  The  type  of  character 
formed  under  this  dispensation  is  one  im- 
perfect in  intellectual  and  spiritual  growth, 
because  not  yet  tried  by  the  subtler  temp- 
tations, or  forced  to  contemplate  the  deeper 
questions  of  life ;  but  it  is  one  remarkably 
simple,  affectionate,  and  free,  such  as  would 
grow  up  under  a  natural  autliority,  derived 
from  God  and  centring  in  Him,  yet  allow- 
ing, under  its  unquestioned  sacredness,  a 
familiarity  and  freedom  of  intercourse  with 
Him,  which  are  strongly  contrasted  with  the 
stern  and  awful  character  of  the  Mosaic 
dispensation.  We  see  in  it  the  germs  of  the 
future  —  of  the  future  revelation  of  God,  and 
the  future  trials  and  development  of  man.  It 
is  on  this  fact  that  the  typical  interpretation 
of  its  history  depends.  In  the  post-diluvian 
history  of  the  chosen  family  is  seen  the  dis- 
tinction of  the  true  believers,  possessors 
of  a  special  covenant,  special  revelation, 
and  special  privileges,  from  the  world  with- 
out. In  it  is  therefore  shadowed  out  the 
history  of  the  Jewish  Nation  and  Christian 
Church,  as  regards  the  freedom  of  their 
covenant,  the  gradual  unfolding  of  their 
revelation,  and  the  peculiar  blessings  and 
temptations  which  b^^long  to  their  distinc- 
tive  position. 


Pat'robas,  a  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom 
St.  Paul  sends  his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi. 
14).  Like  many  other  names  mentioned  in 
Rom.  xvi.,  this  was  borne  by  at  least  one 
member  of  the  emperor's  houseliold  (Suet. 
Galba,  20;  Martial,  Ep.  ii.  32,  3). 

Pau,  but  in  1  Ciir.  i.  50,  Pai,  the  capital 
of  Hadar,  king  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  39). 
Its  position  is  unknown. 

Paul,  the  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the 
Gentiles.  Original  Authorities.  —  Nearly 
all  the  original  materials  for  the  Life  of  St. 
Paul  are  contained  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles and  in  the  Pauline  Epistles.  Out  of 
a  comparison  of  these  authorities  the  biog- 
rapher of  St.  Paul  has  to  construct  his  ac- 
count of  the  really  important  period  of  the 
Apostle's  Ufe.  The  early  traditions  of  the 
Church  appear  to  have  left  almost  un- 
touched the  space  of  time  for  which  we 
possess  those  sacred  and  abundant  sources 
of  knowledge ;  and  they  aim  only  at  sup- 
plying a  few  particulars  in  the  biography 
beyond  the  points  at  which  the  narrative 
of  the  Acts  begins  and  terminates.  We 
shall  assume  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  be 
a  genuine  and  authentic  work  of  St.  Luke, 
the  companion  of  St.  Paul,  and  shall  speak 
of  the  Epistles  at  the  places  which  we  be- 
lieve them  to  occupy  in  the  history.  Prom- 
inent Points  in  the  Life.  —  Foremost  of  all 
is  his  Conversion.  This  was  the  main  root 
of  his  whole  life,  outward  and  inward. 
Next  after  this,  we  may  specify  his  Labors 
at  Antioch.  From  these  we  pass  to  the 
First  Missionary  Jouiney,  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Visit  to  Jerusa- 
lem was  a  critical  point,  both  in  the  history 
of  the  Church  and  of  the  Apostle.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  Gospel  into  Europe,  with 
the  memorable  visits  to  Philippi,  Athens, 
and  Corinth,  was  the  boldest  step  in  the 
carrying  out  of  St.  Paul's  mission.  A  third 
great  missionary  journey,  chiefly  charac- 
terized by  a  long  stay  at  Ephesus,  is  further 
interesting  from  its  connection  with  four 
leading  Epistles.  This  was  immediately 
followed  by  the  apprehension  of  St.  Paid 
at  Jerusalem,  and  his  imprisoninent  at 
Caesarea.  And  the  last  event  of  which 
we  have  a  full  narrative  is  the  Voyage  to 
Rome.  Saul  of  Tarsus,  before  his  Con- 
version. —  Up  to  the  time  of  his  going 
forth  as  an  avowed  preacher  of  Christ  to 
the  Gentiles,  the  Apostle  was  known  by  the 
name  of  Saul.  This  was  the  Jewish  name 
which  he  received  from  his  Jewish  parents. 
But  though  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  he 
was  born  in  a  Gentile  city.  Of  his  parents 
we  know  nothing,  except  that  his  father 
was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Phil.  iii.  5), 
and  a  Pharisee  (Acts  xxiii.  6),  that  he  had 
acquired  by  some  means  the  Roman  fran- 
chise ("I  was  free  born,"  Acts  xxii.  28), 
and  that  he  was  settled  in  Tarsus.  "  I  am 
a  Jew  of  Tarsus,  a  city  in  Ciiicia,  a  citizen 


PAUL 


502 


PAUL 


of  no  mean  city  "  (Acts  xxi.  39).  At  Tar-  | 
sus  he  must  have  learnt  to  used  the  Greek  ! 
language  with  freedom  and  mastery  in  both  j 
speaking  and  writing.  At  Tarsus  also  he  ^ 
learnt  that  trade  of  "tent-maker"  (Acts, 
xviii.  3),  at  which  he  afterwards  occasion-  j 
ally  wrought  with  his  own  hands.  There  j 
was  a  goat's-hair  cloth  called  Cilicium, 
manufactured  in  Cilicia,  and  largely  used 
for  tents.  Saul's  trade  was  probably  that 
of  making  tents  of  this  hair-cloth.  When 
St.  Paul  makes  his  defence  before  his 
countrymen  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxii.),  he 
tells  them  that  though  born  in  Tarsus,  he 
had  been  "  brought  up  "  in  Jerusalem.  He 
must,  therefore,  have  been  yet  a  boy  when 
he  was  removed,  in  all  probability  for  the 
sake  of  his  education,  to  the  Holy  City  of 
his  fathers.  He  learnt,  he  says,  "  at  the 
feet  of  Gamaliel."  He  who  was  to  resist 
so  stoutly  the  usurpations  of  the  law,  had 
for  his  teacher  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
all  the  doctors  of  the  law.  Saul  was  yet 
"  a  young  man  "  (Acts  vii.  68),  when  the 
Church  experienced  that  sudden  expansion 
which  was  connected  with  the  ordaining  of 
the  Seven  appointed  to  serve  tables,  and 
with  the  special  power  and  inspiration  of 
Stephen.  Amongst  those  who  disputed 
with  Stephen  were  some  *'  of  them  of 
Cilicia."  "We  naturally  think  of  Saul  as 
having  been  one  of  these,  when  we  find 
him  afterwards  keeping  the  clothes  of  those 
suborned  witnesses  who,  according  to  the 
law  (Deut.  xvii.  7),  were  the  first  to  cast 
stones  at  Stephen.  "  Saul,"  says  the  sacred 
writer,  significantly,  "  was  consenting  unto 
his  death."  Saul's  Conversion.  —  The  per- 
secutor was  to  be  converted.  Having  un- 
dertaken to  follow  up  the  believers  "  unto 
strange  cities,"  Saul  naturally  turned  his 
thoughts  to  Damascus,  What  befell  him  as 
he  journeyed  thither,  is  related  in  detail 
three  times  in  the  Acts,  first  by  the  his- 
torian in  his  own  person,  then  in  the  two 
addresses  made  by  St.  Paul  at  Jerusalem 
and  before  Agrippa.  St.  Luke's  statement 
is  to  be  read  in  Acts  ix.  3-19,  w/here,  how- 
ever, the  words  "  it  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick 
against  the  pricks,"  included  in  the  English 
version,  ought  to  be  omitted.  The  sudden 
light  from  heaven;  the  voice  of  Jesus 
speaking  with  authority  to  His  persecu- 
tor; Saul  struck  to  the  ground,  blinded, 
overcome;  the  three  days'  suspense;  the 
coming  of  Ananias  as  a  messenger  of  the 
Lord;  and  Saul's  baptism;  —  these  were 
the  leading  features  of  the  great  event,  and 
in  these  we  must  look  for  the  chief  signifi- 
cance of  the  conversion.  For  we  must 
not  forget  that,  whatever  we  hold  as  to  the 
external  nature  of  the  phenomena  we  are 
considering,  the  whole  transaction  was  es- 
sentially, in  any  case,  a  spiritual  communi- 
cation. That  the  Lord  Jesus  manifested 
Himself  as  a  Living  Person  to  the  man 


Saul,  and  spoke  to  him  so  that  His  very 
words  could  be  understood,  is  the  substan- 
tial fact  declared  to  us.  The  purport  of 
the  three  narratives  is  that  an  actual  con- 
versation took  place  between  Saul  and  the 
Lord  Jesus.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  none 
of  them  is  Saul  said  to  have  seen  Jesus. 
How  it  was  that  Saul  "  saw  "  and  "  heard  " 
we  are  quite  unable  to  determine.  That 
the  light,  and  the  sound  or  voice,  were 
both  different  from  any  ordinary  phenom- 
ena with  which  Saul  and  his  companions 
were  familiar,  is  unquestionably  implied  in 
the  narrative.  It  is  also  implied  that  they 
were  specially  significant  to  Saul,  and  not 
to  those  with  liim.  The  only  mention  in 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  of  the  outward 
phenomena  attending  his  conversion  is  that 
in  1  Cor.  xv.  8,  "Last  of  all  He  was  seen 
of  me  also."  But  there  is  one  important 
passage  in  which  he  speaks  distinctly  of 
his  conversion  itself.  In  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians  (i.l5,lG)  St.  Paul  has  these  words  : 
"  AVhen  it  pleased  God,  who  separated  me 
from  my  mother's  womb,  and  called  me  by 
His  grace,  to  reveal  His  Son  in  me,  that  I 
might  preach  Him  among  the  heathen  .  .  ." 
What  words  could  express  more  exactly 
than  these  the  spiritual  experience  which 
occurred  to  Saul  on  the  way  to  Damascus  ? 
The  manifestation  of  Jesus  as  the  Son  of 
God  is  clearly  the  main  point  in  the  narra- 
tive. It  would  be  groundless  to  assume 
that  the  new  convictions  of  that  midday 
immediately  cleared  and  settled  themselves 
in  Saul's  mind.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
he  was  then  converted,  or  turned  round. 
For  a  while  no  doubt  his  inward  state  was 
one  of  awe  and  expectation.  Thus  enter- 
ing Damascus  as  a  servant  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  he  sought  the  house  of  one  whom  he 
had,  perhaps,  intended  to  persecute.  The 
fame  of  Saul's  coming  had  preceded  him ; 
and  Ananias,  "  a  devout  man  according  to 
the  law,"  but  a  believer  in  Jesus,  when  di- 
rected by  the  Lord  to  visit  him,  wonders 
at  what  he  is  told  concerning  the  notori- 
ous persecutor.  He  obeys,  however;  and 
going  to  Saul  in  the  name  of  "  the  Lord 
Jesus,  who  had  appeared  to  him  in  the 
way,"  he  puts  his  hands  on  him  that  lie 
may  receive  his  sight  and  be  filled  with 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Thereupon  Saul's  eyes 
are  immediately  purged,  and  his  sight  is  re- 
stored. After  the  recovery  of  sight,  Saul 
received  baptism  as  a  sign  of  "the  washing 
of  regeneration."  He  then  broke  his  three 
days'  fast,  and  was  strengthened.  It  was 
in  Damascus  that  he  was  received  into 
the  Church  by  Ananias,  and  here,  to  the 
astonishment  of  all  his  hearers,  he  pro- 
claimed Jesus  in  the  synagogues,  declar- 
ing him  to  be  the  Son  of  God.  The  nar- 
rative in  the  Acts  tells  us  simply  that  he 
was  occupied  in  this  work,  with  increasing 
vigor,  for  "  many  days,"  up  to  the  time 


PAUL 


503 


PAUL 


wher«  imminent  danger  drove  hina  from  .  a- 
mascus.  From  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
(i.  17,  18)  we  learn  that  the  many  days 
were  at  least  a  good  part  of  "  three  years," 
and  that  Saul,  not  thinking  it  necessary  to 
procure  autliority  to  preach  from  the  Apos- 
tles that  were  before  him,  went  after  his 
conversion  into  Arabia,  and  returned  from 
thence  to  Damascus.  We  know  nothing 
whatever  of  this  visit  to  Arabia ;  but  upon 
his  departure  from  Damascus,  we  are  again 
upon  historical  ground,  and  have  the  double 
evidence  of  St.  Luke  in  the  Acts,  and  of 
the  Apostle  in  his  2d  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians. According  to  the  former,  the  Jews 
lay  in  wait  for  Saul,  intending  to  kill  him, 
and  watched  the  gates  of  the  city  that  he 
might  not  escape  from  them.  Knowing 
this,  the  disciples  took  him  by  night  and  let 
him  down  in  a  basket  from  the  wall.  Ac- 
cording to  St.  Paul  (2  Cor.  xi.  32)  it  was 
the  ethnarch  under  Aretas  the  king  who 
watched  for  him,  desiring  to  apprehend  liim. 
There  is  no  difficulty  in  reconciling  the  two 
statements.  Having  escaped  from  Damas- 
cus, Saul  betook  himself  to  Jerusalem,  and 
there  "  assayed  to  join  himself  to  the  disci- 
ples ;  but  they  were  all  afraid  of  him,  and 
believed  not  that  he  was  a  disciple."  Bar- 
nabas became  his  sponsor  to  the  Apostles 
and  Church  at  Jerusalem,  assuring  them  — 
from  some  personal  knowledge,  we  must 
presume  —  of  the  facts  of  Saul's  conver- 
sion and  subsequent  behavior  at  Damas- 
cus. Barnabas's  introduction  removed  the 
fears  of  the  Apostles,  and  Saul  "  was  with 
them  coming  in  and  going  out  at  Jeru- 
salem." His  Hcllenistical  education  made 
him,  like  Stephen,  a  successful  disputant 
against  the  "Grecians;"  and  it  is  not 
strange  that  the  former  persecutor  was 
singled  out  from  tlie  other  believers  as  the 
object  of  a  murderous  hostility.  He  was, 
therefore,  again  urged  to  flee ;  and  by  way 
of  Caesarea  betook  himself  to  his  native  city 
Tarsus.  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
St.  Paul  adds  certain  particulars.  He  tells 
us  that  his  motive  for  going  up  to  Jerusa- 
lem ratlier  than  anywhere  else  was  that  he 
might  see  Peter ;  that  he  abode  with  him 
fifteen  days ;  that  the  only  Apostles  he  saw 
were  Peter  and  James  the  Lord's  brother ; 
and  that  afterwards  he  came  into  the  re- 
gions of  Syria  and  Cilicia,  remaining  un- 
known by  face,  though  well  known  for  his 
conversion  to  the  Churches  in  Judaea  which 
were  in  Christ.  St.  Paul  at  Aiitioch.  — 
While  Saul  was  at  Tarsus,  a  movement 
was  going  on  at  Antioch,  which  raised  that 
city  to  an  importance  second  only  to  that 
of  Jerusalem  itself  in  the  early  history  of 
the  Church.  It  was  there  that  the  Preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles  first  took 
root,  and  from  thence  that  it  was  afterwards 
propagated.  Tliere  came  to  Antioch,  when 
the  persecution  which  arose  about  Stephen 


scattered  upon  their  different  routes  the  dis- 
ciples who  had  been  assembled  at  Jerusalem, 
men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  eager  to  tell  all 
who  would  hear  them  the  good  news  con- 
cerning the  Lord  Jesus.  A  great  number  be- 
lieved ;  and  when  this  was  reported  at  Jeru- 
salem, Barnabas  was  sent  on  a  special  mis- 
sion to  Antioch.  As  the  work  grew  under  his 
hands,  he  felt  the  need  of  help,  went  himself 
to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul,  and  succeeded  in 
bringing  him  to  Antioch.  There  they  la- 
bored together  unremittingly  for  "  a  whole 
year."  AH  this  time  Saul  was  subordinate 
to  Barnabas.  An  opportunity  soon  occurred 
for  proving  the  aflection  of  these  new  dis- 
ciples towards  their  brethren  at  Jerusalem. 
There  came  "  prophets "  from  Jerusalem 
to  Antioch :  "  and  there  stood  up  one  of 
them,  named  Agabus,  and  signified  by  the 
Spirit  that  there  should  be  great  dearth 
throughout  all  the  world."  It  is  obvious 
that  the  fulfilment  followed  closely  upon 
the  intimation  of  the  coming  famine.  Por 
the  disciples  at  Antioch  determined  to  send 
contributions  immediately  to  Jerusalem; 
and  the  gift  was  conveyed  to  the  elders  of 
that  Church  by  the  hands  of  Barnabas  and 
Saul.  Having  discharged  their  errand, 
Barnabas  and  Saul  returned  to  Antioch, 
bringing  with  tliem  another  helper,  John 
surnamed  Mark,  sister's  son  to  Barnabas. 
The  work  of  prophesying  and  teaching  was 
resumed.  Antioch  was  in  constant  com- 
munication with  Cilicia,  with  Cyprus,  with 
all  the  neighboring  countries.  Tlic  ques- 
tion must  have  forced  itself  upon  hundreds 
of  the  "  Christians  "  at  Antioch,  "  Wliat  is 
the  meaning  of  this  faith  of  ours,  of  tliis 
baptism,  of  this  incorporation,  of  this  king- 
dom of  tlie  Son  of  God,  for  the  world? 
The  Gospel  is  not  for  Judaea  alone  :  here 
are  we  called  by  it  at  Antioch.  Is  it  meant 
to  stop  here  ?  "  The  Church  was  preg- 
nant with  a  great  movement,  and  the  time 
of  her  delivery  was  at  hand.  Something 
of  direct  expectation  seems  to  be  implied 
in  wliat  is  said  of  the  leaders  of  the  Church 
at  Antioch,  that  they  were  "ministering 
to  the  Lord,  and  fasting,"  when  the  Holy 
Ghost  spoke  to  them.  "  Separate  me  Bar- 
nabas and  Saul  for  the  work  whereunto  I 
have  called  them."  Everything  was  done 
with  orderly  gravity  in  the  sending  forth  of 
the  two  missionaries.  Their  brethren  after 
fasting  and  prayer,  laid  their  hands  on  them, 
and  so  they  departed.  The  first  Mission- 
ary Journey.  —  As  soon  as  Barnabas  and 
Saul  reached  Cyprus,  they  began  to  "  an- 
nounce the  word  of  God,"  but  at  first  they 
delivered  their  message  in  the  synagogues 
of  the  Jews  only.  When  they  had  gone 
through  the  island,  from  Salamis  to  Paplios, 
they  were  called  upon  to  explain  their  doc- 
trine to  an  eminent  Gentile,  Sergius  Paulus, 
the  proconsul.  A  Jew,  named  Barjesus, 
or  Elymas,  a  magus  and  false  prophet,  had 


PAUL 


504 


PAUL 


attached  himself  to  the  governor,  and  had 
no  doubt  interested  his  mind  with  what  he 
had  told  him  of  the  history  and  hopes  of 
the  Jews.  Accordingly  when  Sergius  Pau- 
lus  heard  of  the  strange  teachers  who  were 
announcing  to  the  Jews  the  advent  of  their 
trae  Messiah,  he  wished  to  see  them,  and 
sent  for  them.  The  impostor,  instinctive- 
ly hating  the  Apostles,  and  seeing  his  in- 
fluence over  the  proconsul  in  danger  of 
perishing,  did  wliat  he  could  to  withstand 
them.  Then  Saul,  "  who  is  also  called 
Paul,"  denouncing  Elymas  in  remarkable 
terms,  declared  against  him  God's  sentence 
of  temporary  blindness.  The  blindness 
immediately  falls  upon  him ;  and  the  pro- 
consul, moved  by  the  scene  and  persuaded 
by  the  teaching  of  the  Apostle,  becomes  a 
believer.  This  point  is  made  a  special  crisis 
in  the  history  of  the  Apostle  by  the  writer  of 
the  Acts.  Saul  now  becomes  Paul,  and  be- 
gins to  take  precedence  of  Barnabas.  Noth- 
ing is  said  to  explain  the  change  of  name. 
No  reader  could  resist  the  temptation  of  sup- 
posing that  there  must  be  some  connection 
between  Saul's  new  name  and  that  of  his 
distinguished  Roman  convert.  But  on  re- 
flection it  does  not  seem  probable  that  St. 
Paul  would  either  have  wished,  or  have 
consented,  to  change  his  own  name  for  that 
of  a  distinguished  convert.  There  is  no 
reason,  therefore,  why  Saul  should  not 
have  borne  from  infancy  the  other  name 
of  Paul.  In  that  case  he  would  be  Saul 
amongst  his  own  countrymen,  Paulus 
amongst  the  Gentiles.  The  conversion  of 
Sergius  Paulus  may  be  said,  perhaps,  to 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  work  amongst 
the  Gentiles ;  otherwise,  it  was  not  in  Cy- 
prus that  any  change  took  place  in  the 
method  hitherto  followed  by  Barnabas  and 
Saul  in  preaching  the  Gospel.  Their  pub- 
lic addresses  were  as  yet  confined  to  the 
synagogues ;  but  it  was  soon  to  be  other- 
wise. From  Paphos  "Paul  and  his  com- 
pany "  set  sail  for  the  mainland,  and  arrived 
at  Perga  in  Pamphylia.  Here  tlie  heart  of 
their  companion  John  failed  him,  and  he 
returned  to  Jerusalem.  From  Perga  they 
travelled  on  to  a  place,  obscure  in  secular 
history,  but  most  memorable  in  the  history 
of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  —  Antioch  in 
Pisidia.  Here  "  they  went  into  the  syna- 
gogue on  the  sabbath-day,  and  sat  down." 
Small  as  the  place  was,  it  contained  its 
colony  of  Jews.  What  took  place  here  in 
the  synagogue  and  in  the  city,  is  interesting 
lo  us  not  only  on  account  of  its  bearing  on 
the  history,  but  also  because  it  represents 
more  or  less  exactly  what  afterwards  oc- 
curred in  many  other  places.  The  Apostles 
of  Christ  sat  still  witli  the  rest  of  the  assem- 
bly, whilst  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  were 
read.  Then  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  sent 
ito  invite  them,  as  strangers  but  brethren,  to 
•Bpeak  any  word  of  exhortation  which  might 


be  in  them  to  the  people.  Paul  stood  up, 
and  beckoning  with  his  hand,  he  spoke.  Tlie 
speech  is  given  in  Acts  xiii.  lG-41.  The  dis- 
course produced  a  strong  impression ;  and 
the  hearers  (not  "  the  Gentiles  "),  requested 
the  Apostles  to  repeat  their  message  on  the 
next  sabbath.  During  the  week  so  much 
interest  was  excited  by  the  teaching  of  the 
Apostles,  that  on  the  sabbath-day  "  almost 
the  whole  city  came  together,  to  hear  the 
Word  of  God."  It  was  this  concern  of 
the  Gentiles  which  appears  to  have  first 
alienated  the  minds  of  tlie  Jews  from  what 
they  had  heard.  They  were  filled  with 
envy,  and  set  themselves  to  oppose  bitterly 
the  words  which  Paul  spoke.  The  new 
opposition  brought  out  new  action  on  the 
part  of  the  Apostles.  Rejected  by  the  Jews, 
they  became  bold  and  outspoken,  and 
turned  from  them  to  the  Gentiles.  At 
Antioch  now,  as  in  every  city  afterwards, 
the  unbelieving  Jews  used  their  influence 
with  their  own  at'herents  amongst  the  Gen- 
tiles, to  persuade  the  authorities  or  the 
populace  to  persecute  tlie  Apostles  and  to 
drive  them  from  the  place.  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas now  travelled  on  to  Iconiura,  where 
flie  occurrences  at  Antioch  were  repeated, 
and  from  thence  to  the  Lycaonian  country 
which  contained  the  cities  Lystra  and 
Derbe.  Here  they  had  to  deal  with  un- 
civilized heathens.  At  Lystra  the  healing 
of  a  cripple  took  place.  Thereupon  these 
pagans  took  the  Apostles  for  gods,  calling 
Barnabas,  who  was  of  the  more  imposing 
presence,  Jupiter,  and  Paul,  who  was  the 
chief  speaker,  Mercurius.  This  mistake, 
followed  up  by  the  attempt  to  off'er  sacri- 
fices to  them,  gives  occasion  to  the  record- 
ing of  an  address,  in  which  we  see  a  type  of 
what  the  Apostles  would  say  to  an  ignorant, 
pagan  audience.  Although  the  people  of 
Lystra  had  been  so  ready  to  worship  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  the  repulse  of  their  idola- 
trous instincts  appears  to  have  provoked 
them,  and  they  allowed  themselves  to  he 
persujKled  into  hostility  by  Jews  wiio  came 
from  Antioch  and  Iconiura,  so  that  they 
attacked  Paul  with  stones,  and  thought  the}" 
had  killed  him.  He  recovered,  however, 
as  the  disciples  were  standing  round  him, 
arid  went  again  into  the  city.  The  next 
day  he  left  it  with  Barnabas,  and  went  to 
Derbe,  and  thence  they  returned  once  more 
to  Lystra,  and  so  to  Iconium  and  Antioch. 
In  order  to  establish  the  Churches  after 
their  departure  they  solemnly  appointed 
"  elders  "  in  every  city.  Then  they  came 
down  to  the  coast,  and  from  Attalia  they 
sailed  home  to  Antioch  in  Syria,  where 
they  related  the  successes  which  had  been 
granted  to  them,  and  especially  the  "  open- 
ing of  the  door  of  faith  to  the  Gentiles." 
And  so  the  First  Missionary  Journey  end- 
ed. 2'he  Council  at  Jerusalem,  (Acts  xv. ; 
Galatians  ii).  —  Upon  that  missionary  jour* 


PAUL 


505 


PAUL 


ney  follows  most  naturally  the  next  impor- 
tant scene  which  the  historian  sets  before 
U3  —  the  council  held  at  Jerusalem  to  de- 
termine the  relations  of  Gentile  believers 
to  the  Law  of  Moses.  In  following  this 
portion  of  the  history,  we  encounter  two 
of  the  greater  questions  which  the  biogra- 
pher of  St.  Paul  has  to  consider.  One  of 
those  is  historical :  What  were  the  relations 
between  the  Apostle  Paul  and  the  Twelve? 
The  other  is  critical :  How  is  Galatians  ii. 
to  be  connected  with  the  narrative  of  the 
Acts  ?  Tlie  relations  of  St.  Paul  and  the 
Twelve  will  best  be  set  forth  in  the  narra- 
tive. But  we  must  explain  here  why  we 
accept  St.  Paul's  statements  in  the  Galatian 
Epistle  as  additional  to  the  history  in  Acts 
XT.  The  first  impression  of  any  reader 
would  be  a  supposition  that  the  two  writers 
might  be  referring  to  the  same  event.  The 
'one  would  at  least  bring  the  other  to  his 
mind.  On  looking  more  closely  into  both, 
the  second  impression  upon  the  reader's 
mind  may  possibly  be  that  of  a  certain  in- 
compatibility between  the  two.  Another 
view  will  remain,  that  St.  Paul  refers  to  a 
visit  not  recorded  in  the  Acts  at  all.  This 
is  a  perfectly  legitimate  hypothesis  ;  and  it 
is  recommended  by  the  vigorous  sense  of 
Paley.  But  where  are  we  to  place  the  visit  ? 
The  only  possible  place  for  it  is  some  short 
time  before  tlie  visit  of  ch.  xv.  But  it  can 
scarcely  be  denied,  that  the  language  of  ch. 
XV.  decidedly  implies  that  the  visit  there 
recorded  was  the  first  paid  by  Paul  and 
Barnabas  to  Jerusalem,  after  their  great 
success  in  preaching  the  Gospel  amongst 
the  Gentiles.  We  suppose  the  reader, 
therefore,  to  recur  to  his  first  impression. 
He  will  then  have  to  ask  himself,  "Grant- 
ing the  considerable  differences,  are  there, 
after  all,  any  plain  contradictions  between 
the  two  narratives,  taken  to  refer  to  the 
same  occurrences  ?  "  The  answer  must  be, 
"  There  are  no  plain  contradictions."  We 
proceed  then  to  combine  the  two  narratives. 
Whilst  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  staying  at 
Antioch,  "  certain  men  from  Judaea"  came 
there,  and  tai^ght  the  brethren  that  it  was 
necessary  for  the  Gentile  converts  to  be 
circumcised.  This  doctrine  was  vigorously 
opposed  by  the  two  Apostles,  and  it  was 
determined  that  the  question  should  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Apostles  and  elders  at  Jeru- 
salem. Paul  and  Barnabas  themselves,  and 
certain  others,  were  selected  for  this  mis- 
sion. The  Apostles  and  elders  came  to- 
gether, and  there  was  much  disputing. 
After  they  had  done,  St.  James,  with  in- 
comparable simplicity  and  wisdom,  binds 
up  the  testimony  of  recent  facts  with  the 
testimony  of  ancient  prophecy,  and  gives 
a  practical  judgment  upo.i  the  question. 
The  judgment  was  a  decisive  one.  The 
injunction  that  the  Gentiles  should  abstain 
from  poliutious  of  idols  and  ftom  fornica- 


tion explained  itself.  The  abstinence  from 
things  strangled  and  from  blood  is  desired 
as  a  concession  to  the  customs  of  the  Jews, 
who  were  to  be  found  in  every  city,  and 
for  whom  it  was  still  right,  when  they  had 
believed  in  Jesus  Christ,  to  observe  the 
Law.  St.  Paul  had  completely  gained  hia 
point.  The  older  Apostles,  James,  Cephas, 
and  John,  perceiving  the  grace  which  had 
been  given  him  (his  eflPectual  Apostleship), 
gave  to  him  and  Barnabas  the  right  hand 
of  fellowship.  At  this  point  it  is  very  im- 
portant to  observe  precisely  what  was  the 
matter  at  stake  between  the  contending 
parties.  The  case  stood  thus :  Circumcis- 
ion and  the  ordinances  of  the  Law  were 
witnesses  of  a  separation  of  the  chosen  race 
from  other  nations.  The  Jews  were  proud 
of  that  separation.  But  the  Gospel  of  the 
Son  of  Man  proclaimed  that  the  time  had 
come  in  which  the  separation  was  to  be 
done  away,  and  God's  good  will  manifested 
to  all  nations  alike.  It  spoke  of  a  union 
with  God,  through  trust,  which  gave  hope 
of  a  righteousness  that  the  Law  had  been 
powerless  to  produce.  Therefore  to  insist 
upon  Gentiles  being  circumcised  would 
have  been  to  deny  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 
If  there  was  to  be  simply  an  enlarging  of 
the  separated  nation  by  the  receiving  of 
individuals  into  it,  then  the  other  nations  of 
the  world  remained  as  much  on  the  outside 
of  God's  covenant  as  ever.  Then  there 
was  no  Gospel  to, mankind;  no  justification 
given  to  men.  The  loss,  in  such  a  case, 
would  have  been  as  much  to  the  Jew  as  to 
the  Gentile.  St.  Paul  felt  tliis  the  most 
strongly ;  but  St.  Peter  also  saw  that  if  the 
Jewish  believers  were  thrown  back  on  the 
Jewish  Law,  and  gave  up  the  free  and 
absolute  grace  of  God,  the  Law  became  a 
mere  burden,  just  as  heavy  to  the  Jew  as  it 
would  be  to  the  Gentile.  The  only  hope 
for  the  Jew  was  in  a  Saviour  who  must  be 
the  Saviour  of  mankind.  It  implied  there- 
fore no  difference  of  belief  when  it  was 
agreed  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  should  go 
to  the  heathen,  while  James  and  Cephas  and 
John  undertook  to  be  the  Apostles  of  the 
Circumcision.  The  judgment  of  the  Church 
was  immediately  recorded  in  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  Gentile  brethren  in  Antioch 
and  Syria  and  Cilicia.  Second  Missionary 
Journey.  —  The  most  resolute  courage,  in- 
deed, was  required  for  the  work  to  which 
St.  Paul  was  now  publicly  pledged.  He 
would  not  associate  with  himself  in  that 
work  one  who  had  already  shown  a  want 
of  constancy.  This  was  the  occasion  of 
what  must  have  been  a  most  painful  differ- 
ence between  him  and  his  comrade  in  the 
faith  and  in  past  perils,  Barnabas  (Acts  xv. 
35-40).  Silas,  or  Silvanus,  becomes  now 
a  chief  companion  of  the  Apostle.  The 
two  went  together  through  Syria  and  Cili- 
cia, visiting  the  churches,  and  so    iaxua  to 


PAUL 


506 


PAUL 


Derbe  and  Lystra.  Here  they  find  Timo- 
theus,  who  had  become  a  disciple  on  the 
former  visit  of  the  Apostle.  Him  St.  Paul 
took  and  circumcised.  Paul  and  Silas  were 
actually  delivering  the  Jerusalem  decree 
to  all  the  churches  they  visited.  They 
were  no  doubt  triumphing  in  the  freedom 
secured  to  the  Gentiles.  Yet  at  this  very 
time  our  Apostle  had  the  wisdom  and  large- 
ness of  heart  to  consult  the  feelings  of  the 
Jews  by  circumcising  Timothy.  St.  Luke 
now  steps  rapidly  over  a  considerable  space 
of  the  Apostle's  life  and  labors.  "  They 
went  throughout  Phrygia  and  the  region  of 
Galatia"  (xvi.  G).  At  this  time  St.  Paul 
was  founding  "  the  churches  of  Galatia " 
(Gal.  i.  2).  He  himself  gives  us  hints  of 
tiie  circumstances  of  liis  preaching  in  that 
region,  of  the  reception  he  met  with,  and 
of  the  ardent,  though  unstable,  character 
of  the  people  (Gal.  iv.  13-15).  St.  Paul 
at  this  time  had  not  indulged  the  ambition 
of  preaching  his  Gospel  in  Europe.  His 
views  were  limited  to  the  peninsula  of  Asia 
Minor.  Having  gone  through  Phrygia 
and  Galatia,  he  intended  to  visit  the 
western  coast;  but  "they  were  forbidden 
by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  preach  the  word  " 
there.  Then,  being  on  the  borders  of 
Mysia,  they  thought  of  going  back  to  the 
north-east  into  Bithynia;  but  again  the 
Spirit  of  Jesus  "  suflered  them  not."  So 
they  passed  by  Mysia,  and  came  down  to 
Troas.  St.  Paul  saw  in  a  vision  a  man 
of  Macedonia,  who  besought  him,  saying, 
"  Come  over  into  Macedonia  and  help  us." 
The  vision  was  at  once  accepted  as  a  heav- 
enly intimation;  the  help  wanted  by  the 
Macedonians  was  believed  to  be  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel.  It  is  at  this  point  that 
the  historian,  speaking  of  St.  Paul's  com- 
pany, substitutes  "  we  "  for  "  they."  He 
says  nothing  of  himself;  we  can  only  infer 
that  St.  Luke,  to  whatever  country  he  be- 
longed, became  a  companion  of  St.  Paul  at 
Troas.  The  party,  thus  re-enforced,  im- 
mediately set  §ail  from  Troas,  touched  at 
Samothrace,  then  landed  on  the  continent 
at  Neapolis,  and  from  thence  journeyed  to 
Philippi.  There  were  a  few  Jews,  if  not 
many,  at  Philippi;  and  when  the  sabbath 
came  round,  the  Apostolic  company  joined 
their  countrymen  at  the  place  by  the  river- 
side where  prayer  was  wont  to  be  made. 
The  narrative  in  this  part  is  very  graphic 
(xvi.  13).  The  first  convert  in  Macedonia 
was  but  an  Asiatic  woman  who  already 
worshipped  the  God  of  the  Jews ;  but  she 
was  a  very  earnest  believer,  and  besought 
the  Apostle  and  his  friends  to  honor  her  by 
staying  in  her  house.'  They  could  not  re- 
sist her  urgency,  and  during  their  stay  at 
Philippi  they  were  the  guests  of  Lydia 
(ver.  40).  But  a  proof  was  given  before 
long  that  the  preachers  of  Christ  were  come 
io  grapple  with  the  powers  in  the  spiritual 


world  to  which  heathenism  was  the.i  doing 
homage.  A  female  slave,  who  brought  gain 
to  her  masters  by  her  powers  of  prediction 
when  she  was  in  the  possessed  state,  beset 
Paul  and  his  company.  Paul  was  vexed 
by  her  cries,  and  addressing  the  spirit  ia 
the  girl,  he  said,  "  I  command  thee  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ  to  come  out  of  her." 
The  girl's  masters  saw  that  now  tlie  hope 
of  tlieir  gains  was  gone.  Paul  and  Silaa 
were  dragged  before  the  magistrates,  the 
multitude  clamoring  loudly  against  them, 
upon  the  vague  charge  of  "  troubling  the 
city,"  and  introducing  observances  which 
were  unlawful  for  Bomans.  The  magis- 
trates yielded  without  inquiry  to  the  clam- 
or of  the  inhabitants,  caused  the  clothes  of 
Paul  and  Silas  to  be  torn  from  them,  and 
themselves  to  be  beaten,  and  then  commit* 
ted  them  to  prison.  This  cruel  wrong  was 
to  be  the  occasion  of  a  signal  appearance 
of  the  God  of  righteousness  and  deliver- 
ance. The  narrative  tells  of  the  earth- 
quake, the  jailor's  terror,  his  conversion, 
and  baptism  (xvi.  26-34).  In  the  morn- 
ing the  magistrates  sent  word  to  the  prison 
that  the  men  might  be  let  go.  But  St. 
Paul  denounced  plainly  their  unlawful  acts, 
informing  them  moreover  that  those  whom 
they  hiul  beaten  and  imprisoned  without 
trial  were  Koman  citizens.  The  magis- 
trates, in  great  alarm,  saw  the  necessity  of 
humbling  tliemselves.  They  came  and 
begged  them  to  leave  the  city.  Paul  and 
Silas  consented  to  do  so,  and,  after  paying 
a  visit  to  "the  brethren"  in  the  house  of 
Lydia,  they  departed.  Leaving  St.  Luke, 
and  perhaps  Timothy  for  a  short  time,  at 
Philippi,  Paul  and  Silas  travelled  through 
Amphipolis  and  ApoUonia,  and  stopped 
again  at  Thessalonica.  At  this  important 
city  there  was  a  synagogue  of  the  Jq^'s. 
True  to  his  custom,  St.  Paul  went  in  to 
them,  and  for  three  sabbatli-days  pro- 
claimed Jesus  to  be  the  Christ,  as  he 
would  have  done  in  a  city  of  Judaea. 
Again,  as  in  Pisidian  Antioch,  the  envy 
of  the  Jews  was  excited.  The  mob  as- 
saulted the  house  of  Jasor^  with  whom 
Paul  and  Silas  were  staying  as  guests, 
and,  not  finding  them,  dragged  Jason  him- 
self and  some  othev  brethren  before  the 
niivgistrates.  But  the  magistrates,  after 
taking  security  of  Jason  and  the  rest,  let 
them  go.  After  these  signs  of  danger  the 
brethren  immediately  sent  away  Paul  and 
Silas  by  night.  They  next  came  to  Be- 
roea.  Here  they  found  the  Jews  more  no- 
ble than  those  at  Thessalonica  had  been. 
Accordingly  they  gained  many  .converts, 
both  Jews  and  Greeks;  but  the  Jews  of 
Thessalonica,  hearing  of  it,  sent  emissaries 
to  stir  up  the  people,  and  it  was  thought 
best  that  St.  Paul  should  himself  leave  the 
city,  wMlst  Silas  and  Timothy  remained 
behind.     Some  of  "the  bretbicn"  went 


PAUL 


507 


'PAUL 


with  St.  Paul  as  far  as  Athens,  where  they  ] 
left  him,  carrying  back  a  request  to  Silas 
and  Timothy  that  tliey  would  speedily  join 
him.  Tliere  he  witnessed  the  most  profuse 
idolatry  side  by  side  with  the  most  preten- 
tious philosophy.  Either  of  these  would 
have  been  enough  to  stimulate  his  spirit. 
To  idolaters  and  philosophers  he  felt  equal- 
ly urged  to  proclaim  his  Master  and  the 
Living  God.  So  he  went  to  his  own  coun- 
trymen and  the  proselytes  in  the  syna- 
gogue, and  declared  to  them  that  the 
Messiah  had  come ;  but  he  also  spoke, 
like  another  Socrates,  with  people  in  the 
market,  and  with  the  followers  of  the  two 
great  schools  of  philosophy,  Epicureans  and 
Stoics,  naming  to  all  Jesus  and  the  Resur- 
rection. The  philosophers  encountered 
him  with  a  mixture  of  curiosity  and  con- 
tempt. But  any  one  with  a  novelty  was 
welcome  to  those  who  "  spent  their  time  in 
nothing  else  but  either  to  hear  or  to  tell 
some  new  thing."  They  brought  him, 
therefore,  to  the  Areopagus,  that  he  might 
make  a  formal  exposition  of  his  doctrine  to 
an  assembled  audience.  Here  the  Apostle 
delivered  that  wonderful  discourse,  reported 
in  Acts  xvii.  22-31.  He  gained  but  few 
converts  at  Athens,  and  he  soon  took  his 
departure  and  came  to  Corinth.  Athens 
still  retained  its  old  intellectual  predomi- 
nance; but  Corinth  was  the  political  and 
commercial  capital  of  Greece.  Here,  as  at 
Thessalonica,  he  chose  to  earn  his  own  sub- 
sistence by  working  at  his  trade  of  tent- 
making.  This  trade  brought  him  into  close 
connection  with  two  persons  who  became 
distinguished  as  believers  in  Christ,  Aquila 
and  Priscilla.  Laboring  thus  on  the  six 
days,  the  Apostle  went  to  the  synagogue 
on  the  sabbath,  and  there  by  expounding 
the  Scriptures  sought  to  win  both  Jews  and 
proselytes  to  the  belief  that  Jesus  was  the 
Christ.  He  was  testifying  with  unusual 
effort  and  anxiety,  when  Silas  and  Timothy 
came  from  Macedonia  and  joined  him. 
Their  arrival  was  the  occasion  of  the  writ- 
ing of  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians.  This  is  the  first  extant  example  of 
that  work  by  which  the  Apostle  Paul  has 
served  the  Church  of  all  ages  in  as  eminent 
a  degree  as  he  labored  at  the  founding  of 
it  in  his  lifetime.  It  is  notorious  that  the 
order  of  the  Epistles  in  the  book  of  the 
N.  T.  is  not  their  real  or  chronological 
order.  The  two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians  belong  —  and  these  alone  —  to  the 
present  Missionary  Journey.  The  Epistles 
to  the  Galatians,  Romans,  and  Corinthians, 
were  written  during  the  next  journey. 
Those  to  Pliilemon,  the  Colossians,  the 
Ephesians,  and  the  Philippians,  belong  to 
the  captivity  at  Rome.  —  When  Silas  and 
Timotheus  came  to  Corinth,  St.  Paul  was 
testifying  to  the  Jews  with  great  earnest- 
ness, but  with  little  success.    So  "  when 


they  opposed  themselves  and  blaspu>3med, 
he  shook  out  his  raiment,"  and  said  to  them, 
in  words  of  warning  taken  from  their  own 
prophets  (Ezek.  xxxiii.  4),  "  Your  blood 
be  upon  your  own  heads;  I  am  clean,  and 
henceforth  will  go  to  the  Gentiles."  The 
Apostle  went,  as  he  threatened,  to  the  Gen- 
tiles, and  began  to  preach  in  the  house  of  a 
proselyte  named  Justus.  Corinth  was  the 
cliief  city  of  the  province  of  Achaia,  and 
the  residence  of  the  proconsul.  During 
St.  Paul's  stay,  we  find  the  proconsular 
office  held  by  Gallio,  a  brother  of  the  phi- 
losopher Seneca.  Before  him  the  Apostle 
was  summoned  by  his  Jewish  enemies,  who 
hoped  to  bring  the  Roman  authority  to  bear 
upon  him  as  an  innovator  in  religion.  But 
Gallio  perceived  at  once,  before  Paul  could 
"open  his  mouth"  to  defend  himself,  that 
the  movement  was  due  to  Jewish  prejudice, 
and  refused  to  go  into  the  question.  "  If 
it  be  a  question  of  words  and  names  and 
of  your  law,"  he  said  to  the  Jews,  speaking 
with  the  tolerance  of  a  Roman  magistrate, 
"  look  ye  to  it;  for  I  will  be  no  judge  of 
such  matters."  Then  a  singular  scene  oc- 
curred. The  Corinthian  spectators,  either 
favoring  St.  Paul,  or  actuated  only  by  anger 
against  the  Jews,  seized  on  the  principal 
person  of  those  who  had  brought  the  charge, 
and  beat  him  before  the  judgment-seat. 
Gallio  left  these  religious  quarrels  to  settle 
themselves.  The  Apostle,  therefore,  was 
not  allowed  to  be  "  hurt,"  and  remained 
some  time  longer  at  Corinth  unmolested. 
Having  been  the  instrument  of  accompUsh- 
ing  this  work,  St.  Paul  took  his  departure 
for  Jerusalem,  wishing  to  attend  a  festival 
there.  Before  leaving  Greece,  he  cut  off 
his  hair  at  Cenchreae,  in  fulfilment  of  a 
vow  (Acts  xviii.  18).  He  may  have  fol- 
lowed in  this  instance,  for  some  reason  not 
explained  to  us,  a  custom  of  his  country- 
men. [See  Nazarite,  p.  443.]  When  he 
sailed  from  the  Isthmus,  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla  went  with  him  as  far  as  Ephesus. 
Paul  paid  a  visit  to  the  synagogue  at  Ephe- 
sus, but  would  not  stay.  Leaving  Ephesus, 
he  sailed  to*  Caesarea,  and  from  thence 
went  up  to  Jerusalem  and  •'  saluted  the 
Church."  It  is  argued,  from  considerations 
founded  on  the  suspension  of  navigation 
during  the  winter  months,  that  the  festival 
was  probably  the  Pentecost.  From  Jeru- 
salem, almost  immediately,  the  Apostle  went 
down  to  Antioch,  thus  returning  to  the  same 
place  from  which  he  had  started  with  Silas. 
Third  Missionary  Journey,  including  the 
stay  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xviii.  23-xxi.  17).  — 
The  great  Epistles  which  belong  to  this 
period,  those  to  the  Galatians,  Corinthians, 
and  Romans,  show  how  the  "  Judaizing  " 
question  exercised  at  this  time  the  Apostle's 
mind.  St.  Paul  "  spent  some  time  "  at  An- 
tioch, and,  during  this  stay,  as  we  are  in- 
clined to  believe,  his  collision  with  St.  Petez 


PAUL 


508 


PAUL 


(Gal.  ii.  11-14)  took  pl5U;e.  "When  he  left 
Antioch,  he  "  went  over  all  the  country  of 
Galatia  and  Phrygia  in  order,  strengthen- 
ing all  the  disciples,"  and  giving  orders 
concerning  the  collection  for  the  saints 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  1).  It  is  probable  that  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  written  soon 
after  this  visit.  Tliis  Letter  was,  in  all  prob- 
ability, sent  from  Ephesus.  This  was  the  goal 
of  the  Apostle's  journeyings  through  Asia 
Minor.  lie  came  down  to  Ephesus,  from  the 
upper  districts  of  Phrygia.  Here  he  entered 
upon  his  usual  work.  He  went  into  the 
synagogue,  and  for  three  months  he  spoke 
openly,  disputingand  persuading  concerning 
"  the  kingdom  of  God."  At  the  end  of  this 
time  the  obstinacy  and  opposition  of  some 
of  the  Jews  led  him  to  give  up  frequenting 
the  synagogue,  and  he  established  the  be- 
lievers as  a  separate  society,  meeting  "  in 
the  school  of  Tyrannus."  This  continued 
for  two  years.  During  this  time  many 
tilings  occurred,  of  which  the  historian  of 
the  Acts  chooses  two  examples,  the  triumph 
over  magical  arts,  and  the  great  disturbance 
raised  by  the  silversmiths  who  made  shrines 
for  Diana;  amongst  which  we  are  to  note 
further  the  writing  of  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians.  Before  leaving  Ephesus  he 
went  into  Macedonia,  where  he  met  Titus, 
who  brought  him  news  of  the  state  of  the 
Corinthian  church.  Thereupon  he  wrote 
the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  and 
sent  it  by  the  hands  of  Titus  and  two  other 
brethren  to  Corinth.  The  particular  nature 
of  this  Epistle,  as  an  appeal  to  facts  in  fa- 
vor of  his  own  Apostolic  authority,  leads 
to  the  mention  of  many  interesting  features 
of  St.  Paul's  life.  His  summary,  in  xi.  23 
-28,  of  the  hardships  and  dangers  through 
which  he  had  gone,  proves  to  us  how  little 
the  history  in  the  Acts  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  complete  account  of  what  he  did  and  suf- 
fered. The  mention  of  "  visions  and  reve- 
lations of  the  Lord,"  and  of  the  "  thorn  (or 
rather  stake)  in  tlie  flesh,"  side  by  side,  is 
peculiarly  characteristic  both  of  the  mind 
and  of  the  experiences  of  St.  Paul.  As  an 
instance  of  the  visions,  he  "alludes  to  a 
trance  which  had  befallen  him  fourteen 
years  before,  in  which  he  had  been  caught 
up  into  paradise,  and  had  heard  unspeak- 
able words.  But  he  would  not,  even  in- 
wardly with  himself,  glory  in  visions  and 
revelations  without  remembering  how  the 
Lord  had  guarded  him  from  being  puffed 
up  by  them.  A  thorn  in  the  flesh  was  given 
him,  a  messenger  of  Satan  to  buffet  him, 
lest  he  should  be  exalted  above  meas- 
ure. Different  interpretations  have  pre- 
Tailed  of  this  "  thorn ; "  but  it  is  almost  the 
unanimous  opinion  of  modern  divines  that 
the  "  stake "  represents  some  vexatious 
bodily  infirmity.  After  writing  this  Epistle, 
St.  Paul  travelled  through  Macedonia,  per- 
liaps  to  the  borders  of  Illyricum  (Rom.  xv. 


19),  and  then  came  to  Corinth.  The  nar- 
rative in  the  Acts  tells  us  that  "  when  he 
had  gone  over  those  parts  (Macedonia), 
and  had  given  them  much  exhortation,  he 
came  into  Greece,  and  there  abode  three 
months"  (xx.  2,  3).  There  is  only  one  in- 
cident which  we  can  connect  with  this  visit 
to  Greece,  but  that  is  a  very  important  one 
—  the  writing  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
That  this  was  written  at  this  time  from 
Corinth  appears  from  passages  in  the  Epistle 
itself,  and  has  never  been  doubted.  The 
letter  is  a  substitute  for  the  personal  visit 
which  he  had  longed  '*  for  many  years " 
to  pay.  Before  his  departure  from  Corinth, 
St.  Paul  was  joined  again  by  St.  Luke,  a.s 
we  infer  from  the  change  in  the  narrative 
from  the  third  to  the  first  person.  He  was 
bent  on  making  a  journey  to  Jerusalem,  for 
a  special  purpose  and  within  a  limited  time. 
With  this  view  he  was  intending  to  go  by 
sea  to  Syria.  But  he  was  made  aware  of 
some  plot  of  the  Jews  for  his  destruction, 
to  be  carried  out  through  this  voyage ;  and 
he  determined  to  evade  their  malice  by 
changing  his  route.  Several  brethren  were 
associated  with  him  in  this  expedition,  the 
bearers,  no  doubt,  of  the  collections  made 
in  all  the  Churches  for  the  poor  at  Jeru- 
salem. These  were  sent  on  by  sea,  and 
probably  the  money  with  them,  to  Troas, 
where  they  were  to  await  St.  Paul.  He, 
accompanfed  by  St.  Luke,  went  northwards 
through  Macedonia.  During  the  stay  at 
Troas  there  was  a  meeting  on  the  first  day 
of  the  week  "  to  break  bread,"  and  Paul 
was  discoursing  earnestly  artd  at  length 
with  the  brethren.  He  was  to  depart  the 
next  morning,  and  midnight  found  them 
listening  to  his  earnest  speech.  A  youth 
named  Eutychus  was  sitting  in  the  window, 
and  was  gradually  overpowered  by  sleep, 
so  that  at  last  he  fell  into  the  street  or  court 
from  the  third  story,  and  was  taken  up 
dead.  The  meeting  was  interrupted  by 
this  accident,  and  Paul  went  down  and  fell 
upon  him  and  embraced  him,  saying,  "Be 
not  disturbed;  his  life  is  in  him."  His 
friends  then  appear  to  have  taken  charge 
of'  him,  whilst  Paul  went  up  again,  first 
presided  at  the  breaking  of  bread,  after- 
wards took  a  meal,  and  continued  con- 
versing until  daybreak,  and  so  departed. 
Whilst  the  vessel  which  conveyed  tiie  rest 
of  the  party  sailed  from  Troas  to  Assos, 
Paul  gained  some  time  by  making  the  jour- 
ney by  land.  At  Assos  he  went  on  board 
again.  Coasting  along  by  Mitylene,  Chios, 
Samos,  and  Trogyllium,  they  arrived  at 
Miletus.  At  Miletus,  howr  rer,  there  was 
time  to  send  to  Ephesus ,  and  the  elders  of 
the  Church  were  invited  to  come  down  to 
him  there.  This  meeting  is  made  the  oc- 
casion for  recording  another  characteristic 
and  representative  address  of  St.  Paul 
(Acts  XX.  18-35).    This  spoken  address  to 


PAUL 


509 


PAUL 


the  elders  of  the  Ephesian  Church  may  be 
ranked  with  the  Epistles,  sind  throws  the 
same  kind  of  light  upon  St.  Paul's  Apos- 
tolical relations  to  the  Churches.  The 
course  of  the  voyage  from  Miletus  was  by 
Coos  and  Rhodes  to  Patara,  and  from  Pat- 
ara  in  another  vessel  past  Cyprus  to  Tyre. 
Here  Paul  and  his  company  spent  seven 
days.  From  Tyre  they  sailed  to  Ptole- 
muis,  where  they  spent  one  day,  and  from 
Ptolemais  proceeded,  apparently  by  land,  to 
Caesarea.  In  this  place  was  settled  Philip 
the  Evangelist,  one  of  the  seven,  and  he  be- 
came tlie  host  of  Paul  and  his  friends.  Philip 
had  four  unmarried  daughters,  who"  proph- 
esied," and  who  repeated,  no  doubt,  the 
warnings  already  heard.  They  now  "  tarried 
many  days  "  at  Caesarea.  During  this  in- 
terval the  prophet  Agabus  (Acts  xi.  28)  came 
down  from  Jerusalem,  and  crowned  the  pre- 
vious intimations  of  danger  with  a  prediction 
expressively  delivered.  At  this  stage  a  final 
effort  was  made  to  dissuade  Paul  from  go- 
ing up  to  Jerusalem,  by  the  Christians  of 
Caesarea,  and  by  his  travelling  companions. 
After  a  while,  they  went  up  to  Jerusalem, 
and  were  gladly  received  by  the  breth- 
ren. This  is  St.  Paul's  fifth  and  last  visit 
to  Jerusalem.  St.  Paul's  Imprisonment  : 
Jerusalem  and  Caesarea.  —  He  who  was 
thus  conducted  into  Jerusalem  by  a  com- 
pany of  anxious  friends  had  become  by  this 
time  a  man  of  considerable  fame  amongst 
his  countrymen.  He  was  widely  known  as 
one  who  had  taught  with  pre-eminent  bold- 
ness that  a  way  into  God's  favor  was  opened 
to  the  Gentiles,  and  that  this  way  did  not 
lie  through  the  door  of  the  Jewish  Law. 
He  had  thus  roused  against  himself  the 
bitter  enmity  of  that  unfathomable  Jewish 
pride  which  was  almost  as  strong  in  some 
of  those  who  had  professed  the  faith  of 
Jesus,  as  in  their  unconverted  brethren. 
He  was  now  approaching  a  crisis  in  the  long 
struggle,  and  the  shadow  of  it  has  been  made 
to  rest  upon  his  mind  throughout  his  jour- 
nej-  to  Jerusalem.  He  came  "  ready  to  die 
for  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,"  but  he 
came  expressly  to  prove  himself  a  faithful 
Jew,  and  this  purpose  emerges  at  every 
point  of  the  history.  St.  Luke  does  not 
mention  the  contributions  brought  by  Paul 
and  his  companions  for  the  poor  at  Jeru- 
salem. As  on  former  occasions,  the  believ- 
ers at  Jerusalem  could  not  but  glorify  God 
for  what  they  heard;  but  they  had  been 
alarmed  by  the  prevalent  feeling  concerning 
St.  Paul.  In  order  to  dispel  this  impression 
they  ask  him  to  do  publicly  an  act  of  hom- 
age to  the  Law  and  its  observances.  They 
had  four  men  who  were  under  the  Nazarite 
vow.  The  completion  of  this  vow  involved 
(Num.  vi.  13-21)  a  considerable  expense 
for  the  offerings  to  be  presented  in  the 
Temple ;  and  it  was  a  meritorious  act  to 
provide  these  offerings  for  the  poorer  Naz- 


arites.  St.  Paul  was  requested  to  put  nim- 
self  under  the  vow  with  those  other  four, 
and  to  supply  the  cost  of  their  offerings. 
He  at  once  accepted  the  proposal.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  whole  process  undertaken  by 
St.  Paul  required  seven  days  to  complete  it. 
Towards  the  end  of  this  time  certain  Jews 
from  "  Asia,"  who  had  come  up  for  the 
Pentecostal  feast,  and  who  had  a  personal 
knowledge  both  of  Paul  himself  and  of 
his  companion  Trophimus,  a  Gentile  from 
Ephesus,  saw  Paul  in  the  Temple.  They 
immediately  set  upon  him,  and  stirred  up 
the  people  against  him,  crying  out,  "  Men 
of  Israel,  help ;  this  is  the  man  that  t«acheth 
all  men  everywhere  against  the  people,  and 
the  law,  and  this  place ;  and  further  brought 
Greeks  also  into  the  Temple,  and  hath  pol- 
luted this  holy  place."  The  latter  charge 
had  no  more  trutli  in  it  than  the  first ;  it  was 
only  suggested  by  their  having  seen  Trophi- 
mus with  liim,  not  in  the  Temple,  but  in  the 
city.  They  raised,  however,  a  great  com- 
motion ;  Paul  was  dragged  out  of  the  Tem- 
ple, of  which  the  doors  were  immediately 
shut,  and  the  people,  having  him  in  their 
hands,  were  proposing  to  kill  him.  But 
tidings  were  soon  carried  to  the  commander 
of  the  force  which  was  serving  as  a  garrison 
in  Jerusalem,  that  "  all  Jerusalem  was  in 
an  uproar;  "  and  he,  taking  with  him  sol- 
diers and  centurions,  hastened  to  the  scene 
of  the  tumult.  Paul  was  rescued  from  the 
violence  of  the  multitude  by  the  Roman 
officer,  who  made  him  his  own  prisoner, 
causing  him  to  be  chained  to  two  soldiers, 
and  then  proceeded  to  inquire  who  he  was 
and  what  he  had  done.  The  inquiry  only 
elicited  confused  outcries,  and  the  "  chief 
captain  "  seems  to  have  imagined  that  the 
Apostle  might  perhaps  be  a  certain  Egyp- 
tian pretender  who  had  recently  stirred  up 
a  considerable  rising  of  the  people.  The 
account  in  the  Acts  (xxi.  34— iO)  tells  us 
with  graphic  touches  how  St.  Paul  obtained 
leave  and  opportunity  to  address  the  people 
in  a  discourse  which  is  related  at  length. 
This  discourse  was  spoken  in  Hebrew ;  that 
is,  in  the  native  dialect  of  the  country,  and 
was  on  that  account  listened  to  with  the 
more  attention.  It  is  described  by  St.  Paul 
himself,  in  his  opening  words,  as  his 
"  defence,"  addressed  to  his  brethren  and 
fathers.  It  is  in  this  light  that  it  ought  to 
be  regarded.  Until  the  hated  word  of  a 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  had  been  spoken, 
the  Jews  had  listened  to  the  speaker. 
"  Away  with  such  a  fellow  from  the  earth," 
the  multitude  now  shouted;  "it  is  not  fit 
that  he  should  live."  The  Roman  com- 
mander, seeing  the  tumult  that  arose,  might 
well  conclude  that  St.  Paul  had  committed 
some  heinous  offence;  and  carrying  him 
off,  he  gave  orders  that  he  should  be  forced 
by  scourging  to  confess  his  crime.  Agsiin 
the  Apostle  took  advantage  of  his  llomaa 


PAUL 


510 


PAUL 


citizenship  to  protect  himself  from  such  an 
outraije.  The  Roman  officer  was  bound  to 
protect  a  citizen,  and  to  suppress  tumult ; 
but  it  was  also  a  part  of  his  policy  to  treat 
with  deference  the  religion  and  the  customs 
of  tlie  country.  St.  Paul's  present  history 
is  the  resultant  of  these  two  principles. 
The  chief  captain  set  him  free  from  bonds, 
but  on  the  next  day  called  together  the  chief 
priests  and  the  Sanhedrim,  and  brought 
Paul  as  a  prisoner  before  them.  We  need 
not  suppose  that  this  was  a  regular  legal 
proceeding;  it  was  probably  an  experiment 
of  policy  and  courtesy.  If,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  commandant  of  the  garrison  had  no 
power  to  convoke  the  Sanhedrim,  on  the 
other  hand  he  would  not  give  up  a  Roman 
citizen  to  tiieir  judgment.  As  it  was,  the 
affair  ended  in  confusion,  and  with  no  sem- 
blance of  a  judicial  termination.  The  inci- 
dents selected  by  St.  Luke  from  the  history 
of  tliis  meeting  form  striking  points  in  the 
biography  of  St.  Paul,  but  they  are  not  easy 
to  be  understood.  St.  Paul  appears  to  have 
been  put  upon  his  defence,  and  witli  the 
peculiar  habit,  mentioned  elsewhere  also 
(Acts  xiii.  9),  of  looking  steadily  when 
about  to  speak,  he  began  to  say,  "  Men 
and  brethren,  I  have  lived  in  all  good  con- 
science (or,  I  have  lived  a  conscientiously 
loyal  life)  unto  God,  until  this  day."  Here 
the  High-Priest  Ananias  commanded  them 
that  stood  by  him  to  smite  him  on  the  mouth. 
With  a  fearless  indignation,  Paul  exclaimed, 
"  God  shf.ll  smite  thee,  thou  whited  wall ; 
for  sittest  thou  to  judge  me  after  the  law, 
ani  commandest  me  to  be  smitten  contrary 
to  the  law?"  The  bystanders  said,  "Re- 
vilest  tliou  God's  High-Priest?"  Paul  an- 
swered, "  I  knew  not,  brethren,  that  he  was 
the  High-Priest ;  for  it  is  written.  Thou  shalt 
not  speak  evil  of  the  ruler  of  thy  people." 
How  was  it  possible  for  him  not  to  know  that 
he  who  spoke  was  the  High-Priest?  The 
least  objectionable  solutions  seem  to  be, 
that  for  some  reason  or  other,  —  either  be- 
cause his  sight  was  not  good,  or  because 
he  was  looking  another  way,  —  he  did  not 
know  whose  voice  it  was  that  ordered  him 
to  be  smitten ;  and  that  he  wished  to  correct 
the  impression  which  he  saw  was  made 
upon  some  of  the  audience  by  his  threaten- 
ing protest,  and  therefore  took  advantage  of 
the  fact  tliat  he  really  did  not  know  the 
speaker  to  be  the  High-Priest,  to  explain 
the  deference  he  felt  to  be  due  to  the  person 
holding  that  office.  The  next  incident  which 
St.  Luke  records  seems  to  some,  who  can- 
not think  of  the  Apostle  as  remaining  still  a 
Jew,  to  cast  a  shadow  upon  his  rectitude. 
He  perceived,  we  are  told,  that  the  council 
was  divided  into  two  parties,  the  Sadducees 
and  Pharisees,  and  therefore  he  cried  out, 
"  Men  and  brethren,  I  am  a  Pharisee,  the 
son  of  a  Pharisee ;  concerning  the  hope  and 
resurrection  of  the  dead  I  am  called  in 


question."  Those  who  impugn  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Acts  point  triumphantly  to  this 
scene  as  an  utterly  impossible  one ;  others 
consider  that  the  Apostle  is  to  be  blamed 
for  using  a  disingenuous  artifice.  But  it  is 
not  so  clear  that  St.  Paul  was  using  an  arti- 
fice at  all,  at  least  for  his  own  interest,  in 
identifying  himself  as  he  did  with  the  pro- 
fessions of  the  Pharisees.  The  creed  of  the 
Pharisee,  as  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
Sadducee,  was  unquestionably  the  creed  of 
St.  Paul.  His  belief  in  Jesus  seemed  to  him 
to  supply  the  ground  and  fulfilment  of  that 
creed.  He  wished  to  lead  his  brother  Phar- 
isees into  a  deeper  and  more  living  appre- 
hension of  their  own  faith.  The  immediate 
consequence  of  the  dissension  which  oc- 
curred in  the  assembly  was  that  Paul  was 
like  to  be  torn  in  pieces,  and  was  carried 
oflf  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  On  the  next 
day  a  conspiracy  was  formed,  which  the 
historian  relates  with  a  singular  fulness 
of  details.  More  than  forty  of  the  Jews 
bound  themselves  under  a  curse  neither 
to  eat  nor  to  drink  until  they  had  killed 
Paul.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and  St. 
Paul  was  hurried  away  from  Jerusalem. 
The  chief  captain,  Claudius  Lysias,  de- 
termined to  send  him  to  Caesarea,  to 
Felix  the  governor,  or  procurator,  of 
Judaea.  He  therefore  put  him  in  charge 
of  a  strong  guard  of  soldiers,  who 
took  him  by  night  as  far  as  Antipatris. 
From  thence  a  smaller  detachment  con- 
veyed him  to  Caesarea,  where  they  deliv- 
ered up  their  prisoner  into  the  hands  of  the 
governor.  Imprisoiiment  at  Caesarea.  — 
St.  Paul  was  henceforth,  to  the  end  of  the 
period  embraced  in  the  Acts,  if  not  to  the 
end  of  his  life,  in  Roman  custody.  This 
custody  was  in  fivct  a  protection  to  him, 
without  which  he  would  have  fallen  a  vic- 
tim to  the  animosity  of  the  Jews.  He 
seems  to  have  been  treated  throughout  with 
humanity  and  consideration.  The  governor 
before  whom  he  was  now  to  be  tried,  ac- 
cording to  Tacitus  and  Josephus,  was  a 
mean  and  dissolute  t>Tant.  After  hearing 
St.  Paul's  accusers,  and  the  Apostle's  de- 
fence, Felix  made  an  excuse  for  putting  off 
the  matter,  and  gave  orders  that  the  pris- 
oner should  be  treated  with  indulgence,  and 
that  his  friends  should  be  allowed  free  ac- 
cess to  him.  After  a  while,  he  heard  him 
again.  St.  Paul  remained  in  custody  until 
Felix  left  the  province.  The  unprincipled 
governor  had  good  reason  to  seek  to  ingra- 
tiate himself  with  the  Jews  ;  and  to  please 
them,  he  handed  over  Paul,  as  an  untried 
prisoner,  to  his  successor  Festus.  Upon 
his  arrival  in  the  province,  Festus  went  up 
without  delay  from  Caesarea  to  Jerusalem, 
and  the  leading  Jews  seized  the  opportunity 
of  asking  that  Paul  might  be  brought  up 
there  for  trial,  intending  to  assassinate  him 
1  by  the  way.    But  Festus  would  not  compl/ 


As 


■aclea 

r-  -^       .--    1  <;  o   wn 


^  «*. 


h<i<te«' 


f*^^ 

:/ 


JERAL 

V        -^^y^     of  the 


C.A.Swett  Sc 


PAUL 


511 


PAUL 


with  their  request.  He  invited  them  to  fol- 
low him  on  his  speedy  return  to  Caesarea, 
and  a  trial  took  place  there,  closely  resem- 
bling that  before  Felix.  "  They  had  certain 
questions  against  him,"  Festus  says  to 
Agrippa,  "  of  their  own  superstition  (or 
religion),  and  of  one  Jesus,  who  was  dead, 
whom  Paul  affirmed  to  be  alive.  And  being 
puzzled  for  my  part  as  to  such  inquiries,  I 
asked  him  whether  he  would  go  to  Jerusa- 
lem to  be  tried  there."  This  proposal,  not 
a  very  likely  one  to  be  accepted,  was  the 
occasion  of  St.  Paul's  appeal  to  Caesar. 
The  appeal  having  been  allowed,  Festus 
reflected  that  he  must  send  with  the  pris- 
oner a  report  of  "  the  crimes  laid  against 
him."  He  therefore  took  advantage  of  an 
opportunity  which  offered  itself  in  a  few 
days  to  seek  some  heli)  in  tlie  matter.  The 
Jewish  prince  Agrippa  arrived  with  his  sister 
Berenice  on  a  visit  to  the  new  governor. 
To  him  Festus  communicated  his  perplex- 
ity. Agrippa  expressed  a  desire  to  liear 
Paul  himself.  Accordingly  Paul  conducted 
his  defence  before  the  king ;  and  when  it 
was  concluded  Festus  and  Agrippa,  and 
their  companions,  consulted  together,  and 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  accused 
was  guilty  of  nothing  that  deserved  death 
or  imprisonment.  And  Agrippa's  final  an- 
swer to  the  inquiry  of  Festus  was,  "  This 
man  miglit  have  been  set  at  liberty,  if  he 
had  not  appealed  unto  Caesar."  The  Voy- 
age to  Rome.  —  No  formal  trial  of  St.  Paul 
had  yet  taken  place.  After  a  while  arrange- 
ments were  made  to  carry  "Paul  and  cer- 
tain other  prisoners,"  in  the  custody  of  a 
centurion  named  Julius,  into  Italy;  and 
amongst  the  company,  whether  by  favor  or 
from  any  otlier  reason,  we  find  the  historian 
of  the  Acts.  The  narrative  of  this  voyage 
is  accordingly  minute  and  circumstantial ; 
but  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  articles  in 
this  Dictionary  on  the  names  of  places 
which  occur  in  the  narrative.  The  land 
on  which  the  wreck  took  place  was  found 
to  belong  to  Malta.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
island  received  the  wet  and  exhausted  voy- 
agers with  no  ordinary  kindness,  and  im- 
mediately lighted  a  fire  to  warm  them.  This 
particular  kindness  is  recorded  on  account 
of  a  curious  incident  connected  with  it.  The 
Apostle  was  helping  to  make  the  fire,  and 
had  gathered  a  bundle  of  sticks  and  laid 
them  on  it,  when  a  viper  came  out  of  the 
heat  and  fastened  on  his  hand.  When  the 
natives  saw  the  creature  hanging  from  his 
hand  they  believed  him  to  be  poisoned  by 
the  bite,  and  said  amongst  themselves,  "  No 
doubt  tliis  man  is  a  murderer,  whom,  though 
he  has  escaped  from  the  sea,  yet  Vengeance 
suffers  not  to  live."  But  when  they  saw 
that  no  harm  came  of  it,  they  changed  their 
minds,  and  said  that  he  was  a  god.  This 
circumstance,  as  well  as  the  honor  in  which 
he  was  held  by  Julius,  Avould  account  for 


St.  Paul  being  invited  with  some  others  to 
stay  at  the  house  of  the  chief  man  of  the 
island,  whose  name  was  Publius.  After  a 
three  months'  stay  in  Malta  the  soldiers  and 
their  prisoners  left  in  an  Alexandrian  ship 
for  Italy.  They  touched  at  Syracuse,  where 
they  staid  three  days,  and  at  llhegium, 
from  which  place  they  were  carried  with  a 
fair  wind  to  Puteoli,  Avhere  they  left  their 
ship  and  the  sea.  At  Puteoli  they  found 
"  brethren,"  for  it  was  an  important  place, 
and  especially  a  chief  port  for  the  traffic  be- 
tween Alexandria  and  Rome ;  and  by  these 
brethren  they  were  exhorted  to  stay  a  while 
with  them.  Permission  seems  to  have  been 
granted  by  the  centurion ;  and  whilst  they 
were  spending  seven  days  at  Puteoli  news  of 
tlie  Apostle's  arrival  was  sent  on  to  Rome. 
St.  Paul  at  Rome. —  On  their  arrival  at  Rome 
the  centurion  delivered  up  his  prisoners  into 
the  proper  custody,  that  of  the  praetorian 
prefect.  Paul  was  at  once  treated  with  spe- 
cial consideration,  and  was  allowed  to  dwell 
by  himself  with  the  soldier  who  guarded  him. 
He  was  now  therefore  free  "  to  preach  the 
Gospel  to  them  that  were  at  Rome  also ;  " 
and  proceeded  without  delay  to  act  upon  his 
rule  —  "  to  the  Jew  first."  But,  as  of  old, 
the  reception  of  his  message  by  the  Jews 
was  not  favorable.  He  turned,  therefore, 
again  to  the  Gentiles,  and  for  two  years  he 
dwelt  in  his  own  hired  house.  These  are 
the  last  words  of  the  Acts.  But  St.  Paul's 
career  is  not  abruptly  closed.  Before  he 
himself  fades  out  of  our  sight  in  the  twilight 
of  ecclesiastical  tradition,  we  have  letters 
written  by  himself,  which  contribute  some 
particulars  to  his  biography.  Period  of 
the  later  Epistles.  —  To  that  imprisonment 
to  which  St.  Luke  has  introduced  us  —  th« 
imprisonment  which  lasted  for  such  a  tedi- 
ous time,  though  tempered  by  much  in- 
dulgence—  belongs  the  noble  group  of 
Letters  to  Philemon,  to  the  Colossians,  to 
the  Ephesians,  and  to  the  Philippians.  The 
three  former  of  these  were  written  at  one 
time,  and  sent  by  the  same  messengers. 
Whether  that  to  the  Pliilippians  was  writ- 
ten before  or  after  these,  we  cannot  deter- 
mine; but  the  tone  of  it  seems  to  imply 
that  a  crisis  was  approacliing,  and  there- 
fore it  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  latest 
of  the  four.  —  In  this  Epistle  St.  Paul  twice 
expresses  a  confident  hope  that  before  long 
he  may  be  able  to  visit  the  Philippians  in 
person  (i.  25,  ii.  24).  Whether  this  hope 
was  fulfilled  or  not,  has  been  the  occasion 
of  much  controversy.  According  to  the 
general  opinion,  the  Apostle  was  liberated 
from  his  imprisonment,  and  left  Rome,  soon 
after  the  writing  of  the  letter  to  the  Philip- 
pians, spent  some  time  in  visits  to  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Spain,  returned  again  as 
a  prisoner  to  Rome,  and  was  put  to  death 
there.  From  the  Pastoral  Epistles  we  may 
draw  the  following  conclusions :    (1.)  St. 


PAUL 


512 


PAUL 


Paul  must  have  left  Eome,  and  visited  Asia 
Minor  and  Greece ;  for  he  says  to  Timo- 
thy (1  Tim.  i.  3),  "I  besought  thee  to 
abide  still  at  Ephesus,  when  I  was  setting 
out  for  Macedonia."  After  being  once  at 
Ephesus,  he  was  purposing  to  go  there 
again  (1  Tim.  iv.  13),  and  he  spent  a  con- 
siderable time  at  Ephesus  (2  Tim.  i.  18). 
(2.)  He  paid  a  visit  to  Crete,  and  left  Titus 
to  organize  Churches  there  (Tit.  i.  6). 
He  was  intending  to  spend  a  winter  at  one 
of  the  places  named  Nicopolis  (Tit.  iii.  12). 
(3.)  He  travelled  by  Miletus  (2  Tim.  iv. 
20),  Troas  (2  Tim.  iv.  13),  where  he  left  a 
cloak  or  case,  and  some  books,  and  Corinth 
(2  Tim.  iv.  20).  (4.)  He  is  a  prisoner  at 
Rome,  "  suffering  unto  bonds  as  an  evil- 
doer "  (2  Tim.  ii.  9),  and  expecting  to  be 
soon  condemned  to  death  (2  Tim.  iv.  6). 
At  this  time  he  felt  deserted  and  solitary, 
having  only  Luke  of  his  old  associates  to 
keep  him  company ;  and  he  was  very  anx- 
ious that  Timothy  should  come  to  him  with- 
out delay  from  Ephesus,  and  bring  Mark 
with  him  (2  Tim.  i.  15,  iv.  16,  9-12).  We 
conclude  then,  that  after  a  wearing  impris- 
onment of  two  years  or  more  at  Rome,  St. 
Paul  was  set  free,  and  spent  some  years  in 
various  journeyings  eastwards  and  west- 
wards. Towards  the  close  of  this  time  he 
pours  out  his  warnings  in  the  Letters  to 
Timothy  and  Titus.  The  first  to  Timothy 
and  that  to  Titus  were  evidently  written  at 
very  nearly  the  same  time.  After  these 
were  written,  he  was  apprehended  again 
and  sent  to  Rome.  The  Apostle  appears 
now  to  have  been  treated,  not  as  an  honor- 
able state  prisoner,  but  as  a  felon  (2  Tim. 
ii.  9).  But  he  was  at  least  allowed  to  write 
this  Second  Letter  to  his  "  dearly  beloved 
son  "  Timothy ;  and  though  he  expresses  a 
confident  expectation  of  his  speedy  death, 
he  yet  thought  it  sufficiently  probable  that 
it  might  be  delayed  for  some  time,  to  war- 
rant him  in  urging  Timothy  to  come  to 
him  from  Ephesus.  Meanwhile,  though 
lie  felt  his  isolation,  he  was  not  in  the  least 
daunted  by  his  danger.  He  was  more  than 
ready  to  die  (iv.  6),  and  had  a  sustaining 
experience  of  not  being  deserted  by  his 
Lord.  Once  already,  in  this  second  im- 
prisonment, he  had  appeared  before  the 
authorities ;  and  "  the  Lord  then  stood  by 
him  and  strengthened  him,"  and  gave  him 
a  favorable  opportunity  for  the  one  thing 
always  nearest  to  his  heart,  the  public  dec- 
laration of  his  Gospel.  This  Epistle,  sure- 
ly no  unworthy  utterance  at  such  an  age 
and  in  such  an  hour  even  of  a  St.  Paul, 
brings  us,  it  may  well  be  presumed,  close 
to  the  end  of  his  life.  For  what  remains, 
we  have  the  concurrent  testimony  of  eccle- 
siastical antiquity,  that  he  was  beheaded  at 
Rome,  about  the  same  time  that  St.  Peter 
was  crucified  there.  Dionysius,  bishop  of 
Ck)rinth  (a.  d.  170),  says  that  Peter  and 


Paul  went  to  Italy  and  taught  there  to- 
gether, and  suffered  martyrdom  about  the 
same  time.  Eusebius  himself  adopts  the 
tradition  that  St.  Paul  was  beheaded  under 
Nero  at  Rome.  Chronology  of  St.  PauVs 
Life.  —  There  are  two  principal  events  which 
serve  as  fixed  dates  for  determining  the 
Pauline  chronology  —  the  death  of  Ilerod 
Agrippa,  and  the  accession  of  Festus.  Now 
it  has  been  proved  almost  to  certainty  that 
Felix  was  recalled  from  Judaea,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  Festus  in  the  year  GO.  In  the 
autumn,  then,  of  a.  d.  GO  St.  Paul  left 
Caesarea.  In  the  spring  of  Gl  he  arrived 
at  Rome.  There  he  lived  two  years,  that 
is,  till  the  spring  of  63,  with  much  freedom 
in  his  own  hired  house.  After  this  we  de- 
pend upon  conjecture ;  but  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  give  us  reasons  for  deferring  the 
Apostle's  death  until  G7,  with  Eusebius,  or 
68,  with  Jerome.  Similarly  we  can  go 
backwards  from  A.  D.  60.  St.  Paul  was 
two  years  at  Caesarea  (Acts  xxiv.  27) ; 
therefore  he  arrived  at  Jerusalem  on  his 
last  visit  by  the  Pentecost  of  58.  Before 
this  he  had  wintered  at  Corinth  (Acts  xx.  2, 
3),  having  gone  from  Ephesus  to  Greece. 
He  left  Ephesus,  then,  in  the  latter  part  of 
57,  and  as  he  staid  3  years  at  Ephesua 
(Acts  XX.  31),  he  must  have  come  thither 
in  54.  Previously  to  this  journey  he  had 
spent  "  some  time  "  at  Antioch  (Acts  xviii. 
23),  and  our  chronology  becomes  indeter- 
minate. We  can  only  add  together  the 
time  of  a  hasty  visit  to  Jerusalem,  the 
travels  of  the  great  second  missionary 
journey,  which  included  Ih  year  at  Corinth, 
another  indeterminate  st.iy  at  Antioch,  the 
important  third  visit  to  Jerusalem,  an- 
other "  long  "  residence  at  Antioch  (Acts 
xiv.  28),  the  first  missionary  journey,  again 
an  indeterminate  stay  at  Antioch  (Acts  xii. 
25)  —  until  we  come  to  the  second  visit  to 
Jerusalem,  which  nearly  synchronized  with 
the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa  in  a.  d.  44. 
Within  this  interval  of  some  10  years  the 
most  important  date  to  fix  is  that  of  the 
third  visit  to  Jerusalem ;  and  there  is  a 
great  concurrence  of  the  best  authorities 
in  placing  this  visit  in  either  50  or  51.  St. 
Paul  himself  (Gal.  ii.  1)  places  this  visit-. 
"  14  years  after"  either  his  conversion  or 
the  first  visit.  In  the  former  case  we  have 
37  or  38  for  the  date  of  the  conversion. 
The  conversion  was  followed  by  3  years 
(Gal.  i.  18)  spent  in  Arabia  and  Damascus, 
and  ending  with  the  first  visit  to  Jerusa- 
lem ;  and  the  space  between  the  first  visit 
(40  or  41)  and  the  second  (44  or  45)  is 
filled  up  by  an  indeterminate  time,  pre- 
sumably 2  or  3  years,  at  Tarsus  (Acts  ix. 
30),  and  1  year  at  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  26). 
The  date  of  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  can 
only  be  conjectured,  and  is  very  variously 
placed  between  a.  d.  30  and  the  year  of 
St.  Paul's  conversion.    In  the  account  of 


PAVEMENT 


513 


PELATIAH 


the  death  of  Stephen  St.  Paul  is  called  "a 
young  man  "  (Acts  vii.  58).  It  is  not  im- 
probable therefore  that  he  was  born  be- 
tween A.  D.  0  and  A.  D.  5,  so  that  he  might 
be  past  60  years  of  age  when  he  calls  him- 
self "  Paul  the  aged  "  in  Philemon  9. 

Pavement.    [Gabbatha.] 

Pavilion.  1.  iSi^c,  properly  an  enclosed 
place,  also  rendered  "  tabernacle,"  "  cov- 
ert," and  "den,"  once  only  "pavilion" 
(Ps.  xxvii.  5).  2.  Succdh,  usually  "tab- 
ernacle" and  "booth."  3.  Shaphnir  and 
ShapJirir,  a  word  used  once  only,  in  Jer. 
xliii.  10,  to  signify  glory  or  splendor,  and 
hence  probably  to  be  understood  of  the 
splendid  covering  of  the  royal  throne. 

Peacocks  (Ueb.  tucciyyim).  Amongst 
the  natural  products  of  the  land  of  Tarshish 
which  Solomon's  fleet  brouglit  home  to  Je- 
rusalem, mention  is  made  of  "peacocks" 
(1  K.  X.  22 ;  2  Chr.  ix.  21),  which  is  proba- 
bly the  correct  translation.  The  Hebrew 
word  may  be  traced  to  the  Tamul  or  Mala- 
baric  togei,  "  peacock." 

Pearl  (Heb.  gdbish).  The  Heb.  word 
in  Job  xxviii.  18,  probably  means  "crys- 
tal." Pearls,  however,  are  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  N.  T.  (Matt.  xiii.  45;  1  Tim. 
ii.  9;  Rev.  xvii.  4,  xxi.  21).  "The  pearl 
of  great  price"  is  doubtless  a  fine  specimen 
yielded  by  the  pearl  oyster  (Avicula  mar- 
garitifera),  still  found  in  abundance  in  the 
Persian  Gulf,  which  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  its  pearl  fisheries. 

Ped'ahel,  the  son  of  Ammihud,  and 
prince  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (Num. 
xxxiv.  28). 

PedahzuT,  father  of  Gamaliel,  the 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  at  the  time 
of  the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  10,  ii.  20,  vii.  54, 
59,  X.  23). 

Peda'iah.  1.  The  father  of  Zebudah, 
mother  of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  K.  xxiii.  36). 
2.  The  brother  of  Salathiel,  or  Shealtiel, 
and  father  of  Zerubbabel,  wlio  is  usually 
called  the  "  son  of  Sliealtiel,"  being,  as 
Lord  A.  Hervey  conjectures,  in  reality  his 
uncle's  successor  and  lieir,  in  consequence 
of  the  failure  of  issue  in  the  direct  line  (1 
Chr.  iii.  17-19).  3.  Son  of  Parosh,  that 
is,  one  of  the  family  of  that  name,  who  as- 
sisted Nehemiah  in  repairing  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25).  4.  Apparently 
a  priest;  one  of  those  who  stood  on  the 
left  hand  of  Ezra  when  he  read  the  law  to 
the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4).  5.  A  Benjamite, 
ancestor  of  Sallu  (Neh.  xi.  7).  6.  A  Le- 
vite  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xiii. 
13).  7.  The  father  of  Joel,  prince  of  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  in  the  reign  of  Da- 
vid (1  Chr.  xxvii.  20). 

Pe'katl,  son  of  Remaliah,  originally  a 
captain  of  Pekahiah  king  of  Israel,  mur- 
dered his  master,  seized  the  throne,  and 
became  the  18th  sovereign  of  the  northern 
kingdom  (b.  c.  757-740).    Under  his  pred- 


ecessors Israel  had  been  much  weakened 
through  the  payment  of  enormous  trib- 
ute to  the  Assyrians  (see  especially  2 
K.  XV.  20),  and  by  internal  wars  and 
conspiracies.  Pekah  seems  steadily  to 
have  applied  himself  to  the  restoration 
of  its  power.  For  this  purpose  he  sought 
for  the  support  of  a  foreign  alliance, 
and  fixed  his  mind  on  the  plunder  of  the 
sister  kingdom  of  Judah.  He  must  have 
made  tlie  treaty  by  which  he  proposed  to 
share  its  spoil  with  Rezin  king  of  Damas- 
cus, when  Jotham  was  still  on  the  throne 
of  Jerusalem  (2  K.  xv.  37)  ;  but  its  execu- 
tion was  long  delayed,  probably  in  conse- 
quence of  that  prince's  righteous  and  vigor- 
ous administration  (2  Chr.  xxvii.).  When, 
however,  his  weak  son  Ahaz  succeeded  to 
the  crown  of  David,  the  allies  no  longer 
hesitated,  and  formed  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem (b.  c.  742).  The  history  of  the  war 
is  found  in  2  K.  xvi.  and  2  Chr.  xxviii.  It 
is  famous  as  the  occasion  of  the  great 
prophecies  in  Is.  vii.-ix.  Its  chief  result 
was  the  Jewish  port  of  Elath  on  the  Red 
Sea;  but  the  unnatural  alliance  of  Damas- 
cus and  Samaria  was  punished  through 
the  final  overthrow  of  the  ferocious  con- 
federates by  Tiglath-pileser.  The  kingdom 
of  Damascus  was  finally  suppressed,  and 
Rezin  put  to  death,  while  Pekah  was  de- 
prived of  at  least  half  his  kingdom,  includ- 
ing all  the  northern  portion,  and  the  whole 
district  to  the  east  of  Jordan.  Pekah  him- 
self, now  fallen  into  the  position  of  an  As- 
syrian vassal,  was  of  course  compelled  to 
abstain  from  further  attacks  on  Judah. 
Whether  his  continued  tyranny  exhausted 
the  patience  of  his  subjects,  or  whether  liis 
weakness  emboldened  them  to  attack  him, 
we  do  not  know;  but,  from  one  or  the 
other  cause,  Hoshea  the  son  of  Elah  con- 
spired against  him,  and  put  him  to  death. 

PekaM'ah.,  son  and  successor  of  Mena- 
hem,  was  the  17th  king  of  the  separate 
kingdom  of  Israel  (b.  c.  759-757).  After 
a  brief  reign  of  scarcely  two  years  a  con- 
spiracy was  organized  against  him  by  Pe- 
kah, who  murdered  him  and  seized  the 
throne. 

Pe'kod,  an  appellative  applied  to  the 
Chaldaeans  (Jer.  1.  21;  Ez.  xxiii.  23). 
Authorities  are  undecided  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term. 

Pelai'ah.  1.  A  son  of  Elioenai,  of  the 
royal  line  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iii.  24).  2. 
One  of  the  Lcvites  who  assisted  Ezra  in 
expounding  the  law  (Neh.  viii.  7).  He 
afterwards  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah (Neh.  X.  10). 

Pelali'ah,  the  son  of  Amzi,  and  ances- 
tor of  Adaiah  (Neh.  xi.  12). 

Pelati'ah.  1.  Son  of  Hananiah  the 
son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chr.  iii.  21).  2. 
One  of  the  captains  of  the  marauding  band 
of  Sinieonites,  who  in  the  reign  of  Heze- 


PELEG 


514 


PENTATEUCH 


kiah  made  an  expedition  to  Mount  Seir,  and 
smote  the  Araelekites  (1  Chr.  iv.  42).  3. 
One  of  the  heads  of  the  people,  and  prob- 
ably tlie  name  of  a  family,  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Kehemiah  (Neh.  x.  22).  4. 
The  son  of  Benaiah,  and  one  of  the  princes 
of  the  people  against  whom  Ezekiel  was 
directed  to  utter  the  words  of  doom  record- 
ed in  P^z.  xi.  5-12. 

Pe'leg,  son  of  Eber  and  brother  of  Jok- 
tan  (Gen.  x.  25,  xi.  16).  The  only  inci- 
dent connected  with  his  history  is  the  state- 
ment that  "in  his  days  was  the  earth  di- 
vided "  —  an  event  which  was  embodied  in 
his  name,  Peleg  meaning  "division."  This 
refers  to  a  division  of  the  family  of  Eber 
himself,  the  younger  branch  of  whom  (the 
Joktanids)  migrated  into  southern  Arabia, 
while  the  elder  remained  in  Mesopotamia. 

Pe'let.  1.  A  son  of  Jahdai  in  an  ob- 
Bcure  genealogy  (1  Chr.  ii.  47).  2.  The 
son  of  Azmaveth,  that  is,  either  a  native 
of  the  place  of  that  name,  or  the  son  of  one 
of  David's  heroes  (1  Chr.  xii.  3). 

Pe'leth.  1.  The  father  of  On,  the  Reu- 
benite,  who  joined  Dathan  and  Abiram  in 
their  rebellion  (Num.  xvi.  1).  2.  Son  of 
Jonathan,  and  a  descendant  of  Jerahraeel 
(1  Chr.  ii.  33). 

Pe'letliites.    [Cherbthites.] 

Pelican  (Heb.  kdath).  Amongst  the 
unclean  birds  mention  is  made  of  the  kd- 
ath (Lev.  xi.  18;  Deut.  xiv.  17).  The  sup- 
pliant psalmist  compares  his  condition  to 
"a  kdath  in  the  wilderness"  (Ps.  cii.  G). 
As  a  mark  of  the  desolation  that  was  to 
come  upon  Edom,  it  is  said  that  "  the 
kdath  and  the  bittern  should  possess  it " 
(Is.  xxxiv.  11).  The  same  words  are 
spoken  of  Nineveh  (Zeph.  ii.  14).  In  these 
two  last  places  the  A.  V.  has  "  cormorant" 
in  the  text  and  "  pelican  "  in  the  margin. 
The  best  authorities  are  in  favor  of  the 
pelican  being  the  bird  denoted  by  kdath. 
The  psalmist,  in  comparing  his  pitiable 
condition  to  the  pelican,  probably  has  refer- 
ence to  its  general  aspect  as  it  sits  in  ap- 
parent melancholy  mood,  with  its  bill  rest- 
ing on  its  breast. 

Pel'onite,  The.  Two  of  David's 
mighty  men,  Helez  and  Ahijah,  are  called 
Pelonites  (1  Chr.  xi.  27,  36),  From  1  Chr. 
xxvii.  10,  it  appears  that  the  former  was 
of  the  triGe  of  Ephraini,  and  "  Pelonite  " 
would  therefore  be  an  appellation  derived 
from  his  place  of  birth  or  residence.  "  Abi- 
gail the  Pelonite  "  appears  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34  as  "  Eliara  the  son  of  Ahithophel  the 
Gilonite,"  of  which  the  former  is  a  corrup- 
tion. 

Pen.     [Writing.] 

Pen'iel,  the  name  which  Jacob  gave  to 
the  place  in  which  he  had  wrestled  with 
God :  "  He  called  the  name  of  the  place 
'  Face  of  El,'  for  I  have  seen  Elohim  face 
to  face"  (Gen.  xxxii.  30).    In  xxxii.  31, 


and  the  other  passages  in  which  the  name 
occurs,  its  form  is  changed  to  Penuel. 
From  the  narrative  it  is  evident  that  Peniel 
lay  somewhere  between  the  torrent  Jabbok 
and  Succoth. 

Penin'nah,  one  of  the  two  wives  of 
Elkanah  (1  Sam.  i.  2). 

Penny,  Pennyworth.  In  the  A.  V. 
of  the  N.  T.  "  penny,"  either  alone  or  in 
the  compound  "  pennyworth,"  occurs  as  the 
rendering  of  the  Roman  denarius  (Matt. 
XX.  2,  x;  ii.  19;  Mark  vi.  37,  xii.  15;  Luke 
XX.  24;  John  vi.  7;  Rev.  vi.  6).  The  de- 
narius was  the  chief  Roman  silver  coin,  and 
was  worth  about  9d. 

Pentateuch,  The,  is  the  Greek  name 
given  to  the  five  books  commonly  called 
the  "  Five  Books  of  Moses."  *  In  the  time 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  it  was  called  "the 
Law  of  Moses  "  (Ezr.  vii.  6)  ;  or  "  the  book 
of  the  Law  of  Moses "  (Neh.  viii.  1) ;  or 
simply  "  the  book  of  Moses  "  (Ezr.  vi.  18 ; 
Neh.  xiii.  1;  2  Chron.  xxv.  4,  xxxv.  12). 
This  was  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt  our 
existing  Pentateuch.  The  book  which  was 
discovered  in  the  temple  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  and  which  is  entitled  (2  Chr.  xxxiv. 
14)  "  the  book  of  the  Law  of  Jehovah  by 
the  hand  of  Moses,"  was  substantially,  it 
would  seem,  the  same  volume,  though  it 
may  afterwards  have  undergone  some  re- 
vision by  Ezra.  The  present  Jews  u.«ually 
called  the  whole  by  the  name  of  Torah,  i.  e. 
"  the  Law,"  or  Torath  Alosheh,  "the  Law 
of  Moses."  The  division  of  the  whole 
work  into  five  ports  was  probably  made  by 
the  Greek  translators ;  for  the  titles  of  the 
several  books  are  not  of  Hebrew  but  of 
Greek  origin.  The  Hebrew  names  are 
merely  taken  from  the  first  words  of  each 
book,  and  in  the  first  instance  only  desig- 
nated particular  sections,  and  not  whole 
books.  The  MSS.  of  the  Pentateuch  form 
a  single  roll  or  volume,  and  are  divided,  not 
into  books,  but  into  the  larger  and  smaller 
sections  called  Parshiyoth  and  Scdarim. 
The  Five  Books  of  the  Pentateuch  form  a 
consecutive  whole.  The  work,  beginning 
with  the  record  of  creation,  and  the  history 
of  the  primitive  world,  passes  on  to  deal 
more  especially  with  the  early  history  of 
the  Jewish  family.  It  gives  at  length  the 
personal  history  of  the  three  great  Fathers 
of  the  family;  it  then  describes  how  tiie 
family  grew  into  a  nation  in  Egypt,  tells  us 
of  its  oppression  and  deliverance,  of  its 
forty  years'  wandering  in  the  wilderness, 
of  the  giving  of  the  Law,  with  all  its  enact- 
ments, both  civil  and  religious,  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  tabernacle,  of  the  num- 
bering of  the  people,  of  the  rights  and  du- 
ties of  the  priesthood,  as  well  as  of  many 

*  h  nciiTaTtvxoittc.Pifffiosi  Pentateuchus,  ac.  liber;  th« 
fivefold  book;  from  rcvxoi,  which  meimingoriginallj  "  ves- 
sel, instrument,"  kc,  cune  in  Alexandrine  Ureek  to  mean 
"  book." 


PENTATEUCH 


515 


PENTATEUCH 


important  events  which  befell  them  before 
their  entrance  into  the  Land  of  Canaan, 
and  finally  concludes  with  Moses'  last  dis- 
courses and  his  death.  The  unity  of  the 
work  in  its  existing  form  is  noAv  generally 
recognized.  It  is  not  a  mere  collection  of 
loose  fragments  carelessly  put  together  at 
different  times,  but  bears  evident  traces 
of  design  and  purpose  in  its  composition. 
Even  those  who  discover  different  authors 
in  the  earlier  books,  and  who  deny  that 
Deuteronomy  was  written  by  Moses,  are 
still  of  opinion  that  the  work  in  its  present 
form  is  a  connected  whole,  and  was  at  least 
reduced  to  its  present  shape  by  a  single 
reviser  or  editor.  Till  the  middle  of  last 
century  it  was  the  general  opinion  of  both 
Jews  and  Christians  that  the  whole  of  the 
Pentateuch  was  written  by  Moses,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  manifestly  later  addi- 
tions —  such  as  the  34th  chapter  of  Deuter- 
onomy, which  gives  the  account  of  Moses' 
death.  The  first  attempt  to  call  in  question 
tlie  popular  belief  was  made  by  Astruc, 
Doctor  and  Professor  of  Medicine  in  the 
Koyal  College  at  Paris,  and  Court  Physi- 
cian to  Louis  XIV.*  He  had  observed  that 
throughout  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  as  far 
a.s  the  6th  chapter  of  Exodus,  traces  were 
to.  be  found  of  two  original  documents, 
each  characterized  by  a  distinct  use  of  the 
names  of  God  ;  the  one  by  the  name  Elo- 
hini,  and  the  other  by  the  name  Jehovah 
[God].  Besides  these  two  principal  docu- 
ments, he  supposed  Moses  to  have  made 
use  of  ten  others  in  the  composition  of  the 
earlier  part  of  his  work.  The  path  traced  by 
Astruc  has  been  followed  by  numerous 
German  writers ;  but  the  various  hypoth- 
eses which  have  been  formed  upon  the 
subject  cannot  be  presented  in  this  Dic- 
tionary. It  is  sufficient  here  to  state 
that  there  is  sufficient  evidence  for  believ- 
ing that  the  main  bulk  of  the  Pentateuch, 
at  any  rate,  was  written  by  Moses,  though 
he  probably  availed  himself  of  existing 
documents  in  the  composition  of  the  earlier 
part  of  the  work.  Some  detached  portions 
would  appear  to  be  of  later  origin ;  and 
when  we  remember  how  entirely,  during 
some  periods  of  Jewish  history,  the  Law 
seem  to  have  been  forgotten,  and  again  how 
necessary  it  would  be  after  the  seventy 
years  of  exile  to  explain  some  of  its  ar- 
chaisms, and  to  add  here  and  there  short 
notes  to  make  it  more  intelligible  to  the 
people,  nothing  can  be  more  natural  than 
to  suppose  tliat  such  latter  additions  were 
made  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  On  care- 
fully weighing  all  the  evidence,  we  can  hard- 
ly question,  withoiit  a  literary  scepticism, 
which  would  be  most  unreasonable,  that  the 
Pentateuch  is  to  a  very  considerable  extent 

*  Hi«  work  was  published  at  Brussels  in  1753,  under  the 
title  of  "Conjectures  sur  les  Memoires  orieinaux,  dont  il 
paroit  que  Moyse  s'est  servi  pour  composer  le  Livre  de 
Uenese. 


as  early  as  the  time  of  Moses,  though  it  may 
have  undergone  many  later  revisions  and 
corrections,  the  last  of  these  being  certainly 
as  late  as  the  time  of  Ezra.  But  as  regards 
any  direct  and  unimpeachable  testimony  to 
the  composition  of  the  whole  work  by  Moses 
we  have  it  not.  Only  one  book  out  of  the 
five  —  that  of  Deuteronomy  —  claims  in 
express  terms  to  be  from  his  hand.  And 
yet,  strange  to  say,  this  is  the  very 
book  in  which  modern  criticism  refuses 
most  peremptorily  to  admit  the  claim. 
It  is  of  importance  therefore  to  consider 
this  question  separately.  All  allow  that 
the  Book  of  the  Covenant  in  Exodus,  per- 
haps a  great  part  of  Leviticus  and  some 
part  of  Numbers,  were  written  by  Israel's 
greatest  leader  and  prophet.  But  Deuter- 
onomy, it  is  alleged,  is  in  style  and  purpose 
so  utterly  unlike  the  genuine  writings  of 
Moses  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  believe 
that  he  is  the  author.  But  how  then  set 
aside  the  express  testimony  of  the  book 
itself?  How  explain  the  fact  that  Moses  is 
there  said  to  have  written  all  the  words  of 
this  Law,  to  have  consigned  it  to  the  cus- 
tody of  the  priests,  and  to  have  charged  the 
Levites  sedulously  to  preserve  it  by  the 
side  of  the  ark?  Only  by  the  bold  asser- 
tion that  the  fiction  was  invented  by  a  later 
writer,  who  chose  to  personate  the  great 
Lawgiver  in  order  to  give  the  more  color 
of  consistency  to  his  work !  But,  besides 
the  fact  that  Deuteronomy  claims  to  have 
been  written  by  Moses,  there  is  other  evi- 
dence which  establishes  the  great  antiquity 
of  the  book.  1.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
allusions  to  Egypt,  which  are  just  what 
would  be  expected  supposing  Moses  to  have 
been. the  author.  In  xx.  5  there  is  an  allu- 
sion to  Egj'ptian  regulations  in  time  of 
war ;  in  xxv.  2  to  the  Egyptian  bastinado ; 
in  xi.  10  to  the  Egyptian  mode  of  irriga- 
tion. Again,  among  the  curses  threatened 
are  the  sicknesses  of  Egypt,  xxviii.  60  (comp. 
vii.  15).  According  to  xxviii.  68,  Egypt  is 
the  type  of  all  the  oppressors  of  Israel. 
Lastly,  references  to  the  sojourning  in 
Egj'pt  are  numerous  (vi.  21-23 ;  see  also 
vii.  8,  18,  xi.  3).  The  phraseology  of  the 
book,  and  the  archaisms  found  in  it, 
stamp  it  as  of  the  same  age  with  the  rest  of 
the  Pentateuch.  2.  A  fondness  for  the  use  of 
figures  is  another  peculiarity  of  Deuterono- 
my. See  xxix.  17, 18,  xxviii.  13,  44,  i.  31,  44, 
viii.  5,  xxviii.  29,  49.  The  results  are  most 
surprising  when  we  compare  Deuteronomy 
with  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  (Ex.  xix.- 
xxiv.)  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  Ps.  xc. 
(which  is  said  to  be  Mosaic)  on  the  other. 
In  addition  to  all  these  peculiarities  which 
are  arguments  for  the  Mosaic  authorship 
of  the  Book,  we  have  here,  too,  the  evi- 
dence strong  and  clear  of  post-Mosaic  times 
and  writings.  The  attempt  by  a  wrong  inter- 
pretation of  2  K.  xyii.  and  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  to 


PENTECOST 


516 


PENTECOST 


bring  down  Deuteronomy  as  low  as  the  time 
of  Manasseli  fails  utterly.  A  century  ear- 
lier the  Jewish  prophets  borrow  their  words 
and  their  thoughts  from  Deuteronomy. 
Since,  then,  not  only  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel, 
but  Amos  and  Hosea,  Isaiah  and  Micah, 
speak  in  the  words  of  Deuteronomy,  as 
well  as  in  words  borrowed  from  otlier  por- 
tions of  the  Pentateuch,  we  see  at  once 
how  untenable  is  the  theory  of  those  who, 
like  Ewald,  maintain  that  Deuteronomy 
was  composed  during  the  reign  of  Manas- 
seh,  or,  as  Vaihinger  does,  during  that  of 
Hezekiah.  But,  in  truth,  the  Book  speaks 
for  itself.  No  imitator  could  have  written 
in  such  a  strain.  We  scarcely  need  the 
express  testimony  of  the  work  to  its  own 
authorship.  But,  having  it,  we  find  all  the 
internal  evidence  conspiring  to  show  that 
it  came  from  Moses.  We  therefore  de- 
clare unhesitatingly  for  the  Mosaic  author- 
ship of  Deuteronomy.  Briefly,  then,  to 
sum  up  the  results  of  our  inquiry  :  1.  The 
Book  of  Genesis  rests  chiefly  on  documents 
much  earlier  than  the  time  of  Moses, 
though  it  was  probably  brought  to  very 
nearly  Its  present  shape  either  by  Moses 
himself,  or  by  one  of  the  elders  who  acted 
under  him.  2.  The  Books  of  Exodus,  Le- 
viticus, and  Numbers,  are  to  a  great  extent 
Mosaic.  Besides  those  portions  which  are 
expressly  declared  to  have  been  written  by 
him,  other  portions,  and  especially  the  legal 
sections,  were,  if  not  actually  written,  in 
all  probability  dictated  by  him.  3.  Deu- 
teronomy, excepting  the  concluding  part, 
is  entirely  the  work  of  Moses,  as  it  professes 
to  be.  4.  It  is  not  probable  that  this  was 
written  before  the  three  preceding  books, 
because  the  legislation  in  Exodus  and 
Leviticus,  as  being  the  more  formal,  is  man- 
ifestly the  earlier,  whilst  Deuteronomy  is 
the  spiritual  interpretation  and  application 
of  the  Law.  But  the  letter  is  always 
before  the  spirit ;  the  thing  before  its  inter- 
pretation. 5.  Tlie  first  composition  of  the 
Pentateuch  as  a  whole  could  not  have  taken 
place  till  after  the  Israelites  entered  Canaan. 
It  is  probable  that  Joshua,  and  the  elders  who 
were  associated  with  him,  would  provide  for 
its  formal  arrangement,  custody  and  trans- 
mission. 6.  The  whole  work  did  not  finally 
assume  its  present  shape  till  its  revision 
was  undertaken  by  Ezra  after  the  return 
from  the  Babylonish  Captivity.  For  an 
account  of  the  separate  books  see  Genesis, 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuter- 
onomy. 

Pentecost,  that  is,  the  fiftieth  day*  or 
Harvest  Feast,  or  Feast  of  Weeks,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  supplement  to  the  Pass- 
pver.     It  lasted  only  for  one  day ;  but  the 


*  This  Greek  niime  ia  not  the  translation  of  any  corre- 
tpondin^  word  in  the  Pentateuch;  but  the  later  name  of  the 
ffea»t,  which  naturally  grew  out  of  the  calculation  of  iti  in- 
terval from  the  FaMover. 


modern  Jews  extend  it  over  two.  The  peo- 
ple, having  at  the  Passover  presented  before 
God  the  first  sheaf  of  the  harvest,  departed 
to  their  homes  to  gather  it  in,  and  then 
returned  to  keep  the  harvest-feast  before 
Jehovah.  From  the  sixteenth  of  Nisan 
seven  weeks  were  reckoned  inclusively,  and 
the  next  or  fiftieth  day  was  the  Day  of 
Pentecost,  which  fell  on  the  sixth  of  Sivan 
(about  the  end  of  May)  (Ex.  xxiii.  16, 
xxxiv.  22 ;  Lev.  xxiii.  15-22 ;  Num.  xxviii. 
26-31 ;  Deut.  xvi.  9-12 ;  2  Mace.  xii.  32 ; 
Acts  ii.  1,  XX.  16;  1  Cor.  xvi.  8).  The 
intervening  period  included  the  whole  of 
the  grain  harvest,  of  which  the  wheat  was 
the  latest  crop.  Its  commencement  is  also 
marked  as  from  the  time  when  "  thou  be- 
ginnest  to  put  the  sickle  to  the  corn."  The 
Pentecost  was  the  Jewish  harvest-home, 
and  the  people  were  especially  exhorted  to 
rejoice  before  Jehovah  with  their  families, 
their  servants,  the  Levite  within  their  gates, 
the  stranger,  the  fatherless,  and  the  widow, 
in  the  place  chosen  by  God  for  His  name, 
as  they  brought  a  freewill-offering  of  their 
hand  to  Jehovah  their  God  (Deut.  xvi.  10, 
11).  The  great  feature  of  the  celebration 
was  the  presentation  of  the  two  loaves,  made 
from  the  first-fruits  of  the  wheat-harvest, 
and  leavened,  that  is,  in  the  state  fit  for 
ordinary  food.  In  this  point,  as  contrasted 
with  the  unleavened  bread  of  the  Passover, 
we  see  the  more  homely  and  social  nature 
of  the  Feast;  while  its  bounty  to  the  poor-is 
connected  with  the  law  which  secures  them 
plenty  of  gleanings  (Lev.  xxiii.  22).  With 
the  loaves  two  lambs  were  offered  as  a 
peace-offering;  and  all  were  waved  before 
Jehovah,  and  given  to  the  priests;  the 
loaves,  being  leavened,  could  not  be  offered 
on  the  altar.  The  other  sacrifices  were,  a 
burnt-offering  of  a  young  bullock,  two  rams, 
and  seven  lambs,  with  a  meat  and  drink- 
offering,  and  a  kid  for  a  sin-offering  (Lev. 
xxiii.  18,  19).  Till  the  pentecostal  loaves 
were  offered,  the  produce  of  the  harvest 
might  not  be  eaten,  nor  could  any  other 
first-fruits  be  offered.  The  whole  ceremony 
was  the  completionof  that  dedication  of  the 
harvest  to  God,  as  its  giver,  and  to  whom 
both  the  land  and  the  people  were  holy, 
which  was  begun  by  the  off'ering  of  the 
wave-sheaf  at  the  Passover.  The  interval 
is  still  regarded  as  a  religious  season.  The 
Pentecost  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  great 
feasts  which  is  not  mentioned  as  the  memo- 
rial of  events  in  the  history  of  the  Jews. 
But  such  a  significance  has  been  found  in 
the  fact,  that  the  Law  was  given  from  Sinai 
on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt  (comp.  Ex.  xii.  and  xix.).  In  the 
Exodus,  the  people  were  off'ered  to  God,  as 
living  first-fruits ;  at  Sinai  their  consecration 
to  Him  as  a  nation  was  completed.  The 
typical  significance  of  the  Pentecost  is  made 
clear  from  the  events  of  the  day  recorded 


PENUEL 


517 


PERGAMOS 


in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Acts  ii.).  The 
preceding  Passover  had  been  marked  by 
the  sacrifice  upon  the  cross  of  the  true 
Paschal  Lamb,  and  by  his  offering  to  his 
Father  as  "  the  first-fruits  of  them  that 
slept."  The  day  of  Pentecost  found  his 
disciples  assembled  at  Jerusalem,  like  the 
Israelites  before  Sinai,  waiting  for  "the 
promise  of  the  Father."  Again  did  God 
descend  from  heaven  in  fire,  to  pour  forth 
that  Holy  Spirit  which  gives  the  spiritual 
discernment  of  His  law ;  and  the  converts 
to  Peter's  preaching  were  the  first-fruits  of 
the  spiritual  harvest,  of  which  Christ  had 
long  before  assured  his  disciples.  Just  as 
the  appearance  of  God  on  Sinai  was  the 
birthday  of  the  Jewish  nation,  so  was  that 
Pentecost  the  birthday  of  the  Christian 
Church.  If  the  feast  of  Pentecost  stood 
without  an  organic  connection  with  any 
other  rites,  we  should  have  no  certain  war- 
rant in  the  Old  Testament  for  regarding  it 
as  more  tlian  the  divinely  appointed  solemn 
thanksgiving  for  the  yearly  supply  of  the 
most  useful  sort  of  food.  But  it  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  essentially  linked  on  to  the  Pass- 
over, that  festival,  which,  above  all  others, 
expressed  the  fact  of  a  race  chosen  and 
separated  from  other  nations.  It  was  not 
an  insulated  day.  It  stood  as  the  culmi- 
nating point  af  the  Pentecostal  season.  If 
the  offering  of  the  omer  was  a  supplication 
for  the  Divine  blessing  on  the  harvest  which 
was  just  commencing,  and  the  offering  of 
the  two  loaves  was  a  thanksgiving  for  its 
completion,  each  rite  was  brought  into  a 
higher  significance  in  consequence  of  the 
omer  forming  an  integral  part  of  the  Pass- 
over. The  Pentecost  was  the  last  Jewish 
feast  that  Paul  was  anxious  to  keep  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  8),  and  Whitsuntide,  its  successor,  was 
the  first  annual  festival  adopted  in  the 
Christian  Church. 

Penu'el.    [Peniel.] 

Pe'or.  1.  A  mountain  in  Moab,  from 
whence,  after  having  ascended  the  lower  or 
less  sacred  summits  of  Bamoth-Baal  and 
Pisgah,  the  propliet  Balaam  was  conducted 
by  Balak  for  his  final  conjurations  (Num. 
xxiii.  28  only).  Peor  was  "facing  Jeshi- 
mon."  The  same  thing  is  said  of  Pisgah. 
But  unfortunately  we  are  as  yet  ignorant 
of  the  position  of  all  three,  so  that  nothing 
can  be  inferred  from  this  specification.  In 
the  Onoviasticon  it  is  stated  to  be  above  the 
town  of  Libias  (the  ancient  Beth-aram), 
and  opposite  Jericho.  2.  In  four  passages 
(Num.  xxv.  18  twice ;  xxxi.  16 ;  Josh.  xxii. 
17)  Peor  occurs  as  a  contraction  for  Baal- 
peor.     [Baal.] 

Per'azim,  Mount,  a  name  wliich  oc- 
curs in  Is.  xxviii.  21  only,  —  unless  the 
place  which  it  designates  be  identical  with 
the  Baal-Perazim  mentioned  as  the  scene 
of  one  of  David's  victories  over  the  Philis- 
tines^ 


Pe'resh.  The  son  of  Machir  by  his 
wife  Maachah  (1  Chr.  vii.  16). 

Pe'rez.  The  "  children  of  Perez,"  or 
Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah, appear  to  have 
been  a  family  of  importance  for  many  cen- 
turies (1  Chr.  xxvii.  3;  Neh.  xi.  4,  6). 

Pe'rez-UZ'Za,  1  Chr.  xiii.  U;  and 

Pe'rez-uz'zah,  2  Sam.  vi.  8.  The  title 
which  David  conferred  on  the  threshing- 
floor  of  Nachon,  or  Cidon,  in  commemora- 
tion of  tlie  sudden  death  of  Uzzah. 

Perfumes.  The  free  use  of  perfumes 
was  peculiarly  grateful  to  the  Orientals 
(Prov.  xxvii.  9),  whose  olfactory  nerves  are 
more  than  usually  sensitive  to  the  offensive 
smells  engendered  by  the  heat  of  their 
climate.  The  Hebrews  manufactured  their 
perfumes  chiefly  from  spices  imported  from 
Arabia,  though  to  a  certain  extent  also  from 
aromatic  plants  growing  in  their  own  coun- 
trj'.  Perfumes  entered  largely  into  the 
Temple  service,  in  the  two  forms  of  incense 
and  ointment  (Ex.  xxx.  22-38).  Nor  were 
they  less  used  in  private  life ;  not  only  were 
they  applied  to  the  person,  but  to  garments 
(Ps.  xlv.  8;  Cant.  iv.  11),  and  to  articles 
of  furniture,  such  as  beds  (Prov.  vii.  17). 
On  the  arrival  of  a  guest  the  same  compli- 
ments were  probably  paid  in  ancient  as  in 
modern  times  (Dan.  ii.  46).  When  a  royal 
personage  went  abroad  in  his  litter,  attend- 
ants threw  up  *'  pillars  of  smoke  "  about  his 
path  (Cant.  iii.  6).  The  use  of  perfumes 
was  omitted  in  times  of  mourning,  whence 
the  allusion  in  Is.  iii.  24. 

Per'ga,  a  city  of  Pamphylia  (Acts  xiii. 
13),  situated  on  the  river  Cestius,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  60  stadia  from  its  mouth,  and  cele- 
brated in  antiquity  for  the  worship  of  Arte- 
mis (Diana). 

Per'gamos,  a  city  of  Mysia,  about  3 
miles  to  the  N.  of  the  river  Caicus,  aiad  20 
miles  from  its  present  mouth.  The  name 
was  originally  given  to  a  remarkable  hill, 
presenting  a  conical  appearance  when 
viewed  from  the  plain.  It  was  the  resi- 
dence of  a  dynasty  of  Greek  princes,  found- 
ed after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  usually  called  the  Attalic  dynasty,  from 
its  founder  Attains.  This  Attalic  dynasty 
terminated  b.  c.  133,  when  Attains  III.,  dy- 
ing at  an  early  age,  made  the  liomans  his 
heirs.  His  dominions  formed  the  province 
of  Asia.  The  sumptuousness  of  the  At- 
talic princes  had  raised  Pergamos  to  tlie 
rank  of  the  first  city  in  Asia  as  regards 
splendor.  It  became  a  city  of  temples, 
devoted  to  a  sensuous  worship ;  and  being 
in  its  origin,  according  to  pagan  notions, 
a  sacred  place,  might  not  unnaturally  be 
viewed  by  Jews  and  Jewish  Christians  as 
one  "  where  was  the  throne  of  Satan " 
(Eev.  ii.  13).  After  the  extinction  of  its 
independence,  the  sacred  character  of  Per- 
gamos seems  to  have  been  put  even  more 
prominently  forward.    In  the  time  of  Mar- 


PERIDA 


518 


PERSIA 


tiiil,  Aesculapius  had  acquired  so  much 
prominence  that  he  is  called  Pergameus 
deus.  From  the  circumstance  of  this  no- 
toriety of  the  Pergamene  Aesculapius,  and 
from  the  serpent  being  his  characteristic 
emblem,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the 
expressions  "  the  throne  of  Satan "  and 
"  where  Satan  dwelleth,"  have  an  especial 
reference  to  this  one  pagan  deity,  and  not 
to  the  whole  city  as  a  sort  of  focus  of  idol- 
atrous worship.  But  although  undoubtedly 
the  Aesculapius  worship  of  Pergamos  was 
the  most  famous,  yet  an  inscription  of  the 
time  of  Marcus  Antoninus  distinctly  puts 
Zeus,  Athene,  Dionysus,  and  Asclepius  in 
a  co-ordinate  rank,  as  all  being  special 
tutelary  deities  of  Pergamos.  It  seems 
unlikely,  therefore,  that  the  expressions 
above  quoted  should  be  so  interpreted  as 
to  isolate  one  of  them  from  tlie  rest.  It 
may  be  added,  that  the  charge  against  a 
portion  of  the  Pergamene  Church,  that 
some  among  them  were  of  the  school  of 
Balaam,  whose  policy  was  to  put  a  stum- 
bling-block before  the  children  of  Israel, 
by  inducing  them  to  eat  things  sacrificed 
to  idols  and  to  commit  fornication  (Rev.  ii. 
14),  is  in  both  its  particulars  very  inappro- 
priate to  the  Aesculapian  ritual.  It  points 
rather  to  the  Dionysus  and  Aphrodite  wor- 
ship. 

Peri'da.  The  children  of  Perida  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh. 
vii.  57). 

Per'izzite,  The,  and  Per'izzites,  one 
of  the  nations  inhabiting  the  Land  of  Prom- 
ise before  and  at  the  time  of  its  conquest 
by  Israel.  Tliey  are  continually  mentioned 
in  the  formula  so  frequently  occurring  to 
express  the  Promised  Land  (Gen.  xv.  20 ; 
Ex.  iii.  8,  17,  xxiii.  23,  xxxiii.  2,  xxxiv.  11 ; 
Deut.  vii.  1,  xx.  17;  Josh.  iii.  10,  ix.  1, 
xxiv.  11 ;  Judg.  iii.  5;  Ezr.  ix.  1 ;  Neh.  ix. 
8).  They  appear,  however,  with  somewhat 
greater  distinctness  on  several  occasions 
(Gen.  xiii.  7,  xxxiv.  30;  Judg.  i.  4,  5;  2 
Esdr.  i.  21).  The  notice  in  the  book  of 
Judges  locates  them  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Holy  Land.  The  signification  of 
the  name  is  not  by  any  means  clear.  It 
possibly  meant  rustics,  dwellers  in  open, 
unwalled  villages,  which  are  denoted  by  a 
similar  word. 

Persep'olis,  mentioned  only  in  2  Mace. 
ix.  2,  was  the  capital  of  Persia  Proper,  and 
the  occasional  residence  of  the  Persian 
court  from  the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspis, 
who  seems  to  have  been  its  founder,  to  the 
invasion  of  Alexander.  Its  wanton  destruc- 
tion by  that  conqueror  is  well  known.  Its 
site  is  now  called  the  Chehl- Minar,  or  Forty 
Pillars.  Here,  on  a  platform  hewn  out  of 
the  solid  rock,  the  sides  of  which  face  the 
four  cardinal  points,  are  the  remains  of  two 
great  palaces,  built  respectively  by  Darius 
Hystaspis  and  his  son  Xerxes,  besides  a 


number  of  otlier  edifices,  chiefly  temples. 
They  are  of  great  extent  and  magnificence, 
covering  an  area  of  many  acres. 

Per'seus,  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  V. 
and  last  king  of  Macedonia  (b.  c.  179-168). 
The  defeat  of  Perseus  by  the  Romans  put 
an  end  to  the  independence  of  Macedonia, 
and  extended  even  to  Syria  tlie  terror  of 
the  Roman  name  (1  Mace.  viii.  5). 

Per'sia,  Persians.  Persia  Proper  was 
a  tract  of  no  very  large  dimensions  on  the 
Persian  Gulf,  which  is  still  known  as  Fars, 
or  Farsistan,  a  corruption  of  the  ancient 
appellation.  This  tract  was  bounded,  on 
the  west,  by  Susiana  or  Elam,  on  tlie  north 
by  Media,  on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  on  the  east  by  Carmania.  But  the  name 
is  more  commonly  applied,  both  in  Scrip- 
ture and  by  profane  authors,  to  the  entire 
tract  which  came  by  degrees  to  be  included 
witliin  the  limits  of  the  Persian  Empire. 
This  empire  extended  at  one  time  from 
India  on  the  east  to  Egypt  and  Thrace 
upon  the  west,  and  included,  besides  por- 
tions of  Europe  and  Africa,  the  wiiole  of 
Western  Asia  between  the  Black  Sea,  the 
Caucasus,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Jaxartes 
upon  the  north,  the  Arabian  desert,  tlie 
Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  upon 
the  south.  The  only  passage  in  Scripture 
where  Persia  designates  the  tract  which  has 
been  called  above  "  Persia  Proper"  is  Ez. 
xxxviii.  6.  Elsewhere  the  Empire  is  in- 
tended. The  Persians  were  of  the  same 
race  as  the  Medes,  both  being  branches  of 
the  great  Aryan  stock.  1.  Character  of 
the  nation.  —  The  Persians  were  a  peojile 
of  lively  and  impressible  minds,  brave  and 
impetuous  in  war,  witty,  passionate,  for 
Orientals  truthful,  not  without  some  spirit 
of  generosity,  and  of  more  intellectual  ca- 
pacity than  the  generality  of  Asiatics.  la 
the  times  anterior  to  Cyrus  they  were  noted 
for  the  simplicity  of  their  habits,  which 
offered  a  strong  contrast  to  the  luxurious- 
ness  of  the  Medes ;  but  from  the  date  of 
the  Median  overthrow,  this  simplicity  began 
to  decline.  Polygamy  was  commonly  prac- 
tised among  them.  They  were  fond  of  the 
pleasures  of  the  table.  In  war  they  fought 
bravely,  but  without  discipline.  2.  Reli- 
gion. —  The  religion  which  the  Persians 
brought  with  them  into  Persia  Proper 
seems  to  have  been  of  a  very  simple  char- 
acter, differing  from  natural  religion  in 
little,  except  that  it  was  deeplj'  tainted 
with  Dualism.  Like  the  other  Aryans,  the 
Persians  worshipped  one  Supreme  God, 
whom  they  called  Aura-mazia  (Oromas- 
des)  —  a  terra  signifying  (as  is  believed) 
"  the  Great  Giver  of  Life."  The  royal  in- 
scriptions rarely  mentioned  any  other  god. 
Occasionally,  however,  they  indicate  a  slight 
and  modified  polytheism.  Oromasdes  is 
"  the  chief  of  the  gods,"  so  that  there  are 
other  gods  besides  him;  and  the  Ijghest 


PERSIA 


519 


PERSIA 


of  these  is  evidently  Mithra,  who  is  some- 
times invoked  to  protect  tlie  monarch,  and 
is  beyond  a  doubt  identical  with  "  the  sun." 
Entirely  separate  from  these  —  their  active 
resister  and  antagonist  —  was  Ahriman 
(Arimanius)  "  the  Death-dealing  "  —  the 
powerful,  and  (probably)  self-existing  Evil 
Spirit,  from  whom  war,  disease,  frost,  hail, 
poverty,  sin,  death,  and  all  other  evils,  had 
their  origin.  The  character  of  the  original 
Persian  worship  was  simple.  They  were 
not  destitute  of  temples,  as  Herodotus  as- 
serts ;  but  they  had  probably  no  altars,  and 
certainly  no  images.  Neither  do  they  ap- 
pear to  have  had  any  priests.  3.  Language. 
—  Their  language  was  closely  akin  to  the 
Sanscrit,  or  ancient  language  of  India. 
Modern  Persian  is  its  degenerate  repre- 
sentative, being,  as  it  is,  a  motley  idiom, 
largely  impregnated  with  Arabic.  4.  Di- 
vision into  tribes,  J^c.  —  Herodotus  tells  us 
that  the  Persians  were  divided  into  ten 
tribes,  of  which  three  were  noble,  three  ag- 
ricultural, and  four  nomadic.  5.  History.  — 
The  history  of  Persia  begins  with  their  re- 
volt from  the  Medes  and  accession  of  Cyrus 
the  Great,  b.  c.  558.  Its  success,  by  trans- 
ferrmg  to  Persia  the  dominion  previously 
in  the  possession  of  the  Medes,  placed  her 
at  the  head  of  an  empire,  the  bounds  of 
which  were  the  Halys  upon  the  west, 
the  Euxine  upon  the  north,  Babylonia 
upon  the  south,  and  upon  the  east  the 
salt  desert  of  Iran.  As  usual  in  the 
East,  this  success  led  on  to  others.  Cyrus 
defeated  Croesus,  and  added  the  Lydian 
empire  to  his  dominions.  This  conquest 
was  followed  closely  by  the  submission  of 
the  Greek  settlements  on  the  Asiatic  coast, 
and  by  the  reduction  of  Caria  and  Lyeia. 
The  empire  was  soon  afterwards  extended 
greatly  towards  the  north-east  and  east. 
In  B.  c.  539  or  538,  Babylon  was  attacked, 
and  after  a  stout  defence  fell  before  his  irre- 
sistible bands.  Tliis  victory  first  brought 
the  Persians  into  contact  with  the  Jews. 
The  conquerors  found  in  Babylon  an  op- 
pressed race  —  like  themselves,  abhorrers 
of  idols  —  and  professors  of  a  religion  in 
which  to  a  great  extent  they  could  sympa- 
thize. This  race  Cyrus  determined  to  re- 
store to  their  own  country;  which  he  did 
by  the  remarkable  edict  recorded  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  i.  2-4).  He 
was  slain  in  an  expedition  against  the  Mas- 
sagetae  or  the  Derbices,  after  a  reign  of 
twenty-nine  years.  Under  his  son  and 
successor,  Cambyses,  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
took  place  (b.  c.  625).  This  prince  ap- 
pears to  be  the  Ahasuerus  of  Ezra  (iv.  6). 
In  the  absence  of  Cambyses  with  the  army, 
a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him  at 
court,  and  a  Magian  priest,  Gomates  by 
name,  professing  to  be  Smerdis,  the  son  of 
Cyrus,  wliora  his  brother,  Cambyses,  had 
put  to  death  secretly,  obtained  quiet  pos- 


session of  the  throne.  Cambyses,  despair- 
ing of  the  recovery  of  his  crown,  ended  his 
life  by  suicide.  His  reign  had  lasted  seven 
years  and  five  months.  Gomates  the  Ma- 
gian found  himself  thus,  without  a  strug- 
gle, master  of  Persia  (b.  c.  522).  Ilis  sit- 
uation, however,  was  one  of  great  danger 
and  difficulty.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  he  owed  his  elevation  to  his  fellow- 
religionists,  whose  object  in  placing  him 
upon  the  throne  was  to  secure  the  triumph 
of  Magianism  over  the  Dualism  of  the 
Persians.  He  reversed  the  policy  of  Cyrus 
with  respect  to  the  .Jews,  and  forbade  by  an 
edict  the  further  building  of  the  Temple 
(Ez.  iv.  17-22).  Darius,  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspis,  headed  a  revolt  against  him,  which 
in  a  short  time  was  crowned  with  complete 
success.  The  reign  of  Gomates  lasted 
seven  months.  The  first  efl!brts  of  Darius 
were  directed  to  the  re-establishment  of 
the  Oromasdian  religion  in  all  its  purity. 
Appealed  to,  in  his  second  year,  by  the 
Jews,  who  wislied  to  resume  the  construction 
of  their  Temple,  he  not  only  allowed  them, 
confirming  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  but  assist- 
ed the  work  by  grants  from  his  own  reve- 
nues, whereby  the  Jews  were  able  to  com- 
plete the  Temple  as  early  as  his  sixth  year 
(Ezr.  vi.  1-15).  During  the  first  part  of 
the  reign  of  Darius  the  tranquillity  of  thd 
empire  was  disturbed  by  numerous  revolts. 
After  five  or  six  years  of  struggle,  he  be- 
came as  firmly  seated  on  his  throne  as  any 
previous  monarch.  The  latter  part  of  his 
reign  was,  however,  clouded  by  reverses. 
The  disaster  of  Mardonius  at  Mount  Athos 
was  followed  shortly  by  the  defeat  of  Datis 
at  Marathon  ;  and  before  any  attempt  could 
be  made  to  avenge  that  blow,  Egypt  rose 
in  revolt  (b.  c.  486),  massacred  its  Persian 
garrison,  and  declared  itself  independent. 
When,  after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years, 
the  fourth  Persian  monarch  died  (b.  c.  485), 
leaving  his  throne  to  a  young  prince  of 
strong  and  ungoverned  passions,  it  was  ev- 
ident that  the  empire  had  reached  its  high- 
est point  of  greatness,  and  was  already 
verging  towards  its  decline.  The  first  act 
of  Xerxes  was  to  reduce  Egypt  to  subjec- 
tion (b.  c.  484),  after  which  he  began  at 
once  to  make  preparations  for  his  invasion 
of  Greece.  It  is  probable  that  he  was  the 
Ahasuerus  of  Esther.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
give  an  account  of  the  well-known  expedi- 
tion against  Greece,  which  ended  so  disas- 
trously for  the  invaders.  A  conspiracy  in 
the  seraglio  having  carried  off  Xerxes  (b. 
c.  465),  Artaxerxes  his  son,  called  by  the 
Greeks  "  Long-Handed,"  succeeded  hiiii, 
after  an  interval  of  seven  months,  during 
which  the  conspirator  Artabanus  occupied 
the  throne.  This  Artaxerxes,  who  reigned 
forty  years,  is  beyond  a  doubt  the  king  of 
that  name  wlio  stood  in  such  a  friendly  re- 
lation towards  Ezra  (Ezr.  vii  11-28)  and 


PEESIS 


520 


PETER 


Nehemiah  (Neh.  ii.  1-9,  &c.)-  He  is  the 
last  of  the  Persian  kings  who  had  any 
special  connection  with  the  Jews,  and  the 
last  but  one  mentioned  in  Scripture.  His 
successors  were  Xerxes  II.,  Sogdianus, 
Darius  Nothus,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  Arta- 
xerxes  Ochus,  and  Darius  Codomannus, 
who  is  probably  the  "  Darius  the  Persian  " 
of  Nehcnii.'.h  (xii.  22).  These  monarchs 
reigned  from  u.  c.  424  to  b.  c.  330.  The 
collapse  of  the  empire  under  the  attack  of 
Alexander  is  well  known,  and  requires  no 
description  here.  On  the  division  of  Alex- 
ander's dominions  among  his  generals,  Per- 
sia fell  to  the  Seleucidae,  under  whom  it 
continued  till  after  the  death  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  when  the  conquering  Parthians 
advanced  their  frontier  to  the  Euphrates, 
and  the  Persians  became  included  among 
their  subject-tribes  (b.  c.  164).  Still  their 
nationality  was  not  obliterated.  In  a.  ». 
22G,  the  Persians  shook  off  the  yoke  of 
their  oppressors,  and  once  more  became  a 
nation. 

Per'sis,  a  Christian  woman  at  Kome 
(Rom.  xvi.  12)  whom  St.  Paul  salutes. 

PerU'da.  The  same  as  Peuida  (Ezr. 
ii.  55). 

Pestilence.     [Plague.] 

Pe'ter.  His  original  name  was  Simon, 
t.  e.  "  hearer."  He  was  the  son  of  a  man 
named  Jonas  (Matt.  xvi.  17 ;  John  i.  43, 
xxi.  16),  and  was  brought  up  in  his  father's 
occupation,  a  fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Ti- 
berias. He  and  his  brother  Andrew  were 
partners  of  John  and  James,  the  sons  of 
Zebedee,  who  had  hired  servants.  The 
Apostle  did  not  live,  as  a  mere  laboring 
man,  in  a  hut  by  the  sea-side,  but  first  at 
Betlisaida,  and  afterwards  in  a  house  at 
Capernaum,  belonging  to  himself  or  his 
mother-in-law,  which  must  have  been  rath- 
er a  large  one,  since  he  received  in  it  not 
only  our  Lord  and  his  fellow-disciples,  but 
multitudes  who  were  attracted  by  the  mir- 
acles and  preaching  of  Jesus.  It  is  not 
probable  that  he  and  his  brother  were  whol- 
ly uneducated.  The  statement  in  Acts  iv. 
13,  that  "the  council  perceived  they  (i.  e. 
Peter  and  John)  were  unlearned  and  igno- 
rant men,"  is  not  incompatible  with  this  as- 
sumption. The  translation  of  the  passage 
in  the  A.  V.  is  rather  exaggerated,  the 
word  rendered  "unlearned"  being  nearly 
equivalent  to  "  laymen,"  i.  e.  men  of  ordi- 
nary education,  as  contrasted  with  those 
who  were  specially  trained  in  the  schools 
of  the  Rabbis.  It  is  doubtful  whether  our 
Apostle  was  acquainted  with  Greek  in  early 
life.  Witliin  a  few  years  after  his  call  he 
seems  to  have  conversed  fluently  in  Greek 
with  Cornelius.  The  style  of  both  of  Pe- 
ter's Epistles  indicates  a  considerable  knowl- 
edge of  Greek  —  it  is  pure  and  accurate, 
and  in  grammatical  structure  equal  to  that 
of  Paul.     That  may,  however,  be  account- 


ed for  by  the  fact,  for  which  there  is  very 
ancient  authority,  that  Peter  employed  aa 
interpreter  in  the  composition  of  his  Epis- 
tles, if  not  in  his  ordinary  intercourse  with 
foreigners.  It  is  on  the  whole  probable 
that  he  had  some  rudimental  knowledge  of 
Greek  in  early  life,  which  may  have  been 
afterwards  extended  when  the  need  was 
felt.  That  he  was  an  affectionate  husband, 
married  in  early  life  to  a  wife  who  accom- 
panied him  in  his  Apostolic  journeys,  are 
facts  inferred  from  Scripture,  while  very 
ancient  traditions,  recorded  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria  and  by  other  early  but  less 
trustworthy  writers,  inform  us  that  her  name 
was  Perpetua,  that  she  bore  a  daughter,  or 
perhaps  other  children,  and  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom. He  was  probably  between  thirty 
and  forty  years  of  age  at  the  date  of  his 
call.  That  call  was  preceded  by  a  special 
preparation.  Peter  and  his  brother  Andrew, 
together  with  their  partners  James  and 
John,  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  were  disciples 
of  John  the  Baptist,  when  he  was  first  called 
by  our  Lord.  The  particulars  of  this  call 
are  related  with  graphic  minuteness  by  St. 
John.  It  was  upon  this  occasion  that  tfesus 
gave  Peter  the  name  Cephas,  a  Syriac 
word  answering  to  the  Greek  Peter,  and 
signifying  a  stone  or  rock  (John  i.  35-42). 
This  first  call  led  to  no  immediate  change 
in  Peter's  external  position.  He  and  his 
fellow-disciples  looked  henceforth  upon  our 
Lord  as  their  teacher,  but  were  not  com- 
manded to  follow  him  as  regular  disciples. 
They  returned  to  Capernaum,  where  they 
pursued  their  usual  business,  waiting  for  a 
further  intimation  of  His  will.  The  second 
call  is  recorded  by  the  other  three  Evange- 
lists ;  the  narrative  of  Luke  being  apparently 
supplementary  to  the  brief,  and,  so  to  speak, 
oflicial  accounts  given  by  Matthew  and  Mark. 
It  took  place  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  near  Ca- 
pernaum —  where  the  four  disciples,  Peter 
and  Andrew,  James  and  John,  were  fishing. 
Peter  and  Andrew  were  first  called.  Our 
Lord  then  entered  Simon  Peter's  boat  and 
addressed  the  multitude  on  the  shore.  Im- 
mediately after  that  call  our  Lord  went  to  the 
house  of  Peter,  where  He  wrought  the  mir- 
acle of  healing  on  Peter's  wife's  mother. 
Some  time  was  passed  afterwards  in  attend- 
ance upon  our  Lord's  public  ministrationa 
in  Galilee,  Decapolis,  Peraea,  and  Judaea. 
The  special  designation  of  Peter  and  his 
eleven  fellow-disciples  took  place  some 
time  afterwards,  when  they  were  set  apart 
as  our  Lord's  immediate  attendants  (see 
Matt.  X.  2-4 ;  Mark  iii.  13-19,  —  the  most 
detailed  account,  —  Luke  vi.  13).  They  ap- 
pear then  first  to  have  received  formally 
the  name  of  Apostles,  and  from  that  time 
Simon  bore  publicly,  and  as  it  would  seem 
all  but  exclusively,  the  name  Peter,  which 
had  hitherto  been  used  rather  as  a  charac- 
teristic appellation  than  as  a  proper  name* 


PETER 


521 


PETER 


From  this  time  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
Peter  held  the  first  place  among  the  Apos- 
tles, to  whatever  cause  his  precedence  is  to 
be  attributed.  He  is  named  first  in  every 
list  of  the  Apostles ;  he  is  generally  ad- 
dressed by  our  Lord  as  their  representa- 
tive ;  and  on  the  most  solemn  occasions  he 
speaks  in  their  name.  Thus  when  the  first 
great  secession  took  place  in  consequence 
of  the  offence  given  by  our  Lord's  mystic 
discourse  at  Capernaum  (see  John  vi.  66- 
69),  "  Jesus  said  unto  the  twelve,  Will  ye 
also  go  away?  Then  Simon  Peter  an- 
swered Him,  Lord,  to  whom  shall  we  go  ? 
Thou  hast  the  words  of  eternal  life :  and 
we  believe  and  are  sure  that  Thou  art  that 
Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God."  Thus 
again  at  Caesarea  Philippi,  St.  Peter 
(speaking  as  before  in  the  name  of  the 
twelve,  though,  as  appears  from  our  Lord's 
words,  with  a  peculiar  distinctness  of  per- 
sonal conviction)  repeated  that  declaration, 
"  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  liv- 
ing God."  The  confirmation  of  our  Apostle 
in  his  special  position  in  the  Church,  his 
identification  with  the  rock  on  which  that 
Church  is  founded,  the  ratification  of  the 
powers  and  duties  attached  to  the  apostolic 
office,  and  the  promise  of  permanence  to 
the  Church,  followed  as  a  reward  of  that 
confession.  The  early  Church  regarded 
St.  Peter  generally,  and  most  especially  on 
this  occasion,  as  the  representative  of  the' 
apostolic  body,  a  very  distinct  theory  from 
that  whicli  makes  him  their  head,  or  gov- 
ernor in  Ciirist's  stead.  Primus  inter  pares 
Peter  held  no  distinct  office,  and  certainly 
never  claimed  any  powers  which  did  not 
belong  equally  to  all  his  fellow-Apostles. 
This  great  triumph  of  Peter,  however, 
brought  other  points  of  his  character  into 
etrong  relief.  The  distinction  which  he 
then  received,  and  it  may  be  his  conscious- 
ness of  ability,  energy,  zeal,  and  absolute 
devotion  to  Ciirist's  person,  seem  to  have 
developed  a  natural  tendency  to  rashness 
and  forwardness  bordering  upon  presump- 
tion. On  this  occasion  the  exhibition  of 
such  feelings  brought  upon  liim  the  strong- 
est reproof  ever  addressed  to  a  disciple  by 
our  Lord.  In  his  affection  and  self-confi- 
dence Peter  ventured  to  reject  as  impossible 
tlie  announcement  of  the  sufferings  and  hu- 
miliation which  Jesus  predicted,  and  heard 
the  sharp  words  —  "  Get  thee  behind  me,  Sa- 
tan ;  thou  art  an  offence  unto  me ;  for  thou 
eavorest  not  the  things  that  be  of  God,  but 
those  that  be  of  men."  It  is  remarkable  that 
on  other  occasions  when  St.  Peter  signal- 
ized his  faith  and  devotion,  he  displayed 
at  the  time,  or  immediately  afterwards,  a 
more  than  usual  deficiency  in  spiritual  dis- 
cernment and  consistency.  Thus  a  few 
days  after  that  foil  he  was  selected  together 
with  John  and  James  to  witness  the  trans- 
figuration of  Christ ;  but  the  words  wliich 


he  then  uttered  prove  that  he  was  complete- 
ly bewildered,  and  unable  at  the  time  to 
comprehend  the  meaning  of  the  transaction. 
Thus  again,  when  his  zeal  and  courage 
prompted  him  to  leave  the  ship  and  walk 
on  the  water  to  go  to  Jesus  (Matt.  xiv.  29), 
a  sudden  failure  of  faith  withdrew  the  sus- 
taining power ;  he  was  about  to  sink,  when 
he  was  at  once  reproved  and  saved  by  his 
Master.  Towards  the  close  of  our  Lord's 
ministry  Peter's  characteristics  become 
especially  prominent.  Together  with  his 
brother,  and  the  two  sons  of  Zebedce,  he 
listened  to  the  last  awful  predictions  and 
warnings  delivered  to  the  disciples,  in  ref- 
erence to  the  second  advent  (Matt.  xxiv. 
3 ;  Mark  xiii.  3,  who  alone  mentions  these 
names;  Luke  xxi.  7).  At  the  last  supper 
Peter  seems  to  have  been  particularly  ear- 
nest in  the  request  that  the  traitor  might  be 
pointed  out.  After  the  supper  his  words 
drew  out  the  meaning  of  the  significant  act 
of  our  Lord  in  washing  His  disciples'  feet. 
Then  too  it  was  that  he  made  those  repeat- 
ed protestations  of  unalterable  fidelity,  so 
soon  to  be  falsified  by  his  miserable  fall. 
On  the  morning  of  the  resurrection  we  have 
proof  that  Peter,  though  humbled,  was  not 
crushed  by  his  fall.  He  and  John  were  the 
first  to  visit  the  sepulchre ;  he  was  the  first 
who  entered  it.  We  are  told  by  Luke  and 
by  Paul  that  Christ  appeared  to  him  first 
among  the  Apostles.  It  is  observable,  how- 
ever, that  on  that  occasion  he  is  called  by 
his  original  name,  Simon,  not  Peter;  the 
higher  designation  was  not  restored  until 
he  had  been  publicly  reinstituted,  so  to 
speak,  by  his  Master.  That  reinstitution 
took  place  at  the  sea  of  Galilee  (John  xxi.), 
an  event  of  the  very  highest  import.  Slower 
than  John  to  recognize  their  Lord,  Peter 
was  the  first  to  reach  Him ;  he  brought  the 
net  to  land.  The  thrice-repeated  question 
of  Christ  referring  doubtless  to  the  three 
protestations  and  denials,  was  thrice  met 
by  answers  full  of  love  and  faith.  He  then 
received  the  formal  commission  to  feed 
Christ's  sheep,  rather  as  one  who  had  for- 
feited his  place,  and  could  not  resume  it 
without  such  an  authorization.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  prediction  of  his  martyrdom,  in 
which  he  was  to  find  the  fulfilment  of  his 
request  to  be  permitted  to  follow  the  Lord. 
With  this  event  closes  the  first  part  of 
Peter's  history.  Henceforth,  ho  and  his 
colleagues  were  to  establish  and  govern  the 
Church  founded  by  their  Lord,  without  the 
support  of  His  presence.  The  first  part  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  occupied  by  the 
record  of  transactions,  in  nearly  all  of 
which  Peter  stands  forth  as  the  recognized 
leader  of  the  Apostles.  He  is  the  most 
prominent  person  in  the  greatest  event  after 
the  resurrection,  when  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost the  Church  was  first  invested  witli  the 
plenitude  of  gifts  and  powers.    The  firsfc 


PETER 


522       PETER,  FIRST  EPISTLE  UF 


miracle  after  Pentecost  was  wrought  by 
him  (Acts  ill.).  This  first  miracle  of  heal- 
ing was  soon  followed  by  the  first  miracle 
of  judgment.  Peter  was  the  minister  in 
that  transaction.  [Ananias.]  When  the 
Gospel  was  first  preached  beyond  the  pre- 
cincts of  Judaea,  he  and  John  were  at  once 
sent  by  the  Apostles  to  confirm  the  converts 
at  Samaria.  Henceforth  he  remains  prom- 
inent, but  not  exclusively  prominent,  among 
the  propagators  of  the  Gospel.  At  Samaria 
he  was  confronted  with  Simon  Magus,  the 
first  teacher  of  heresy.  About  three  years 
later  (compare  Acts  ix.  26,  and  Gal.  i.  17, 
18)  we  have  two  accounts  of  the  first  meet- 
ing of  Peter  and  Paul.  This  interview  was 
followed  by  other  events  marking  Peter's 
position  —  a  general  apostolical  tour  of  vis- 
itation to  the  Churches  hitherto  established 
(Acts  ix.  3U),  in  the  course  of  which  two 
great  miracles  were  wrought  on  Aeneas  and 
Tabitha,  and  in  connection  with  which  the 
most  signal  transaction  after  the  day  of 
Pentecost  is  recorded,  the  baptism  of  Cor- 
nelius. That  was  the  crown  and  consum- 
mation of  Peter's  ministry.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  Church  in  great  part  of  Gentile 
origin  at  Antioch,  and  the  mission  of  Bar- 
nabas, between  whose  family  and  Peter 
there  were  the  bonds  of  near  intimacy,  set 
the  seal  upon  the  work  thus  inaugurated  by 
Peter.  This  transaction  was  soon  followed 
by  the  imprisonment  of  our  Apostle.  His 
miraculous  deliverance  marks  the  close  of 
this  second  great  period  of  his  ministry. 
The  special  work  assigned  to  him  was  com- 
pleted. From  that  time  we  have  no  con- 
tinuous history  of  him.  It  is  quite  clear 
that  he  retained  his  rank  as  the  chief  Apos- 
tle, equally  so  that  he  neitlier  exercised  nor 
claimed  any  right  to  control  their  proceed- 
ings. He  left  Jerusalem,  but  it  is  not  said 
where  he  went.  Certainly  not  to  Rome, 
where  there  are  no  traces  of  his  presence 
before  the  last  years  of  his  life ;  he  probably 
remained  in  Judaea;  six  years  later  we  find 
him  once  more  at  Jerusalem,  when  the 
Apostles  and  elders  came  together  to  consid- 
er the  question  whether  converts  should  be 
circumcised.  Peter  took  the  lead  in  that 
discussion,  and  urged  with  remarkable  co- 
gency the  principles  settled  in  the  case  of 
Cornelius.  His  arguments,  adopted  and 
enforced  by  James,  decided  that  question 
at  once  and  forever.  It  is  a  disputed  point 
whether  the  meeting  between  Paul  and 
Peter,  of  wliich  we  have  an  account  in  the 
Galatians  (ii.  1-10)  took  place  at  this  time, 
or  on  St.  Paul's  return  from  his  great  Mis- 
sionary Journey.  The  only  point  of  real 
importance  was  certainly  determined  before 
the  Apostles  separated,  the  work  of  con- 
verting the  Gentiles  being  henceforth  spe- 
cially intrusted  to  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
while  the  charge  of  preaching  to  the  cir- 
cumcision was  assigned  to  the  elder  Apos- 


tles, and  more  particularly  to  Peter  (GaL 
ii.  7-9).  This  arrangement  cannot,  how- 
ever, have  been  an  exclusive  one.  Paul 
always  addressed  himself  first  to  the  Jews 
in  every  city  :  Peter  and  his  old  colleagues 
undoubtedly  admitted  and  souglit  to  make 
converts  among  the  Gentiles.  It  may  have 
been  in  full  force  only  when  the  old  and 
new  apostles  resided  in  the  same  city. 
Such  at  least  was  the  case  at  Antioch, 
where  Peter  went  soon  afterwards.  From 
this  time  until  the  date  of  his  Epistles,  we 
have  no  distinct  notices  in  Sciipture  of 
Peter's  abode  or  work.  Peter  was  prob- 
ably employed  for  the  most  part  in  build- 
ing up,  and  completing  the  organization  of 
Cliristian  communities  in  Palestine  and  the 
adjoining  districts.  There  is,  however, 
strong  reason  to  believe  that  he  visited 
Corinth  at  an  early  period.  The  name  of 
Peter  as  founder,  or  joint  founder,  is  not 
associated  with  any  local  CImrch  save  those 
of  Corinth,  Antioch,  or  Rome,  by  early 
ecclesiastical  tradition.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  settled  point  that  he  did  not 
visit  Rome  before  the  last  year  of  liis  life ; 
but  there  is  satisfactory  evidence  that  he 
and  Paul  were  the  founders  of  that  Church, 
and  suffered  death  in  that  city.  The  time 
and  manner  of  the  Apostle's  martyrdom 
are  less  certain.  According  to  the  early 
writers,  he  suffered  at  or  about  the  same 
time  with  Paul,  and  in  the  Neronian  per- 
secution. All  agree  that  he  was  crucified. 
—  The  Apostle  is  said  to  have  employed 
interpreters.  Of  far  more  importance  is 
the  statement  that  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel 
under  the  teaching  of  Peter,  or  that  he 
embodied  in  that  Gospel  tlie  substance  of 
our  Apostle's  oral  instructions.  [Mark.] 
The  only  written  documents  which  Peter 
has  left,  are  the  First  Epistle,  about  which 
no  doubt  has  ever  been  entertained  in  the 
Church;  and  the  Second,  which  has  been 
a  subject  of  earnest  controversy. 

Peter,  First  Epistle  of.  The  exter- 
nal  evidence  of  authenticity  is  of  tlie  strong- 
est kind;  and  the  internal  is  equally  strong. 
It  was  addressed  to  the  Churclies  of  Asia 
Minor,  which  had  for  the  most  part  been 
founded  by  Paul  and  his  companions.  Sup- 
posing it  to  have  been  written  at  Babylon, 
it  is  a  probable  conjecture  that  Silvanus,  by 
whom  it  was  transmitted  to  those  Churches, 
had  joined  Peter  after  a  tour  of  visitation, 
and  that  his  account  of  the  condition  of  the 
Christians  in  those  districts  determined  the 
Apostle  to  write  the  Epistle.  The  objects 
of  the  Epistle  were  —  1.  To  comfort  and 
strengthen  the  Christians  in  a  season  of 
severe  trial.  2.  To  enforce  the  practical 
and  spiritual  duties  involved  in  their  call- 
ing. 3.  To  warn  them  against  special 
temptations  attached  to  their  position.  4, 
To  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the  soundness 
and  completeness  of  the  religious  system 


PETEB,  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF     523 


PHALTI 


which  they  liad  already  received.  Such  an 
attestation  was  especially  needed  by  the 
Hebrew  Christians,  who  were  wont  to  ap- 
peal from  Paul's  authority  to  that  of  the 
elder  Apostles,  and  above  all  to  that  of 
Peter.  The  last,  which  is  perliaps  the  very 
princip.al  object,  is  kept  in  view  throughout 
the  ]2pistle,  and  is  distinctly  stated,  ch.  v. 
vcr.  12.  The  harmony  of  such  teaching 
with  that  of  Paul  is  sufiSciently  obvious ; 
but  the  indications  of  originality  and  in- 
dependence of  thouglit  are  at  least  equally 
conspicuous.  He  dwells  more  frequently 
than  Paul  upon  the  future  manifestation  of 
Christ,  upon  which  he  bases  nearly  all  his 
exhortations  to  patience,  self-control,  and 
the  discharge  of  all  Christian  duties.  The 
Apostle's  mind  is  full  of  one  thought  —  the 
realization  of  Messianic  hopes.  In  this  he 
is  the  true  representative  of  Israel,  moved 
by  those  feelings  which  were  best  calculated 
to  enable  him  to  do  his  work  as  the  Apos- 
tle of  the  circumcision.  But  while  Peter 
thus  shows  himself  a  genuine  Israelite, 
his  teaching  is  directly  opposed  to  Judaiz- 
ing  tendencies.  He  belongs  to  the  school, 
or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  is  the  leader 
of  the  school,  which  at  once  vindicates  the 
unity  of  the  Law  and  Gospel,  and  puts  the 
superiority  of  the  latter  on  its  true  basis  — 
that  of  spiritual  development.  The  Apos- 
tle of  the  circumcision  says  not  a  word  in 
this  Epistle  of  the  perpetual  obligation,  the 
dignity,  or  even  the  bearings  of  the  Mosaic 
Law.  He  is  full  of  the  Old  Testament; 
his  style  and  thoughts  are  charged  with  its 
imagery ;  but  he  contemplates  and  applies 
its  teaching  in  the  light  of  the  Gospel ;  he 
regards  the  privileges  and  glory  of  the 
ancient  people  of  God  entirely  in  their 
spiritual  development  in  the  Church  of 
Christ. 

Peter,  Second  Epistle  of.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  brief  outline  of  its  contents  : 
The  customary  opening  salutation  is  fol- 
lowed by  an  enumeration  of  Christian 
blessings  and  exhortation  to  Christian  du- 
ties (i.  1-13).  Referring  then  to  his  ap- 
proaching death,  the  Apostle  assigns  as 
grounds  of  assurance  for  believers  his  own 
personal  testimony  as  eye-witness  of  the 
transfiguration,  and  the  sure  word  of  proph- 
ecy —  that  is,  the  testimony  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (14—21).  The  danger  of  being  mis- 
led by  false  prophets  is  dwelt  upon  with 
great  earnestness  throughout  the  second 
chapter,  which  is  almost  identical  in  lan- 
guage and  subject  with  the  Epistle  of 
Jude.  The  overthrow  of  all  opponents  of 
Christian  truth  is  predicted  in  connection 
with  prophecies  touching  the  second  ad- 
vent of  Christ,  the  destruction  of  the  world 
by  fire,  and  the  promise  of  new  heavens 
and  a  new  earth  wherein  dwelleth  right- 
eousness (iii.).  —  This  Epistle  of  Peter 
presents  questions  of  difficulty.    "We  have 


few  references  to  it  in  the  writings  of  the 
early  Fathers ;  the  style  differs  materially 
from  that  of  the  First  Epistle ;  and  the 
resemblance,  amounting  to  a  studied  imi- 
tation, between  this  Epistle  and  that  of 
Jude,  seems  scarcely  reconcilable  with  the 
position  of  Peter.  Doubts  as  to  its  genu- 
ineness were  entertained  by  the  early 
Church ;  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  it  was 
reckoned  among  the  disputed  books,  and 
was  not  formally  admitted  into  the  Canon 
until  the  year  393,  at  the  Council  of  Hippo. 
These  difficulties,  however,  are  insufficient 
to  justify  more  than  hesitation  in  admitting 
its  genuineness.  Supposing,  as  some  emi- 
nent critics  have  believed,  that  this  Epistle 
was  copied  by  St.  Jude,  we  should  have 
the  strongest  possible  testimony  to  its  au- 
thenticity; but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
accept  the  more  general  opinion  of  modern 
critics,  that  the  writer  of  this  Epistle  copied 
St.  Jude,  the  following  considerations  have 
great  weight.  It  seems  quite  incredible 
that  a  forger,  personating  the  chief  among 
the  Apostles,  should  select  the  least  im- 
portant of  all  the  Apostolical  writings  for 
imitation;  whereas  it  is  probable  that  St. 
Peter  might  choose  to  give  the  stamp  of 
his  personal  authority  to  a  document  bear- 
ing so  powerfully  upon  practical  and  doc- 
trinal errors  in  the  Churches  whicli  he  ad- 
dressed. The  doubts  as  to  the  genuineness 
of  the  Epistle  appear  to  have  originated  with 
the  critics  of  Alexandria,  where,  however, 
the  Epistle  itself  was  formally  recognized 
at  a  very  early  period.  The  opinions  of 
modern  commentators  may  be  summed  up 
under  three  heads.  Many  reject  the  Epis- 
tle altogether  as  spurious.  A  few  consider 
that  the  first  and  last  chapters  were  written 
by  Peter  or  under  his  dictation,  but  that  the 
second  chapter  was  interi)olated.  But  a 
majority  of  names  may  be  quoted  in  sup- 
port of  the  genuineness  and  autlienticity 
of  this  Epistle. 

Fethahi'ah.  1.  A  priest,  over  the 
19th  course  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr. 
xxiv.  16).  2.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of 
Ezra,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr. 
X.  23).  He  is  probably  the  same  who  ia 
mentioned  in  Neh.  ix.  5.  3.  The  son  of 
Meshe/abeel,  and  descendant  of  Zerah 
(Neh.  xi.  24). 

Pe'thor,  a  town  of  Mesopotamia,  where 
Balaam  resided  (Num.  xxii.  5 ;  Deut.  xxiii. 
4).     Its  position  is  wholly  unknown. 

Pethu'el.  The  father  of  the  prophet 
Joel  (Joel  i.  1). 

Peultha'i.  Properly  "  PeuUethai ;  "  the 
eighth  son  of  Obed-edora  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  5). 

Pha'Iec.  Peleg  the  son  of  Eber  (Li^ 
iii.  35). 

Phal'lu.  Pallu  the  son  of  Reuben  is  so 
called  in  the  A.  V.  of  Gen.  xlvi.  9. 

Phal'ti.  The  son  of  Laish  of  Gallim, 
to  whom  Saul  gave  Michal  in  marriage 


PHALTIEL 


524 


PHARAOH 


after  his  mad  jealousy  hai  driven  David 
forth  as  an  outlaw  (1  Sam.  xxv.  44).  In  2 
Sam.  iii.  15  he  is  called  Phaltiel.  With 
the  exception  of  this  brief  mention  of  his 
name,  and  the  toucliing  little  episode  in  2 
Sam.  iii.  16,  nothing  more  is  heard  of 
Phalti. 

Phal'tiel.  The  same  as  Phalti  (2 
Sam.  iii.  15). 

Phanu'el.  The  father  of  Anna,  the 
prophetess  of  the  tribe  of  Aser  (Luke  ii. 
36). 

Pha'raoh,  the  common  title  of  the  na- 
tive kings  of  Egypt  in  the  Bible,  corre- 
sponding to  p-RA  or  PH-RA,  "  the  Sun,"  of 
the  hieroglyphics.  As  several  kings  are 
only  mentioned  by  the  title  "  Pharaoh  "  in 
the  Bible,  it  is  important  to  endeavor  to 
discriminate  them :  1.  The  Pharaoh  of 
Abraham.  —  At  the  time  at  which  the  pa- 
.triarch  went  into  Egypt,  it  is  generally  held 
that  the  country,  or  at  least  Lower  Egypt, 
was  ruled  by  the  Shepherd  kings,  of  whom 
the  first  and  most  powerful  line  was  the 
xvth  dynasty,  the  undoubted  territories  of 
which  would  be  first  entered  by  one  com- 
ing from  the  east.  The  date  at  which 
Abraham  visited  Egypt  was  about  b.  c. 
2081,  which  would  accord  with  the  time  of 
Salatis,  the  head  of  the  xvth  dynasty,  ac- 
cording to  our  reckoning.  2.  The  Pharaoh 
of  Joseph.  —  The  chief  points  for  the  iden- 
tification of  the  line  to  which  this  Pharaoh 
belonged,  are  that  he  was  a  despotic  mon- 
arch, ruling  all  Egypt,  who  followed  Egyp- 
tian customs,  but  did  not  hesitate  to  set 
then  aside  when  he  thought  fit;  that  he 
eeems  ia.  have  desired  to  gain  complete 
power  over  the  Egyptians ;  and  that  he  fa- 
vored strangers.  These  particulars  cer- 
tainly lend  support  to  the  idea  that  he  was 
an  Egyptianized  foreigner  rather  than  an 
Egyptian.  Baron  Bunsen  supposed  that 
he  was  Sesertesen  I.,  the  head  of  the  xiith 
dynasty,  on  account  of  the  mention  in  a 
hieroglyphic  inscription  of  a  famine  in  that 
king's  reign.  This  identification,  although 
receiving  some  support  from  the  statement 
of  Herodotus,  that  Sesostris,  a  name  rea- 
sonably traceable  to  Sesertesen,  divided 
the  land  and  raised  his  chief  revenue  from 
the  rent  paid  by  the  holders,  must  be 
abandoned,  since  the  calamity  recorded 
does  not  approach  Joseph's  famine  in  char- 
acter, and  the  age  is  almost  certainly  too 
remote.  If,  discarding  the  idea  that  Jo- 
seph's Pharaoh  was  an  Egyptian,  we  turn 
to  the  old  view  that  he  was  one  of  the 
Shepherd  kings,  a  view  almost  inevitable 
if  we  infer  that  he  ruled  during  the  Shep- 
herd-period, we  are  struck  with  the  fitness 
of  all  the  circumstances  of  the  Biblical  nar- 
rative. It  is  stated  by  Eusebius  that  the 
Pharaoh  to  whom  Jacob  came  was  one  of 
the  Shepherd  kings,  perhaps  Apophis,  who 
Delonged  to  the  xvth  dynasty.    He  appears 


to  have  reigned  from  Joseph's  appointment  / 
(or,  perhaps,  somewhat  earlier)  until  Ja- 
cob's death,  a  period  of  at  least  twenty-six 
years,  from  about  b.  c.  cir.  1876  to  1650, 
and  to  have  been  the  fifth  or  sixth  king  of 
the  xvth  dynasty.  3.  The  Pharaoh  of  the 
Oppression.  —  The  first  persecutor  of  the 
Israelites  may  be  distinguished  as  the  Pha- 
raoh of  the  Oppression,  from  the  second, 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  especially  as 
he  commenced,  and  probably  long  carried 
on,  the  persecution.  The  general  view  is 
that  he  was  an  Egyptian.  He  has  been 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  king  of 
the  xv.iiith  or  xixth  dynasty :  we  believe 
that  he  was  of  a  line  earlier  than  either. 
If  a  Shepherd,  he  must  have  been  of  the 
xvith  or  the  xviith  dynasty.  The  reign  of 
this  king  probably  commenced  a  little  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Moses,  which  we  place 
B.  c.  1732,  and  seems  to  have  lasted  up- 
wards of  forty  years,  perhaps  much  more. 

4.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus.  —  What  is 
known  of  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  is 
rather  biographical  than  historical.  He 
was  reigning  for  about  a  year  or  more  be- 
fore the  Exodus,  which  we  place  b.  c.  1652. 

5.  Pharaoh,  father-in-law  of  Mered.  —  In 
the  genealogies  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  daughter  of  a  Pliaraoh, 
married  to  an  Israelite;  "  Bithiah  the 
daughter  of  Pharaoh,  which  Mered  took  " 
(1  Chr.  iv.  18).  This  marriage  may  tend  to 
aid  us  in  determining  the  age  of  the  sojourn 
in  Egypt.  It  is  perhaps  less  probable  that 
an  Egyptian  Pharaoh  would  have  given  his 
daugliter  in  marriage  to  an  Israelite,  than 
that  a  Shepherd  king  would  have  done  so, 
before  the  oppression.  6.  Pharaoh,  brother- 
in-law  of  lladad  the  Edomite.  —  This  king 
gave  Hadad  as  his  wife  the  sister  of  his  own 
wife  Tahpenes  (1  K.  xi.  18-20).  He  was 
probably  a  Tanite  of  the  xxist  dynasty.  7. 
Pharaoh,  father-in-law  of  Solomon.  —  The 
mention  that  the  queen  was  brought  into 
the  city  of  David,  while  Solomon's  house, 
and  the  Temple,  and  the  city-wall  were 
building,  shows  that  the  marriage  took  place 
not  later  than  the  eleventh  year  of  the 
king,  when  the  Temple  was  finished,  hav- 
ing been  commenced  in  the  fourth  year  (I 
K.  vi.  1,  37,  38).  He  was  probably  also  a 
Tanite  of  the  xxist  dynasty,  but  it  seems  cer- 
tain not  the  Pharaoh  who  was  reigning  when 
Hadad  left  Egypt.  This  Pharaoh  led  an 
expedition  into  Palestine  (1  K.  ix.  16).  8. 
Pharaoh,  the  opponent  of  Sennacherib.  - 
This  Pharaoh  (Is.  xxxvi.  6)  can  only  be 
the  Sethos  whom  Herodotus  mentions  as 
the  opponent  of  Sennacherib,  and  who  m'jiy 
reasonably  be  supposed  to  be  the  Zet  of 
Manetho,  the  last  king  of  his  xxiiid  dy- 
nasty. Tirhakah,  as  an  Ethiopian,  whether 
then  ruling  in  Egypt  or  not,  is,  Hke  So, 
apparently  not  called  Pharaoh.  9.  Phor 
raoh  Necho.  —  The  first  mention   in  the 


PHARAOH 


525 


PHAEISEES 


Bible  of  a  proper  name  with  the  title 
Phuraoh  is  the  case  of  Pharaoh  Necho, 
who  is  also  called  Necho,  simply.  This  king 
was  of  the  Salte  xxvith  dynasty,  of  which 
Manetho  makes  him  either  the  fifth  ruler 
or  the  sixth.  Herodotus  calls  him  Nekos, 
and  assigns  to  him  a  reign  of  16  years, 
which  is  confirmed  by  the  monuments. 
He  seems  to  have  been  an  enterprising 
king,  as  he  is  related  to  have  attempted  to 
complete  the  canal  connecting  the  Red  Sea 
with  the  Nile,  and  to  have  sent  an  expedi- 
tion of  Plioenicians  to  circumnavigate  Af- 
rica, whicli  was  successfully  accomplished. 
At  the  commencement  of  his  reign  (b.  c. 
610)  fie  made  war  against  the  king  of  As- 
syria, and,  being  encountered  on  his  way 
by  Josiah,  defeated  and  slew  the  king  of 
Judah  at  Megiddo  (2  K.  xxiii.  29,  30;  2 
Chr.  XXXV.  20-24).  Necho  seems  to  have 
soon  returned  to  Egypt.  Perhaps  he  was 
on  his  way  thither  when  he  deposed  Jehoa- 
haz.  The  army  was  probably  posted  at 
Carchemish,  and  was  there  defeated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  fourth  year  of 
Necho  (b.  c.  607),  that  king  not  being,  as  it 
seems,  then  at  its  head  (Jer.  xlvi.  1,  2,  6, 
10).  This  battle  led  to  tlie  loss  of  all  the 
Asiatic  dominions  of  Egypt  (2  K.  xxiv.  7). 
10.  Pharaoh  Uophra.  — The  next  king  of 
Egjpt  mentioned  in  the  Bible  is  Pharaoh 
Hophra,  the  second  successor  of  Necho, 
from  whom  he  was  separated  by  the  six 
years'  reign  of  Psammetiehus  II.  He  came 
to  the  throne  about  b.  c.  589,  and  ruled  19 
years.  Herodotus,  who  calls  him  Apries, 
makes  him  son  of  Psammetiehus  II.,  whom 
he  calls  Psammis,  and  great-grandson  of 
Psammetiehus  I.  In  the  Bible  it  is  related 
tiiat  Zedekiah,  the  last  king  of  Judah,  was 
aided  by  a  Pharaoh  against  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, in  fulfilment  of  a  treaty,  and  that 
an  army  came  out  of  Egypt,  so  that  the 
Chaldeans  were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem.  The  city  was  first  besieged 
in  the  ninth  year  of  Zedekiah,  b.  c.  590, 
and  was  captured  in  his  eleventh  year,  b.  c. 
588,  It  was  evidently  continuously  invested 
for  a  length  of  time  before  it  was  taken,  so 
that  it  is  most  probable  that  Pharaoh's  ex- 
pedition took  place  during  590  or  589. 
There  may,  therefore,  be  some  doubt 
whether  Psammetiehus  II.  be  not  the  king 
here  spoken  of;  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  tlie  siege  may  be  supposed  to  have 
lasted  some  time  before  the  Egyptians 
could  have  heard  of  it  and  marched  to 
relieve  the  city,  and  also  that  Hophra  may 
have  come  to  the  throne  as  early  as  b.  c.  590. 
The  Egyptian  army  returned  without  effect- 
ing its  purpose  (Jer.  xxvii.  5-8 ;  Ez.  xvii. 
11-18;  comp.  2  K.  xxv.  1-4).  No  subse- 
quent Pharaoh  is  mentibned  in  Scripture, 
but  there  are  predictions  doubtless  refer- 
ring to  the  misfortunes  of  later  princes 
until  tlie  second  Persian  conciuest,  when 


the  prophecy,  "  There  shall  be  no  more  a 
prince  of  the  land  of  Egypt "  (Ex.  xxx. 
13),  was  fulfilled. 

Pharaoh's  Daughter.  Three  Egyp- 
tian princesses,  daughters  of  Pharaohs, 
are  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  1.  The  pre- 
server of  Moses,  daughter  of  the  Pharaoh 
who  first  oppressed  the  Israelites  (Ex.  ii. 
5-10).  2.  Bithiah,  wife  of  Mered,  an  Is- 
raelite, daughter  of  a  Pharaoh  of  an  uncer- 
tain age,  probablj'  of  about  the  time  of  the 
Exodus  (1  Chr.  iv.  18).  [Puaraoh,  No. 
5.]  3.  A  wife  of  Solomon,  most  probably 
daughter  of  a  king  of  the  xxist  dynasty 
(1  K.  iii.  1,  vii.  8,  ix.  24).     [Pharaoh,  7.] 

Pharaoh,  The  Wife  of.  The  wife  of 
one  Pharaoh,  the  king  who  received  Hadad 
the  Edomite,  is  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
She  is  called  "queen,"  and  her  name, 
Tahpenes,  is  given.  Her  husband  was 
most  probably  of  the  xxist  dynasty.  [Tah- 
penes ;  Pharaoh,  6.] 

Pha'res,  Pharez  or  Perez,  the  son  of 
Judah  (Matt.  i.  3;  Luke  iii.  33). 

Pha'rez  (Perez,  1  Chr.  xxvii.  3 ;  Pha- 
res,  Matt.  i.  3;  Luke  iii.  33;  1  Esd.  v.  5), 
twin  son,  with  Zarah  or  Zerah,  of  Judah 
and  Tamar  his  daughter-in-law.  The  cir- 
cumstances of  his  birth  are  detailed  in 
Gen.  xxxviii.  Pharez  seems  to  have  kept 
the  right  of  primogeniture  over  his  brother, 
as,  in  the  genealogical  lists,  his  name  comes 
first.  The  house  also  which  he  founded 
was  far  more  numerous  and  illustrious 
than  that  of  the  Zarhites.  Its  remarkable 
fertility  is  alluded  to  in  Ruth  iv.  12,  "Let 
thy  house  be  like  .the  house  of  Pharez, 
whom  Tamar  bare  unto  Judah."  After  the 
death  of  Er  and  Onan  without  children, 
Pharez  occupied  the  rank  of  Judah's  second 
son,  and  from  two  of  his  sons  sprang  two 
new -chief  houses,  those  of  the  Hezronites 
and  Haraulites.  From  Hezron's  second  son 
Ram,  or  Aram,  sprang  David  and  the  kings 
of  Judah,  and  eventually  Jesus  Christ.  In 
the  reign  of  David  the  house  of  Pharez 
seems  to  have  been  eminently  distin- 
guished. 

Pharisees,  a  religious  party  or  school 
amongst  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  so 
called  from  Perishin,  the  Aramaic  form  of 
the  Hebrew  word  Pei-Ashim,  "  separated." 
The  name  does  "not  occur  either  in  the  Old 
Testament  or  in  the  Apocrypha ;  but  it  is 
usually  considered  that  the  Pharisees  were 
essentially  the  same  with  the  Assideana 
(i.  e.  chasidim  =  godly  men,  saints)  men- 
tioned in  the  1st  Book  of  Maccabees  ii.  42, 
vii.  13-17,  and  in  the  2d  Book  xiv.  6).  A 
knowledge  of  the  opinions  and  practices  of 
this  party  at  the  time  of  Christ  is  of  great 
importance  for  entering  deeply  into  the 
genius  of  the  Christian  religion.  A  cursory 
perusal  of  the  Gospels  is  sufficient  to  show 
that  Christ's  teaching  was  in  some  respects 
thoroughly  antagonistic  to  theirs.    He  de- 


PHARISEES 


626 


PHARISEES 


nounced  them  in  the  bitterest  language. 
(See  Matt.  xv.  7,  8,  xxiii.  5,  13,  14,  15,  23 ; 
Mark  vii.  G ;  Luke  xi.  42-44,  and  compare 
Matt.  vii.  1-5,  xi.  29,  xii.  19,  20;  Luke  vi. 
28,  37-42.)  Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  avoid 
the  conclusion  that  His  repeated  denuncia- 
tions of  the  Pharisees  mainly  exasperated 
them  into  taking  measures  for  causing  his 
death ;  so  tliat  in  one  sense  He  may  be  said 
to  have  shed  His  blood,  and  to  have  laid 
down  His  lite,  in  protesting  against  their 
practice  and  spirit.  (See  especially  Luke 
xi.  53,  54.)  Hence,  to  understand  the 
Pharisees  is,  by  contrast,  an  aid  towards 
understanding  the  spirit  of  uncorrupted 
Christianity.  Authorities.  —  The  sources 
of  information  respecting  the  Pharisees  are 
mainly  threefold.  1st.  The  writings  of 
Josephus,  who  was  himself  a  Pharisee 
( VH.  2),  and  who  in  each  of  his  great 
works  professes  to  give  a  direct  account  of 
their  opinions  (^B.  J.  ii.  8,  §  2-14 ;  Ant.  xviii. 
1,  §  2,  and  compare  xiii.  10,  §  5,  G,  xvii.  2, 
§  4,  xiii.  IG,  §  2,  and  Vit.  38).  The  value 
of  Josephus'  accounts  would  be  much 
greater  if  he  had  not  accommodated  them, 
more  or  less,  to  Greek  ideas.  2dly.  The 
New  Testament,  including  St.  Paul's  Epis- 
tles, in  addition  to  the  Gospels  and  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  3dly.  The  first  portion 
of  the  Talmud,  called  the  Mishna,  or  "sec- 
ond law."  This  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant source  of  information  respecting  the 
Pharisees;  and  it  may  safely  be  asserted 
that  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  have  adequate 
conceptions  respecting  them,  without  con- 
sultii-g  that  work.  It  is  a  digest  of  the 
Jewish  traditions,  and  a  compendium  of  the 
whole  ritual  law,  reduced  to  writing  in  its 
present  form  by  Rabbi  Jehudah  the  Holy, 
a  Jew  of  great  wealth  and  influence,  who 
flourished  in  the  2d  century.  Referring  to 
the  Mishna  for  details,  it  is  proposed  in  this 
article  to  give  a  general  view  of  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  Pharisees.  1.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  Pharisees  common 
to  them  with  all  orthodox  modern  Jews  is, 
that  by  the  side  of  the  written  law  regarded 
as  a  summary  of  the  principles  and  general 
laws  of  the  Hebrew  people,  there  was  an 
oral  law  to  complete  and  to  explain  the 
written  law.  It  was  an  article  of  tiiith  that 
in  the  Pentateuch  there  was  no  precept, 
and  no  regulation,  ceremonial,  doctrinal, 
or  legal,  of  which  God  had  not  given  to 
Moses  all  explanations  necessary  for  their 
application,  with  the  order  to  transmit  them 
by  word  of  mouth.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed 
that  all  the  traditions  which  bound  the  Phar- 
isees were  believed  to  be  direct  revelations 
to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai.  Viewed  as  a 
whole,  they  treated  men  like  children,  for- 
malizing and  defining  the  minutest  particu- 
lars of  ritual  observances.  The  expressions 
of  "  bondage,"  of  "  weak  and  beggarly  ele- 
ments," and  of  "  burdens  too  heavy  for  men 


to  bear,"  faithfully  represent  the  imprea- 
sion  produced  by  their  multiplicity.  [Tal- 
mud.] I.  The  Pharisees  formed  a  kind  of 
society.  A  member  was  called  a  cJidMr, 
and  those  among  the  middle  and  lower 
classes  who  were  not  members  were  called 
"  the  people  of  the  land,"  or  the  vulgar. 
Each  member  undertook,  in  the  presence 
of  three  other  members,  that  he  would  re- 
main true  to  the  laws  of  the  association. 
Perhaps  some  of  the  most  characteristic 
laws  of  the  Pharisees  related  to  what  was 
clean  and  unclean.  According  to  the  Levit- 
ical  law,  every  unclean  person  was  cut  off 
from  all  religious  privileges,  and  was  re- 
garded as  defiling  the  sanctuary  of  Jehovah 
(Num.  xix.  20).  On  principles  precisely 
similar  to  those  of  the  Levitical  laws  (Lev. 
XX.  25,  xxii.  4-7),  it  was  possible  to  incur 
these  awful  religious  penalties  either  by 
eating  or  by  touching  what  was  unclean 
in  the  Pharisaical  sense.  One  point  alone 
raised  an  insuperable  barrier  between  the 
free  social  intercourse  of  Jews  and  other 
nations.  This  point  is,  "  that  anything 
slaughtered  by  a  heathen  should  be  deemed 
unfit  to  be  eaten,  like  the  carcass  of  an 
animal  that  had  died  of  itself,  and  like  such 
carcass  should  pollute  the  person  who 
carried  it."  On  the  reasonable  assumption 
that  under  such  circumstances  animals  used 
for  food  would  be  killed  by  Jewish  slaugh- 
terers, regulations  the  most  minute  are  laid 
down  for  their  guidance.  In  reference, 
likewise,  to  touching  what  is  unclean,  the 
Mishna  abounds  with  prohibitions  and  dis- 
tinctions no  less  minute.  To  any  one  fresh 
from  the  perusal  of  the  regulations  upon 
this  subject  in  the  Mishna,  the  words 
"  Touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not,"  seem  a 
correct  but  almost  a  pale  summary  of  their 
drift  and  purpose  (Col.  ii.  21) ;  and  the 
stern  antagonism  becomes  vividly  visible 
between  them  and  Him  who  proclaimed 
boldly  that  a  man  was  defiled  not  by  any- 
thing he  ate,  but  by  the  bad  thoughts  of  the 
heart  alone  (Matt.  xv.  11)  ;  and  who,  even 
when  the  guest  of  a  Pharisee,  pointedly 
abstained  from  washing  his  hands  before  a 
meal,  in  order  to  rebuke  the  superstition 
which  attached  a  moral  value  to  such  a  cer- 
emonial act  (see  Luke  xi.  37-40).  It  is 
proper  to  add  that  it  would  be  a  great  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  the  Pharisees  were 
wealthy  and  luxurious,  much  more  that 
they  had  degenerated  into  the  vices  which 
were  imputed  to  some  of  the  Roman  popes 
and  cardinals  during  the  200  years  preced- 
ing the  Reformation.  Josephus  compared 
the  Pharisees  to  the  sect  of  the  Stoics.  He 
says  that  they  lived  frugally,  in  no  respect 
giving  in  to  luxury,  but  that  they  followed 
the  leaderslup  of  reason  in  what  it  had  se- 
lected and  transmitted  as  a  good.  Although 
there  would  be  hypocrites  among  them,  it 
would  be  unreasonable  to  charge  all  the 


PHARISEES 


527 


PHICHOL 


Pharisees  as  a  body  with  hypocrisy,  in  the 
sense  wherein  we  at  the  present  day  use  the 
word.  They  must  be  regarded  as  having 
been  some  of  the  most  intense  formalists 
whom  the  world  has  ever  seen.  It  was 
alleged  against  them,  on  the  highest  spir- 
itual authority,  that  they  "  made  the  word 
of  God  of  no  effect  by  their  traditions." 
This  would  be  true  in  the  largest  sense, 
from  the  purest  form  of  religion  in  the  Old 
Testament  being  almost  incompatible  with 
such  endless  forms  (Mic.  vi.  8)  ;  but  it  was 
true  in  another  sense,  from  some  of  the 
traditions  being  decidedly  at  variance  with 
genuine  religion.  II.  One  of  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  the  Pharisees  was  a 
belief  in  a  future  state.  They  appear  to 
have  believed  in  a  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
very  much  in  the  same  sense  as  the  early 
Christians.  This  is  in  accordance  with  St. 
Paul's  statement  to  the  chief  priests  and 
council  (Acts  xxiii.  6),  that  he  was  a  Phar- 
isee, the  son  of  a  Pharisee,  and  that  he  was 
called  in  question  for  the  hope  and  res- 
urrection of  the  dead;  and  it  is  likewise 
almost  implied  in  Christ's  teaching,  which 
does  not  insist  on  the  doctrine  of  a  future 
life  as  anytliing  new,  but  assumes  it  as 
already  adopted  by  his  hearers,  except  by 
the  Sadducees,  although  he  condemns  some 
unspiritual  conceptions  of  its  nature  as  er- 
roneous (Matt.  xxii.  30 ;  Mark  xii.  25 ;  Luke 
XX.  34-36).  III.  In  reference  to  the  opinions 
of  the  Pharisees  concerning  the  freedom  of 
the  will,  a  difficulty  arises  from  the  very 
prominent  position  which  they  occupy  in 
the  accounts  of  Josephus,  whereas  nothing 
vitally  essential  to  the  peculiar  doctrines 
of  the  Pharisees  seems  to  depend  on  tliose 
opinions,  and  some  of  his  expressions  are 
Greek,  rather  than  Hebrew.  "  There  were 
three  sects  of  the  Jews,"  he  says,  "  which 
had  different  conceptions  respecting  human 
affairs,  of  which  one  was  called  Pharisees, 
the  second  Sadducees,  and  the  third  Es- 
senes.  The  Pharisees  say  that  some  things, 
and  not  all  things,  are  the  work  of  Fate ;  but 
that  some  things  are  in  our  own  power  to 
be  and  not  to  be.  But  the  Essenes  declare 
that  Fate  rules  all  things,  and  that  nothing 
happens  to  man  except  by  its  decree.  The 
Sadducees,  on  the  other  hand,  take  away 
Fate,  holding  that  it  is  a  thing  of  nought, 
and  that  human  affairs  do  not  depend  upon 
it;  but  in  their  estimate  all  things  are  in 
the  power  of  ourselves,  as  being  ourselves 
the  causes  of  our  good  things,  and  meeting 
with  evils  through  our  own  inconsiderate- 
ness."  In  reference  to  this  point,  the  opin- 
ion of  Graetz  seems  not  improbable,  that 
the  real  difference  between  the  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees  was  at  first  practical  and 
political.  [Sadducees.]  IV.  In  reference 
to  the  spirit  of  proselytism  among  the  Phar- 
isees, there  is  indisputable  authority  for  the 
statement  that  it  prevailed  to  a  very  great 


extent  at  the  time  of  Christ  (Matt,  xxiii. 
15) ;  and  attention  is  now  called  to  it  on 
account  of  its  probable  importance  in  hav- 
ing paved  the  way  for  the  early  diffusion 
of  Christianity.  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ 
had  become  scattered  over  the  foirest  por- 
tions of  the  civilized  world.  On  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  Jews  are  said  to  have  been 
assembled  with  one  accord  in  one  place 
at  Jerusalem,  "from  every  region  under 
heaven."  Moreover,  the  then  existing  regu- 
lations or  customs  of  synagogues  afforded 
facilities  which  do  not  exist  now  either  in 
synagogues  or  Christian  churches  for  pre- 
senting new  views  to  a  congregation  (Acts 
xvii.  2 ;  Luke  iv.  IG).  Under  such  auspices 
the  proselytizing  spirit  of  the  Pharisees 
inevitably  stimulated  a  thirst  for  inquiry, 
and  accustomed  the  Jews  to  theological 
controversies.  Thus  there  existed  prece- 
dents and  favoring  circumstances  for  efforts 
to  make  proselytes,  wlien  the  greatest  of 
all  missionaries,  a  Jew  by  race,  a  Pharisee 
by  education,  a  Greek  by  language,  and  a 
Roman  citizen  by  birth,  preaching  the  res- 
urrection of  Jesus  to  those  who  for  the 
most  part  already  believed  in  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  confronted  the  elaborate 
ritual-system  of  the  written  and  oral  law  by 
a  pure  spiritual  religion,  and  tlius  obtained 
the  co-operation  of  many  Jews  themselves 
in  breaking  down  every  barrier  between 
Jew,  Pharisee,  Greek,  and  Roman,  and  in 
endeavoring  to  unite  all  mankind  by  the 
brotherhood  of  a  common  Christianity. 

Pha'rosh.  Elsewhere  Pabosh  (Ezr. 
viii.  3). 

Phar'par,  the  second  of  the  "  two  riv- 
ers of  Damascus  "  —  Abana  and  Pharpar 
—  alluded  to  by  Naaman  (2  K.  v.  12).  The 
two  principal  streams  in  the  district  of 
Damascus  are  the  Barada  and  the  Awaj : 
the  former  being  the  Abana,  and  the  latter 
the  Pharpar.  The  Awaj  rises  on  the  S.  E. 
slopes  of  Hermon,  and  flows  into  the  most 
southerly  of  the  three  lakes  or  swamps  of 
Damascus. 

Phar'zites,  The.  The  descendants  of 
Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah  (Num.  xxvi.  20). 

Pha'seah.     Paseah  2  (Neh.  vii.  51). 

Phase'lis,  a  town  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  confines  of  Lycia  and  Para- 
phylia,  and  consequently  ascribed  by  the 
ancient  writers  sometimes  to  one  and  some- 
times to  the  other  (1  Mace.  xv.  23). 

Phe'be.    [Phoede.] 

Pheni'ce.  1.  See  Phoenice,  Phoe- 
nicia. 2.  (Acts  xxvii.  12),  more  properly 
Phoenix,  the  name  of  a  haven  in  Crete  on 
the  south  coast.  The  name  was  doubtless 
derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  the  palm- 
tree,  which  Theophrastus  says  was  indi- 
genous in  the  island.  It  is  the  modern 
Luti-d. 

PM'chol,  chief  captain  of  the  army  of 
Abimelecb,  king  of  the  Philistines  of  Gerar 


PHILADELPHIA 


528 


PHILIP  THE  APOSTLE 


in  the  days  of  both  Abraham  (Gen.  xxi.  22, 
32)  and  Isaac  (xxvi.  26). 

I*hiladel'phia,  a  town  on  the  confines 
of  Lydia  and  Phrygia  Catacecaumene,  built 
by  Attalus  II.,  king  of  Pcrgamus.  It  was 
situated  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Tmolus, 
and  is  still  represented  by  a  town  called 
Allah-shehr  (city  of  God).  Its  elevation  is 
952  feet  above  the  sea.  The  original  popu- 
lation of  Pliiladelphia  seems  to  have  been 
Macedonian :  but  there  was,  as  appears  from 
Kev.  iii.  9,  a  synagogue  of  Hellenizing 
Jews  there,  as  well  as  a  Christian  Church. 
The  locality  was  subject  to  constant  earth- 
quakes, wliich  in  the  time  of  Strabo  ren- 
dered even  the  town-walls  of  Philadelphia 
unsafe.  The  expense  of  reparation  was 
constant,  and  hence  perhaps  the  poverty  of 
the  members  of  the  Christian  jChurch  (Rev. 
iii.  8).    • 

Phile'mon,  the  name  of  the  Christian 
to  whom  Paul  addressed  his  Epistle  in  be- 
half of  Onesimus.  He  was  a  native  prob- 
ably of  Colossae,  or  at  all  events  lived  in 
that  city  when  the  Apostle  wrote  to  him ; 
first,  because  Onesinms  was  a  Colossian 
(Col.  iv.  9)  ;  and  secondly,  because  Archip- 
pus  was  a  Colossian  (Col.  iv.  17),  whom 
Paul  associates  with  Pliilomon  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  letter  (Philem.  1,  2).  It  is 
related  tliat  Philemon  became  bishop  of 
Colossae,  and  died  as  a  martyr  under  Nero. 
It  is  evident  from  the  letter  to  him  that 
Philemon  was  a  man  of  property  and  influ- 
ence, since  he  is  represented  as  the  head  of 
a  numerous  household,  and  as  exercising 
an  expensive  liberality  towards  his  friends 
and  the  poor  in  general.  He  was  indebted 
to  the  Apostle  Paul  as  the  medium  of  his 
personal  participation  in  the  Gospel.  It  is 
not  certain  under  what  circumstances  they 
became  known  to  each  other.  It  is  evident 
that  on  becoming  a  disciple,  he  gave  no 
common  proof  of  the  sincerity  .and  power 
of  his  faith.  His  character,  as  shadowed 
forth  in  the  epistle  to  him,  is  one  of  the 
noblest  which  the  sacred  record  makes 
known  to  us. 

Philemon,  The  Epistle  of  Paul 
to,  is  one  of  the  letters  which  the  Apostle 
wrote  during  his  first  captivity  at  Rome. 
The  time  when  Paul  wrote  may  be  fixed 
with  much  precision.  The  Apostle  at  the 
close  of  the  letter  expresses  a  hope  of  his 
speedy  liberation.  Presuming,  therefore, 
that  he  had  good  reasons  for  such  an  ex- 
pectation, we  may  conclude  that  this  letter 
was  written  by  him  about  the  year  a.  d.  63, 
or  early  in  a.  d.  64.  Nothing  is  wanted 
to  confirm  the  genuineness  of  the  epistle. 
The  external  testimony  is  unimpeachable. 
The  Canon  of  Muratori  enumerates  this  as 
one  of  Paul's  epistles.  Origen  and  Euse- 
bius  include  it  among  the  universally  ac- 
knowledged writings  of  the  early  Christian 
times.     Nor   does  the  epistle  itself  offer 


anything  to  conflict  with  this  decision.  Baar 
would  divest  it  of  its  historical  character, 
and  make  it  the  personified  illustration, 
from  some  later  writer,  of  the  idea  that 
Christianity  unites  and  equalizes  in  a  higher 
sense  those  whom  outward  circumstances 
have  separated.  He  does  not  impugn  the 
external  evidence.  But,  not  to  leave  hia 
theory  wholly  unsupported,  he  suggests 
some  linguistic  objections  to  Paul's  author- 
ship of  the  letter,  which  must  be  pro- 
nounced unfounded  and  frivolous.  Our 
knowledge  respecting  the  occasion  and 
object  of  the  letter  we  must  derive  from 
declarations  or  inferences  furnished  by  the 
letter  itself.  Paul,  so  intimately  connected 
with  the  master  and  the  servant,  was  anx- 
ious naturally  to  effect  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween them.  Paul  used  his  influence  with 
Onesimus  (in  ver.  12)  to  induce  him  to  re- . 
turn  to  Colossae,  and  place  himself  again 
at  the  disposal  of  his  master.  On  his  de- 
parture, Paul  put  into  his  hand  this  letter 
as  evidence  that  Onesimus  was  a  true  and 
approved  disciple  of  Christ,  and  entitled 
as  such  to  be  received,  not  as  a  servant, 
but  above  a  servant,  as  a  brother  in  the 
faith.  He  intercedes  for  him  as  his  own 
child,  promises  reparation  if  he  had  done 
any  wrong,  demands  for  him  not  only  a  re- 
mission of  all  penalties,  but  the  reception 
of  sympathy,  affection,  Christian  brother- 
hood. The  result  of  the  appeal  cannot  be 
doubted.  It  may  be  assumed  from  the 
character  of  Philemon  that  the  Apostle's 
intercession  for  Onesimus  was  not  unavail- 
ing. The  Epistle  to  Philemon  has  one 
peculiar  feature  —  its  aesthetical  character 
it  may  be  termed  —  which  .distinguishes  it 
from  all  the  other  epistles.  The  writer  had 
peculiar  difficulties  to  overcome ;  but  Paul, 
it  is  confessed,  has  shown  a  degree  of  self- 
denial  and  a  tact  in  dealing  with  them, 
which  in  being  equal  to  the  occasion  could 
hardly  be  greater. 

PMle'tus  was  possibly  a  disciple  of  Hy- 
raenaeus,  with  whom  he  is  associated  in  2 
Tim.  ii.  17,  and  who  is  named  without  liim 
in  an  earlier  Epistle  (1  Tim.  i.  20).  They 
appear  to  have  been  persons  who  believed 
the  Scriptures  of  the  O.  T.,  but  misinter- 
preted them,  allegorizing  away  the  doctrine 
of  the  Resurrection,  and  resolving  it  all  into 
figure  and  metaphor.  The  delivering  over 
unto  Satan  seems  to  have  been  a  form  of 
excommunication  declaring  the  person  re- 
duced to  the  state  of  a  heathen ;  and  in  the 
Apostolical  age  it  was  accompanied  with 
supernatural  or  miraculous  effects  upon 
the  bodies  of  the  persons  so  delivered. 

Philip  the  ^Apostle  was  of  Betli- 
saida,  the  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter  (John 
i.  44),  and  apparently  was  among  the  Gali- 
laean  peasants  of  that  district  who  flocked 
to  hear  the  preaching  of  the  Baptist.  The 
manner  in  which  St.  John  speaks  of  him. 


PHILIP  THE  EVANGELIST       529 


PHILIPPI 


the  repetition  by  him  of  the  selfsame  words 
with  wliich  Andrew  had  brought  to  Peter 
the  good  news  that  the  Christ  liad  at  last 
appeared,  all  indicate  a  previous  friendship 
with  the  sons  of  Jona  and  of  Zebedee,  and 
a  consequent  participation  in  their  Messi- 
anic hopes.  The  close  union  of  the  two  in 
John  vi.  and  xii.  suggests  that  he  may  have 
owed  to  Andrew  tlie  first  tidings  that  the 
hope  had  been  fulfilled.  The  statement 
tliat  Jesus  fou?td  him  (John  i.  43)  implies 
a  previous  seeking.  To  him  first  in  the 
whole  circle  of  the  disciples  were  spoken 
the  words  so  full  of  meaning,  "  Follow 
nie  "  (Ibid.).  As  soon  as  he  has  learnt  to 
know  his  Master,  he  is  eager  to  communi- 
cate his  discovery  to  another  who  had  also 
shared  the  same  expectations.  He  speaks 
to  Nathanael,  probably  on  his  arrival  in 
.Cana  (comp.  John  xxi.  2),  as  though  they 
had  not  seldom  communed  together,  of  the 
intimations  of  a  better  time,  of  a  divine 
kingdom,  which  they  found  in  their  sacred 
books.  In  the  lists  of  the  twelve  Apostles, 
in  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  his  name  is  as 
uniformly  at  the  head  of  the  second  group 
of  four,  as  the  name  of  Peter  is  at  that  of 
the  first  (Matt.  x.  3 ;  Mark  iii.  18 ;  Luke 
vi.  14)  ;  and  the  facts  recorded  by  St.  John 
give  the  reason  of  this  priority.  Philip 
apparently  was  among  the  first  company 
of  disciples  who  were  with  the  Lord  at  the 
commencement  of  His  ministry,  at  the 
marriage  of  Cana,  on  His  first  appearance 
as  a  prophet  in  Jerusalem  (John  ii.).  When 
John  was  cast  into  prison,  and  the  work  of 
declaring  the  glad  tidings  of  the  kingdom 
required  a  new  company  of  preachers,  we 
may  believe  that  he,  like  his  companions 
and  friends,  received  a  new  call  to  a  more 
constant  discipleship  (Matt.  iv.  18-22). 
When  the  Twelve  were  specially  set  apart 
for  their  office,  he  was  numbered  among 
them.  The  first  three  Gospels  tell  us  noth- 
ing more  of  him  individually.  St.  John, 
with  his  characteristic  fulness  of  personal 
reminiscences,  records  a  few  significant  ut- 
terances (John  vi.  5-9,  xii.  20-22,  xiv.  8). 
No  other  fact  connected  with  the  name  of 
Philip  is  recorded  in  the  Gospels.  He  is 
among  the  company  of  disciples  at  Jerusa- 
lem after  the  Ascension  (Acts  i.  13),  and 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  After  this  all  is 
uncertain  and  apocryphal. 

Philip  the  Evangelist  is  first  men- 
tioned in  the  account  of  tlie  dispute  be- 
tween the  Hebrew  and  Hellenistic  disciples 
in  Acts  vi.  He  is  one  of  the  Seven  ap- 
pointed to  superintend  the  daily  distribu- 
tion of  food  and  alms,  and  so  to  remove  all 
suspicion  of  partiality.  Whether  the  office 
to  which  he  was  thus  appointed  gave  him 
the  position  and  tlie  title  of  a  Deacon  of  the 
Clmrch,  or  was  special  and  extraordinary 
in  its  character,  must  remain  uncertain. 
The  after-history  of  Pliilip  warrants  the 
34 


belief,  in  any  case,  that  his  office  was  not 
simply  that  of  the  later  Diaconato.  Tlie 
persecution  of  which  Saul  was  the  leader 
must  have  stopped  the  "  daily  ministra- 
.tions  "  of  the  Church.  The  teachers  who 
had  been  most  prominent  were  compelled 
to  take  to  fiight,  and  Philip  was  among 
them.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  city  of  Sa- 
maria is  the  first  scene  of  his  activity 
(Acts  viii.).  He  is  the  precursor  of  St. 
Paul  in  his  work,  as  Stephen  had  been  in 
his  teaching.  It  falls  to  his  lot,  rather 
than  to  that  of  an  Apostle,  to  take  that  first 
step  in  the  victory  over  Jewish  prejudice 
and  the  expansion  of  the  Church,  accord- 
ing to  its  Lord's  command.  The  scene 
which  brings  Philip  and  Simon  the  Sorcerer 
into  contact  with  each  uther,  in  which  the 
magician  has  to  acknowledge  a  power  over 
nature  greater  than  his  own,  is  interesting, 
rather  as  belonging  to  the  life  of  the  here- 
siarch  than  to  that  of  the  Evangelist.  This 
step  is  followed  by  another.  He  is  directed 
by  an  angel  of  the  Lord  to  take  the  road 
that  led  down  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza  on 
the  way  to  Egypt.  Here  he  met  the  Ethio- 
pian eunuch  (Acts  vi.  26,  foil.).  The  his- 
tory that  follows  is  interesting  as  one  of 
the  few  records  in  the  N.  T.  of  the  process 
of  individual  conversion.  A  brief  sen- 
tence tells  us  that  Philip  continued  his 
work  as  a  preacher  at  Azotus  (Ashdod),  and 
among  the  other  cities  that  had  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Philistines,  and,  following 
the  coast-line,  came  to  Caesarea.  Then 
for  a  long  period,  not  less  than  eighteen  or 
nineteen  years,  we  lose  sight  of  him.  The 
last  glimpse  of  him  in  the  N.  T.  is  in  the 
account  of  St.  Paul's  journey  to  Jerusalem. 
It  is  to  his  house,  as  to  one  well  known  to 
them,  that  St.  Paul  and  his  companions, 
turn  for  shelter.  He  has  four  daughters,, 
who  possess  the  gift  of  prophetic  utterance,, 
and  who  apparently  give  themselves  to  the- 
work  of  teaching  instead  of  entering  on- 
the  life  of  home  (Acts  xxi.  8,  9).  He  is- 
visited  by  the  prophets  and  elders  of  Jeru- 
salem. One  tradition  places  the  scene  of 
his  death  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia.  Ac- 
cording to  another,  he  died  Bishop  of 
Tralles.  The  house  in  which  he  and  his- 
daughters  had  lived  was  pointed  out  to 
travellers  in  the  time  of  Jerome. 
Philip  Herod  I.,  II.  [Herod.] 
Philip'pi,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  about 
nine  miles  from  the  sea,  to  the  N.  W.  of 
the  island  of  Thasos,  which  is  twelve  miles 
distant  from  its  port  Neapolis,  the  modern 
Kavalla.  It  is  situated  in  a  plain  between 
the  ranges  of  Pangaeus  and  Haemus.  St. 
Paul,  when,  on  his  first  visit  to  Macedonia 
in  company  with  Silas,  he  embarked  at 
Troas,  made  a  straight  run  to  Samothrace, 
and  the  next  day  to  Neapolis,  and  from 
thence  to  Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  11,  12).  The 
Philippi  which  St.  Paul  visited  was  a  Eo- 


PHILIPPIANS 


530 


PHILIPPIANS 


man  colony  founded  by  Augustus,  and  the 
remains  which  strew  the  ground  near  the 
modern  Turkish  vilhige  Bereketli  are  no 
doubt  derived  from  that  city.  The  original 
town,  built  by  Philip  of  Macedonia,  was 
probably  not  exactly  on  the  same  site. 
Philip,  when  he  acquired  possession  of  the 
site,  found  there  a  town  named  Datus  or 
Datum,  which  was  in  all  probability  in  its 
origin  a  factory  of  the  Phoenicians,  who 
were  the  first  that  worked  the  gold-mines 
in  the  mountains  here,  as  in  the  neighbor- 
ing Thasos.  The  proximity  of  the  gold- 
mines was  of  course  the  origin  of  so  large 
a  city  as  Philippi,  but  the  plain  in  which  it 
lies  is  of  extraordinary  fertility.  The  posi- 
tion, too,  was  on  the  main  road  from  Rome 
to  Asia,  the  Via  Egnatia,  which  from  Thes- 
salonica  to  Constantinople  followed  the 
same  course  as  the  existing  post-road.  On 
St.  Raul's  visits  to  Philippi,  see  the  follow- 
ing article. 

Philippians,  Epistle  to  the,  was 
written  by  St.  Paul  from  Rome  in  a.  d.  62 
or  63.  1.  The  canonical  authority,  Pauline 
authorship  and  integrity  of  this  Epistle  were 
unanimously  acknowledged  up  to  the  end 
of  the  18th  century.  Marcion  (a.  d.  140) 
in  the  earliest  known  Canon  held  common 
ground  with  the  Church  touching  the  au- 
thority of  this  Epistle :  it  appears  in  the 
Muratorian  Fragment  ;  among  the  "ac- 
knowledged "  books  in  Eusebius ;  in  the 
lists  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  a.  d.  365, 
and  the  Synod  of  Hippo,  393 ;  and  in  all 
subsequent  lists,  as  well  as  in  the  Peshito 
and  later  versions.  Even  contemporary 
evidence  may  be  claimed  for  it.  Philippian 
Christians  who  had  contributed  to  the  col- 
lections for  St.  Paul's  support  at  Rome, 
who  had  been  eye  and  ear-witnesses  of  the 
return  of  Epaphroditus  and  the  first  read- 
ing of  St.  Paul's  Epistle,  may  have  been 
still  alive  at  Philippi  when  Polycarp  wrote 
(a.  d.  107)  his  letter  to  them,  in  which  (ch. 
2,  3)  he  refers  to  St.  Paul's  Epistle  as  a 
well-known  distinction  belonging  to  the 
Philippian  Church.  It  is  quoted  as  St. 
Paul's  by  Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
and  TcrtuUian.  A  quotation  from  it  (Phil, 
ii.  6)  is  found  in  the  Epistle  of  the  Churches 
of  Lyons  and  Vienue,  a.  d.  177.  The  tes- 
timonies of  later  writers  are  innumerable. 
But  F.  C.  Baur,  followed  by  Schwegler, 
ihas  argued  from  the  phraseology  of  the 
Epistle  and  other  internal  marks,  that  it  is 
the  work  not  of  St.  Paul,  but  of  some 
Gnostic  forger  in  the  2d  century.  2.  Where 
written.  —  The  constant  tradition  that  this 
Epistle  was  written  at  Rome  by  St.  Paul  in 
liis  captivity,  was  impugned  first  by  Oeder 
(1731),  who,  disregarding  the  fact  that  the 
Apostle  was  in  prison  (i.  7,  13,  14)  when 
he  wrote,  imagined  that  he  was  at  Corinth ; 
and  then  by  Paulus  (1799),  Schulz  (1829), 
Buttger  (1837)  and  Rilliet  (1841),  in  whose 


opinion  the  Epistle  was  written  during  the 
Apostle's  confinement,  at  Caesarea  (Acts 
xxiv.  23);  but  the  references  to  the  "pal- 
ace" (praetorium,  i.  13),  and  to  "  Caesar's 
household  "  (iv.  22),  seem  to  point  to  Rome 
rather  than  to  Caesarea.  St.  Paul's  con- 
nection with  Philippi  was  of  a  peculiar 
character,  which  gave  rise  to  the  writing 
of  this  Epistle.  St.  Paul  entered  its  walls, 
a.  d.  52  (Acts  xvi.  12).  There,  at  a  greater 
distance  from  Jerusalem  than  any  Apostle 
had  yet  penetrated,  the  long-restrained  en- 
ergy of  St.  Paul  was  again  employed  in  lay- 
ing the  foundation  of  a  Christian  Church. 
Philippi  was  endeared  to  St.  Paul,  not  only 
by  the  hospitality  of  Lydia,  the  deep  sym- 
pathy of  the  converts,  and  the  remarkable 
miracle  which  set  a  seal  on  his  preaching, 
but  also  by  the  successful  exercise  of  his 
missionary  activity  after  a  long  suspense, 
and  by  the  happy  consequences  of  his  un- 
daunted endurance  of  ignominies,  which 
remained  in  his  memory  (Phil.  i.  30)  after 
the  long  interval  of  eleven  years.  Leaving 
Timothy  and  Luke  to  watch  over  the  infant 
Churcli,  Paul  and  Silas  went  to  Thessalo- 
nica  (1  Thess.  ii.  2),  whither  they  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  alms  of  the  Pliilippians  (Phil, 
iv.  16),  and  thence  southwards.  After  the 
lapse  of  five  years,  spent  chiefly  at  Corinth 
and  Ephesus,  St.  Paul  passed  through  Mace- 
donia, a.  d.  57,  on  his  way  to  Greece,  and 
probably  visited  Philippi  for  the  second 
time,  and  was  there  joined  by  Timothy.  He 
wrote  at  Philippi  his  second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians.  On  returning  from  Greece 
(Acts  XX.  4),  he  again  found  a  refuge 
among  his  faithful  Philippians,  where  he 
spent  some  days  at  Easter,  a.  d.  58,  with 
St.  Luke,  who  accompanied  him  when  he 
sailed  from  Neapolis.  Once  more,  in  his 
Roman  captivity  (a.  d.  62)  their  care  of 
him  revived  again.  They  sent  Epaphro- 
ditus, bearing  their  alms  for  the  Apostle's 
support,  and  ready  also  to  tender  his  per- 
sonal service  (Phil.  ii.  25).  St.  Paul's  aim 
in  writing  is  plainly  this :  while  acknowl- 
edging the  alms  of  the  Philippians  and  the 
personal  services  of  their  messenger,  to 
give  them  some  information  respecting  his 
own  condition,  and  some  advice  respecting 
theirs.  After  the  inscription  (i.  1,  2)  in 
which  Timothy  as  the  second  father  of  the 
Church  is  joined  with  Paul,  he  sets  forth 
his  own  condition  (i.  3-26),  his  prayers, 
care,  and  wishes  for  his  Pliilippians,  with 
the  troubles  and  uncertainty  of  his  impris- 
onment, and  his  hope  of  eventually  seeing 
them  again.  Then  (i.  27-ii.  18)  he  exhorts 
them  to  those  particular  virtues  which  he 
would  rejoice  to  see  them  practising  at  the 
present  time.  He  hopes  soon  to  hear  a 
good  report  of  them  (ii.  19-30),  either  by 
sending  Timothy,  or  by  going  himself  to 
them,  as  he  now  sends  Epaphroditus,  whose 
diligent  service  is  highly  commended.     Re- 


PHILISTIA 


531 


PHILISTINES 


verting  (ili.  1-21)  to  the  tone  of  joy  which 
runs  througli  the  preceding  descriptions  and 
exhortations  —  as  in  i.  4,  18,  25,  ii.  2, 16,  17, 
18,  28  —  he  bids  them  take  heed  that  their 
joy  be  in  the  Lord,  and  warns  tiiem  against 
admitting  itinerant  Judaizing  teachers,  the 
tendency  of  whose  doctrine  was  towards  a 
vain  confidence  in  mere  earthly  things  ;  in 
contrast  to  this,  he  exhorts  them  to  follow 
him  in  placing  their  trust  humbly  but  en- 
tirely in  Christ,  and  in  pressing  forward 
in  their  Christian  course,  with  the  Resur- 
rection-day constantly  before  their  minds. 
Again  (iv.  1-9),  adverting  to  their  position 
in  the  midst  of  unbelievers,  he  beseeches 
them,  even  with  personal  appeals,  to  be 
tirm,  united,  joyful  in  the  Lord ;  to  be  full 
of  prayer  and  peace ;  and  to  lead  such  a  life 
as  must  approve  itself  to  the  moral  sense 
of  all  men.  Lastly  (iv.  10-23)  he  thanks 
them  for  the  contribution  sent  by  Epaphro- 
ditus  for  his  support,  and  concludes  with 
salutations  and  a  benediction.  Though  we 
cannot  trace  the  immediate  effect  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistle  on  the  Philippians,  yet  no 
one  can  doubt  that  it  contributed  to  form 
the  character  of  their  church,  as  it  was  in 
the  time  of  Polycarp.  It  is  evident  from 
Polycarp's  Epistle  that  the  Church,  by  the 
grace  of  God  and  the  guidance  of  the  Apos- 
tle, had  passed  through  those  trials  of  which 
St.  Paul  warned  it,  and  had  not  gone  back 
from  the  high  degree  of  Christian  attain- 
ments which  it  reached  under  St.  Paul's 
oral  and  written  teaching  (Polyc.  i.,  iii.,  ix., 
xi,).  Strangely  full  of  joy  and  thanksgiv- 
ing amidst  adversity,  like  the  Apostle's  mid- 
night hymn  from  the  depth  of  his  Philippian 
dungeon,  this  Epistle  went  forth  from  his 
prison  at  Rome.  In  most  other  epistles  he 
writes  with  a  sustained  effort  to  instruct, 
or  with  sorrow,  or  with  indignation ;  he  is 
striving  to  supply  imperfect,  or  to  correct 
erroneous  teaching,  to  put  down  scandalous 
impurity,  or  to  heal  schism  in  the  Church 
which  he  addresses.  But  in  this  Epistle, 
though  he  knew  the  Philippians  intimately, 
and  was  not  blind  to  the  faults  and  tenden- 
cies to  fault  of  some  of  them,  yet  he  men- 
tions no  evil  so  characteristic  of  the  whole 
Church  as  to  call  for  general  censure  on 
his  part,  or  amendment  on  theirs.  Of  all 
his  Epistles  to  Churches,  none  has  so  little 
of  an  official  character  as  tiiis. 

Philis'tia  (Heb.  Pelesheih).  The  word 
thus  translated  (in  Ps.  Ix.  8,  Ixxxvii.  4, 
cviii.  9)  is  in  the  original  identical  with 
that  elsewhere  rendered  Palestine. 

Philis'tines.  The  origin  of  the  Philis- 
tines is  nowhere  expressly  stated  in  the 
Bible ;  but  as  the  prophets  describe  them 
as  "  the  Philistines  from  CaphtOr  "  (Am.  ix. 
7),  and  "  the  remnant  of  the  maritime  dis- 
trict of  Caphtor  "  (Jer.  xlvii.  4),  it  is p7-imd 
facie  probable  that  they  were  the  "  Caph- 
torims  which  came  out  of  Caphtor  "  who 


expelled  the  Avim  from  their  territory  and 
occupied  it  in  their  place  (Deut.  ii.  23), 
and  that  these  again  were  the  Caphtorim 
mentioned  in  the  Mosaic  genealogical  table 
among  the  descendants  of  Mizraim  (Gen.  x. 
14).  But  in  establishing  this  conclusion  a 
difficulty  arises  out  of  the  language  of  the 
Philistmes ;  for  wliile  the  Caphtorim  were 
Hamitic,  the  Philistine  language  is  held  to 
have  been  Semitic.  This  difficulty,  howev- 
er, may  be  met  by  assuming  either  that  the 
Caphtorim  adopted  the  language  of  the 
conquered  Avim,  or  that  they  diverged 
from  the  Hamitic  stock  at  a  period  when 
the  distinctive  features  of  Hamitism  and 
Seraitism  were  yet  in  embryo.  It  has 
been  generally  assumed  that  Caphtor  rep- 
resents Crete,  and  that  the  Philistines,  mi- 
grated from  that  island,  either  directly  or 
through  Egypt,  into  Palestine.  But  the 
name  Caphtor  is  more  probably  identified 
with  the  Egyptian  Coptos.  [Caphtoh.] 
The  Cretan  origin  of  the  Philistines  has  been 
deduced,  not  so  much  from  the  name  Caph- 
tor, as  from  that  of  the  Cherethites.  This 
name  in  its  Hebrew  form  bears  a  close  re- 
semblance to  Crete,  and  is  rendered  Cretans 
in  the  LXX.  But  the  mere  coincidence  of 
the  names  cannot  pass  for  much  without 
some  corroborative  testimony.  Without 
therefore  asserting  that  migrations  may  not 
have  taken  place  from  Crete  to  Philistia, 
we  hold  that  the  evidence  adduced  to  prove 
that  they  did  is  insufficient.  —  The  Philis- 
tines must  have  settled  in  the  land  of 
Canaan  before  the  time  of  Abraham ;  for 
they  are  noticed  in  his  day  as  a  pastoral 
tribe  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gerar  (Gen. 
xxi.  32,  34,  xxvi.  1,  8).  Between  the  times 
of  Abraham  and  Joshua,  the  Philistines  had 
changed  their  quarters,  and  had  advanced 
northwards  into  the  plain  of  Philistia. 
This  plain  has  been  in  all  ages  remark- 
able for  the  extreme  richness  of  its  soil. 
It  was  also  adapted  to  the  growth  of  mili- 
tary power ;  for  while  the  plain  itself  per- 
mitted the  use  of  war-chariots,  which  were 
the  chief  arm  of  offence,  the  occasional 
elevations  which  rise  out  of  it  offered  se- 
cure sites  for  towns  and  strongholds.  It 
was,  morever,  a  commercial  country  :  from 
its  position  it  must  have  been  at  all  times 
the  great  thorouglifare  between  Phoenicia 
and  Syria  in  the  north,  and  Egypt  and 
Arabia  in  the  south.  They  had  at  an  early 
period  attained  proficiency  in  the  arts  of 
peace.  Their  wealth  was  abundant  (Judg. 
xvi.  6,  18),  and  they  appear  in  all  respects 
to  have  been  a  prosperous  people.  Pos- 
sessed of  such  elements  of  power,  the 
Philistines  had  attained  in  the  time  of  the 
Judges  an  important  position  among  East- 
ern nations.  About  b.  c.  1209  we  find 
them  engaged  in  successful  war  with  the 
I  Sidonians  (Justin,  xviii.  3).  The  territory 
,  of  the  Philistines,  having  been  once   oc- 


PHILISTINES 


532 


PHILISTINES 


cupied  by  the  Canaanites,  formed  a  portion 
of  the  promised  land,  and  was  assigned  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  2,  12,  45-47). 
No  portion,  however,  of  it  was  conquered 
in  the  lifetime  of  Joshua  (Josh.  xiii.  2),  and 
even  after  his  death  no  permanent  con- 
quest was  effected  (Judg.  iii.  3),  though 
we  are  informed  that  the  three  cities  of 
Gaza,  Ashkelon,  and  Ekron  were  taken 
(Judg.  i.  18).  The  Philistines  soon  recov- 
ered these,  and  commenced  an  aggressive 
policy  against  the  Israelites,  by  which  they 
gained  a  complete  ascendency  over  them. 
Individual  heroes  were  raised  up  from  time 
to  time,  such  as  Shamgar  the  son  of  Anath 
(Judg.  iii.  31),  and  still  more,  Samson 
(Judg.  xiii.-xvi.)  ;  but  neither  of  these  men 
succeeded  in  permanently  throwing  off  the 
yoke..  Under  Eli  there  was  an  organized 
but  unsuccessful  resistance  to  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Philistines,  who  were  met  at 
Aphek  (1  Sam.  iv.  1).  The  production  of 
the  ark  on  this  occasion  demonstrates  the 
greatness  of  the  emergency,  and  its  loss 
marked  the  lowest  depth  of  Israel's  degra- 
dation. The  next  action  took  place  under 
Samuel's  leadership,  and  the  tide  of  suc- 
cess turned  in  Israel's  favor.  The  Israel- 
ites now  attributed  their  past  weakness  to 
their  want  of  unity,  and  they  desired  a 
king,  with  the  special  object  of  leading 
them  against  the  foe  (1  Sam.  viii.  20). 
Saul  threw  off  the  yoke ;  and  the  Philis- 
tines were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  at 
Geba  (1  Sam.  xiii.,  xiv.).  They  made  no 
attempt  to  regain  their  supremacy  for  about 
25  years,  and  the  scene  of  the  next  con- 
test shows  the  altered  strength  of  the  two 
parties :  it  was  no  longer  in  the  central 
country,  but  in  a  ravine  leading  down  to 
the  Philistine  plain,  the  valley  of  Elah,  the 
position  of  which  is  about  14  miles  S.  W. 
of  Jerusalem  :  on  this  occasion  the  prowess 
of  young  David  secured  success  to  Israel, 
and  the  foe  was  pursued  to  the  gates  of 
Gath  and  Ekron  (1  Sam.  xvii.).  The  pow- 
er of  the  Philistines  was,  however,  still  in- 
tact on  their  own  territory.  The  border 
warfare  was  continued.  The  scene  of  the 
next  conflict  was  far  to  the  north,  in  the 
valley  of  Esdraelon.  The  battle  on  this 
occasion  proved  disastrous  to  the  Israelites  ; 
Saul  himself  perished,  and  the  Philistines 
penetrated  across  the  Jordan,  and  occupied 
the  forsaken  cities  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  1-7).  On 
the  appointment  of  David  to  be  king,  he 
twice  attacked  them,  and  on  each  occasion 
with  signal  success,  in  the  first  case  cap- 
turing their  images,  in  the  second  pursuing 
them  "  from  Geba  until  thou  come  to 
Gazer"  (2  Sam.  v.  17-25;  1  Chr,  xiv. 
6-16).  Henceforth  the  Israelites  appear 
as  the  aggressors  :  about  seven  years  after 
the  defeat  at  Rephaim,  David,  who  had  now 
consolidated  his  power,  attacked  them  on 
their  own  soil,  and  took  Gath  with  its  de- 


pendencies (1  Chr.  xviii.  1),  and  thus  (ac- 
cording to  one  interpretation  of  the  obscure 
expression  "  Metheg-ammali "  in  2  Sam. 
viii.  1)  "he  took  the  arm-bridle  out  of  the 
hand  of  the  Philistines,"  meaning  that  their 
ascendency  was  utterly  broken.  The  whole 
of  Philistia  was  included  in  Solomon's  em- 
pire. The  division  of  the  empire  at  Sol- 
omon's death  was  favorable  to  the  Phi- 
listine cause :  Rehoboam  secured  himself 
against  them  by  fortifying  Gatli  and  otlier 
cities  bordering  on  the  plain  (2  Chr.  xi.  8)  : 
the  Israelite  monarchs  were  either  not  so 
prudent  or  not  so  powerful,  for  they  al- 
lowed the  Philistines  to  get  hold  of  Gib- 
bethon  (1  K.  xv.  27,  xvi.  15).  Judah 
meanwhile  had  lost  the  tribute  (2  Chr.  xvii.  - 
11).  The  increasing  weakness  of  the  Jewish 
monarchy  under  the  attacks  of  Hazael  led 
to  the  recovery  of  Gath,  which  was  after- 
wards dismantled  and  probably  destroyed  by 
Uzziah  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  6 ;  2  K.  xii.  17).  We 
have  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Philistines 
were  kept  in  subjection  until  the  time  of 
Ahaz  (2  Chr.  xxviii.  18).  A  few  years 
later,  the  Philistines,  in  conjunction  with 
tlie  Syrians  and  Assyrians,  and  perhaps  as 
the  subject-allies  of  the  latter,  carried  on  a 
series  of  attacks  on  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
(Is.  ix.  11,  12).  Hezekiah  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Egj'ptians,  as  a  counterpoise 
to  the  Assyrians,  and  the  possession  of  Phi- 
listia became  henceforth  the  turning-point  of 
the  struggle  between  the  two  great  empires 
of  the  East.  The  Assyrians  under  Tartan, 
the  general  of  Sargon,  made  an  expedition 
against  Egypt,  and  took  Ashdod,  as  the 
key  of  that  country  (Is.  xx.  1,  4,  5).  Un- 
der Sennacherib  Philistia  was  again  the 
scene  of  important  operations.  The  As- 
syrian supremacy  was  restored  by  Esar- 
haddon,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  As- 
syrians retained  their  hold  on  Ashdod  until 
its  capture,  after  a  long  siege,  by  Psammet- 
ichus.  It  was  about  this  time  that  Philis- 
tia was  traversed  by  a  vast  Scythian  horde 
on  their  way  to  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  as- 
cendency was  not  as  yet  re-establi&hed,  for 
we  find  the  next  king,  Neco,  compelled  to 
besiege  Gaza  on  his  return,  from  the  battle 
of  Megiddo.  After  the  death  of  Neco,  the 
contest  was  renewed  between  the  Egyptians 
and  the  Chaldaeans  under  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  the  result  was  specially  disastrous  to 
the  Philistines.  The  "old  hatred"  that 
the  Philistines  bore  to  the  Jews  was  exhib- 
ited in  acts  of  hostility  at  the  time  of  the 
Babylonish  captivity  (Ez.  xxv.  15-17)  ;  but 
on  the  return  this  was  somewhat  abated, 
for  some  of  the  Jews  married  Philistian 
women,  to  the  great  scandal  of  their  rulers 
(Neh.  xiii.  23,  24).  Prom  this  time  the 
history  of  Pliilistia  is  absorbed  in  the  strug- 
gles of  the  neighboring  kingdoms.  The 
latest  notices  of  the  Philistines  as  a  nation 
occur  in  1  Mace,  iii.-v.     With  regard  to 


pniLOLOGUS 


533 


PHILOSOPIIY 


the  institutions  of  tlie  Philistines  our  infor- 
mation is  very  scanty.  The  five  chief 
cities  had,  as  early  as  the  days  of  Joshua, 
constituted  themselves  into  a  confederacy, 
restricted,  however,  in  all  probability,  to 
matters  oif  offence  and  defence.  Each  was 
under  the  governm*>nt  of  a  prince  (Josh.  xiii. 
3;  Judg.  iii.  3,  &c.;  1  Sam.  xviii.  30,  xxix. 
6),  and  each  possessed  its  own  territory. 
The  Philistines  appear  to  have  been  deep- 
ly imbued  with  superstition  :  they  carried 
their  idols  with  them  on  their  campaigns  (2 
Sam.  V.  21),  and  proclaimed  their  victories 
in  their  presence  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  9).  The 
gods  whom  they  chiefly  worshipped  were 
Dagon  (Judg.  xvi.  23;  1  Sam.  v.  3-5;  1 
Chr.  x.  10;  1  Mace.  x.  83);  Ashtaroth  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  10 ;  Herod,  i.  105) ;  and  Baal- 
zebub  (2  K.  i.  2-6). 

Philol'OguS,  a  Christian  at  Rome  to 
whom  St.  Paul  sends  his  salutation  (Rom. 
xvi.  15). 

Philosophy.  It  is  the  object  of  the 
following  article  to  give  some  account  (I.) 
of  that  development  of  thought  among  the 
Jews  which  answered  to  the  philosophy 
of  the  West;  (II.)  of  the  recognition  of 
the  preparatory  (propaedeutic)  office  of 
Greek  philosophy  in  relation  to  Christian- 
ity ;  (III.)  of  the  systematic  progress  of 
Greek  philosophy  as  forming  a  complete 
whole ;  and  (IV.)  of  the  contact  of  Chris- 
tianity with  philosophy.  I.  The  Philo- 
BOPHic  DisciPLiKE  OF  THE  Jews.  —  Phi- 
losophy, if  we  limit  the  word  strictly  to  de- 
scribe the  free  pursuit  of  knowledge  of  which 
truth  is  the  one  complete  end,  is  essentially 
of  Western  growth.  In  the  East  the  search 
after  wisdom  has  always  been  connected 
with  practice.  The  history  of  the  Jews 
offers  no  exception  to  this  remark:  there 
is  no  Jewish  philosophy,  properly  so  called. 
The  method  of  Greece  was  to  proceed  from 
life  to  God;  the  method  of  Israel  (so  to 
speak)  was  to  proceed  from  God  to  life. 
The  axioms  of  one  system  are  the  conclu- 
sions of  the  other.  The  one  led  to  the  suc- 
cessive abandonment  of  the  noblest  domains 
of  science  which  man  had  claimed  original- 
ly as  his  own,  till  it  left  bare  systems  of 
morality ;  the  other,  in  the  fulness  of  time, 
prepared  many  to  welcome  the  Christ  — 
the  Truth.  The  philosophy  of  the  Jews, 
using  the  word  in  a  large  sense,  is  to  be 
sought  for  rather  in  the  progress  of  the 
national  life  than  in  special  books.  Step 
by  step  the  idea  of  the  family  was  raised 
into  that  of  the  people ;  and  the  kingdom 
furnished  the  basis  of  those  wider  promises 
which  included  all  nations  in  one  kingdom 
of  heaven.  The  social,  the  political,  the 
cosmical  relations  of  man  were  traced  out 
gradually  in  relation  to  God.  The  philoso- 
pliy  of  the  Jews  is  thus  essentially  a  moral 
philosophy,  resting  on  a  definite  connection 
with  God.     The  doctrines  of  Creation  and 


Providence,  of  an  Infinite  Divine  Person, 
and  of  a*  respont.ible  human  will,  which 
elsewhere  form  the  ultimate  limits  of  spec- 
ulation, are  here  assumed  at  the  outset. 
The  Psalms,  which,  among  the  other  in- 
finite lessons  which  they  convey,  give  a 
dee^  insight  into  the  need  of  a  personal 
apprehension  of  truth,  everywhere  declare 
the  absolute  sovereignty  of  God  over  the 
material  and  moral  worlds.  One  man 
among  all  is  distinguished  among  the  Jews 
as  "the  wise  man."  The  description  which 
is  given  of  his  writings  serves  as  a  com- 
mentary on  the  national  view  of  philosopliy 
(1  K.  iv.  30-33).  The  lesson  of  practical 
duty,  the  full  utterance  of  "  a  large  heart " 
(Ibid.  29),  the  careful  study  of  God's  crea- 
tures :  this  is  the  sum  of  wisdom.  Yet  in 
fact  the  very  practical  aim  of  this  philoso- 
phy leads  to  the  revelation  of  the  most  sub- 
lime truth.  Wisdom  was  gradually  felt  to 
be  a  Person,  throned  by  God,  and  holding 
converse  with  men  (Prov.  viii.).  She  was 
seen  to  stand  in  open  enmity  with  "the 
strange  woman,"  who  sought  to  draw  them 
aside  bj'  sensuous  attractions ;  and  thus  a 
new  step  was  made  towards  the  central 
doctrine  of  Christianity  —  the  Incarnation 
of  the  Word.  Two  books  of  the  Bible, 
Job  and  Ecclesiastes,  of  which  the  latter 
at  any  rate  belongs  to  the  period  of  the 
close  of  the  kingdom,  approach  more  near- 
ly than  any  others  to  the  type  of  philo- 
sophical discussions.  But  in  both  the  prob- 
lem is  moral,  and  not  metaphysical.  The 
one  deals  with  the  evils  which  afflict  "  the 
perfect  and  upright;"  the  other  with  the 
vanity  of  all  the  pursuits  and  pleasures  of 
earth.  The  Captivity  necessarily  exercised 
a  profound  influence  upon  Jewish  thought. 
The  teaching  of  Persia  seems  to  have  been 
designed  to  supply  important  elements  in 
the  education  of  the  chosen  people.  But  it 
did  yet  more  than  this.  The  contact  of  the 
Jews  with  Persia  thus  gave  rise  to  a  tra- 
ditional mysticism.  Their  contact  with 
Greece  was  marked  by  the  rise  of  distinct 
sects.  In  the  third  century  b.  c.  the  great 
doctor  Antigonus  of  Socho  bears  a  Greek 
name,  and  popular  belief  pointed  to  him  as 
the  teacher  of  Sadoc  and  Boethus,  the  sup- 
posed founders  of  Jewish  rationalism.  At 
any  rate,  we  may  date  from  this  time  the 
twofold  division  of  Jewish  speculation. 
The  Sadducees  appear  as  the  supporters  of 
human  freedom  in  its  widest  scope;  the 
Pharisees  of  a  religious  Stoicism.  At  a 
later  time  the  cycle  of  doctrine  was  com- 
pleted, when  by  a  natural  reaction  the  Es- 
sencs  established  a  mystic  Asceticism.  II. 
The  Patristic  Recogxitioit  of  the  Pro- 
paedeutic Office  of  Greek  Philosophy. 
—  The  Divine  discipline  of  the  Jews  waa 
in  nature  essentially  moral.  The  lessons 
which  it  was  designed  to  teach  were  em- 
bodied in  the  family  and  the  nation.    Yet 


PHILOSOPHY 


534 


PHILOSOPHY 


this  was  not  in  itself  a  complete  disc  ipline 
of  our  nature.  The  reason,  no,  less  than 
the  will  and  the  affections,  had  an  otfice  to 
discharge  in  preparing  man  for  the  Incar- 
nation. The  process  and  the  issue  in  the 
two  cases  were  widely  different,  but  they 
were  in  some  sense  complementary.  Phi- 
losophy failed  as  a  religious  teacher  prac- 
tically (Rom.  i.  21,  22),  but  it  bore  noble 
witness  to  an  inward  law  (Rom.  ii.  14,  15). 
In  its  purest  and  grandest  forms  it  was  "  a 
schoolmaster  to  bring  men  to  Christ."  This 
function  of  ancient  philosophy  is  distinctly 
recognized  by  many  of  the  greatest  of  the 
fathers.  The  use  which  was  made  of 
heathen  speculation  by  heretical  writers 
was  one  great  cause  of  its  disparagement 
by  their  catholic  antagonists.  This  variety 
of  judgment  in  the  heat  of  controversy  was 
inevitable.  The  full  importance  of  the 
history  of  ancient  Philosophy  was  then  first 
seen  when  all  rivalry  was  over,  and  it  be- 
came possible  to  contemplate  it  as  a  whole, 
animated  by  a  great  law,  often  trembling 
on  the  verge  of  Truth,  and  sometimes  by 
a  "  bold  venture  "  claiming  the  heritage  of 
Faith.  III.  The  Development  of  Greek 
PHtLOSOPHY.  —  The  various  attempts  which 
have  been  made  to  derive  Western  Phi- 
losophy from  Eastern  sources  have  signal- 
ly failed.  It  is  true  that  in  some  degree 
the  character  of  Greek  speculation  may 
have  been  influenced,  at  least  in  its  earliest 
stages,  by  religious  ideas  which  were  origi- 
nally introduced  from  the  East ;  but  this 
indirect  influence  does  not  aflect  the  real 
originality  of  the  great  Greek  teachers. 
The  very  value  of  Greek  teaching  lies  in 
the  fact  that  it  was,  as  far  as  is  possible,  a 
result  of  simple  Reason,  or,  if  Faith  as- 
serts its  prerogative,  the  distinction  is 
sharply  marked.  Of  the  various  classifi- 
cations of  the  Greek  schools  which  have 
been  proposed,  the  simplest  and  truest 
seems  to  be  that  which  divides  the  history 
of  Philosophy  into  three  great  periods,  the 
first  reaching  to  the  era  of  the  Sophists, 
the  next  to  the  death  of  Aristotle,  the  third 
to  the  Christian  era.  In  the  first  period 
the  world  objectively  is  the  great  centre 
of  inquiry :  in  the  second,  the  "  ideas  "  of 
things,  truth,  and  being;  in  the  third,  the 
chief  interest  of  philosophy  falls  back  upon 
the  practical  conduct  of  life.  After  the 
Christian  era  philosophy  ceased  to  have 
any  true  vitality  in  Greece,  but  it  made 
fresh  efforts  to  meet  the  changed  conditions 
of  life  at  Alexandria  and  Rome.  1.  The 
pre-Socraiic  Schools.  — The  first  Greek  phi- 
losophy was  little  more  than  an  attempt  to 
follow  out  in  thought  the  mythic  cosmogo- 
nies of  earlier  poets.  What  is  the  one  per- 
manent element  wliich  underlies  the  chan- 
ging forms  of  things?  —  this  was  the  pri- 
mary inquiry,  to  which  the  Ionic  school  en- 
deavored to  find  an  answer.    Thales  (cir. 


B.  c.  639-543)  pointed  to  moisture  (water) 
as  the  one  source  and  supporter  of  life. 
Anaximenes  (cir.  b.  c.  520-480)  substitut- 
ed air  for  water.  At  a  much  later  date 
(cir.  B.  c.  450)  Diogenes  of  Apollonia 
represented  this  elementary  "air"  as  en- 
dowed with  intelligence.  2.  TTie  Socratic 
Schools.  —  In  the  second  period  of  Greek 
philosophy  the  scene  and  subjt:ct  were  both 
changed.  A  philosophy  of  ideas,  using 
the  term  in  its  widest  sense,  succeeded  a 
philosophy  of  nature.  In  three  genera- 
tions Greek  speculation  reached  its  great- 
est glory  in  the  teaching  of  Socrates,  Plato, 
and  Aristotle.  The  famous  sentence  in 
which  Aristotle  characterizes  the  teach- 
ing of  Socrates  (b.  c.  468-399)  places  hia 
scientific  position  in  the  clearest  light- 
There  are  two  things,  he  says,  which  we 
may  rightly  attribute  to  Socrates  —  induc- 
tive reasoning  and  general  definition.  By 
the  first  he  endeavored  to  discover  the  per- 
manent element  which  underlies  the  chan- 
ging forms  of  appearances  and  the  varieties 
of  opinion  :  by  the  second  he  fixed  the  truth 
which  he  had  thus  gained.  But,  besides 
this,  Socrates  rendered  another  service  to 
truth.  Ethics  occupied  in  his  investiga- 
tions the  primary  place  which  had  hitherto 
been  held  by  Physics.  The  great  aim  of 
his  induction  was  to  establish  the  sover- 
eignty of  Virtue.  He  affirmed  the  exist- 
ence of  a  universal  law  of  right  and  wrong. 
He  connected  philosophy  with  action,  botli 
in  detail  and  in  general.  On  the  one  side 
he  upheld  the  supremacy  of  Conscience,  on 
the  other  the  working  of  Providence.  3. 
The  post- Socratic  Schools. — After  Aris- 
totle, Philosophy  took  a  new  direction. 
Speculation  became  mainly  personal.  Ep- 
icurus (b.  c.  352-270)  defined  the  object 
of  Philosophy  to  be  the  attainment  of  a 
happy  life.  The  pursuit  of  truth  for  its 
own  sake  he  regarded  as  superfluous.  He 
rejected  dialectics  as  a  useless  study,  and 
accepted  the  senses,  in  the  widest  accepta- 
tion of  the  term,  as  the  criterion  of  truth. 
But  he  differed  widely  from  the  Cyrenaics 
in  his  view  of  happiness.  The  happiness 
at  which  the  wise  man  aims  is  to  be  found, 
he  said,  not  in  momentary  gratification,  but 
in  life-long  pleasure.  All  things  were  sup- 
posed to  come  into  being  by  chance,  and  so 
pass  away.  The  individual  was  left  master 
of  his  own  life.  While  Epicurus  asserted 
in  this  manner  the  claims  of  one  part  of 
man's  nature  in  the  conduct  of  life,  Zend, 
of  Citium  (cir.  b.  c.  280),  with  equal  par- 
tiality, advocated  a  purely  spiritual  (intel- 
lectual) morality.  The  opposition  between 
the  two  was  complete.  The  infinite,  chance- 
formed  worlds  of  the  one  stand  over  against 
the  one  harmonious  world  of  the  other. 
On  the  one  side  are  Gods  regardless  of 
material  things,  on  the  other  a  Being  per- 
meating and  vivifying  all  creation.    Thift 


PHINEHAS 


535 


PIIOENICE 


difference  necessarily  found  its  chief  ex- 
pression in  Etliics.  IV.  Christianity  in 
Contact  with  Ancient  Philosophy.  — 
The  only  direct  trace  of  the  contact  of 
Christianity  with  Western  Philosophy  in 
the  N.T.  is  in  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  visit 
to  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  18),  and  there  is  noth- 
ing in  the  apostolic  writings  to  show  that 
it  exercised  any  important  influence  upon 
the  early  Church  (conip.  1  Cor.  i.  22-24). 
But  it  was  otherwise  with  Eastern  specula- 
tion, which  penetrated  more  deeply  through 
the  mass  of  the  people.  Tlie  "  philoso- 
pliy"  against  which  the  Colossians  were 
warned  (Col.  ii.  8)  seems  undoubtedly  to 
have  been  of  Eastern  origin,  containing 
elements  similar  to  those  which  were  after- 
wards  embodied  in  various  shapes  of 
Gnosticism,  as  a  selfish  asceticism,  and  a 
superstitious  reverence  for  angels  (Col.  ii. 
16-23)  ;  and  in  the  Epistles  to  Timothy,  ad- 
dressed to  Ephesus,  in  which  city  St.  Paul 
anticipated  the  rise  of  false  teaching  (Acts 
XX.  30),  two  distinct  forms  of  error  may  be 
traced  in  addition  to  Judaism,  due  more  or 
less  to  the  same  influence.  The  writings 
of  the  sub-apostolic  age,  with  the  exception 
of  the  famous  anecdote  of  Justin  Martyr 
{Dial.  2-4),  throw  little  light  upon  the 
relations  of  Christianity  and  Philosophy. 
Christian  Philosophy  may  be  in  one  sense 
a  contradiction  in  terms,  for  Christianity 
confessedlj'  derives  its  first  principles  from 
revjlation,  and  not  from  simple  reason ; 
but  there  is  no  less  a  true  Philosophy  of 
Christianity,  which  aims  to  show  how  com- 
pletely these  meet  the  instincts  and  aspira- 
tions of  all  ages.  The  exposition  of  such 
a  Philosophy  would  be  the  work  of  a  mod- 
ern Origen, 

Phin'ehas.  1.  Son  of  Eleazar  and 
grandson  of  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  25).  He  is  mem- 
orable for  having  while  quite  a  youth,  by 
his  zeal  and  energy  at  the  critical  moment 
of  the  licentious  idolatry  of  Shittim,  ap- 
peased the  divine  wrath,  and  put  a  stop  to 
the  plague  which  was  destroying  the  nation 
(Num.  XXV.  7).  For  this  he  was  rewarded 
by  the  special  approbation  of  Jehovah,  and 
by  a  promise  that  the  priesthood  should 
remain  in  his  family  forever  (10-13).  He 
was  appointed  to  accompany  as  priest  the 
expedition  by  which  the  Midianites  were 
destroyed  (xxxi.  6).  Many  years  later  he 
also  headed  the  party  who  w«re  despatched 
from  Shiloh  to  remonstrate  against  the 
Altar  which  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  were 
reported  to  have  built  near  Jordan  (Josh, 
xxii.  13-32).  In  the  partition  of  the  coun- 
try he  received  an  allotment  of  his  own  — 
a  hill  on  Mount  Ephraim  which  bore  his 
name.  After  Eleazar's  death  he  became 
liigh-priost  —  the  3d  of  the  series.  In  this 
capacity  he  is  introduced  as  giving  the 
oracle  to  the  nation  during  the  whole  strug- 
gle with  the  Eenjamites  on  the  matter  of 


Gibeah  (Judg.  xx.  28).  The  verse  which 
closes  the  Book  of  Joshua  is  ascribed  to 
Pliinehas,  as  the  description  of  the  death 
of  Moses  at  the  end  of  Deuteronomy  is  to 
Joshua.  The  tomb  of  Phinehas,  a  place 
of  great  resort  to  both  Jews  and  Samari- 
tans, is  sliown  at  Awertah,  four  miles  S.  E. 
of  Nablus.  2.  Second  son  of  Eli  (1  Sam. 
i.  3,  ii.  34,  iv.  4,  11, 17,  19,  xiv.  3).  Pliinehas 
was  killed  with  his  brother  by  the  Piiilis- 
tines  when  the  ark  was  captured.  [Eli.] 
3.  A  Levite  of  Ezra's  time  (Ezr.  viii.  33), 
unless  the  meaning  be  that  Eleazar  was  of 
the  family  of  the  great  Phinehas. 

Phle'gon.  A  Christian  at  Rome  whom 
St.  Paul  salutes  (Rom.  xvi.  14).  Pseudo- 
Hippolytus  makes  him  one  of  the  seventy 
disciples  and  bishop  of  Marathon. 

Phoe'be,  the  first,  and  one  of  the  most 
important,  of  the  Christian  persons  the  de- 
tailed mention  of  whom  fills  nearly  all  the 
last  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
What  is  said  of  her  (Rom.  xvi.  1,  2)  is 
worthy  of  especial  notice,  because  of  its 
bearing  on  the  question  of  the  deaconesses 
of  the  Apostolic  Church. 

Phoeni'ce,  Phoenie'ia,  a  tract  of 
country,  of  which  Tyre  and  Sidon  were  the 
principal  cities,  to  the  north  of  Palestine, 
along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea ; 
bounded  by  that  sea  on  the  west,  and  by  the 
mountain  range  of  Lebanon  on  the  east. 
The  name  was  not  the  one  by  which  its 
native  inhabitants  called  it,  but  was  given 
to  it  by  the  Greeks,  from  the  Greek  word 
for  the  palm-tree.  The  native  name  of 
Phoenicia  was  Kenaan  (^Canaaii)  or  KnA, 
signifying  lowland,  so  named  in  contrast 
to  the  adjoining  Aram,  i.  e.  highland,  the 
Hebrew  name  of  Syria.  The  length  of 
coast  to  which  the  name  of  Phoenicia  was 
applied  varied  at  different  times.  1.  What 
may  be  termed  Phoenicia  proper  was  a  nar- 
row undulating  plain,  extending  from  the 
pass  of  Eds  el- Bey dd  or  Aby ad,  the  "  Prom- 
ontorium  Album "  of  the  ancients,  about 
six  miles  south  of  Tyre,  to  the  Nahr  el- 
Auly,  the  ancient  Bostrenus,  two  miles 
north  of  Sidon.  The  plain  is  only  28  miles 
in  length.  Its  average  breadth  is  about  a 
mile ;  but  near  Sidon,  the  mountains  retreat 
to  a  distance  of  2  miles,  and  near  Tyre  to 
a  distance  of  5  miles.  2.  A  longer  district, 
which  afterwards  became  entitled  to  the 
name  of  Phoenicia,  extended  up  the  coast 
to  a  point  marked  by  the  island  of  Aradus, 
and  by  Antaradus  towards  the  north;  the 
southern  boundary  remaining  the  same  as 
in  Phoenicia  Proper.  Phoenicia,  thus  de- 
fined, is  estimated  to  have  been  about  120 
miles  in  length ;  while  its  breadth,  between 
Lebanon  and  the  sea,  never  exceeded  20 
miles,  and  was  generally  much  less.  Scarce- 
ly 16  geographical  miles  farther  north  than 
Sidon  was  Berytus,  with  a  roadstead  so 
well    suited  for  the  purposes  of  modern 


PHOENICE 


536 


PHOEXICE 


navigrttion,  that,  under  the  modern  name 
of  Beirout,  it  has  eclipsed  both  Sidon  and 
Tyre  as  an  emp'^rium  for  Syria.  Still  far- 
ther north  was  Byblus,  the  Gebal  of  the 
Bible  (Ez.  xxvii.  9),  inhabited  by  seamen 
and  calkers.  It  still  retains  in  Arabic  the 
kindred  name  of  Jebeil.  Tiien  came  Trip- 
olis  (now  Tardbulus),  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  colonists  from  Tyre,  Sidon,  and 
Aradus,  with  three  distinct  towns.  And 
lastly,  towards  the  extreme  point  north  was 
Aradus  itself,  the  Arvad  of  Gen.  x.  18,  and 
Ez.  xxvii.  8  ;  situated,  like  Tyre,  on  a  small 
island  near  the  mainland,  and  founded  by 
exiles  from  Sidon.  The  whole  of  Piioe- 
nicia  Proper  is  well  watered  by  various 
streams  from  the  adjoining  hills.  The 
havens  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  afforded  water 
of  sufficient  depth  for  all  the  requirements 
of  ancient  navigation,  and  the  neighboring 
range  of  the  Lebanon,  in  its  extensive  for- 
ests, furnished  what  then  seemed  a  nearly 
inexhaustible  supply  of  timber  for  ship- 
building. In  reference  to  the  period  when 
the  Phoenicians  had  lost  their  independence, 
scarcely  any  two  Greek  and  Roman  writers 
give  precisely  the  same  geographical  boun- 
daries to  Phoenicia.  In  the  Apocrypha,  it 
is  not  defined,  though  spoken  of  as  being, 
with  Coele-Syria,  under  one  military  com- 
mander (2  Mace.  iii.  5,  8,  viii.  8,  x.  11; 
3  Mace.  iii.  15).  In  the  New  Testament, 
the  word  occurs  only  in  three  passages, 
Acts  xi.  19,  XV.  3,  xxi.  2 ;  and  not  one 
of  these  affords  a  clew  as  to  how  far  the 
writer  deemed  Phoenicia  to  extend.  The 
Phoenicians  spoke  a  branch  of  the  Semitic 
language  so  closely  allied  to  Hebrew,  that 
Phoenician  and  Hebrew,  though  different 
dialects,  may  practically  be  regarded  as  the 
same  language.  Concerning  the  original 
race  to  which  the  Phoenicians  belonged, 
nothing  can  be  known  with  certainty,  be- 
cause they  are  found  already  established 
along  the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  the  earliest 
dawn  of  authentic  history,  and  for  centuries 
afterwards  there  is  no  record  of  their  origin. 
According  to  Herodotus  (vii.  89),  they  said 
of  themselves  in  his  time  that  they  came  in 
days  of  old  from  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea ; 
and  in  this  there  would  be  nothing  in  the 
slightest  degree  improbable,  as  they  spoke 
a  language  cognate  to  that  of  the  Arabians, 
who  inhabited  the  east  coast  of  that  sea. 
Still  neither  the  truth  nor  the  falsehood  of 
the  tradition  can  now  be  proved.  But  there 
is  one  point  respecting  their  race  which  can 
be  proved  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  prob- 
able, and  which  has  peculiar  interest  as 
bearing  on  the  Jews,  viz.  that  the  Phoeni- 
cians were  of  the  same  race  as  the  Ca- 
naanites.  In  regard  to  Phoenician  trade, 
connected  with  the  Israelites,  it  must  be 
recollected  that  up  to  the  time  of  David, 
not  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  seems  to  have 
possessed  a  single  harbor  on  the  sea-coast ; 


it  was  impossible  therefore  that  they  could 
become  a  commercial  people.  But  from 
the  time  that  David  had  conquered  Edoni, 
an  oi)ening  for  trade  was  affonk'd  to  the 
Israelites.  The  connnand  of  Ezion-geber 
near  Elath,  in  the  land  of  Edom,  enal)led 
them  to  engage  in  the  navigation  oi"  the  Hod 
Sea.  As  tlicy  were  novices,  however,  at 
sailing,  and  as  the  Phoenicians,  during  tlie 
period  of  the  independence  of  Edom,  were 
probably  allowed  to  trade  from  Ezion-geber, 
it  was  politic  in  Solomon  to  permit  the 
Phoenicians  of  Tyre  to  have  docks,  and 
build  ships  at  Ezion-geber  on  condition 
that  his  sailors  and  vessels  might  have  the 
benefit  of  their  experience.  The  results 
seem  to  have  been  strikingly  successful. 
The  religion  of  the  Phoenicians,  opposed 
to  Monotheism,  was  a  Pantheistical  person- 
ification of  the  forces  of  nature,  and  in  its 
most  philosophical  shadowing  forth  of  the 
Supreme  powers,  it  may  be  said  to  have 
represented  the  male  and  female  principles 
of  production.  In  its  popular  form,  it  was 
especially  a  worship  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
five  planets,  or,  as  it  might  have  been  ex- 
pressed according  to  ancient  notions,  of 
the  seven  planets  —  the  most  beautiful,  and 
perhaps  the  most  natural,  form  of  idolatry 
ever  presented  to  the  human  imagination. 
These  planets,  however,  were  not  regard- 
ed as  lifeless  globes  of  matter,  obedient  to 
physical  laws,  but  as  intelligent  animated 
powers,  influencing  the  human  will,  and 
controlling  human  destinies.  It  will  be 
proper  here  to  point  out  certain  effects 
which  the  circumstance  of  their  being  wor- 
shipped in  Phoenicia  produced  upon  the 
Hebrews.  1.  In  the  first  place,  their  wor- 
ship was  a  constant  temptation  to  Poly- 
theism and  idolatry.  It  can  scarcely  be 
doubted  that  the  Phoenicians,  as  a  great 
commercial  people,  were  more  generally 
intelligent,  and  as  we  should  now  say  civil- 
ized, than  the  inland  agricultural  popula- 
tion of  Palestine.  When  the  simple-mind- 
ed Jews,  therefore,  came  in  contact  with  a 
people  more  versatile,  and,  apparently,  more 
enlightened  than  themselves,  but  who  nev- 
ertheless, either  in  a  philosophical  or  in  a 
popular  form,  admitted  a  system  of  Poly- 
theism, an  influence  would  be  exerted  on 
Jewish  minds,  tending  to  make  them  regard 
their  exclusive  devotion  to  their  own  one 
God,  Jehovah,  however  transcendent  His 
attributes,  as  unsocial  and  morose.  2.  The 
Phoenician  religion  was  likewise  [n  other 
respects  deleterious  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine,  being  in  some  points  essentially 
demoralizing.  For  example,  it  sanctioned 
the  dreadful  superstition  of  burning  children 
as  sacrifices  to  a  Phoenician  god.  Again, 
parts  of  the  Phoenician  religion,  especially 
the  worship  of  Astarte,  tended  to  encourage 
dissoluteness  in  the  relations  of  the  sexes, 
and  even  to  sanctify  impurities  of  the  most 


PHRYGIA 


537 


PIETY 


abominable  description.  The  only  other 
fact  respecting  the  Phoenicians  that  need 
be  mentioned  here  is,  that  the  invention 
of  letters  was  universally  asserted  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  liave  been  commu- 
nicated by  the  Phoenicians  to  the  Greeks. 
The  names  of  the  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
nlphabet  are  in  accordance  with  this  belief. 
Moreover,  as  to  writing,  the  ancient  Hebrew 
letters,  substantially  the  same  as  Phoenician, 
agree  closely  with  ancient  Greek  letters. 
For  further  details  respecting  the  Phoeni- 
cians, see  Tyre  and  Zidon. 

Phryg'ia.  Perhaps  there  is  no  geo- 
graphical terra  in  the  New  Testament  which 
is  less  capable  of  an  exact  definition.  In  fact 
there  was  no  Roman  province  of  Phrygia 
till  considerably  after  the  first  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  in  the  peninsula  of 
AsLa  Minor.  The  word  was  ratlier  eth- 
nological than  political,  and  denoted,  in  a 
vague  manner,  the  western  part  of  the 
central  region  of  that  peninsula.  Accord- 
ingly, in  two  of  the  three  places  where  it 
is  used,  it  is  mentioned  in  a  manner  not 
intended  to  be  precise  (Acts  xvi.  6,  xviii. 
23).  By  Phrygia  we  must  understand  an 
extensive  district  in  Asia  Minor,  which  con- 
tributed portions  to  several  Roman  prov- 
inces, and  varying  portions  at  different 
times. 

Phu'rah,  Gideon's  servant,  probably 
his  armor-bearer  (comp.  1  Sam.  xiv.  1), 
who  accompanied  him  in  his  midnight  visit 
to  the  camp  of  the  Midianites  (Judg.  vii. 
10,  11). 

Phu'rim,  Esth.  xi.  1.     [Purim.] 

Phut,  Put,  the  third  name  in  the  list 
of  the  sons  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  6 ;  1  Chr.  i.  8), 
elsewhere  applied  to  an  African  country  or 
people.  The  few  mentions  of  Phut  in  the 
Bible  clearly  indicate  a  country  or  people 
of  Africa,  and,  it  must  be  added,  probably 
not  far  from  Egypt  (Is.  Ixvi.  19  ;  Nab.  iii. 
9 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ez.  xxvii.  10,  xxx.  5, 
xxxviii.  5).  From  these  pass.ages  we  can- 
not infer  anything  as  to  the  exact  position 
of  this  country  or  people ;  unless  indeed 
in  Nahum,  Gush  and  Phut,  Mizraim  and 
Lubim,  are  respectively  connected,  which 
might  indicate  a  position  south  of  Egypt 

Phu'vah,  one  of  the  sons  of  Issachar 
(Gen.  xlvi.  13),  and  founder  of  the  family 

of  the  PUNITES. 

Phygel'lus.  [Hermogenes.] 
Phylactery".  [Frontlets.] 
Pi-be'seth,  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt, 
mentioned  in  Ez.  xxx.  17,  the  same  as  Bu- 
bastis,  which  was  situate  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  about  40 
milen  from  Memphis. 

Picture.  In  two  of  the  three  passages 
in  which  "  picture  "  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  it 
denotes  idolatrous  representations,  either 
independent  images,  or  more  usually  stones 
"  portrayed,"  i.  e.  sculptured  in  low  relief, 


or  engraved  and  colored  (Ez.  xxiii.  14; 
Layard,  Mn.  Sf  Bab.  ii.  306,  308).  Mov- 
able pictures,  in  the  modern  sense,  were 
doubtless  unknown  to  the  Jews.  The 
"  pictures  of  silver  "  of  Prov.  xxv.  11,  were 
probably  wall-surfaces  or  cornices  with  car- 
vings. 

Piece  of  Gold.  The  A.  V.  in  render- 
ing the  elliptical  expression  "  six  thousand 
of  gold,"  in  a  passage  respecting  Naaman, 
relating  that  he  "  took  with  him  ten  talents 
of  silver,  and  six  thousand  of  gold,  and  ten 
changes  of  raiment"  (2  K.  v.  5),  supplies 
"  pieces "  as  the  word  understood.  The 
rendering  "  pieces  of  gold"  is  very  doubt- 
ful; and  "shekels  of  gold,"  as  designating 
the  value  of  the  whole  quantity,  not  indi- 
vidual pieces,  is  preferable. 

Piece  of  Silver.  The  passages  in  the 
O.  T.  and  those  in  the  N,  T.  in  wliich  the 
A.  V.  uses  this  term,  must  be  separately 
considered.  I.  In  the  O.  T.  the  word 
"  pieces  "  is  used  in  tlie  A.  V.  for  a  word 
understood  in  the  Hebrew,  if  we  except  one 
case  to  be  afterwards  noticed.  The  phrase 
is  always  "a  thousand"  or  the  like  "  of 
silver "  (Gen.  xx.  16,  xxxvii.  28,  xlv.  22 ; 
Judg.  ix.  4,  xvi.  5;  2  K.  vi.  25;  Hos.  iii.  2; 
Zech.  xi.  12,  13).  In  similar  passages  the 
word  "  shekels "  occurs  in  the  Hebrew. 
There  are  other  passages  in  which  the  A. 
"V.  supplies  the  word  "  shekels  "  instead  of 
"  pieces  "  (Deut.  xxii.  19,  29 ;  Judg.  xvii. 
2,  3,  4,  10;  2  Sam.  xviii.  11,  12),  and  of 
these  the  first  two  require  this  to  be  done. 
The  shekel,  be  it  remembered,  was  the 
common  weight  for  money,  and  therefore 
most  likely  to  be  understood  in  an  elliptical 
phrase.  The  exceptional  case  in  which  a 
word  corresponding  to  "  pieces  "  is  found 
in  the  Hebrew  is  in  the  Psalms  (Ixviii.  30, 
Heb.  31).  The  word  rats,  which  occurs 
nowhere  else,  if  it  preserve  its  radical 
meaning,  must  signify  a  piece  broken  off, 
or  a  fragment;  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  a  coin  is  meant.  II.  In  theN.  T. 
two  words  are  rendered  by  the  phrase 
"  piece  of  silver :  "  1.  Drachma  (Luke 
XV.  8,  9),  which  was  a  Greek  silver  coin, 
equivalent,  at  the  time  of  St.  Luke,  to  the 
Roman  denarius.  2.  Silver  only  occurs  in 
the  account  of  the  betrayal  of  our  Lord  for 
"  thirty  pieces  of  silver"  (Matt.  xxvi.  15, 
xxvii.  3,  5,  6,  9).  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain 
what  coins  are  here  intended.  If  the  most 
common  silver  pieces  be  meant,  they  would 
be  denarii.  The  parallel  passage  in  Zech- 
ariah  (xi.  12,  13)  must,  however,  be  taken 
into  consideration,  where  shekels  must  be 
understood.  It  is  more  probable  that  the 
thirty  pieces  of  silver  were  tetradrachms 
than  that  they  were  denarii. 

Piety.  This  word  occurs  but  once  in 
the  A.  V. :  "  Let  them  learn  first  to  show 
piety  at  home,"  better,  "  towards  their  own 
household  "  (1  Tim.  v.  4).     The  choice  of 


PIGEON 


538 


PILLED 


this  word  here  instead  of  the  more  usual 
equivalents  of  " godliness,"  "reverence," 
and  the  like,  was  probably  determined  by 
the  special  sense  of  pieias,  as  "  erga  pa- 
rentes,"  i.  e.  towards  parents. 

Pigeon.       [TUKTLE-DOVE.] 

Pi-hahi'roth,  a  place  before  or  at 
which  the  Israelites  encamped,  at  the  close 
of  the  third  march  from  Eameses,  when 
they  went  out  of  Egypt  (Ex.  xiv.  2,  9 ; 
Num.  xxiii.  7,  8).  It  is  an  Egyptian  word, 
eignifying  "the  place  where  sedge  grows." 

Pi'Iate,  Pon'tius.  The  name  indi- 
cates that  he  was  connected,  by  descent  or 
adoption,  vrith  the  gens  of  tlie  Pontii,  first 
conspicuous  in  Roman  history  in  the  person 
of  C.  Pontius  Telesinus,  the  great  Samnite 
general.  He  was  the  sixth  Roman  procu- 
rator of  Judaea,  and  under  him  our  Lord 
worked,  suffered,  and  died,  as  we  learn, 
not  only  from  Scripture,  but  from  Tacitus 
(^Ann.  XV.  44).  He  was  appointed  a.  v. 
25-6,  in  the  12th  year  of  Tiberius.  His 
arbitrary  administration  nearly  drove  the 
Jews  to  insurrection  on  two  or  three  occa- 
sions. One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  remove 
the  headquarters  of  the  army  from  Caesarea 
to  Jerusalem.  The  soldiers  of  course  took 
with  them  their  standards,  bearing  the  im- 
age of  the  emperor,  into  the  Holy  City.  No 
previous  governor  had  ventured  on  such 
an  outrage.  The  people  poured  down  in 
crowds  to  Caesarea,  where  the  procurator 
was  then  residing,  and  besought  him  to 
remove  the  images.  After  five  days  of  dis- 
cussion he  gave  the  signal  to  some  concealed 
soldiers  to  surround  the  petitioners,  and  put 
them  to  death  unless  they  ceased  to  trouble 
him;  but  this  only  strengthened  their  de- 
termination, and  they  declared  themselves 
rfady  rather  to  submit  to  death  than  forego 
their  resistance  to  an  idolatrous  innovation. 
Pilate  then  yielded,  and  the  standards  were 
by  his  orders  brought  down  to  Caesarea. 
His  slaughter  of  certain  Galileans  (Luke 
xiii.  1)  led  to  some  remarks  from  our  Lord 
on  the  connection  between  sin  and  calam- 
ity. It  must  have  occurred  at  some  feast 
at  Jerusalem,  in  the  outer  court  of  the 
Temple.  It  was  the  custom  for  the  procu- 
rators to  reside  at  Jerusalem  during  the 
great  feasts,  to  preserve  order,  and  accord- 
ingly, at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  last  pass- 
•  over,  Pilate  was  occupying  his  official  res- 
idence in  Herod's  palace.  The  history 
of  his  condemnation  of  our  Lord  is  related 
fully  elsewhere.  [Jesus  Christ,  p.  291.] 
We  learn  from  Josephus  that  Pilate's  anxi- 
ety to  avoid  giving  ofi'ence  to  Caesar  did 
not  save  him  from  political  disaster.  The 
Samaritans  were  unquiet  and  rebellious  — 
Pilate  led  his  troops  against  them,  and  de- 
feated them  easily  enough.  The  Samari- 
tans complained  to  Vitellius,  now  president 
of  Syria,  and  he  sent  Pilate  to  Rome  to 
answer  their  accusations  before  the  emper- 


or. When  he  reached  it  he  found  TiberittS 
dead,  and  Caius  (Caligula)  on  the  throne, 
A.  D.  36.  Eusebius  adds  that  soon  after- 
wards, "  wearied  with  misfortunes,"  he 
killed  himself.  As  to  the  scene  of  his 
death  there  are  various  traditions.  One 
is,  that  he  was  banished  to  Vienna  Allob- 
rogum  (Vienne  on  the  Rhone),  where  a 
singular  monument  —  a  pyramid  on  a  quad- 
rangular base,  52  feet  high  —  is  called  Pon- 
tius Pilate's  tomb.  Another  is,  that  he 
sought  to  hide  his  sorrows  on  the  moun- 
tain by  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  now  called 
Mount  Pilatus ;  and  there,  after  spending 
years  in  its  recesses,  in  remorse  and  de- 
spair rather  than  penitence,  plunged  into 
the  dismal  lake  which  occupies  its  sum- 
mit. We  learn  from  the  Fathers  that 
Pilate  made  an  official  report  to  Tiberius 
of  our  Lord's  trial  and  condemnation ;  but 
the  Acta  Pilati  now  extant  in  Greek,  and 
two  Latin  epistles  from  him  to  the  emperor, 
are  certainly  spurious. 

Pil'dash.,  one  of  the  eight  sons  of  Na- 
hor,  Abraham's  brother,  by  his  wife  and 
niece,  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 

Pil'elia,  the  name  of  one  of  the  chief 
of  the  people,  probably  a  family,  who 
signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh* 
X.  24). 

Pillar.  The  notion  of  a  pillar  is  of  a 
shaft  or  isolated  pile,  either  supporting  or 
not  supporting  a  roof.  But  perhaps  the 
earliest  application  of  the  pillar  was  the  vo- 
tive or  monumental.  This  in  early  times 
consisted  of  nothing  but  a  single  stone,  or 
pile  of  stones  (Gen.  xxviii.  18,  xxxi.  46, 
&c.).  The  stone  Ezel  (1  Sam.  xx.  19) 
was  probably  a  terminal  stone,  or  a  way- 
mark.  The  "place"  set  up  by  Saul  (1 
Sam.  XV.  12)  is  explained  by  St.  Jerome  to 
be  a  trophy.  So  also  Jacob  set  up  a  pillar 
over  Rachel's  grave  (Gen.  xxxv.  20).  The 
monolithic  tombs  and  obelisks  of  Petra  are 
instances  of  similar  usage.  Lastly,  the 
figurative  use  of  the  term  "pillar,"  in  ref- 
erence to  the  cloud  and  fire  accompanying 
the  Israelites  on  their  march,  or  as  in  Cant, 
iii.  6,  and  Rev.  x.  1,  is  plainly  derived  from 
the  notion  of  an  isolated  column  not  sup- 
porting a  roof. 

Pillar,  Plain  of  the,  or  rather  "  oak 
of  the  pillar  "  —  that  b^ing  the  real  signifi- 
cation of  the  Hebrew  word  el6n.  A  tree 
which  stood  near  Shechera,  and  at  which 
the  men  of  Shechem  and  the  house  of  Millo 
assembled  to  crow  i  Abimelech  son  of  Gid- 
eon (Judg.  ix.  6). 

Pilled  (Gen.  xxx.  37,  38) :  Peeled 
(Is.  xviii.  2;  Ez.  xxix.  18).  The  verb 
"to  pill"  appears  in  old  Eng.  as  identical 
in  meaning  with  "to  peel  =  to  strip,"  and 
in  this  sense  is  used  in  the  above  passages 
from  Gen.  Of  the  next  stage  in  its  mean- 
ing as  =  plunder,  we  have  traces  in  the 
words  "pillage,"  "pilfer."    In  the  Eng- 


PILTAI 


539 


PITCH 


lish  of  the  17th  century  "  peel"  was  used 
for  the  latter  signification. 

Pil'tai,  the  representative  of  the  priestly- 
house  of  Moadiah,  or  Maadiah,  in  the  time 
of  Joiakim  the  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  17). 

Pine-tree.  l.  Heb.  Tidhdr  (Is.  xli. 
19,  Ix.  13).  What  tree  is  intended  is  not 
certain;  but  the  rendering  "pine"  seems 
least  probable  of  any.  2.  Shemen  (Neh. 
viii.  15)  is  probably  the  wild  olive. 

Pinnacle  of  the  Temple  (Matt.  iv.  5 ; 
Luke  iv.  9).  The  Greek  word  ought  to  be 
rendered  not  a  pinnacle,  but  the  pinnacle. 
The  only  part  of  the  Temple  which  answered 
to  the  modern  sense  of  pinnacle  was  the 
golden  spikes  erected  on  the  roof  to  pre- 
vent birils  from  settling  there.  Perhaps 
the  Avord  means  the  battlement  ordered  by 
law  to  be  added  to  every  roof. 

Pi'non,  one  of  the  "dukes"  of  Edom; 
that  is,  head  or  founder  of  a  tribe  of  that 
nation  (Gen.  xxxvi.  41;  1  Chr.  i.  52). 

Pipe  (Heb.  chdlil).  The  Hebrew  word 
so  rendered  is  derived  from  a  root  signify- 
ing "  to  bore,  perforate,"  and  is  represent- 
ed with  sufficient  correctness  by  the  Eng- 
lish "  pipe  "or  "  flute,"  as  in  the  margin 
of  1  K.  i.  40.  It  is  one  of  the  simplest,  and 
therefore  probably  one  of  the  oldest  of 
musical  instruments.  It  is  associated  with 
the  tabret  as  an  instrument  of  a  peaceful 
and  social  character.  The  pipe  and  tabret 
were  used  at  the  banquets  of  the  Hebrews 
(Is.  V.  12),  and  accompanied  the  simpler 
religious  services,  when  the  young  prophets, 
returning  from  the  high-place,  caught  their 
inspiration  from  the  harmony  (1  Sam.  x. 
6) ;  or  the  pilgrims,  on  their  way  to  the 
great  festivals  of  their  ritual,  beguiled  the 
weariness  of  the  march  with  psalms  sung 
to  the  simple  music  of  the  pipe  (Is.  xxx. 
29).  The  sound  of  the  pipe  was  apparent- 
ly a  soft  wailing  note,  which  made  it  appro- 
priate to  be  used  in  mourning  and  at  funer- 
als (Matt.  ix.  23),  and  in  the  lament  of  the 
prophet  over  the  destruction  of  Moab  (Jer. 
xlviii.  36).  It  was  even  used  in  the  Tem- 
ple choir,  as  appears  from  Ps.  Ixxxvii.  7, 
where  "  the  players  on  instruments  "  are 
properly  "pipers."  Twelve  days  in  the 
year,  according  to  the  Mishna,  the  pipes 
sounded  before  the  altar.  They  were  of 
reed,  and  not  of  copper  or  bronze,  because 
the  former  gave  a  softer  sound.  Of  these 
there  were  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than 
twelve.  In  later  times  the  funeral  and 
death-bed  were  never  without  the  profes- 
sional pipers  or  flute-players  (Matt.  ix. 
23),  a  custom  which  still  exists.  In  the 
social  and  festive  life  of  the  Egyptians  the 
pipe  played  as  prominent  a  part  as  among 
the  Hebrews. 

Pi'ram.  The  Amorite  king  of  Jarmuth 
at  the  time  of  Joshua's  conquest  of  Canaan 
(Josh.  X.  3,  27). 

Pir'atlion,  "  in  the  land  of  Epliraim  in 


the  mount  of  the  Amalekite ; "  a  place  in 
Judg.  xii.  15.  Its  site,  now  called  Fer'ata, 
is  about  one  mile  and  a  half  S.  of  the  road 
from  Jaffa,  by  JIableh,  to  Nalliis.  Pira- 
thonites  are  mentioned  in  Judg.  xii.  13,  15, 
and  1  Chr.  xxvii.  14. 

Pir'athonite,  the  native  of,  or  dweller 
in,  PiRATHON.  Two  such  are  named  in  the 
Bible.  1.  Abdon  ben-IIillel  (Judg.  xii. 
13,  15).  2.  Prom  the  same  place  came 
"  Benaiah  the  Pirathonite  of  the  children 
of  Ephraim"  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  14). 

Pis'gah  (Num.  xxi.  20,  xxiii.  14 ;  Deut. 
iii.  27,  xxxiv.  1),  a  mountain  range  or  dis- 
trict, the  same  as,  or  a  part  of,  that  called 
the  mountains  of  Abarim  (comp.  Deut. 
xxxii.  49  with  xxxiv.  1).  It  lay  on  the 
east  of  Jordan,  contiguous  to  the  field  of 
Moab,  and  immediately  opposite  Jericho. 
Its  highest  point  or  summit  —  its  "head" 
—  was  the  Mount  Nebo.  If  it  was  a  proper 
name,  we  can  only  conjecture  that  it  de- 
noted the  whole  or  part  of  the  range  of  the 
highlands  on  the  east  of  the  lower  Jordan. 
No  traces  of  the  name  Pisgah  have  been 
met  with  in  later  times  on  the  east  of  Jor- 
dan, but  in  the  Arabic  garb  of  Ras  el-Fesh- 
kah  (almost  identical  with  the  Hebrew 
Rosh  hap-pisgah)  it  is  attached  to  a  well- 
known  headland  on  the  north-western  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  a  mass  of  mountain  on 
wliich  is  situated  the  great  Mussulman 
sanctuary  of  Neby  Musa  (Moses).  This 
association  of  the  names  of  Mqscs  and  Pis- 
gah on  the  west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea  is 
extremely  startling.  No  explanation  of  it 
has  yet  been  offered.  —  Ashdoth-Pisgah  is 
noticed  under  its  own  head. 

PisicL'ia  was  a  district  in  Asia  Minor,  N, 
of  Pamphylia,  and  reached  to,  and  was 
partly  included  in,  Phrygia.  Thus  Anti- 
OCH  IN  PisiDiA  was  sometimes  called  a 
Phrygian  town.  St.  Paul  passed  through 
Pisidia  twice,  with  Barnabas,  on  the  first 
missionary  journey,  i.  e.  both  in  going  from 
Perga  to  IcoNiuM  (Acts  xiii.  13,  14,  51), 
and  in  returning  (xiv.  21,  24,  25;  compare 
2  Tim.  iii.  11).  It  is  probable  also  that  he 
traversed  the  northern  part  of  the  district, 
with  Silas  and  Timotheus,  on  the  second 
missionary  journey  (xvi.  6)  :  but  the  word 
Pisidia  does  not  occur  except  in  reference 
to  the  former  journey. 

Pi'son.     [Eden.] 

Pit.     [Hell.] 

Pitch.  The  three  Hebrew  words  all 
represent  the  same  object,  viz.  mineral 
pitch  or  asphalt,  in  its  different  aspects. 
Asphalt  is  an  opaque,  inflammable  sub- 
stance, which  bubbles  up  from  subterranean 
fountains  in  a  liquid  state,  and  hardens  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  but  readily  melts  under 
the  influence  of  heat.  In  the  latter  state  it 
is  very  tenacious,  and  was  used  as  a  cement 
in  lieu  of  mortar  in  Babylonia  (Gen.  xi.  3), 
as  well  as  for  coating  the  outsides  of  vessels 


PITCHER 


540 


PLAGUES 


(Gen.  vi.  14),  and  pai-ticularly  for  making 
the  papyrus  boats  of  the  Egyptians  water- 
tight (Ex.  ii.  3).  The  Jews  and  Arabians 
got  their  supply  in  large  quantities  from 
the  Dead  Sea,  which  hence  received  its 
classical  name  of  Lacus  Asphaltites. 

Pitcher.  The  word  "  pitcher  "  is  used 
in  A.  V.  to  denote  the  water-jars  or  pitchers 
with  one  or  two  handles,  used  chiefly  by 
women  for  carrying  water,  as  in  the  story 
of  Rebekah  (Gen.  xxiv.  15-20;  but  see 
Mark  xiv.  13;  Luke  xxii.  10).  This  prac- 
tice has  been,  and  is  still  usual  both  in  the 
East  and  elsewhere.  The  vessels  used  for 
the  purpose  are  generally  carried  on  the 
head  or  the  shoulder.  The  Bedouin  women 
commonly  use  skin-bottles.  Such  was  the 
*'  bottle  "  carried  by  Hagar  (Gen.  xxi.  14). 
The  same  word  is  used  of  the  pitchers  em- 
ployed by  Gideon's  300  men  (Judg.  vii.  IG). 

Pi'thom,  one  of  the  store-cities  built 
by  the  Israelites  for  the  first  oppressor,  the 
Pharaoh  "  which  knew  not  Joseph  "  (Ex.  i. 
11).  It  is  probably  the  Patumus  of  Herod- 
otus (ii.  159),  a  town  on  the  borders  of 
Egypt,  near  which  Necho  constructed  a 
canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Arabian  Gulf. 

Pi'thon.  One  of  the  four  sons  of  Mi- 
cah,  the  son  of  Mephibosheth  (1  Chr.  viii. 
85,  ix.  41). 

Plague,  The.  Several  Hebrew  words 
are  translated  "  pestilence  "  or  "  plague  ;  " 
but  not  one  of  these  words  can  be  consid- 
ered as  designating  by  its  signification  the 
disease  now  called  the  Plague.  Whether 
the  disease  be  mentioned  must  be  judged 
from  the  sense  of  passages,  not  from  the 
sense  of  words.  Those  pestilences  which 
were  sent  as  special  judgments,  and  were 
either  supernaturally  rapid  in  their  effects, 
or  in  addition  directed  against  particular 
culprits,  are  beyond  the  reach  of  human 
inquiry.  But  we  also  read  of  pestilences 
which,  although  sent  as  judgments,  have 
the  characteristics  of  modern  epidemics, 
not  being  rapid  beyond  nature,  nor  directed 
against  individuals  (Lev.  xxvi.  25 ;  Deut. 
xxviii.  21).  In  neither  of  these  passages 
does  it  seem  certain  that  the  Plague  is 
specified.  The  notices  in  the  prophets 
present  the  same  diflSculty.  Hezekiah's 
disease  has  been  thought  to  have  been  the 
Plague,  and  its  fatal  nature,  as  well  as  the 
mention  of  a  boil,  makes  this  not  improba- 
ble. On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  men- 
tion of  a  pestilence  among  his  people  at  the 
time. 

Plagues,  The  Ten.  The  occasion  on 
which  the  plagues  were  sent  is  described  in 
Ex.iii.-xii.  1.  The  Plague  of  Blood. — When 
Moses  and  Aaron  came  before  Pharaoh,  a 
miracle  was  required  of  them.  Then  Aaron's 
rod  became  "  a  serpent"  (A.  V.),  or  rather 
"  a  crocodile."  Its  being  changed  into  an 
animal  reverenced  by  all  the  Egyptians,  or 
by  some  of  them,  would  have  been  an  espe- 


cial warning  to  Pharaoh.  The  Egyptian 
magicians  called  by  the  king  produced  what 
seemed  to  be  the  same  wonder,  yet  Aaron's 
rod  swallowed  up  the  others  (vii.  3-12). 
This  passage,  taken  alone,  would  appear  to 
indicate  that  the  magicians  succeeded  in 
working  wonders,  but,  if  it  is  compared 
with  the  others  which  relate  their  opposi- 
tion on  the  occasions  of  the  first  three 
plagues,  a  contrary  inference  seems  more 
reasonable.  A  comparison  with  other  pas- 
sages strengthens  us  in  the  inference  that 
the  magicians  succeeded  merely  by  jug- 
gling. After  this  warning  to  Pharaoh,  Aaron, 
at  the  word  of  Moses,  waved  his  rod  over  the 
Nile,  and  the  river  was  turned  into  blood, 
with  all  its  canals  and  reservoirs,  and  every 
vessel  of  water  drawn  from  them  ;  the  fish 
died,  and  the  river  stank.  The  Egyptians 
could  not  drink  of  it,  and  digged  around  it 
for  water.  This  plague  was  doubly  humil- 
iating to  the  religion  of  the  country,  as  the 
Nile  was  held  sacred,  as  well  as  some  kinds 
of  its  fish,  not  to  speak  of  the  crocodiles, 
which  probably  were  destroyed  (Ex.  vii. 
16-25).  Those  who  have  endeavored  to 
explain  this  plague  by  natural  causes,  have 
referred  to  the  changes  of  color  to  which 
the  Nile  is  subject,  the  appearance  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  the  so-called  rain  and  dew 
of  blood  of  the  middle  ages ;  the  last  two 
occasioned  by  small  fungi  of  very  rapid 
growth.  But  such  theories  do  not  explain 
why  the  wonder  happened  at  a  time  of  year 
when  the  Nile  is  most  clear,  nor  why  it 
killed  the  fish  and  made  the  water  unfit  to 
be  drunk.  2.  The  Plague  of  Froffs. — When 
seven  days  had  passed  after  the  first  plague, 
the  river  and  all  the  open  waters  of  Egypt 
brought  forth  countless  frogs,  which  not 
only  covered  the  land,  but  filled  the  houses, 
even  in  their  driest  parts  and  vessels,  for 
the  ovens  and  kneading-troughs  are  speci- 
fied. This  must  have  been  an  especially 
trying  judgment  to  the  Egyptians,  as  frogs 
were  included  among  tlie  sacred  animals 
(Ex.  viii.  1-15).  3.  The  Plague  of  Lice.— 
The  dry  land  was  now  smitten  by  the  rod, 
and  its  very  dust  seemed  turned  into  minute 
noxious  insects,  so  thickly  did  they  swarm 
on  man  and  beast,  or  rather  "  in  "  them. 
The  scrupulous  cleanliness  of  the  Egyp- 
tians wouH  add  intolerably  to  the  bodily 
distress  of  tnis  plague,  by  which  also  they 
again  incurred  religious  defilement.  As  to 
the  species  of  the  vermin  there  seems  no 
reason  to  disturb  the  authorized  translation 
of  the  word.  The  magicians,  who  had  im- 
itated by  their  enchantments  the  two  previ- 
ous miracles,  were  now  foiled.  They  struck 
the  ground,  as  Aaron  did,  and  repeated  their 
own  incantations,  but  it  was  without  eflfect 
(Ex.  viii.  16-19).  4.  The  Plague  of  Flies. 
—  After  the  river  and  the  land,  the  air  was 
smitten,  being  filled  with  winged  insects, 
which  swarmed  in  the  houses  and  devoured 


PLAGUES 


541 


PLAINS 


the  land,  but  Goshen  was  exempted  from 
the  plague.  The  word  translated  "  swarms 
of  flies  "  most  probably  denotes  the  great 
Egyptian  beetle  {scarabaeus-sacer),  which  is 
constantly  represented  in  their  sculptures. 
Besides  the  annoying  and  destructive  hab- 
its of  its  tribe,  it  was  an  object  of  worship, 
and  thus  the  Egyptians  were  again  scourged 
by  their  own  superstitions  (Ex.  viii.  20- 
32).  5.  The  Plague  of  the  JIurrain  of 
Beasts.  —  Still  coming  closer  and  closer  to 
the  Egyptians,  God  sent  a  disease  upon 
the  cattle,  which  were  not  only  their  prop- 
erty, but  their  deities.  At  the  precise  time 
of  which  Moses  forewarned  Pharaoh,  all 
the  cattle  of  the  Egyptians  were  smitten 
with  a  murrain  and  died,  but  not  one  of 
the  cattle  of  the  Israelites  suffered  (Ex,  ix. 
1-7).  6.  The  Plague  of  Boils.  —  From  the 
cattle,  the  hand  of  God  was  extended  to 
their  own  persons.  Moses  and  Aaron  were 
commanded  to  take  ashes  of  the  furnace, 
and  to  "  sprinkle  it  toward  the  heaven  in 
the  sight  of  Pharaoh."  It  was  to  become 
"  small  dust "  throughout  Egypt,  and  "  be 
a  boil  breaking  forth  [with]  blains  upon 
man  and  upon  beast"  (Ex.  ix.  8-12). 
This  accordingly  came  to  pass.  The  plague 
seems  to  have  been  the  black  leprosy,  a 
fearful  kind  of  elephantiasis,  which  was 
long  remembered  as  "  the  botch  of  Egypt " 
(Deut.  xxviii.  27,  35).  7.  Tlie  Plague  of 
Hail.  —  The  account  of  the  seventh  plague 
is  preceded  by  a  warning,  which  Moses 
was  commanded  to  deliver  to  Pliaraoh,  re- 
specting the  terrible  nature  of  the  plagues 
that  were  to  ensue  if  he  remained  obsti- 
nate. Man  and  beast  were  smitten,  and 
the  herbs  and  every  tree  broken,  save  in 
the  land  of  Goshen.  The  ruin  caused  by 
the  hail  was  evidently  far  greater  than  that 
effected  by  any  of  the  earlier  plagues. 
Hail  is  now  extremely  rare,  but  not  un- 
known, in  Egypt,  and  it  is  interesting  that 
the  narrative  seems  to  imply  that  it  some- 
times falls  there  (Ex.  ix.  13-34).  8.  The 
Plague  of  Locusts.  —  The  severity  of  this 
plague  can  be  well  understood  by  those 
who  have  been  in  Egypt  in  a  part  of  the 
country  where  a  flight  of  locusts  has  aliglit- 
ed.  In  tills  case  the  plague  was  greater 
than  an  ordinary  visitation,  since  it  extend- 
ed over  a  far  wider  space,  rather  than  be- 
cause it  was  more  intense ;  for  it  is  impos- 
sible to  imagine  any  more  complete  de- 
struction than  that  always  caused  by  a 
swarm  of  locusts  (Ex.  x.  1-20).  9.  The 
Plague  of  Darkness.  —  "  There  was  a  thick 
darkness  in  all  the  land  of  Egypt  tlirce 
days ; "  while  "  all  the  children  of  Israel 
had  light  in  their  dwellings."  It  has  been 
illustrated  by  reference  to  the  Samoom  and  i 
the  hot  wind  of  the  Khamaseen.  The  for-  j 
flier  is  a  sand-storm  which  occurs  in  the 
desert,  seldom  lasting  more  than  a  quarter  I 
of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes,  but  for  the  { 


'  time  often  causing  the  darkness  of  twilight, 
j  and  affecting  man  and  beast.  The  hot 
I  wind  of  the  Khamiseen  usually  blows  for 
\  three  days  and  nights,  and  carries  so  much 
I  sand  with  it,  that  it  produces  the  appear- 
i  ance  of  a  yellow  fog.  It  thus  resembles 
I  the  Samoom,  though  far  less  powerful  and 
i  far  less  distressing  in  its  effects.  It  is  not 
known  to  cause  actual  darkness.  The 
plague  may  have  been  an  extremely  severe 
sand-storm,  miraculous  in  its  violence  and 
duration,  for  the  length  of  three  days  does 
not  make  it  natural,  since  the  severe  storms 
are  always  very  brief  (Ex.  x.  21-29).  10. 
The  Death  of  the  Firstborn.  —  Before  the 
tenth  plague  Moses  went  to  warn  Pharaoh. 
"Thus  saith  the  Lord,  About  midnight  will 
I  go  out  into  the  midst  of  Egypt ;  and  all 
the  firstborn  in  the  land  of  Egypt  shall  die, 
from  the  firstborn  of  Pharaoh  that  sitteth 
upon  his  throne,  even  to  the  firstborn  of 
the  maidservant  that  is  behind  the  mill; 
and  all  the  firstborn  of  beasts  "  (Ex.  xi.  4, 
5).  The  clearly  miraculous  nature  of  this 
plague,  in  its  severity,  its  falling  upon  man 
and  beast,  and  the  singling  out  of  the  first- 
born, puts  it  wholly  beyond  comparison  with 
any  natural  pestilence,  even  the  severest 
recorded  in  history,  whether  of  the  peculiar 
Egyptian  Plague,  or  other  like  epidemics. 
The  history  of  the  ten  plagues  strictly  ends 
with  the  death  of  the  firstborn.  The  grad- 
ual increase  in  severity  of  the  plagues  is 
perhaps  the  best  key  to  their  meaning. 
They  seem  to  have  been  sent  as  warnings 
to  the  oppressor,  to  afford  him  a  means  of 
seeing  God's  will  and  an  opportunity  of 
repenting  before  Egypt  was  ruined.  The 
lesson  that  Pharaoh's  career  teaches  us 
seems  to  be,  that  there  are  men  whom  the 
most  signal  judgments  do  not  affect  so  as  to 
cause  any  lasting  repentance. 

Plains.  This  one  term  does  duty  in  the 
Authorized  Version  for  no  less^than  seven 
distinct  Hebrew  words.  1.  Abel. — This 
word  perhaps  answers  more  nearly  to  our 
word  "  meadow"  than  any  other.  It  occurs 
in  the  names  of  Abel-maim,  Abel-meho- 
LAH,  Abel-shittim,  and  is  rendered  "plain " 
in  Judg.  xi.  33,  "  plain  of  vineyards."  2. 
Bik'dh.  —  Fortunately  we  are  able  to  iden- 
tity the  most  remarkable  of  the  Bik'&hs  of 
the  Bible,  and  thus  to  ascertain  the  force 
of  the  term.  The  great  Plain  or  Valley 
of  Coele-Syria,  the  "  hollow  land"  of  tlie 
Greeks,  wiiich  separates  the  two  ranges  of 
Lebanon  and  Antilcbanon,  is  the  most  re- 
markable of  them  all.  Out  of  Palestine 
we  find  denoted  by  the  word  Bik'dh  the 
"plain  of  the  land  of  Shinar"  (Gen.  xi.  2), 
the  "plain  of  Mesopotamia"  (Ez.  iii.  22, 
23,  viii.  4,  xxxvii.  1,  2),  and  the  "  plain  in 
the  province  of  Dura "  (Dan.  iii.  1).  3. 
J/a-Sheftldh,  the  invariable  designation  of 
the  depressed,  flat  or  gently  undulating  re- 
gion which  uitervened  between  the  liigti> 


PLEDGE 


542 


POETRY 


lands  of  Judah  and  the  Mediterranean,  and 
was  commonly  in  possession  of  the  Philis- 
tines. 4.  El6n. — Our  translators  have  uni- 
formly rendered  this  word  "plain."  But  this 
is  not  the  verdict  of  the  majority  or  the  most 
trustworthy  of  the  ancient  versions.  They 
regard  the  word  as  meaning  an  "  oak"  or 
"  grove  of  oaks,"  a  rendering  supported  by 
nearlj'  all  the  commentators  and  lexicogra- 
phers of  the  present  day.  The  passages  in 
which  the  word  occurs  erroneously  trans- 
lated "plain,"  are  as  follows  :  —  Plain  of 
Moreh  (Gen.  xii.  6;  Deut.  xi.  30),  Plain  of 
Mamre  (Gen.  xiii.  18,  xiv.  13,  xviii.  1), 
Plain  of  Zaanaim  (Judg.  iv.  11),  Plain  of 
the  Pillar  (Judg.  ix.  6),  Plain  of  Meonenim 
(ix.  37),  Plain  of  Tabor  (1  Sam.  x.  3). 

Pledge.    [Loan.] 

Ple'iades.  The  Heb.  word  (ctmdh)  so 
rendered  occurs  in  Job  ix.  9,  xxxviii.  31, 
and  Am.  v.  8.  In  the  last  passage  our  A. 
V.  has  "  the  seven  stars,"  although  the  Ge- 
neva version  translates  the  word  "Pleia- 
des "  as  in  the  other  cases. 

Plough.     [Agricultdke.] 

Poctt'ereth.  The  children  of  Poch- 
ereth  of  Zcbaira  were  among  the  children  of 
Solomon's  servants  who  returned  with  Ze- 
rubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  57 ;  Neh.  vii.  59). 

Poetry,  Hebrew.  The  attributes 
which  are  common  to  all  poetry,  and  which 
the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews  possesses  in  a 
higher  degree  perhaps  than  the  literature 
of  any  other  people,  it  is  unnecessary 
here  to  describe.  But  the  points  of  con- 
trast are  so  numerous,  and  the  peculiarities 
which  distinguish  Hebrew  poetry  so  re- 
markable, that  these  alone  require  a  full 
and  careful  consideration.  Of  the  three 
kinds  of  poetry  which  are  illustrated  by 
the  Hebrew  literature,  the  lyric  occupies 
the  foremost  place.  The  Shemitie  nations 
have  nothing  approaching  to  an  epic  poem, 
and  in  proportion  to  this  defect  the  lyric 
element  prevailed  more  greatly,  commen- 
cing in  the  pre-Mosaic  times,  flourishing  in 
rude  vigor  during  the  earlier  periods  of  the 
Judges,  the  heroic  age  of  the  Hebrews, 
growing  with  the  nation's  growth  and 
strengthening  with  its  strength,  till  it 
reached  its  highest  excellence  in  David, 
the  warrior-poet,  and  from  thenceforth  be- 
gan slowly  to  decline.  Gnomic  poetry  is 
the  product  of  a  more  advanced  age.  It 
arises  from  the  desire  felt  by  the  poet  to 
express  the  results  of  the  accumulated  ex- 
periences of  life  in  a  form  of  beauty  and 
permanence.  It  gives  expression,  not  like 
the  lyric  to  the  sudden  and  impassioned 
feelings  of  the  moment,  but  to  calm  and 
philosophic  reflection.  Being  less  sponta- 
neous in  its  origin,  its  foi*m  is  of  a  neces- 
sity more  artificial.  We  meet  with  it  at 
intervals  up  to  the  time  of  the  Captivity, 
and,  as  it  is  chiefly  characteristic  of  the  age 
of  the  monarchy,  Ewald  has  appropriately 


designated  this  era  the  "artificiil  period** 
of  Hebrew  poetry.  From  the  end  of  the 
8th  century  b.  c.  the  decline  of  the  nation 
was  rapid,  and  with  its  glory  departed  the 
chief  glories  of  its  literature.  After  the 
Captivity  we  have  nothing  but  the  poems 
which  formed  part  of  the  liturgical  services 
of  the  Temple.  Whether  dramatic  poetry, 
properly  so  called,  ever  existed  among  the 
Hebrews,  is,  to  say  the  least,  extremely 
doubtful.  In  the  opinion  of  some  writers 
the  Song  of  Songs,  in  its  external  form,  is 
a  rude  drama,  designed  for  a  simple  stage. 
But  the  evidence  for  this  view  is  extremely 
slight.  I.  Lyrical  Poetry. — The  litera- 
ture of  the  Hebrews  abounds  with  illus- 
trations of  all  forms  of  lyrical  poetry,  ia 
its  most  manifold  and  wide-embracing  com- 
pass, from  such  short  ejaculations  as  the 
songs  of  the  two  Lamechs  and  Ps.  xv., 
cxvii.,  and  others,  to  the  longer  chants  of 
victory  and  thanksgiving,  like  the  songs  of 
Deborah  and  David  (Judg.  v. ;  Ps.  xviii.). 
II.  Gnomic  Poetry.  —  The  second  grand 
division  of  Hebrew  poetry  is  occupied  by  a 
class  of  poems  which  are  peculiarly  She- 
mitie, and  which  represent  the  nearest  ap- 
proaches made  by  the  people  of  that  race 
to  anything  like  philosophic  thought.  Rea- 
soning there  is  none  :  we  have  only  results, 
and  those  rather  the  product  of  observation 
and  reflection  than  of  induction  or  argu- 
mentation. As  lyric  poetry  is  the  expres- 
sion of  the  poet's  own  feelings  and  im- 
pulses, so  gnomic  poetry  is  the  form  in 
which  the  desire  of  communicating  knowl- 
edge to  others  finds  vent.  Its  germs  are 
the  floating  proverbs  which  pass  current  in 
the  mouths  of  the  people,  and  embody  the 
experiences  of  many  with  the  wit  of  one. 
The  utterer  of  sententious  sayings  was  to 
the  Hebrews  the  wise  man,  the  philosopher. 
Of  the  earlier  isolated  proverbs  but  few 
'examples  remain.  III.  Dramatic  Poetry. 
—  It  is  impossible  to  assert  that  no  form  of 
the  drama  existed  among  the  Hebrew  peo- 
ple. It  is  unquestionably  true,  as  Ewald 
observes,  that  the  Arab  reciters  of  ro- 
mances will  many  times  in  their  own  per- 
sons act  out  a  complete  drama  in  recitation, 
changing  their  voice  and  gestures  with  the 
change  of  person  and  subject.  Something 
of  this  kind  may  possibly  have  existed 
among  the  Hebrews ;  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  it  did  exist,  nor  any  grounds  for 
making  even  a  probable  conjecture  with  re- 
gard to  it.  But  the  mere  fact  of  the  exist- 
ence of  these  rude  exhibitions  among  the 
Arabs  and  Egyptians  of  the  present  day  is 
of  no  weight  when  the  question  to  be  de- 
cided is,  whether  the  Song  of  Songs  was 
designed  to  be  so  represented,  as  a  simple 
pastoral  drama,  or  whether  the  Book  of 
Job  is  a  dramatic  poem  or  not.  Inasmuch 
as  it  represents  an  action  and  a  progress, 
it  is  a  drama  as  truly  and  really  as  any 


POETRY 


543 


PONTUS 


poem  can  be  which  develops  the  working 
of  passion,  and  the  alternations  of  faith, 
hope,  distrust,  triumphant  confidence,  and 
black  despair,  in  the  struggle  which  it  de- 
picts the  human  mind  as  engaged  in,  while 
attempting  to  solve  one  of  the  most  in- 
tricate problems  it  can  be  called  upon  to 
regard.  It  is  a  drama  as  life  is  a  drama, 
the  most  powerful  of  all  tragedies ;  but 
that  it  is  a  dramatic  poem,  intended  to  be 
represented  upon  a  stage,  or  capable  of 
being  so  represented,  may  be  confidently 
denied.  One  characteristic  of  Hebrew  poe- 
try, not  indeed  peculiar  to  it,  but  shared 
by  it  in  common  with  the  literature  of  other 
nations,  is  its  intensely  national  and  local 
coloring.  The  writers  were  Hebrews  of 
the  Hebrews,  drawing  their  inspiration  from 
the  mountains  and  rivers  of  Palestine, 
which  they  have  immortalized  in  their  poetic 
figures,  and  even  while  uttering  the  sub- 
limest  and  most  universal  truths  never  for- 
getting their  own  nationality  in  its  nar- 
rowest and  intensest  form.  Examples  of 
this  remarkable  characteristic  of  the  He- 
brew poets  stand  thick  upon  every  page 
of  their  writings,  and  in  striking  contrast 
to  the  vague  generalizations  of  the  Indian 
philosophic  poetry.  But  the  form  of  He- 
brew poetry  is  its  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic, and  what  this  form  is,  has  been  a 
vexed  question  for  many  ages.  The  Ther- 
apeutae,  as  described  by  Philo,  sang  hymns 
and  psalms  of  thanksgiving  to  God,  in 
divers  measures  and  strains ;  and  these 
were  either  new  or  ancient  ones  composed 
by  the  old  poets,  who  had  left  behind 
them  measures  and  melodies  of  trimeter 
verses.  According  to  Josephus,  the  Song 
of  Moses  at  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  xv.)  was 
composed  in  the  hexameter  measure ;  and 
again,  the  song  in  Deut.  xxxii.  is  described 
as  a  hexameter  poem.  The  Psalms  of 
David  were  in  various  metres,  some  trime- 
ters and  some  pentameters.  Eusebius  char* 
acterizes  the  great  Song  of  Moses  and  the 
118th  (119th)  Psalm  as  metrical  compo- 
sitions in  what  the  Greeks  call  the  heroic 
metre.  They  are  said  to  be  liexameters  of 
sixteen  syllables.  The  other  verse  compo- 
sitions of  the  Hebrews  are  said  to  be  in 
trimeters.  The  opinions  of  Lowth,  with 
regard  to  Hebrew  metre,  are  summed  up 
by  Jebb  {Sacr.  Lit.  p.  16)  as  follows  :  "  He 
begins  by  asserting,  that  certain  of  the  He- 
brew writings  are  not  only  animated  with 
the  true  poetic  spirit,  but,  in  some  degree, 
couched  in  poetic  numbers  ;  yet  he  allows 
that  the  quantity,  the  rhythm,  or  modulation 
of  Hebrew  poetry  not  only  is  unknown, 
but  admits  of  no  investigation  by  human 
art  or  industry ;  he  barely  maintains  the 
credibility  of  attention  having  been  paid  to 
numbers  or  feet  in  their  compositions;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  he  confesses  the  utter 
impossilnlity  of  determining  whether   He- 


brew poetry  was  modulated  by  the  ear 
alone,  or  according  to  any  definite  and  set- 
tled rules  of  prosody." 

Pollux.     [Castor  and  Pollux.] 

Polygamy.     [Marriage.] 

Pomegranate.  The  pomegranate  was 
early  cultivated  in  Egypt ;  hence  the  com- 
plaint of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  of 
Zin  (Num.  xx.  5),  this  "  is  no  place  of  figs, 
or  of  vines,  or  of  pomegranates."  The 
tree,  with  its  characteristic  calyx-crowned 
fruit,  is  easily  recognized  on  the  Egyptian 
sculptures.  Mention  is  made  of  "  an  or- 
chard of  pomegranates  "  in  Cant.  iv.  13. 


Fomegrannte  (,Puniea  grtmatum). 

Carved  figures  of  the  pomegranate  adorned 
the  tops  of  the  pillars  in  Solomon's  Temple 
(1  K.  vii.  18,  20,  &c.) ;  and  worked  repre- 
sentations of  this  fruit,  in  blue,  purple,  and 
scarlet,  ornamented  the  hem  of  the  robe  of 
the  ephod  (Ex.  xxviii.  33,  34).  The  pome- 
granate-tree (^Piinica  granaturn)  derives 
its  name  from  the  Latin  pomnm  granaturn, 
"  grained  apple."  The  Romans  gave  it  the 
name  of  Punica,  as  the  tree  was  introduced 
from  Carthage. 

Pommels,  only  in  2  Chr.  iv.  12, 13.  In 
1  K.  vii.  41,  "bowls."  The  word  signifies 
convex  projections  belonging  to  the  capi- 
tals of  pillars. 

Pond.  The  ponds  of  Egypt  (Ex.  vii. 
19,  viii.  5)  were  doubtless  water  left  by  the 
inundation  of  the  Nile.  Ponds  for  fish  are 
mentioned  in  Is.  xix.  10. 

Pon'tius  Pilate.    [Pilate.] 

Pon'tUS,  a  large  district  in  the  north  of 
Asia  Minor,  extending  along  the  coast  of 
the  Pontus  Euxinus,  from  which  circum- 
stance the  name  was  derived.  It  is  tlvee 
times  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  (Acts  ii.  9, 
10,  xviii.  2;  1  Pet.  i.  1).     All  these  pas- 


POOL 


544 


POTIPHAR 


Bages  agree  in  showing  tliat  there  were 
many  Jewish  residents  in  the  district.  As 
to  the  annals  of  Pontus,  the  one  brilliant 
passage  of  its  history  is  the  life  of  the 
great  Mithridates.  Under  Nero  the  whole 
region  was  made  a  Roman  province,  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Pontus. 

Pool.  Pools,  like  the  tanks  of  India, 
are  in  many  parts  of  Palestine  and  Syria 
the  only  resource  for  water  during  the  dry 
, season,  and  the  failure  of  them  involves 
drought  and  calamity  (Is.  xlii.  15).  Of 
the  various  pools  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
perhaps  the  most  celebrated  are  the  pools 
of  Solomon  near  Bethlehem,  called  by  the 
Arabs  el-Burak,  from  which  an  aqueduct 
was  carried  which  still  supplies  Jerusalem 
with  water  (Eccl.  ii.  6;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  30, 
31). 

Poor.  The  general  kindly  spirit  of  the 
law  towards  the  poor  is  sufficiently  shown 
by  such  passages  as  Deut.  xv.  7,  for  the 
reason  that  (ver.  11)  "  the  poor  shall 
never  cease  out  of  the  land."  Among  the 
special  enactments  in  their  favor  the  fol- 
lowing must  be  mentioned:  1.  The  right 
of  gleaning  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10;  Deut.  xxiv. 
19,  21).  2.  From  the  produce  of  the  land 
in  sabbatical  years,  the  poor  and  the  stran- 
ger were  to  have  their  portion  (Ex.  xxiii. 
11;  Lev.  XXV.  6).  3.  Re-entry  upon  land 
in  the  jubilee  year,  with  the  limitation  as  to 
town  homes  (Lev.  xxv.  25-30).  4.  Prohi- 
bition of  usury,  and  of  retention  of  pledges 
(Lev.  xxv.  35,  37;  Ex.  xxii.  25-27,  &c.). 
6.  Permanent  bondage  forbidden,  and  manu- 
mission of  Hebrew  bondsmen  or  bondswo- 
men enjoined  in  the  sabbatical  and  jubilee 
years  (Deut.  xv.  12-15 ;  Lev.  xxv.  39-42, 
47-54).  G.  Portions  from  the  tithes  to  be 
shared  bv  the  poor  after  the  Levites  (Deut. 
xiv.  28,*xxvi.  12,  13).  7.  The  poor  to 
partake  in  entertainments  at  the  feasts  of 
Weeks  and  Tabernacles  (Deut.  xvi.  11, 14; 
see  Nell.  viii.  10).  8.  Daily  payment  of 
wages  (Lev.  xix.  13).  Principles  similar 
to  those  laid  down  by  Moses  are  incul- 
cated in  the  New  Testament,  as  Luke  iii. 
11,  xiv.  13;  Acts  vi.  1;  Gal.  ii.  10;  James 
ii.  15. 

Poplar,  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  libneh,  which  occurs  in  Gen.  xxx.  37, 
and  Hos.  iv.  13.  Several  authorities  are  in 
favor  of  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.,  and 
think  the  "white  poplar"  {Populus  alba) 
is  the  tree  denoted ;  others  understand  the 
"  storax  tree"  (Styrax  officinale,  Linn.). 
Both  poplars  and  styrax  or  storax  trees  are 
common  in  Palestine,  and  either  would  suit 
the  passages  where  the  Heb.  term  occurs. 
Storax  is  mentioned  in  Ecclus.  xxiv.  15,  to- 
gether with  other  aromatic  substances.  The 
Styrax  ajficinale  is  a  shrub  from  nine  to 
twelve  feet  high,  with  ovate  leaves,  which 
are  ^hite  underneath ;  the  flowers  are  in 
racemes,  and  are  wliite  or  cream-colored. 


The  white  appearance  agrees  with  the  ety- 
mology of  the  Heb.  libneh. 

Por'atha.  One  of  the  ten  sons  of 
Haman  slain  by  the  Jews  in  Shushan  the 
palace  (Esth.  ix.^8). 

Porch.  1.  Ulam,  or  uU.m  (1  Chr. 
xxviii.  11).  2.  Misder6n  Ulam  (Judg.  iii. 
23),  strictly  a  vestibule,  was  probably  a 
sort  of  veranda  chamber  in  the  works  of 
Solomon,  open  in  front  and  at  the  sides, 
but  capable  of  being  enclosed  with  awn- 
ings or  curtains.  The  porch  (Matt.  xxvi. 
71)  may  have  been  the  passage  from  the 
street  into  the  first  court  of  the  house,  in 
which,  in  Eastern  houses,  is  the  mastdbah 
or  stone  bench,  for  the  porter  or  persons 
waiting,  and  where  also  the  njaster  of  the 
house  often  receives  visitors  and  transacts 
business. 

Por'eius  Pes'tus.    [Festus.] 

Porter.  This  word  when  used  in  the 
A.  V.  does  not  bear  its  modern  signification 
of  a  carrier  of  burdens,  but  denotes  in 
every  case  a  gate-keeper,  from  the  Latin 
portarius,  the  man  who  attended  to  the 
porta,  or  gate. 

Possession.     [Demoniacs.] 

Post.  Probably,  as  Gesenius  argues, 
the  door-case  of  a  door,  including  the 
lintel  and  side-posts.  The  posts  of  tlie 
doors  of  the  Temple  were  of  olive-wood 
(1  K.  vi.  33). 

Pot.  The  term  "pot"  is  applicable  to 
so  many  sorts  of  vessels,  that  it  can  scarce- 
ly be  restricted  to  any  one  in  particular. 
1.  Asiic  (2  K.  iv.  2),  an  earthen  jar,  deep 
and  narrow,  without  handles,  probably  like 
the  Roman  and  Egyptian  amphora,  insert- 
ed in  a  stand  of  wood  or  stone.  2.  CJieres, 
an  earthen  vessel  for  stewing  or  seetliing 
(Ez.  iv.  9;  Lev.  vi.  28).  3.  Dud,  a  vessel 
for  culinary  purposes,  perhaps  of  smaller 
size  (1  Sam.  ii.  14).  The  "pots"  set  be- 
fore the  Rechabites  (Jer.  xxxv.  5)  were 
probably  bulging  jars  or  bowls.  Tlie  water- 
pots  of  Cana  appear  to  have  been  large 
amphorae,  such  as  are  in  use  at  the  present 
day  in  Syria.  These  were  of  stone  or  hard 
earthen  ware.  The  water-pot  of  the  Sa- 
maritan woman  may  have  been  a  leathern 
bucket,  such  as  Bedouin  women  use. 

Pot'iphar,  an  Egyptian  name,  also 
written  Potipherah,  signifies  "Belonging 
to  the  Son."  Potiphar,  with  whom  the  his- 
tory of  Joseph  is  connected,  is  described 
as  "  an  officer  of  Pharaoh,  chief  of  the 
executioners,  an  Egyptian  "  (Gen.  xxxix. 
1;  comp.  xxxvii.  3G).  He  is  called  an 
Egyptian,  though  his  master  was  probably 
a  Shepherd-king  of  the  xvth  Synasly.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  wealthy  man  (xxxix. 
4-6).  The  view  we  have  of  Potiphar's 
household  is  exactly  in  accordance  with  the 
representations  on  the  monuments.  When 
Joseph  was  accused,  his  master  coiitented 
himself  with  casting  him  into  prison  (19. 


POTIPHERAH 


545 


PRAETORIUM 


20) .  After  this  we  hear  no  more  of  Poti- 
phar.     [Joseph.] 

Potiph'erah  was  priest  or  prince  of 
On,  and  liis  daughter  Asenath  was  given 
Josepli  to  wife  by  Pharaoh  (Gen.  xli.  45, 
60.  xivi.  20). 

Potsherd,  also  in  A.  V.  "  sherd,"  a 
broken  piece  of  earthen  ware  (Pro  v.  xxvi. 
23). 

Potter's  Field,  The.  A  piece  of 
ground  wliich,  according  to  the  statement  of 
yt.  Matthew  (xxvii.  7),  was  purchased  by 
the  priests  with  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver 
rejected  by  Judas,  and  converted  into  a  buri- 
al-place for  Jews  not  belonging  to  the  city. 
St.  Matthew  adduces  this  (ver.  9)  as  a  ful- 
filment of  an  ancient  prediction.  What  that 
prediction  was,  and  who  made  it,  is  not, 
however,  at  all  clear.  St.  Matthew  names 
Jeremiah;  but  there  is  no  passage  in  the 
Book  of  Jeremiah,  as  we  possess  it,  re- 
sembling that  which  he  gives ;  and  that  in 
Zechariah  (xi.  12)  which  is  usually  sup- 
posed to  be  alluded  to,  has  only  a  very  im- 
perfect likeness  to  it.  Three  explanations 
suggest  themselves :  1.  That  the  Evangel- 
ist unintentionally  substituted  the  name  of 
Jeremiah  for  that  of  Zechariah,  at  the  same 
time  altering  the  passage  to  suit  his  imme- 
diate object.  2.  That  this  portion  of  the 
Book  of  Zechariah  was  in  the  time  of  St. 
Matthew  attributed  to  Jeremiah.  3.  That 
tlie  reference  is  to  some  passage  of  Jere- 
miah which  has  been  lost  from  its  place  in 
his  book,  and  exists  only  in  the  Evangelist. 
Some  support  is  afforded  to  this  view  by 
the  fact  that  potters  and  the  localities  oc- 


cupied by  them  are  twice  alluded  to  by 
Jeremiah.  Its  partial  correspondence  with 
Zech.  xi.  12,  13,  is  no  argument  against  its 
having  at  one  time  formed  a  part  of  the 
prophecy  of  Jeremiah  :  for  it  is  well  known 
to  every  student  of  the  Bible  that  similar 
correspondences  are  continually  found  in 
the  prophets.  See,  for  instance,  Jer.  xlviii. 
45,  comp.  with  Num.  xxi.  27,  28,  xxiv.  17; 
Jer.  xlix.  27,  comp.  with  Am.  i.  4.  [Acel- 
dama.] 

Pottery.  The  art  of  pottery  is  one  of 
the  most  common  and  most  ancient  of  all 
manufactures.  It  is  abundantly  evident, 
both  that  the  Hebrews  used  earthen-ware 
vessels  in  the  wilderness,  and  that  the 
potter's  trade  was  afterwards  carried  on 
in  Palestine.  They  had  themselves  been 
concerned  in  the  potter's  trade  in  Egypt 
(Ps.  Ixxxi.  6),  and  the  wall-paintings  mi- 
nutely illustrate  the  Egj'ptian  process.  The 
clay,  when  dug,  was  trodden  by  men's  feet 
so  as  to  form  a  paste  (Is.  xli.  25 ;  Wisd. 
XV.  7) ;  then  placed  by  the  potter  on  the 
wlieel  beside  which  he  sat,  and  shaped  by 
him  with  his  hands.  How  early  the  wheel 
came  in  use  in  Palestine  we  know  not,  but 
it  seems  likely  that  it  was  adopted  from 
Egypt  (Is.  xlv.  9;  Jer.  xviii.  3).  The 
vessel  was  then  smoothed  and  coated  with 
a  glaze,  and  finally  burnt  in  a  furnace. 
There  was  at  Jerusalem  a  royal  establish- 
ment of  potters  (1  Chr.  iv.  23),  from 
whose  employment,  and  from  the  frag- 
ments cast  away  in  the  process,  the  Pot- 
ter's Field  perhaps  received  its  name  (Is. 
XXX.  14). 


Egyptian  Pottery.    (Wilkimoo.) 


Pound.  1.  A  weight.  See  Weights 
AND  Measures.  2.  A  money  of  account, 
mentioned  in  the  parable  of  the  Ten  Pounds 
(Luke  xix.  12-27),  as  the  talent  is  in  the 
parable  of  the  Talents  (Matt.  xxv.  14-30). 
The  reference  appears  to  be  to  a  Greek 
pound,  a  weight  used  as  a  money  of  ac- 
count, of  which  sixty  went  to  the  talent, 
the  weight  depending  upon  the  weight  of 
the  talent. 

PraetO'rium.  The  headquarters  of 
tlie  Roman  military  governor,  wherever 
he  happened  to  be.  In  time  of  peace 
some  one  of  the  best  buildings  of  the  city, 
which  was  the  residence  of  the  proconsul 
or  praetor,  was  selected  for  this  purpose. 
35 


Thus  at  Caesarea  that  of  Herod  the  Great 
was  occupied  by  Felix  (Acts  xxiii.  35) ; 
and  at  Jerusalem  the  new  palace  erected 
by  the  same  prince  was  the  residence  of 
Pilate.  After  the  Roman  power  was  es- 
tablished in  Judaea,  a  Roman  guard  was 
always  maintained  in  the  Antonia,  the 
commander  of  which  for  the  time  being 
seems  to  be  the  official  termed  arQarr,y'oq 
rov  tiQov  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts.  The 
Praetorian  camp  at  Rome,  to  which  St. 
Paul  refers  (Phil.  i.  13),  was  erected  by 
the  Emperor  Tiberius,  acting  under  the 
advice  of  Sejanus.  It  stood  outside  the 
walls,  at  some  distance  short  of  the  fourth 
milestone,  and  near  either  to  the  Salarian 


PRAYER 


PRAYER 


or  the  Noraentane  road.  From  the  first, 
buildings  must  have  sprung  up  near  it  for 
sutlers  and  others.  St.  Paul  appears  to 
have  been  permitted,  for  the  space  of  two 
years,  to  lodge,  so  to  speak,  "  within  the 
rules"  of  the  Praetorium  (Acts  xxviii.  30), 
although  still  under  the  custody  of  a  sol- 
dier. 

Prayer.  The  object  of  this  article  will 
be  to  touch  briefly  on,  (1.)  The  doctrine  of 
Scripture,  as  to  the  nature  and  efficacy  of 
prayer ;  (2.)  Its  directions  as  to  time,  place, 
and  manner  of  prayer ;  (3.)  Its  types  and 
examples  of  prayer.  (1.)  Scripture  does 
not  give  any  theoretical  explanation  of  the 
mystery  which  attaches  to  prayer.  The 
difficulty  of  understanding  its  real  efficacy 
arises  chiefly  from  two  sources :  from  the 
belief  that  man  lives  under  general  laws, 
which  in  all  cases  must  be  fulfilled  unal- 
terably ;  and  the  opposing  belief  that  he  is 
master  of  his  own  destiny,  and  need  pray 
for  no  external  blessing.  Now,  Scripture, 
while,  by  the  doctrine  of  spiritual  influ- 
ence, it  entirely  disposes  of  tlie  latter  diffi- 
culty, does  not  so  entirely  solve  that  part 
of  the  mystery  which  depends  on  the  na- 
ture of  God.  It  places  it  clearly  before 
us,  and  emphasizes  most  strongly  those 
doctrines  on  which  the  difficulty  turns. 
Yet,  while  this  is  so,  on  the  other  hand  the 
instinct  of  prayer  is  solemnly  sanctioned 
and  enforced  in  every  page.  Not  only  is 
its  subjective  effect  asserted,  but  its  real 
objective  efficacy,  as  a  means  appointed  by 
God  for  obtaining  blessing,  is  both  implied 
and  expressed  in  the  plainest  terms.  Thus, 
as  usual  in  the  case  of  such  mysteries,  the 
two  apparently  opposite  truths  are  empha- 
sized, because  they  are  needful  to  man's 
conception  of  his  relation  to  God;  their 
reconcilement  is  not,  perhaps  cannot  be, 
fully  revealed.  For,  in  fact,  it  is  involved 
in  that  inscrutable  mystery  which  attends 
on  the  conception  of  any  free  action  of 
man  as  necessary  for  the  working  out  of 
the  general  laws  of  God's  unchangeable 
will.  At  the  same  time  it  is  clearly  im- 
plied that  such  a  reconcilement  exists,  and 
that  all  the  apparently  isolated  and  inde- 
pendent exertions  of  man's  spirit  in  prayer 
are  in  some  way  perfectly  subordinated  to 
the  one  supreme  will  of  God,  so  as  to  form 
a  part  of  His  sclieme  of  providence.  It  is 
also  implied  that  the  key  to  the  mystery 
lies  in  the  fact  of  man's  spiritual  unity  with 
God  in  Christ,  and  of  the  consequent  gift 
■of  the  Holy  Spirit.  So  also  is  it  said  of 
the  spiritual  influence  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
■on  each  individual  mind,  that  while  "we 
know  not  what  to  pray  for,"  the  indwelling 
"  Spirit  makes  intercession  for  the  saints, 
according  to  the  will  of  God"  (Rom.  viii. 
26,  27).  Here,  as  probably  in  all  other 
cases,  the  action  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the 
soul  is  to  free  agents  what  the  laws  of  na- 


ture are  to  things  inanimate,  and  is  the 
power  which  harmonizes  free  individual 
action  with  the  universal  will  of  God.  (2.) 
There  are  no  directions  as  to  prayer  given 
in  the  Mosaic  law  :  the  duty  is  rather  taken 
for  granted,  as  an  adjunct  to  sacrifice,  than 
enforced  or  elaborated.  It  is  hardly  con- 
ceivable that,  even  from  the  beginning, 
public  prayer  did  not  follow  every  public 
sacrifice.  Such  a  practice  is  alluded  to  as 
common  in  Luke  i.  10 ;  and  in  one  in- 
stance, at  the  offering  of  the  first-fruits,  it 
was  ordained  in  a  striking  form  (Deut. 
xxvi.  12-15).  In  later  times  it  certainly 
grew  into  a  regular  service,  both  in  the 
Temple  and  in  the  Synagogue.  But,  be- 
sides this  public  prayer,  it  was  the  custom 
of  all  at  Jerusalem  to  go  up  to  the  Temple, 
at  regular  hours  if  possible,  for  private 
prayer  (see  Luke  xviii.  10;  Acts  iii.  1); 
and  those  who  were  absent  were  wont  to 
"  open  their  windows  towards  Jerusalem," 
and  pray  "towards"  the  place  of  God's 
Presence  (1  K.  viii.  46-49;  Dan.  vi.  10; 
Ps.  V.  7,  xxviii.  2,  cxxxviii.  2).  The  regu- 
lar hours  of  prayer  seem  to  have  been  three 
(see  Ps.  Iv.  17;  Dan.  vi.  10),  "the  even- 
ing," that  is,  the  ninth  hour  (Acts  iii.  1,  x. 
3),  tlie  hour  of  the  evening  sacrifice  (Dan. 
ix.  21) ;  the  "  morning,"  that  is,  the  third 
hour  (Acts  ii.  15),  that  of  the  morning  sac- 
rifice ;  and  the  sixth  hour,  or  "  noonday." 
Grace  before  meat  would  seem  to  have 
been  a  common  practice  (see  Matt.  xv.  36 ; 
Acts  xxvii.  35).  The  posture  of  prayer 
among  the  Jews  seems  to  have  been  most 
often  standing  (1  Sam.  i.  26;  Matt.  vi.  5; 
Mark  xi.  25;  Luke  xviii.  11);  unless  the 
prayer  were  offered  with  especial  solem- 
nity, and  humiliation,  which  was  naturally 
expressed  by  kneeling  (1  K.  viii.  54 ; 
comp.  2  Chr.  vi.  13;  Ezr.  ix.  5;  Ps.  xcv. 
6 ;  Dan.  vi.  10),  or  prostration  (Josh, 
vii.  6;  1  K.  xviii.  42;  Neh.  viii.  6).— 
The  only  Form  of  Prayer  given  for  per- 
petual use  in  the  O.  T.  is  the  one  in  Deut. 
xxvi.  5-15,  connected  with  the  offering  of 
tithes  and  first-fruits,  .and  containing  in 
simple  form  the  important  elements  of 
prayer,  acknowledgment  of  God's  mercy, 
self-dedication,  and  prayer  for  future  bless- 
ing. To  this  may  perhaps  be  added  the 
threefold  blessing  of  Num.  vi.  24-26, 
couched  as  it  is  in  a  precatory  form,  and 
the  short  prayer  of  Moses  (Num.  x.  35, 
36)  at  the  moving  and  resting  of  the  cloud, 
the  former  of  which  was  the  germ  of  the 
68th  Psalm.  But  of  the  prayers  recorded 
in  the  O.  T.,  the  two  most  remarkable  are 
those  of  Solomon  at  the  dedication  of  the 
Temple  (1  K.  viii.  23-53),  and  of  Joshua 
the  high  priest,  and  his  colleagues,  aftei 
the  captivity  (Neh.  ix.  5-38).  —  It  appears 
from  the  question  of  the  disciples  in  Luke 
xi.  1,  and  from  Jewish  tradition,  that  tlie 
chief  teachers  of  the  day  gave  special  forms 


PRESENTS 


547 


PRIEST 


of  prayer  to  their  disciples,  as  the  badge 
of  their  discipleship  and  the  best  fruits  of 
their  learning.  All  Christian  prayer  is, 
of  course,  based  on  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  but 
its  spirit  is  also  guided  by  that  of  His 
prayer  in  Gethseraane,  and  of  the  prayer 
recorded  by  St.  John  (ch.  xvii.),  the  begin- 
ning of  His  great  work  of  intercession. 
The  influence  of  these  prayers  is  more  dis- 
tinctly traced  in  the  prayers  contained  in 
the  Epistles  (see  Eph.  iii.  14-21 :  Rom. 
xvi.  25-27:  Phil.  i.  3-11;  Col.  i.  9-15; 
Heb.  xiii.  20,  21;  1  Pet.  v.  10,  11,  &c.), 
than  in  those  recorded  in  the  Acts.  The 
public  prayer  probably  in  the  first  instance 
took  much  of  its  form  and  style  from  the 
prayers  of  the  synagogues.  In  the  record 
of  prayers  accepted  and  granted  by  God, 
we  observe,  as  always,  a  special  adaptation 
to  the  period  of  His  dispensation  to  which 
they  belong.  In  the  patriarchal  period, 
they  have  the  simple  and  child-like  tone  of 
domestic  supplication  for  the  simple  and 
apparently  trivial  incidents  of  domestic 
life.  In  the  Mosaic  period  they  assume  a 
more  solemn  tone  and  a  national  bearing, 
chiefly  that  of  direct  intercession  for  the 
chosen  people.  More  rarely  are  they  for 
individuals.  A  special  class  are  those 
which  precede  and  refer  to  the  exercise  of 
miraculous  power.  In  the  New  Testament 
they  have  a  more  directly  spiritual  bearing. 
It  would  seem  the  intention  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture to  encourage  all  prayer,  more  espe- 
cially intercession,  in  all  relations,  and  for 
all  righteous  objects. 

Presents.     [Gifts.] 

President.  Sdrac,  or  SdrScd,  only 
used  Dan.  vi.,  the  Chaldee  equivalent  for 
Hebrew  Sh6Ur,  probably  from  Sara,  Zend, 
a  "  head." 

Priest.  The  English  word  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  Presbyter,  signifying  an 
"  elder"  (Heb.  c6hfn).  Origin.  — The  idea 
of  a  priesthood  connects  itself,  in  all  its 
forms,  pure  or  corrupted,  with  the  con- 
sciousness, more  or  less  distinct,  of  sin. 
Men  feel  that  they  have  broken  a  law. 
The  power  above  them  is  holier  than  they 
are,  and  they  dare  not  approach  it.*  They 
crave  for  the  intervention  of  some  one  of 
whom  they  can  think  as  likely  to  be  more 
acceptable  than  themselves.  He  must  offer 
up  their  prayers,  thanksgivings,  sacrifices. 
He  becomes  their  representative  in  *'  things 
pertaining  unto  God."  He  may  become 
also  (though  this  does  not  always  follow) 
the  representative  of  God  to  man.  The 
functions  of  the  priest  and  prophet  may 
exist  in  the  same  person.  No  trace  of  an 
hereditary  or  caste-priesthood  meets  us  in 
the  worship  of  the  patriarchal  age.  Once, 
and  once  only,  does  the  word  CShin  meet 
us  as  belonging  to  a  ritual  earlier  than  the 
time  of  Abraham.  Melchizedek  is  "  the 
priest  of  the  most  high  God "  (Gen.  xiv. 


18).  In  the  worship  of  the  patriarchs  them- 
selves, the  chief  of  the  family,  as  such, 
acted  as  the  priest.  The  oflSce  descended 
with  the  birthright,  and  might  apparently 
be  transferred  with  it.  The  Priesthood 
was  first  established  in  the  family  of  Aaron, 
and  all  the  sons  of  Aaron  were  priests. 
They  stood  between  the  High  Priest  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Levites  on  the  other. 
[High  Priest;  Levites.]  The  ceremony 
of  their  consecration  is  described  in  Ex. 
xxix.,  Lev.  viii.  The  dress  which  they 
wore  during  their  ministrations  consisted 
of  linen  drawers,  with  a  close-fitting  cas- 
sock, also  of  linen,  white,  but  with  a  dia- 
mond or  chess-board  pattern  on  it.  This 
came  nearly  to  the  feet,  and  was  to  be  worn 
in  its  garment  shape  (comp.  John  xix.  23). 
The  white  cassock  was  gathered  round  the 
body  with  a  girdle  of  needlework,  into 
which,  as  in  the  more  gorgeous  belt  of  the 
High  Priest,  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet,  were 
intermingled  with  white,  and  worked  in  the 
form  of  flowers  (Ex.  xxviii.  39,  40,  xxxix. 
2;  Ezek.  xliv.  17-19).  Upon  their  heads 
they  were  to  wear  caps  or  bonnets  in  the 
form  of  a  cup-shaped  flower,  also  of  fine 
linen.  In  all  their  acts  of  ministration  they 
were  to  be  barefooted.     Before  they  en- 


Dregs  of  Egyptian  High-prieat. 

tered  the  Tabernacle  they  were  to  wash 
their  hands  and  their  feet  (Ex.  xxx.  17-21, 
xl.  30-32).  During  the  time  of  their  min- 
istration they  were  to  drink  no  wine  or 
strong  drink  (Lev.  x.  9 ;  Ez.  xliv.  21).  Ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  the  nearest  relationships 
(six  degrees  are  specified.  Lev.  xxi.  1-5 ;  Ez. 
xliv.  25),  they  were  to  make  no  mourning 
for  the  dead.  They  were  not  to  shave  their 
heads.  They  were  to  go  through  their 
ministrations  with  the  serenity  of  a  rever- 
ential awe,  not  with  the  orgiastic  wildness 
which  led  the  priests  of  Baal  in  their  despair 
to  make  cuttings  m  their  flesh  (Lev.  xix. 


PRIEST 


548 


PRIEST 


28 ;  IK.  xviii.  28).  They  were  forbidden  to 
marry  an  unchaste  woman,  or  one  who  had 
been  divorced,  or  the  widow  of  any  but  a 
priest  (Lev.  xxi.  7,  U;  Ezek.  xUv.  22). 
Their  chief  duties  were  to  watch  over  the 
fire  on  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings,  and  to 
keep  it  burning  evermore  both-  by  day  and 
night  (Lev.  vi.  12;  2  Chr.  xiii.  11),  to  feed 
the  golden  lamp  outside  the  vail  with  oil 
(Ex.  xxvii.  20,  21;  Lev.  xxiv.  2),  to  offer 
the  morning  and  evening  sacrifices,  each 
accompanied  with  a  meat-offering  and  a 
drink-offering,  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle 
(Ex.  xxix.  38-44).  They  were  also  to  teach 
the  children  of  Israel  the  statutes  of  the 
Lord  (Lev.  x.  11;  Deut.  xxxiii.  10;  2  Chr. 
XV.  3;  Ezek.  xliv.  23,  24).  During  the 
journeys  in  the  wilderness  it  belonged  to 
them  to  cover  the  ark  and  all  the  vessels 
of  the  sanctuary  with  a  purple  or  scarlet 
cloth  before  the  Levites  might  approach 
them  (Num.  iv.  5-15).  As  the  people 
started  on  each  day'*  march  they  were  to 
blow  "  an  alarm  "  with  long  silver  trumpets 
(Num.  X.  1-8).  Other  instruments  of  music 
might  be  used  by  the  more  highly-trained 
Levites  and  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  but 
the  trumpets  belonged  only  to  the  priests. 
The  presence  of  the  priests  on  the  field  of 
battle  (1  Chr.  xii.  23,  27;  2  Chr.  xx.  21, 
22)  led,  in  the  later  periods  of  Jewish  his- 
tory, to  the  special  appointment  at  such 
times  of  a  war-priest.  Other  functions  were 
hinted  at  in  Deuteronomy  which  might  have 
given  them  greater  influence  as  the  educa- 
tors and  civilizers  of  the  people.  They  were 
to  act  (whether  individually  or  collectively 
does  not  distinctly  appear)  as  a  court  of 
appeal  in  the  more  difficult  controversies  in 
criminal  or  civil  cases  (Deut.  xvii.  8-13). 
It  must  remain  doubtful,  however,  how  far 
this  order  kept  its  ground  during  the  storms 
and  changes  tliat  followed.  Functions 
such  as  these  were  clearly  incompatible  with 
the  common  activities  of  men.  On  these 
grounds  therefore  a  distinct  provision  was 
made  for  them.  This  consisted  —  (1)  of 
one  tenth  of  the  tithes  which  the  people 
paid  to  the  Levites,  i.  e.  one  per  cent,  on  the 
whole  produce  of  the  country  (Num.  xviii. 
26-28).  (2)  Of  a  special  tithe  every  third 
year  (Deut.  xiv.  28,  xxvi.  12).  (3)  Of  the 
redemption-money,  paid  at  the  fixed  rate 
of  five  shekels  a  head,  for  the  first-born  of 
man  or  beast  (Num.  xviii.  14-19).  (4)  Of 
the  redemption-money  paid  in  like  manner 
for  men  or  things  specially  dedicated  to  the 
Lord  (Lev.  xxvii.).  (5)  Of  spoil,  captives, 
cattle,  and  the  like,  taken  in  war  (Num. 
xxxi.  25-47).  (6)  Of  the  shew-bread,  the 
flesh  of  the  burnt-offerings,  peace-offerings, 
trespass-offerings  (Num.  xviii.  8-14;  Lev. 
vi.  26,  29,  vii.  6-10),  and,  in  particular,  the 
heave-shoulder  and  the  wave-breast  (Lev. 
X.  12.-15).  (7)  Of  an  undefined  amount 
of  the  flfst-fruits  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil 


(Ex.  xxiii.  19 ;  Lev.  ii.  14 ;  Deut.  xxvi.  1- 
10).  Of  some  of  these,  as  "  most  holy," 
none  but  the  priests  were  to  part.ake  (Lev. 
vi.  29).  It  was  lawful  for  their  sons  and 
daughters  (Lev.  x.  14),  and  even  in  some 
cases  for  their  home-born  slaves,  to  eat  of 
others  (Lev.  xxii.  11).  The  stranger  and 
the  hired  servant  were  in  all  cases  excluded 
(Lev.  xxii.  10).  (8)  On  their  settlement 
in  Canaan  the  priestly  families  had  thirteen 
cities  assigned  them,  with  "  suburbs  "  or 
pasture-grounds  for  their  flocks  (Josh.  xxi. 
13-19).  These  provisions  were  obviously 
intended  to  secure  the  religion  of  Israel 
against  the  dangers  of  a  caste  of  pauper- 
priests,  needy  and  dependent,  and  unable 
to  bear  their  witness  to  the  true  faith.  They 
were,  on  the  other  hand,  as  far  as  possible 
removed  from  the  condition  of  a  wealthy 
order.  The  standard  of  a  priest's  income, 
even  in  the  earliest  days  after  the  settle- 
ment in  Canaan,  was  miserably  low  (Judg. 
xvii.  10).  The  earliest  historical  trace  of 
any  division  of  the  priesthood,  and  cor- 
responding cycle  of  services,  belongs  to  the 
time  of  David.  The  priesthood  was  then 
divided  into  the  four  and  twenty  "courses" 
or  orders  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  1-19 ;  2  Chr.  xxiii. 
8 ;  Luke  i.  5),  each  of  which  was  to  serve 
in  rotation  for  one  week,  while  the  further 
assignment  of  special  services  during  the 
week  was  determined  by  lot  (Luke  i.  9). 
Each  course  appears  to  have  commenced 
its  work  on  the  Sabbath,  the  outgoing 
priests  taking  the  morning  sacrifice,  and 
leaving  that  of  the  evening  to  their  succes- 
sors (2  Chr.  xxiii.  8).  In  this  division, 
however,  the  two  great  priestly  houses  did 
not  stand  on  an  equality.  The  descendants 
of  Ithamar  were  found  to  have  fewer  rep- 
resentatives than  those  of  Eleazar,  and 
sixteen  courses  accordingly  were  assigned 
to  the  latter,  eight  only  to  the  former  (1 
Chr.  xxiv.  4).  The  division  thus  instituted 
was  confirmed  by  Solomon,  and  continued 
to  be  recognized  as  the  typical  number  of 
the  priesthood.  On  the  return  from  the 
captivity  there  were  found  but  four  courses 
out  of  the  twenty-four,  each  containing,  in 
round  numbers,  about  a  thousand  (Ezr.  ii. 
36-39).  Out  of  these,  however,  to  revive 
at  least  the  idea  of  the  old  organization,  the 
four  and  twenty  courses  were  reconstituted 
(comp.  Luke  i.  5),  bearing  the  same  names 
as  before,  and  so  continued  till  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem.  If  we  may  accept  the 
numbers  given  by  Jewish  writers  as  at  all 
trustworthy,  the  proportion  of  the  priest- 
hood to  the  population  of  Palestine,  during 
the  last  century  of  their  existence  as  an 
order,  must  have  been  far  greater  than  that 
of  the  clergy  has  ever  been  in  any  Christian 
nation.  Over  and  above  those  that  were 
scattered  in  the  country  and  took  their  turn, 
there  were  not  fewer  than  24,000  stationed 
permanently  at  Jerusalem,  and  12,000  at 


PRIEST 


549 


PROCURATOR 


Jericho.  It  was  almost  inevitable  that  the 
great  mass  of  the  order,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, should  sink  in  character  and 
reputation.  The  reigns  of  the  two  kings 
David  and  Solomon  were  the  culminating 
period  of  the  glory  of  the  Jewish  priest- 
hood. The  position  of  the  priests  under 
the  monarchy  of  Judah  deserves  a  closer 
examination  than  it  has  yet  received.  For 
every  week  of  service  in  the  Temple  there 
were  twenty-three  weeks  in  which  they  had 
no  appointed  work.  To  what  employment 
could  they  turn?  (1)  The  more  devout 
and  thoughtful  found,  probably,  in  the 
schools  of  tlie  prophets  that  which  satisfied 
them.  They  became  teaching  priests  (2 
Chr.  XV.  3),  students,  and  interpreters  of 
the  Divine  Law.  (2)  Some  perhaps  served 
in  the  king's  army.  (3)  A  few  chosen  ones 
might  enter  more  deeply  into  the  divine 
life,  and  so  receive,  like  Zechariah,  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  a  special  call  to  the  office 
of  a  prophet.  (4)  We  can  hardly  escape 
the  conclusion  that  many  did  their  work  in 
the  Temple  of  Jehovah  with  a  divided  alle- 
giance, and  acted  at  other  times  as  priests 
of  the  high-places.  Those  who  ceased  to 
be  true  shepherds  of  the  people  found  noth- 
ing in  their  ritual  to  sustain  or  elevate  them. 
They  became  as  sensual,  covetous,  tyran- 
nical, as  ever  the  clergy  of  the  Christian 
Church  became  in  its  darkest  periods ;  con- 
spicuous as  drunkards  and  adulterers  (Is. 
xxviii.  7,  8,  hi.  10-12).  The  prophetic 
order.  Instead  of  acting  as  a  check,  became 
sharers  in  the  corruption  (Jer.  v.  31 ;  Lam. 
iv.  13;  Zeph.  iii.  4).  It  will  be  interesting 
to  bring  together  the  few  facts  that  indicate 
their  position  in  the  N.  T.  period  of  their 
history.  The  number  scattered  throughout 
Palestine  was,  as  has  been  stated,  very 
large.  Of  these  the  greater  number  were 
poor  and  ignorant.  The  priestly  order,  like 
the  nation,  was  divided  between  contending 
sects.  In  the  scenes  of  the  last  tragedy  of 
Jewish  history  the  order  passes  away,  with- 
out honor,  "  dying  as  a  fool  dieth."  The 
high-priesthood  is  given  to  the  lowest  and 
vilest  of  the  adherents  of  the  frenzied  Zeal- 
ots. Other  priests  appear  as  deserting  to 
the  enemy.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
deprived  the  order  at  one  blow  of  all  but 
an  honorary  distinction.  Their  occupation 
was  gone.  Many  families  must  have  alto- 
gether lost  their  genealogies.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  N.  T.  writers  in  relation  to 
the  priesthood  ought  not  to  be  passed  over. 
They  recognize  in  Christ,  the  first-born,  the 
king,  the  Anointed,  the  representative  of 
the  true  primeval  priesthood  after  the  or- 
der of  Melchizedek  (Heb.  vii.,  viii.),frora 
which  that  of  Aaron,  however  necessary 
for  the  time,  is  now  seen  to  have  been  a 
deflection.  But  there  is  no  trace  of  an 
order  in  the  new  Christian  society,  bearing 
the  name  and  exercising  functions  like  those 


of  the  priests  of  the  older  Covenant.  The 
idea  which  pervades  the  teaching  of  the 
Epistles  is  that  of  a  universal  priesthood. 
It  was  the  thought  of  a  succeeding  age  that 
the  old  classification  of  the  high-priest, 
priests,  and  Levites  was  reproduced  in  the 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church. 

Prince,  Princess.  The  only  special 
uses  of  the  word  "  prince "  are  —  1. 
"  Princes  of  provinces"  (I  K.  xx.  14),  who 
were  probably  local  governors  or  magis- 
trates. 2.  The  "  princes "  mentioned  in 
Dan.  vi.  1  (see  Esth.  i.  1)  were  the  prede- 
cessors of  the  satraps  of  Darius  Hystaspis. 

Pris'ca  (2  Tim.  iv.  19)  or  Priscii'la. 
[Aqcila.]  To  what  has  been  said  else- 
where under  the  head  of  Aquila  the  follow- 
ing may  be  added.  We  find  that  the  name 
of  the  wife  is  placed  before  that  of  the  hus- 
band in  Rom.  xvi.  3,  2  Tim.  iv.  19,  and 
(according  to  some  of  the  best  MSS.)  in 
Acts  xviii.  26.  Hence  we  should  be  dis- 
posed to  conclude  that  Priscilla  was  the 
more  energetic  character  of  the  two.  In 
fact  we  may  say  that  Priscilla  is  the  ex- 
ample of  what  the  married  woman  may  do 
for  the  general  service  of  the  Church,  in 
conjunction  with  home  duties,  as  Phoebb 
is  the  type  of  the  unmarried  servant  of  the 
Church,  or  deaconess. 

Prison.  Por  imprisonment  as  a  pun- 
ishment, see  Punishments.  During  the 
wandering  in  the  desert  we  read  on  two 
occasions  of  confinement  "  in  ward"  (Lev. 
xxiv.  12;  Num.  xv.  34);  but  as  imprison- 
ment was  not  directed  by  the  Law,  so  we 
hear  of  none  till  the  time  of  the  kings,  when 
the  prison  appears  as  an  appendage  to  the 
palace,  or  a  special  part  of  it  (1  K.  xxii.  27). 

Proch'orus,  one  of  the  seven  deacons, 
being  the  third  on  the  list,  and  named  next 
after  Stephen  and  Philip  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Proconsul.  The  Greek  ardi'naTo?,  for 
which  this  is  the  true  equivalent,  is  ren- 
dered uniformly  "deputy"  in  the  A.  V.  of 
Acts  xiii.  7,  8,  12,  xix.  38 ;  and  the  derived 
verb  ar6v7TaTeva)  in  Acts  xviii.  12,  is  trans- 
lated "to  be  deputy."  At  the  division  of 
the  Roman  provinces  by  Augustus,  in  the 
year  b.  c.  27,  into  Senatorial  and  Imperial, 
the  emperor  assigned  to  the  senate  such 
portions  of  territory  as  were  peaceable,  and 
could  be  held  without  force  of  arms.  Over 
these  senatorial  provinces  the  senate  ap- 
pointed by  lot  yearly  an  officer,  who  was 
called  "  proconsul,"  and  who  exercised 
purely  civil  functions.  The  provinces  were 
in  consequence  called  "  proconsular." 

Procurator.  The  Greek  '/y^wv,  ren- 
dered "governor"  in  the  A.  V.,  is  applied 
in  the  N.  T.  to  the  officer  who  presided  over 
the  imperial  province  of  Judaea.  It  is  used 
of  Pontius  Pilate  (Matt,  xxvii.),  of  Felix 
(Acts  xxiii.,  xxiv.),  and  of  Festus  (Acts 
xxvi.  30).    In  all  these  cases  the  Vulgate 


PROPHET 


MO 


PROPHET 


equivalent  is  praeses.  The  office  of  proc- 
urator is  mentioned  in  Luke  iii.  1.  It  is 
explained,  under  Pkoconsul,  that  after  the 
battle  of  Actium  (b.  c.  27)  the  provinces 
of  the  Roman  empire  were  divided  by 
Augustus  into  two  portions,  giving  some  to 
the  senate,  and  reserving  to  himself  the 
rest.  The  imperial  provinces  were  admin- 
istered by  Legati.  No  quaestor  came  into 
the  emperor's  provinces,  but  the  property 
and  revenues  of  the  imperial  treasury  were 
administered  by  Procuratores,  Sometimes 
a  province  was  governed  by  a  procurator 
with  the  functions  of  a  Legatus.  This 
was  especially  the  case  witli  the  smaller 
provinces  and  the  outlying  districts  of 
a  larger  province ;  and  such  is  the  re- 
lation in  which  Judaea  stood  to  Syria. 
The  headquarters  of  the  procurator  were 
at  Caesarea  (Acts  xxiii.  23),  where  he 
had  a  judgment-seat  (Acts  xxv.  6)  in 
the  audience  chamber  (Acts  xxv.  23), 
and  was  assisted  by  a  council  (Acts  xxv. 
12),  whom  he  consulted  in  cases  of  diffi- 
culty. In  the  N.  T.  we  see  the  procurator 
only  in  his  judicial  capacity.  Thus  Christ 
is  brought  before  Pontius  Pilate  as  a  politi- 
cal offender  (Matt,  xxvii.  2,  11),  and  the 
accusation  is  heard  by  the  procurator,  who 
is  seated  on  the  judgment  seat  (Matt, 
xxvii.  19).  Felix  heard  St.  Paul's  accusa- 
tion and  defence  from  the  judgment  seat  at 
Caesarea  (Acts  xxiv.)  ;  and  St.  Paul  calls 
him  "judge"  (Acts  xxiv.  10),  as  if  this 
term  described  his  chief  functions.  The 
procurator  is  again  alluded  to  in  his  judicial 
capacity  in  1  Pet.  ii.  14.  He  was  attended 
by  a  cohort  as  body-guard  (Matt,  xxvii.  27), 
and  apparently  went  up  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  the  high  festivals,  and  there  resided 
at  the  palace  of  Herod,  in  which  was  the 
praetorium,  or  "judgment  liall,"  as  it  is 
rendered  in  the  A.  V.  (Matt,  xxvii.  27; 
Mark  xv.  16  ;  comp.  Acts  xxiii.  35). 

Prophet.  The  ordinary  Hebrew  word 
for  prophet  is  n&bi,  derived  from  a  verb 
signifying  "  to  bubble  forth  "  like  a  foun- 
tain. Hence  the  word  means  one  who  an- 
nounces or  pours  forth  the  declarations  of 
God.  The  English  word  comes  from  the 
Greek  Prophetes  (rrgo^ijTij?),  which  signi- 
fies in  classical  Greek  one  who  speaks  for 
another,  specially  one  who  speaks  for  a 
god,  and  so  interprets  his  will  to  man. 
Hence  its  essential  meaning  is  "an  inter- 
preter." The  use  of  the  word  in  its  modern 
sense  as  "  one  who  predicts  "  is  post-clas- 
sical. The  larger  sense  of  interpretation 
has  not,  however,  been  lost.  In  fact  the 
English  word  Prophet  has  always  been  used 
in  a  larger  and  in  a  closer  sense.  The  dif- 
ferent meanings,  or  shades  of  meaning,  in 
which  the  abstract  noun  is  employed  in 
Scripture,  have  been  drawn  out  by  Locke 
as  follows  :  —  "  Prophecy  comprehends 
three  things :  prediction ;   singing  by  the 


dictate  of  the  Spirit;  and  understanding 
and  explaining  the  mysterious,  hidden  sense 
of  Scriptirre,  by  an  immediate  illumination 
and  motion  of  the  Spirit."  —  Tlie  sacerdotal 
order  was  originally  the  instrument  by 
which  the  members  of  the  Jewish  Theoc- 
racy were  taught  and  governed  in  things 
spiritual.  Teaching  by  act  and  teaching 
by  word  were  alike  their  task.  But  during 
the  time  of  the  Judges,  the  priesthood  sank 
into  a  state  of  degeneracy,  and  the  people 
were  no  longer  affected  by  the  acted  les- 
sons of  the  ceremonial  service.  They  re- 
quired less  enigmatic  warnings  and  exhor- 
tations. Under  these  circumstances  a  new 
moral  power  was  evoked  —  the  Prophetic 
Order.  Samuel,  himself  a  Levite,  of  the 
family  of  Kohath  (1  Chr.  vi.  28),  and  al- 
most certainly  a  priest,  was  the  instrument 
used  at  once  for  effecting  a  reform  in  the 
sacerdotal  order  (1  Chr.  Ix.  22),  and  for 
giving  to  the  prophets  a  position  of  im- 
portance which  tliey  had  never  before  held. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
Samuel  created  the  prophetic  order  as  a 
new  thing  before  unknown.  The  germs 
both  of  the  prophetic  and  of  the  regal 
order  are  found  in  the  Law  as  given  to  the 
Israelites  by  Moses  (Deut.  xiii.  1,  xviii.  20, 
xvii.  18),  but  they  were  not  yet  developed, 
because  there  was  not  yet  the  demand  for 
them.  Samuel  took  measures  to  make  his 
work  of  restoration  permanent  as  well  as 
effective  for  the  moment.  For  this  purpose 
he  instituted  Companies,  or  Colleges  of 
Prophets.  One  we  find  in  his  lifetime  at 
Ramali  (1  Sam.  xix.  19,  20) ;  others  after- 
wards at  Bethel  (2  K.  ii.  3),  Jericho  (2  K. 
ii.  5),  Gilgal  (2  K.  iv.  38),  and  elsewhere 
(2  K.  vi.  1).  Their  constitution  and  object 
were  similar  to  those  of  Theological  Col- 
leges. Into  them  were  gathered  promising 
students,  and  here  they  were  trained  for 
the  office  which  they  were  afterwards  des- 
tined to  fulfil.  So  successful  were  these 
institutions,  that  from  the  time  of  Samuel 
to  the  closing  of  the  Canon  of  the  Old 
Testament,  there  seems  never  to  have  been 
wanting  a  due  supply  of  men  to  keep  up 
the  line  of  official  prophets.  Their  chief 
subject  of  study  was,  no  doubt,  the  Law 
and  its  interpretation ;  oral,  as  distinct  from 
symbolical,  teaching  being  henceforth  tacit- 
ly transferred  from  the  priestly  to  the  pro- 
phetical order.  Subsidiary  subjects  of  in- 
struction were  music  and  sacred  poetry, 
both  of  which  had  been  connected  with 
prophecy  from  the  time  of  Moses  (Ex.  xv. 
20)  and  the  Judges  (Judg.  iv.  4,  v.  1).  But 
to  belong  to  the  prophetic  order  and  to  pos- 
sess the  prophetic  gift  are  not  converti- 
ble terms.  Generally,  the  inspired  proph- 
et came  from  the  College  of  the  Proph- 
ets, and  belonged  to  the  prophetic  order; 
but  this  was  not  always  the  case.  Thus 
Amos,  though  called  to  the  prophetic  Oj^cSf 


PROPHET 


551 


PROPHET 


did  not  belong  to  the  prophetic  order  (Am. 
vii.  14).  The  sixteen  prophets  whose  books 
are  in  the  Canon  have  therefore  that  place 
of  honor,  because  they  were  endowed  with 
the  prophetic  gift  as  well  as  ordinarily  (so 
far  as  we  know)  belonging  to  the  prophetic 
order.  What  then  are  the  characteristics 
of  the  sixteen  prophets,  thus  called  and  con>- 
niissioned,  and  intrusted  with  the  messages 
of  God  to  His  people?  (1.)  They  were  the 
national  poets  of  Judaea.  (2.)  They  were 
annalists  and  historians.  A  great  portion 
of  Isaiah,  of  Jeremiah,  of  Daniel,  of  Jonah, 
of  Haggai,  is  direct  or  indirect  history.  (3.) 
They  were  preachers  of  patriotism ;  their 
patriotism  being  founded  on  the  religious 
motive.  (4.)  They  were  preachers  of  morals 
aad  of  spiritual  religion.  The  system  of 
morals  put  forward  by  the  prophets,  if  not 
higher,  or  sterner,  or  purer  than  that  of  the 
JjdM,  is  more  plainly  declared,  and  with 
gresiter,  because  now  more  needed,  vehe- 
mence of  diction.  (5.)  They  were  extraor- 
dinary, but  yet  autiiorized  exponents  of 
the  Law.  (6.)  They  held  a  pastoral  or 
quasi-pistoral  office.  (7.)  They  were  a 
political  power  in  the  state.  (8.)  But  the 
prophets  were  something  more  than  na- 
tional po«ts  and  annalists,  preachers  of 
patriotism,  moral  teachers,  exponents  of 
the  Law,  pastors,  and  politicians.  Their 
most  essential  characteristic  is,  that  they 
were  instruments  of  revealing  God's  will 
to  man,  as  in  other  ways,  so  specially  by 
predicting  future  events,  and,  in  particular, 
by  foretelling  the  incarnation  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  and  the  redemption  effected 
by  Him  We  have  a  series  of  prophecies 
which  are  s ,  applicable  to  the  person  and 
earthly  life  of  Jesus  Christ  as  to  be  thereby 
shown  to  have  been  designed  to  apply  to 
Him.  And  if  they  were  designed  to 
api>)y  to  Him,  prophetical  prediction  is 
proved.  Objections  have  been  urged.  We 
notice  only  one,  viz.  vagueness.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  prophecies  are  too  darkly 
and  vaguely  worded  to  be  proved  predic- 
tive by  the  events  which  they  are  alleged  to 
foretell.  But  to  this  might  be  answered, 
1.  That  God  never  forces  men  to  believe, 
but  that  there  is  such  a  union  of  definite- 
ness  and  vagueness  in  the  prophecies  as  to 
enable  those  who  are  willing  to  discover 
the  truth,  while  the  wilfully  blind  are  not 
forcibly  constrained  to  see  it.  2.  That, 
had  the  prophecies  been  couched  in  the 
form  of  direct  declarations,  their  fulfilment 
would  have  thereby  been  rendered  impos- 
sible, or,  at  least,  capable  of  frustration. 
8.  That  the  effect  of  prophecy  would  have 
been  far  less  benefi(;ial  to  believers,  as 
being  less  adapted  to  keep  them  in  a  state 
of  constant  expectation.  4.  That  the  Mes- 
siah of  revelation  could  not  be  so  clearly 
portrayed  in  his  varied  character  as  God  and 
Han,  as  Prophet,  Priest  and  King,  if  he  liad 


been  the  mere  "  teacher."  6.  That  the  state 
of  the  Prophets,  at  the  time  of  receiving 
the  Divine  revelation,  was  such  as  neces- 
sarily to  make  their  predictions  fragmen- 
tary, figurative,  and  abstracted  from  the 
relations  of  tin>e.  6.  That  some  portions 
of  the  prophecies  were  intended  to  be  of 
double  application,  and  some  portions  to 
be  understood  only  on  their  fulfilment  (cf. 
John  xiv.  29;  Ez.  xxxvi.  33).  We  learn 
from  Holy  Scripture  that  it  was  by  the 
agency  of  the  Spirit  of  God  that  the  proph- 
ets received  the  divine  communication. 
But  the  means  by  which  the  Divine  Spirit 
communicated  with  tlie  human  spirit,  and 
the  conditions  of  the  human  spirit  under 
which  the  Divine  communications  were  re- 
ceived, have  not  been  clearly  declared  to 
us.  They  are,  however,  indicated.  In 
Num.  xii.  6-8  we  have  an  exhaustive  di- 
vision of  the  different  ways  in  which  the 
revelations  of  God  are  made  to  man.  1. 
Direct  declaration  and  manifestation :  "I 
will  speak  mouth  to  mouth,  apparently, 
and  the  similitude  of  the  Lord  shall  he  be- 
hold." 2.  Vision.  3.  Dream.  But  though 
it  must  be  allowed  that  Scripture  language 
seems  to  point  out  the  state  of  dream  and 
of  trance,  or  ecstasy,  as  a  condition  in 
which  the  human  instrument  received  the 
Divine  communications,  it  does  not  follow 
that  all  tlie  prophetic  revelations  were  thus 
made.  Had  the  prophets  a  full  knowledge 
of  that  which  they  predicted?  It  follows 
from  what  we  have  already  said  that  they 
had  not,  and  could  not  have.  They  were 
the  "  spokesmen  "  of  God  (Ex.  vii.  1),  the 
"  mouth  "  by  which  His  words  were  uttered, 
or  they  were  enabled  to  view,  and  empow- 
ered to  describe,  pictures  presented  to  their 
spiritual  intuition ;  but  there  are  no  grounds 
for  believing  that,  contemporaneously  with 
this  miracle,  there  was  wrouglit  another 
miracle,  enlarging  the  understanding  of 
the  prophet  so  as  to  grasp  the  whole  of  the 
Divine  counsels  which  he  was  gazing  into, 
or  which  he  was  the  instrument  of  enun- 
ciating. Of  the  sixteen  Prophets,  four 
are  usually  called  the  Great  Prophets, 
namely,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
Daniel;  and  twelve  the  Minor  Prophets, 
namely,  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah, 
Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zeph- 
aniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi.  They 
may  be  divided  into  four  groups :  the 
Prophets  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  —  Ho- 
sea, Amos,  Joel,  Jonah;  the  Prophets  of 
the  Southern  Kingdom  —  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Obadiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zeph- 
aniah;  the  Prophets  of  the  Captivity  — 
Ezekiel  and  Daniel;  the  Prophets  of  the 
Return  —  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi. 
They  may  be  arranged  in  the  following 
chronological  order  :  namely,  Joel,  Jona'ct, 
Hosea,  Amos,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Zeph- 
aniah,  Habakkuk,  Obadiab,  Jeremiah,  E*e« 


PROPHET 


552 


PROSELYTES 


kiel,  Daniel,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi. 
Use  of  Prophecy.  —  Predictive  prophecy  is 
at  once  a  part  and  an  evidence  of  revela- 
tion :  at  the  time  that  it  is  delivered,  and 
until  its  fulfilment,  a  part ;  after  it  has  been 
fulfilled,  an  evidence.  St.  Peter  (2  Ep.  i. 
19)  describes  it  as  "a  light  shining  in  a 
dark  place,"  or  "  a  taper  glimmering  where 
there  is  nothing  to  reflect  its  rays,"  that  is, 
throwing  some  light,  but  only  a  feeble  light 
as  compared  with  what  is  slied  from  the 
Gospel  history.  But  after  fulfilment,  St. 
Peter  saySj  "the  word  of  prophecy"  be- 
comes "  more  sure  "  than  it  was  before  ; 
that  is,  it  is  no  longer  merely  a  feeble  liglit 
to  guide,  but  it  is  a  firm  ground  of  confi- 
dence, and,  combined  with  the  apostolic 
testimony,  serves  as  a  trustworthy  evidence 
of  the  faith.  As  an  evidence,  fulfilled 
prophecy  is  as  satisfactory  as  anything  can 
be ;  for  who  can  know  the  future  except  the 
Ruler  who  disposes  future  events?  and 
from  whom  can  come  prediction  except 
from  Him  who  knows  the  future  ?  Devel- 
opment of  Messianic  Prophecy.  —  Predic- 
tion, in  the  shape  of  promise  and  threaten- 
ing, begins  with  the  Book  of  Genesis. 
Immediately  upon  the  Fall,  hopes  of  re- 
covery and  salvation  are  held  out,  but  the 
manner  in  which  this  salvation  is  to  be 
effected  is  left  altogether  indefinite.  All 
that  is  at  first  declared  is,  tliat  it  shall  come 
through  a  child  of  woman  (Gen.  iii,  15). 
By  degrees  the  area  is  limited :  it  is  to 
come  through  the  family  of  Shem  (Gen.  ix. 
26),  through  the  family  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
vii.  3),  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  18),  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxviii.  14),  of  Judah  (xlix.  10). 
Balaam  seems  to  say  that  it  will  be  wrought 
by  a  warlike  Israelitish  King  (Num.  xxiv. 
17)  ;  Jacob,  by  a  peaceful  Ruler  of  the  earth 
(Gen.  xlix.  10) ;  Moses,  by  a  Prophet  like 
himself,  i.  e.  a  revealer  of  a  new  religious 
dispensation  (Deut.  xviii.  15).  Nathan's 
announcement  (2  Sam.  vii.  16)  determines 
further  that  the  salvation  is  to  come  through 
the  house  of  David,  and  through  a  descend- 
ant of  David  who  shall  be  himself  a  king. 
This  promise  is  developed  by  David  him- 
self in  the  Messianic  Psalms.  Pss.  xviii. 
and  Ixi.  are  founded  on  the  promise  com- 
municated by  Nathan,  and  do  not  go  beyond 
the  announcement  made  by  Nathan.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  Ps.  Ixxxix.,  which 
■was  composed  by  a  later  writer.  Pss.  ii. 
and  ex.  rest  upon  the  same  promise  as  their 
foundation,  but  add  new  features  to  it. 
The  Son  of  David  is  to  be  the  Son  of  God 
(ii.  7),  the  Anointed  of  the  Lord  (ii.  2),  not 
only  the  King  of  Zion  (ii.  6,  ex.  1),  but  the 
Inheritor  and  Lord  of  the  whole  earth  (ii. 
8,  ex.  6),  and  besides  this,  a  Priest  forever 
after  the  order  of  Melchizedok  (ex.  4).  At 
the  same  time,  he  is,  as  typified  by  his  pro- 
genitor, to  be  full  of  suffering  and  affliction 
(Pss.  xxii.,  Ixxi.,  cii.,  cix.) ;  brought  down 


to  the  grave,  yet  raised  to  life  without 
seeing  corruption  (Ps.  xvi.).  In  Pss.  xlv., 
Ixxii.,  the  sons  of  Korah  and  Solomon 
describe  his  peaceful  reign.  Between  Solo- 
mon and  Hezekiah  intervened  some  200 
years,  during  which  the  voice  of  prophecy 
was  silent.  The  Messianic  conception  en- 
tertained at  this  time  by  the  Jews  might 
have  been  that  of  a  King  of  the  royal 
house  of  David,  who  would  arise,  and  gather 
under  liis  peaceful  sceptre  his  own  people 
and  strangeis.  Sufficient  allusion  to  his 
prophetical  and  priestly  offices  had  been 
made  to  create  thoughtful  consideration, 
but  as  yet  there  was  no  clear  delineation  of 
him  in  these  characters.  It  was  reserved 
for  the  Prophets  to  bring  out  these  features 
more  distinctly.  In  this  great  period  of 
prophetism  there  is  no  longer  any  chrono- 
logical development  of  Messianic  Prophecy, 
as  in  the  earlier  period  previous  to  Solo- 
mon. Each  prophet  adds  a  feature,  one 
more,  another  less  clearly :  combine  the 
feature,  and  we  have  the  portrait;  but  it 
does  not  grow  gradually  and  perceptibly 
under  the  hands  of  the  several  artists. 
Its  culminating  point  is  found  in  the 
prophecy  contained  in  Is.  Iii.  13-15,  and  liii. 
Prophets  of  the  New  Testament.  —  So  far 
as  their  predictive  powers  are  concerned, 
the  Old  Testament  prophets  find  their  New 
Testament  counterpart  in  the  writer  of  the 
Apocalypse ;  but  in  their  general  character, 
as  specially  illumined  revealers  of  God's 
will,  their  counterpart  will  rather  be  found, 
first  in  the  Great  Prophet  of  the  Church, 
and  his  forerunner  John  the  Baptist,  and 
next  in  all  those  persons  who  were  endowed 
with  the  extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Spirit 
in  the  Apostolic  age,  the  speakers  with 
tongues  and  the  interpreters  of  tongues,  the 
prophets  and  tlie  discerners  of  spirits,  the 
teachers  and  workers  of  miracles  (1  Cor. 
xii.  10,  28).  That  predictive  powers  did 
occasionally  exist  in  the  N.  T.  prophets  is 
proved  by  the  case  of  Agabus  (Acts  xi.  28), 
but  this  was  not  their  characteristic.  The 
prophets  of  the  N.  T.  were  supernaturally- 
illuminated  expounders  and  preachers. 

Proselytes.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
translated  is  in  the  A.  V.  commonly  ren- 
dered "  stranger "  (Gen.  xv.  13 ;  Ex.  ii. 
22 ;  Is.  v.  17,  &c.).  In  the  N.  T.  the  A.  V. 
has  taken  the  word  in  a  more  restricted 
meaning,  and  translated  it  accordingly  (Matt, 
xxiii.  15;  Acts  ii.  10,  vi.  5).  The  Chere- 
TiiiTES  and  Pelethitks  consisted  probably 
of  foreigners  who  had  been  attracted  to  the 
service  of  David,  and  were  content  for  it 
to  adopt  the  religion  of  tlieir  master.  A 
convert  of  another  kind,  the  type,  as  it  has 
been  thought,  of  the  later  proselytes  of  the 
gate,  is  H)und  in  Naaman  the  Syrian  (2  K. 
V.  15,  18),  recognizing  Jehovah  as  his  God, 
yet  not  binding  himself  to  any  rigorous 
1  obser\ance  of  the  Law.     The  Disp^rsioa 


PROSEi^YTES 


553 


PROSELYTES 


of  the  Jews  in  foreign  countries,  which  has 
been  spoken  of  elsewhere  [Disveksion, 
The],  enabled  them  to  make  many  con- 
verts to  their  faith.  The  converts  who 
where  tlius  attracted,  joined,  with  varying 
strictness,  in  the  worship  of  the  Jews.  In 
Palestine  itself,  even  Roman  centurions 
learnt  to  love  the  conquered  nation,  built 
synagogues  for  them  (Luke  vii.  5),  fasted 
and  prayed,  and  gave  alms  after  the  pattern 
of  the  strictest  Jews  (Acts  x.  2,  30),  and 
became  preachers  of  tlie  new  faith  to  the 
soldiers  under  them  (ib.  v.  7).  Such  men, 
drawn  by  wliat  was  best  in  Judaism,  were 
naturally  among  the  readiest  receivers  of 
the  new  truth  which  rose  out  of  it,  and 
became,  in  many  cases,  the  nucleus  of  a 
Gentile  Church.  Proselytism  had,  how- 
ever, its  darker  side.  The  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine were  eager  to  spread  their  faith  by  the 
same  weapons  as  those  with  wliich  they 
had  defended  it.  The  Idumaeans  had  the 
alternative  offered  them  by  John  Hyrca- 
nus  of  death,  exile,  or  circumcision.  The 
Ituraeans  were  converted  in  the  same  way 
by  Aristobulus.  Where  force  was  not  in 
their  power,  they  obtained  their  ends  by 
the  most  unscrupulous  fraud.  Those  who 
were  most  active  in  proselytizing  were  pre- 
cisely those  from  whose  teaching  all  that 
was  most  true  and  living  had  departed. 
The  vices  of  the  Jew  were  ingrafted  on 
the  vices  of  the  heathen.  A  repulsive 
casuistry  released  the  convert  from  obli- 
gations which  he  had  before  recognized, 
while  in  other  things  he  was  bound,  hand 
and  foot,  to  an  unhealthy  superstition.  It 
was  no  wonder  that  he  became  "  twofold 
more  the  child  of  hell "  (Matt,  xxiii.  15) 
than  the  Pharisees  themselves.  The  posi- 
tion of  such  proselytes  was  indeed  every 
way  pitiable.  At  Rome,  and  in  other  large 
cities,  they  became  the  butts  of  popular 
scurrility.*  Among  the  Jews  themselves 
their  case  was  not  much  better.  For  the 
most  part  the  convert  gained  but  little 
honor,  even  from  those  wlio  gloried  in  hav- 
ing brought  him  over  to  their  sect  and  party. 
The  popular  Jewish  feeling  about  them  was 
like  the  popular  Christian  feeling  about  a 
converted  Jew.  The  better  Rabbis  did 
their  best  to  ;?uard  against  these  evils. 
Anxious  to  exclude  all  unworthy  converts, 
they  grouped  them,  according  to  their 
motives,  with  a  somewhat  quaint  classifica- 
tion. (1.)  Love-proselytes,  where  they 
were  drawn  by  the  hope  of  gaining  the 
beloved  one.  (2.)  Man-for-Woman  or 
Woman-for-Man  proselytes,  where  the 
husband  followed  the  religion  of  the  wife, 
or  conversely.  (3.)  Esther-proselytes, 
where  conformity  was  assumed  to  escape 
danger,  as  in  the  original  Purim  (Esth. 
viii-  17).    (4.)  King's-table-proselytes,  who 

•  The  words  "curtu«,"  "  verpef,"  met  them  at  every  cor- 
B«r  (Uor.  Sat.  i.  4,  U2 ;  Mwt.  vU.  29, 84, 81,  xi.  95,  xU.  37;. 


were  led  by  the  hope  of  court  favor  and 
promotion,  like  the  converts  under  David 
and  Solomon.  (5).  Lion-proselytes,  where 
the  conversion  originated  in  a  superstitious 
dread  of  a  divine  judgment,  as  with  the 
Samaritans  of  2  K.  xvii.  26.  None  of  these 
were  regarded  as  fit  for  admission  witliin 
the  covenant.  —  We  find  in  the  Talmud  a 
distinction  between  Proselytes  of  the  Gate 
and  Proselytes  of  Righteousness.  1.  The 
term  Proselytes  of  the  Gate  was  derived 
from  the  frequently  occurring  description 
in  the  Law,  "the  stranger  that  is  within 
thy  gates  "  (Ex.  xx.  10,  &c.).  Converts  of 
this  class  were  not  bound  by  circumcision 
and  the  other  special  laws  of  the  Mosaic 
code.  It  was  enough  for  them  to  observe 
the  seven  precepts  of  Noah  —  i.  e.  the  six 
supposed  to  have  been  given  to  Adam,  (1) 
against  idolatry,  (2)  against  blaspheming, 
(3)  against  bloodshed,  (4)  against  unclean- 
ness  (5)  against  theft,  (6)  of  obedience,  with 
(7)  the  prohibition  of  "  flesh  with  the  blood 
thereof"  given  to  Noah.  The  proselyte 
was  not  to  claim  the  privileges  of  an 
Israelite,  might  not  redeem  his  first-born, 
or  pay  the  half-shekel.  He  was  forbidden 
to  study  the  Law  under  pain  of  death. 
The  later  Rabbis  insisted  that  the  profes- 
sion of  his  faith  should  be  made  solemnly 
in  the  presence  of  three  witnesses.  The 
Jubilee  was  the  proper  season  for  his 
admission.  All  this  seems  so  full  and  pre- 
cise that  it  has  led  many  writers  to  look 
on  it  as  representing  a  reality ;  and  most 
commentators  accordingly  have  seen  these 
Proselytes  of  the  Gate  in  the  "religious 
proselytes,"  "  the  devout  persons,"  "  de- 
vout men  "  of  the  Acts  (Acts  xiii.  43,  xvii. 
4,  17,  ii.  5).  It  remains  doubtful,  however, 
whether  it  was  ever  more  than  a  paper 
scheme  of  what  ought  to  be,  disguising 
itself  as  having  actually  been.  2.  The 
Proselytes  of  Righteousness,  known  also  as 
Pioselytes  of  the  Covenant,  were  perfect 
Israelites.  We  learn  from  the  Talmud 
that,  in  addition  to  circumcision,  baptism 
was  also  required  to  complete  their  admis- 
sion to  the  faith.  The  proselyte  was  placed 
in  a  tank  or  pool,  up  to  his  neck  in  water. 
His  teachers,  who  now  acted  as  his  spon- 
sors, repeated  the  great  commandments  of 
the  Law.  The  baptism  was  followed,  as 
long  as  the  Temple  stood,  by  the  oflfering 
or  Corban.  —  This  account  suggests  many 
questions  of  grave  interest.  Was  this  rit- 
ual observed  as  early  as  the  commence- 
ment of  the  first  century  ?  If  so,  was  the 
baptism  of  John,  or  that  of  the  Christian 
Church,  in  any  way  derived  from,  or  con- 
nected with,  the  baptism  of  proselytes  ?  If 
not,  was  the  latter  in  any  way  borrowed 
from  the  former?  It  will  be  enough  to 
sum  up  the  contilusions  which  seem  fairly 
to  be  drawn  from  the  controversy  on  this 
subject.    (1.)  There  is  no  direct  evidenco 


PKOVERBS,  BOOK  OF 


554 


PROVINCE 


of  the  practice  being  in  use  before  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  (2.)  The  negative 
argument  drawn  from  tlie  silence  of  the  O. 
T.,  of  the  Apocrypha,  of  Philo,  and  of  Jo- 
sephus,  is  almost  decisive  against  the  be- 
lief that  there  was,  in  their  time,  a  baptism 
of  proselytes  with  as  much  importance  at- 
tached to  it  as  we  find  in  the  Talmudists. 
(3.)  It  is  probable,  however,  that  there 
was  a  baptism  in  use  at  a  period  consider- 
ably earlier  than  that  for  which  we  have 
direct  evidence.  (4.)  The  history  of  the 
N.  T.  itself  suggests  the  existence  of  such 
a  custom.  A  sign  is  seldom  chosen  unless 
it  already  has  a  meaning  for  those  to  whom 
it  is  addressed.  The  fitness  of  the  sign  in 
this  case  would  be  in  proportion  to  the  as- 
Bociations  already  connected  with  it.  The 
question  of  the  Priests  and  Levites,  "Why 
baptizest  thou  then  ?  "  (John  i.  25)  implies 
that  they  wondered,  not  at  the  thing  itself, 
but  at  its  being  done  for  Israelites  by  one 
who  disclaimed  the  names  which,  in  their 
eyes,  would  have  justified  the  introduction 
of  a  new  order. 

Proverbs,  Book  of.  The  canonicity 
of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  has  never  been 
disputed  except  by  the  Jews  themselves. 
It  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  points 
urged  by  the  school  of  Shammai,  that  the 
contradictions  in  tiie  Book  of  Proverbs  ren- 
dered it  apocryphal.  It  occurs  in  all  the 
Jewish  lists  of  canonical  books,  and  is 
reckoned  among  what  are  called  the  "  writ- 
ings "  (cethUhim)  or  Hagiographa,  which 
form  the  third  great  division  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  The  superscriptions  which  are 
affixed  to  several  portions  of  the  Book,  in 
i.  1,  X.  1,  XXV.  1,  attribute  the  authorship 
of  those  portions  to  Solomon,  the  son  of 
David,  king  of  Israel.  With  the  exception 
of  the  last  two  chapters,  wliich  are  distinct- 
ly assigned  to  other  authors,  it  is  probable 
that  the  statement  of  tlie  superscriptions  is 
in  the  main  correct,  and  that  the  majority 
of  the  Proverbs  contained  in  the  book  were 
uttered  or  collected  by  Solomon.  Speak- 
ing roughly,  the  book  consists  of  three  main 
divisions,  with  two  appendices.  1.  Chaps. 
i.-ix.  form  a  connected  didactic  poem,  in 
which  Wisdom  is  praised  and  the  youth 
exhorted  to  devote  himself  to  her.  This 
portion  is  preceded  by  an  introduction  and 
title  describing  the  character  and  general 
aim  of  the  book.  ■  2.  Chaps,  x.-xxiv.,  with 
the  title,  "The  Proverbs  of  Solomon,"  con- 
fiist  of  three  parts  :  x.  l.-xxii.  16,  a  collec- 
tion of  single  proverbs,  and  detached  sen- 
tences out  of  the  region  of  moral  teaching 
and  worldly  prudence;  xxii.  17-xxiv.  21,  a 
more  connected  didactic  poem,  with  an  in- 
troduction, xxii.  17-22,  which  contains  pre- 
cepts of  righteousness  and  prudence  :  xxiv. 
23-34,  with  the  inscription,  "  These  also  be- 
long to  the  wise,"  a  collection  of  uncon- 
nected maxims,  which  serve  as  an  appendix 


to  the  preceding.  Then  follows  the  third 
division,  xxv.-xxix.,  which,  according  to 
the  superscription,  professes  to  be  a  collec- 
tion of  Solomon's  proverbs,  consisting  of 
single  sentences,  which  the  men  of  the 
court  of  Hezekiah  copied  out.  The  first 
appendix,  ch.  xxx.,  "  The  words  of  Agur, 
the  son  of  Jakeh,"  is  a  collection  of  partly 
proverbial  and  partly  enigmatical  sayings ; 
the  second,  ch.  xxxi.,  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  "  The  words  of  king  Lemuel  "  (1-6), 
and  an  alphabetical  acrostic  in  praise  of  a 
virtuous  woman,  which  occupies  the  rest  of 
the  cliapter.  Who  was  Agur,  and  who  was 
Jakeh,  are  questions  which  have  been  often 
asked,  and  never  satisfactorily  answered. 
All  that  can  be  said  of  him  is,  that  he  is  an 
unknown  Hebrew  sage,  the  son  of  an  equal- 
ly unknown  Jakeh,  and  that  he  lived  after 
the  time  of  Hezekiah.  Lemuel,  like  Agur, 
is  unknown.  It  is  even  uncertain  whether 
he  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  real  personage,  or 
whether  the  name  is  merely  symbolicaL 
If  the  present  text  be  retained,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  what  other  conclusion  can  be  arrived 
at.  If  Lemuel  were  a  real  personage,  he 
must  have  been  a  foreign  neighbor-king,  or 
the  chief  of  a  nom.ade  tribe;  and  in  thia 
case  the  proverbs  attributed  to  him  must 
have  come  to  the  Hebrews  from  a  foreign 
source,  which  is  higlily  improbable,  and 
contrary  to  all  we  know  of  tlie  people. 
The  Proverbs  are  frequently'  quoted  or  al- 
luded to  in  the  New  Testament,  and  the 
canonicity  of  the  book  thereby  confirmed. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  pas- 
sages :  — 

Prov.  i.  16  compare  Rora.  iii.  10, 15. 

iii.   7  "        Koin.  xii.  IG. 

iii.  11, 12  "        Heb.  xii.  S,  6:  see  also  Rev.  iU. 

19. 
iii.  34  "        Jam.  iv.  6. 

X.  12  "        1  Pet.  iv.  8. 

xi.  32  "        1  Pet.  iv.  18. 

xvii.  13  "        Roni.xii.  17;  IThess.v.lS;  IPefc 

iii.  9. 
xvii.  27  "        Jam.  i.  19. 

XX.   9  "1  Joiiii  i.  8. 

XX.  20  "        Mntt.  XV.  4 ;  Mark  vii.  10. 

xxii.   8  (liXX.)      "        2  Cor.  ix.  7. 
XXV.  21, 22  "        Rom.  xii.  20. 

xxvi.  11  "        2  Pet.  ii.  22. 

xxvii.   1  "        Jam.  iv.  13, 14. 

Province.  It  is  not  intended  here  to 
do  more  than  indicate  the  points  of  contact 
which  this  word  presents  with  Biblical  his- 
tory and  literature.  (1.)  In  the  O.  T.  it 
appears  in  connection  with  the  wars  be- 
tween Ahab  and  Benhadad  (1  K.  xx.  14, 
15,  19).  The  victory  of  the  former  is 
gained  chiefly  "by  the  young  men  of  the 
princes  of  the  provinces,"  i.  e.,  probably,  of 
the  chiefs  of  tribes  in  the  Gilead  country. 
(2.)  More  commonly  the  word  is  used  of 
the  divisions  of  the  Chaldaean  (Dan.  ii.  49, 
iii.  1,  30)  and  the  Persian  kingdoms  (Ezr. 
ii.  1 ;  Neh.  vii.  6;  Esth.  i.  1,  22,  ii.  3,  &c.). 
In  the  N.  T.  we  are  brought  into  contact 
with  the  administration  of  the  provinces  of 
the  Roman  empire.    The  classification  of 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


555 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


provinces  supposed  to  need  military  con- 
trol, and  therefore  placSd  under  the  im- 
mediate government  of  the  Caesar,  and 
those  still  belonging  theoretically  to  the 
republic,  and  administered  by  the  senate ; 
and  of  the  latter  again  into  proconsular 
and  praetorian,  is  recognized,  more  or  less 
distinctly,  in  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  [Pko- 
conscl;  Procckator.]  The  orottTijyoi  of 
Acts  xvi.22  ("  magistrates,"  A.  V.),  on  the 
other  hand,  were  the  duumviri,  or  praetors 
of  a  Roman  colony.  The  right  of  any  Ro- 
man citizen  to  appeal  from  a  provincial  gov- 
ernor to  tlie  emperor  meets  us  as  asserted 
by  St.  Paul  (Acts  xxv.  11).  In  the  coun- 
cil of  Acts  xxv.  12  we  recognize  the  assess- 
ors who  were  appointed  to  take  part  in  the 
judicial  functions  of  the  governor. 

Psalms,  Book  of.  The  present  He- 
brew name  of  the  Book  is  Tehillim, 
"Praises."  But  in  the  actual  superscrip- 
tions of  the  psalms  the  word  TehUMh  is 
applied  only  to  one,  Ps.  cxlv.,  which  is  in- 
deed emphatically  a  praise-hymn.  The 
LXX.  entitled  them  ipaiuoi,  or  "Psalms." 
The  Christian  Church  obviously  received 
the  Psalter  from  the  Jews  not  only  as  a 
constituent  portion  of  the  sacred  volume 
of  Holy  Scripture,  but  also  as  the  liturgi- 
cal hymn-book  which  the  Jewish  Church 
had  regularly  used  in  the  Temple.  The 
book  contains  150  Psalms,  and  may  be 
divided  into  five  great  divisions  or  books, 
which  must  have  been  originally  formed  at 
different  periods.  This  is  by  various  fur- 
ther considerations  rendered  all  but  certain. 
Thus,  there  is  a  remarkable  difference  be- 
tween the  several  books  in  their  use  of  the 
divine  names  Jehovah  and  Elohim,  to  des- 
ignate Almighty  God.  In  Book  I.  (i.-xli.) 
the  former  name  prevails :  it  is  found  272 
times,  while  Elohim  occurs  but  15  times. 
In  Book  II.  (xlii.-lxxii.),  Elohim  is  found 
more  than  five  times  as  often  as  Jehovah. 
In  Book  III.  (Ixxiii.-lxxxix.),  the  prepon- 
derance of  Elohim  in  the  earlier  is  balanced 
by  that  of  Jehovah  in  the  latter  psalms  of 
the  book.  In  Book  IV.  (xc.-cvi.)  the 
name  Jehovah  is  exclusively  employed ; 
and  so  also,  virtually,  in  Book  V.  (cvii.- 
cl.),  Elohim  being  there  found  only  in  two 
passages  incorporated  from  earlier  psalms. 
We  find  the  several  groups  of  psalms  which 
form  the  respective  five  books  distinguished, 
in  great  measure,  by  their  superscriptions, 
from  each  other.  Book  I.  is,  by  the  super- 
scriptions, entirely  Davidic ;  nor  do  we  find 
in  it  a  trace  of  any  but  David's  authorship. 
We  may  well  believe  that  the  compilation 
of  the  book  was  also  David's  work.  Book 
II.  appears  by  the  date  of  its  latest  psalm, 
Ps.  xlvi.,  to  have  been  compiled  in  the 
reign  of  king  Hezekiah.  It  would  natural- 
ly comprise,  1st,  several  or  most  of  the 
Levitical  psalms  anterior  to  that  date ;  and 
2dly,  tlie  remainder  of  the  psalms  of  David 


previously  uncompiled.  To  these  latter  the 
collector,  after  properly  appending  the  sin- 
gle psalm  of  Solomon,  has  affixed  the  notice 
that  "  the  prayers  of  David  the  son  of  Jesse 
are  ended "  (Ps.  Ixxii.  20) ;  evidently  im- 
plying, at  least  on  the  prirnd  facie  view, 
that  no  more  compositions  of  the  royal 
psalmist  remained.  How  then  do  we  find, 
in  the  later  Books  III.,  IV.,  V.,  further 
psalms  yet  marked  with  David's  name? 
The  name  David  is  used  to  denote,  in 
other  parts  of  Scripture,  after  the  original 
David's  death,  the  then  head  of  the  Davidic 
family ;  and  so,  in  prophecy,  the  Messiah 
of  the  seed  of  David,  who  was  to  sit  on 
David's  throne  (1  K.  xii.  16;  Hos.  iii.  5; 
Is.  Iv.  3 ;  Jer.  xxx.  9 ;  Ez.  xxxiv.  23,  24). 
And  thus  then  we  may  explain  the  mean- 
ing of  the  later  Davidic  superscriptions  in 
the  Psalter.  The  psalms  to  which  they  be- 
long were  written  by  Hezekiah,  by  Josiah, 
by  Zerubbabel,  or  others  of  David's  pos- 
terity. The  above  explanation  removes  all 
serious  difficulty  respecting  the  history  of 
the  later  books  of  the  Psalter.  Book  III., 
the  interest  of  which  centres  in  the  times 
of  Hezekiah,  stretches  out,  by  its  last  two 
psalms,  to  the  reign  of  Manasseh :  it  was 
probably  compiled  in  the  reign  of  Josiah. 
Book  IV.  contains  the  remainder  of  the 
psalms  up  to  the  date  of  the  captivity; 
Book  V.  the  psalms  of  the  Return.  There 
is  nothing  to  distinguish  these  two  books 
from  each  other  in  respect  of  outward  dec- 
oration or  arrangement,  and  they  may  have 
been  compiled  together  in  the  days  of  Nehe- 
miah.  Connection  of  the  Psalms  with  the 
Israelitish  History.  —  The  psalm  of  Moses, 
Ps.  xc,  which  is  in  point  of  actual  date  the 
earliest,  faithfully  reflects  the  long,  weary 
wanderings,  the  multiplied  provocations, 
and  the  consequent  punishments  of  the 
wilderness.  It  is,  however,  with  David 
that  Israelitish  psalmody  may  be  said  vir- 
tually to  commence.  Previous  mastery 
over  his  harp  had  probably  already  pre- 
pared the  way  for  his  future  strains,  when 
the  anointing  oil  of  Samuel  descended  upon 
him,  and  he  began  to  drink  in  special  meas- 
ure, from  that  day  forward,  of  the  Spirit  of 
the  Lord.  It  was  then  that,  victorious  at 
home  over  the  mysterious  melancholy  of 
Saul,  and  in  the  field  over  the  vaunting 
champion  of  the  Philistine  hosts,  he  sang 
how  from  even  babes  and  sucklings  God 
had  ordained  strength  because  of  His  ene- 
mies (Ps.  viii.).  His  next  psalms  are  of 
a  different  character;  his  persecutions  at 
the  hands  of  Saul  had  commenced.  When 
David's  reign  has  begun,  it  is  still  with  the 
most  exciting  incidents  of  his  history,  pri- 
vate or  public,  that  his  psalms  are  mainly 
associated.  There  are  none  to  which  the 
period  of  his  reign  at  Hebron  can  lay  ex- 
j  elusive  claim.  But  after  tlie  conquest  of 
;  Jerusalem  his  psalmody  opened  afresh  with 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


556 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OP 


the  solemn  removal  of  the  ark  to  Mount 
Zion ;  and  in  Pss.  xxiv.-xxix.,  which  be- 
long together,  we  have  the  earliest  definite 
instance  of  David's  systematic  composition 
or  arrangement  of  psalms  for  public  use. 
Even  of  those  psalms  which  cannot  be  re- 
ferred to  any  definite  occasion,  several  re- 
flect tlie  general  historical  circumstances 
of  the  times.  Thus  Ps.  ix.  is  a  thanksgiv- 
ing for  the  deliverance  of  the  land  of  Israel 
from  its  former  heathen  oppressors.  Ps. 
X.  is  a  prayer  for  tlie  deliverance  of  the 
Church  from  the  high-handed  oppression 
exercised  from  within.  The  succeeding 
psalms  dwell  on  the  same  theme,  the  vir- 
tual internal  heathenism  by  which  the 
Church  of  God  was  weighed  down.  So 
that  there  remain  very  few,  e.  g.  Pss.  xv.- 
xvii.,  xix.,  xxxii.  (with  its  choral  appen- 
dage xxiii.),  xxxvii.,  of  which  some  histori- 
cal account  may  not  be  given.  A  season 
of  repose  near  the  close  of  his  reign  in- 
duced David  to  compose  his  grand  person- 
al thanksgiving  for  the  deliverances  of  his 
whole  life,  Ps.  xviii. ;  the  date  of  which  is 
approximately  determined  by  the  place  at 
which  it  is  inserted  in  the  history  (2  Sam. 
xxii.).  It  was  probably  at  this  period  that 
he  finally  arranged  for  the  sanctuary-ser- 
vice that  collection  of  his  psalms  which 
now  constitutes  the  First  Book  of  the  Psal- 
ter. The  course  of  David's  reign  was  not, 
however,  as  yet  complete.  The  solemn 
assembly  convened  by  him  for  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  materials  of  the  future  Temple 
\\  Chr.  xxviii.,  xxix.)  would  naturally  call 
forth  a  renewal  of  his  best  efforts  to  glorify 
the  God  of  Israel  in  psalms ;  and  to  this 
occasion  we  doubtless  owe  the  great  festal 
hymns  Pss.  Ixv.-lxvii.,  Ixviii.,  containing 
a  large  review  of  the  past  history,  present 
position,  and  prospective  glories  of  God's 
chosen  people.  The  supplications  of  Ps. 
bcix.  suit  best  with  the  renewed  distress 
occasioned  by  the  sedition  of  Adonijah. 
Ps.  Ixxi.,  to  which  Ps.  Ixx.,  a  fragment  of 
a  former  psalm,  is  introductory,  forms 
David's  parting  strain.  Yet  that  the  psalmo- 
dy of  Israel  may  not  seem  finally  to  ter- 
minate with  him,  the  glories  of  the  future 
are  forthwith  anticipated  by  his  son  in  Ps. 
Ixxii.  For  a  time  the  single  psalm  of  Sol- 
omon remained  the  only  addition  to  those 
of  David.  If,  however,  religious  psalmody 
were  to  revive,  somewhat  might  be  not  un- 
reasonably anticipated  from  the  great  as- 
sembly of  king  Asa  (2  Chr.  xv.)  ;  and  Ps. 
1.  suits  so  exactly  with  the  circumstances 
of  that  occasion,  that  it  may  well  be  as- 
signed to  it.  The  great  prophetical  ode  Ps. 
xlv.  connects  itself  most  readily  with  the 
splendors  of  Jehoshaphat's  reign.  And 
after  that  psalmody  had  thus  definitely  re- 
vived, there  would  be  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  thenceforward  manifest  itself  in 
seasons  of  anxiety,  as  well  as  of  festivity 


and  thanksgiving.  Hence  Ps.  xlix.  Yet 
the  psalms  of  this  period  flow  but  sparing- 
ly. Pss.  xlii.-xliv.,  Ixxiv.,  are  best  as- 
signed to  tlie  reign  of  Ahaz.  The  reign 
of  Hezekiali  is  naturally  rich  in  psalmody. 
Pss.  xlvi.,  Ixxiii.,  Ixxv.,  Ixxvi.,  connect 
themselves  with  the  resistance  to  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Assyrians  and  the  divine 
destruction  of  tlieir  host.  We  are  now 
brought  to  a  series  of  psalms  of  peculiar 
interest,  springing  out  of  the  political  and 
religious  history  of  the  separated  ten  tribes. 
In  date  of  actual  composition  they  com- 
mence before  the  times  of  Hezekiali.  The 
earliest  is  probably  Ps.  Ixxx.,  a  supplica- 
tion for  the  Israelitish  people  sit  the  time 
of  the  Syrian  oppression.  AH  these  psalms 
(Ixxx.-lxxxiii.)  are  referred  by  their  super- 
scriptions to  the  Levite  singers,  and  thus 
bear  witness  to  the  eff"orts  of  the  Levites  to 
reconcile  tlie  two  branches  of  the  chosen 
nation.  The  captivity  of  Manasseh  him- 
self proved  to  be  but  temporary ;  but  the 
sentence  which  his  sins  had  provoked  upon 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  still  remained  to  be 
executed,  and  precluded  the  hope  that 
God's  salvation  could  be  revealed  till  after 
such  an  outpouring  of  His  judgments  as 
the  nation  never  yet  had  known.  Labor 
and  sorrow  must  be  the  lot  of  the  present 
generation ;  through  these  mercy  might  oc- 
casionally gleam,  but  the  glory  which  was 
eventually  to  be  manifested  must  be  for 
posterity  alone.  The  psalms  of  Book  IV. 
bear  generally  the  impress  of  this  feeling. 
We  pass  to  Book  V.  Ps.  cvii.  is  the  open- 
ing psalm  of  the  return,  sung  probably  at 
the  first  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Ezr.  iii.). 
The  ensuing  Davidic  psalms  may  well  be 
ascribed  to  Zerubbabel.  We  here  pass 
over  the  questions  connected  with  Ps. 
cxix. ;  but  a  directly  historical  character 
belongs  to  Pss.  cxx.-v-xxxiv.,  styled  in  our 
A.  V.  "  Songs  of  Degrees."  Internal  evi- 
dence refers  these  to  the  period  when  the 
Jews  under  Nehemiah  were,  in  the  very 
face  of  the  enemy,  repairing  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  title  may  well  signify 
"  Songs  of  goings  up  upon  the  walls,"  the 
psalms  being,  from  their  brevity,  well 
adapted  to  be  sung  by  the  workmen  and 
guards  while  engaged  in  their  respective 
duties.  Of  somewliat  earlier  date,  it  may 
be,  are  Ps.  cxxxvii.  and  tho  ensuing  Da- 
vidic psalms.  Of  These,  Ps.  cxxxix.  is  a 
psalm  of  the  new  birth  of  Israel,  from  the 
womb  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  to  a  life 
of  righteousness ;  Pss.  cxl.-cxliii.  may  be 
a  picture  of  the  trials  to  which  the  unre- 
stored  exiles  were  still  exposed  in  the 
realms  of  the  Gentiles.  Henceforward, 
as  we  approach  the  close  of  the  Psalter, 
its  strains  rise  in  cheerfulness ;  and  it 
fittingly  terminates  with  Pss.  cxlvii.-cl., 
which  were  probably  sung  on  the  occasion 
of  the  thanksgiving  procession  of  Neh.  xii., 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


557 


PTOLEMEE 


after  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusa- 
lem had  been  completed.  Moral  Charac- 
teristics of  the  Psalms.  —  Foremost  among 
these  meets  us,  undoubtedly,  the  universal 
recourse  to  communion  with  God.  Con- 
nected with  tliis  is  the  faith  by  which  the 
psalmist  everywhere  lives  in  God  rather 
than  in  himself.  It  is  of  the  essence  of 
such  faith  that  his  view  of  the  perfections 
of  God  should  be  true  and  vivid.  The 
Psalter  describes  God  as  He  is :  it  glows 
with  testimonies  to  His  power  and  prov- 
idence. His  love  and  faithfulness.  His  holi- 
ness and  righteousness.  The  Psalms  not 
only  set  forth  the  perfections  of  God :  they 
proclaim  also  the  duty  of  worshipping  Him 
by  the  acknowledgment  and  adoration  of 
His  perfections.  They  encourage  all  out- 
ward rites  and  means  of  worship.  Among 
these  they  recognize  the  ordinance  of  sac- 
rifice as  an  expression  of  the  worshipper's 
consecration  of  himself  to  God's  service. 
But  not  the  less  do  they  repudiate  the  out- 
ward rite  when  separated  from  that  which 
it  was  designed  to  express.  Similar  depth 
is  observable  in  the  view  taken  by  the 
psalmists  of  human  sin.  In  regard  to  the 
law,  the  psalmist,  while  warmly  acknowl- 
edging its  excellence,  feels  yet  that  it  can- 
not so  effectually  guide  Ids  own  unassisted 
exertions  as  to  preserve  liim  from  error 
(Ps.  xix.).  The  Psalms  bear  repeated  tes- 
timony to  the  duty  of  instructing  others  in 
the  ways  of  holiness  (Pss.  xxxii.,  xxxiv., 
li.).  This  brings  us  to  notice,  lastly,  the 
f;\ith  of  the  psalmists  in  a  righteous  recom- 
pense to  all  men  according  to  their  deeds 
(Ps.  xxxvii.,  &c.).  Prophetical  Character 
of  the  Psalms.  —  The  moral  struggle  be- 
tween godliness  and  ungodliness,  so  vividly 
depicted  in  the  Psalms,  culminates,  in  Holy 
Scripture,  in  the  life  of  the  Incarnate  Son 
of  God  upon  earth.  It  only  remains  to 
show  that  the  Psalms  themselves  definitely 
anticipated  this  culmination.  Now  there 
are  in  the  Psalter  at  least  three  psalms  of 
which  the  interest  evidently  centres  in  a 
person  distinct  from  the  speaker,  and  which, 
since  they  cannot  without  violence  to  the 
language  be  interpreted  of  any  but  the  Mes- 
siah, may  be  termed  directly  and  exclusively 
Messianic.  We  refer  to  Pss.  ii.,  xlv.,  ex. ; 
to  which  may  perhaps  be  added  Ps.  Ixxii. 
It  would  be  strange  if  these  few  psalms 
stood,  in  their  prophetical  significance,  ab- 
solutely alone  among  the  rest.  And  hence 
the  impossibility  of  viewing  the  psalms  gen- 
erally, notwithstanding  the  historical  dra- 
pery in  which  they  are  outwardly  clothed, 
as  simply  the  past  devotions  of  the  liistor- 
ical  David  or  the  historical  Israel.  The 
national  hymns  of  Israel  are  indeed  also 
j^rospective ;  but  in  general  they  anticipate 
rather  the  struggles  and  the  triumphs  of 
the  Christian  Cboreh  than  those  of  Christ 
Himself. 


Psaltery  was  a  stringed  instrument  of 
music  to  accompany  the  voice.  The  He- 
brew nebel,  or  nebel,  is  so  rendered  in  the 
A.  V.  in  all  passages  where  it  occurs,  ex- 
cept in  Is.  V.  12,  xiv.  11,  xxii.  2-i  .marg. ; 
Am.  V.  23,  vi.  5,  where  it  is  translated  viol. 
The  ancient  viol  was  a  six-stringed  guitar. 
In  the  Prayer  Book  version  of  the  Psalms, 
the  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  "  lute."  This 
instrument  resembled  the  guitar,  but  was 
superior  in  tone,  being  larger,  and  having 
a  convex  back,  somewhat  like  the  vertical 
section  of  a  gourd,  or  more  nearly  resem- 
bling that  of  a  pear.  These  three  instru- 
ments, the  psaltery  or  sautry,  the  viol,  and 
the  lute,  are  frequently  associated  in  the  old 
English  poets,  and  were  clearly  instruments 
resembling  each  other,  though  still  differ- 
ent. The  Greek  Psalterium  (i/^aAnJgiuv) 
from  which  our  word  is  derived,  denotet 
an  instrument  played  witli  the  fingers  in- 
stead of  a  plectrum  or  quill,  the  verb  being 
used  of  twanging  the  bow-string.  It  is 
impossible  to  say  positively  with  what  in- 
strument the  nebel  of  the  Hebrew  exacfly 
corresponded.  From  the  fact  that  nebel  in 
Hebrew  also  signifies  a  wine-bottle  or  skin, 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  the  term  when 
applied  to  a  musical  instrument  denotes  a 
kind  of  bagpipe.  The  psalteries  of  David 
were  made  of  cypress  (2  Sam.  vi.  5),  those 
of  Solomon  of  algum  or  almug-trees  (2  Chr. 
ix.  11).  Among  the  instruments  of  the 
band  which  played  before  Nebuchadnezzar's 
golden  image  on  the  plains  of  Dura,  we 
again  meet  with  the  psaltery  (Dan.  iii.  6, 
10,  15;  pesantirin).  The  Chaldee  word 
appears  to  be  merely  a  modification  of  the 
Greek  psalterium. 

PtoI'emeeandPtoleme'iis.  1.  "The 
son  of  Dorymenes  "  (1  Mace.  iii.  38 ;  2  Mace, 
iv.  45;  comp.  Polyb.  v.  61),  a  courtier  who 
possessed  great  influence  with  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  He  was  induced  by  a  bribe  to 
support  the  cause  of  Menelaus  (2  Mace.  iv. 
45-50).  Ptolemy  took  part  in  the  great 
expedition  which  Lysias  organized  against 
Judas  (1  Mace.  iii.  38).  2.  The  son  of 
Agesarchus,  a  Megalopolitan,  surnamcd 
Macron  (2  Mace.  x.  12),  who  was  gov- 
ernor of  Cyprus  during  the  minority  of 
Ptolemy  Philometor.  He  afterwards  de- 
serted the  Egyptian  service  to  join  Antio- 
chus Epiphanes.  He  stood  high  in  the 
favor  of  Antiochus,  and  received  from  him 
the  government  of  Phoenicia  and  Coele- 
Syria  (2  Mace.  viii.  8,  x.  11,  12).  On  the 
accession  of  Antiochus  Eupator,  his  con- 
ciliatory policy  towards  the  Jews  brought 
him  into  suspicion  at  court.  He  was  de- 
prived of  his  government,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  this  disgrace  he  poisoned  himself 
c.  B.  c.  164  (2  Mace.  x.  13).  3.  The  son 
of  Abubus,  who  married  the  daughter  of 
Simon  the  Maccabee.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  wealth,  and  being  invested  with  the 


PTOLEMAEUS 


658 


PTOLEMAEUS 


government  of  the  district  of  Jericho,  formed 
the  design  of  usurping  the  sovereignty  of 
Judaea. 

Ptolemae'us  I.  So'ter,  the  son  of  La- 
gus,  a  Macedonian  of  low  rank,  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  during  the  cam- 
paigns of  Alexander;  at  whose  ^death,  he 
secured  for  himself  the  government  of 
Egypt,  where  he  proceeded  at  once  to  lay 
the  foundations  of  a  kingdom  (b.  c.  323). 
He  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  youngest  son 
Ptol.  II.  Pl}iladelphus,  two  years  before  his 
death,  which  took  place  in  b.  c.  283.  Ptol. 
Soter  is  described  very  briefly  in  Daniel 
(.\i.  5)  as  one  of  those  who  should  receive 
part  of  the  empire  of  Alexander  when  it 
was  "  divided  toward  the  four  winds  of 
heaven." 

Ptolemae'us    II.    Philadel'phus 

(b.  c  285-247)  the  youngest  son  of  Ptol. 
I.,  was  made  king  two  years  before  his 
death,  to  confirm  the  irregular  succession. 
The  conflict  between  Egypt  and  Syria  was 
renewed  during  his  reign  in  consequence 
of'the  intrigue  of  his  half-brotlier  Magas. 
"  But  in  the  end  of  years  they  [the  kings 
of  Syria  and  Egypt]  joined  themselves  to- 
gether [in  friendship].  For  the  king's 
daughter  of  the  south  [Berenice,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ptol.  Philadelphus]  came  [as  bride] 
to  the  king  of  the  north  [Antiochus  II.],  to 
make  an  agreement "  (Dan.  xi.  6).  In  other 
respects,  however,  this  reign  was  a  critical 
epoch  for  the  development  of  Judaism,  as 
it  was  for  the  intellectual  history  of  the 
ancient  world.  The  liberal  encouragement 
which  Ptolemy  bestowed  on  literature  and 
science  gave  birth  to  a  new  school  of  writ- 
ers and  thinkers.  The  critical  faculty  was 
called  forth  in  place  of  the  creative,  and 
learning  in  some  sense  supplied  the  place 
of  original  speculation.  It  was  impossible 
that  the  Jew,  who  was  now  become  as  true 
a  citizen  of  the  world  as  the  Greek,  should 
remain  passive  in  the  conflict  of  opinions. 
It  is  enough  now  to  observe  the  greatness 
of  the  consequences  involved  in  the  union 
of  Greek  language  with  Jewish  thought. 
From  this  time  the  Jew  was  familiarized 
with  the  great  types  of  Western  literature, 
and  in  some  degree  aimed  at  imitating  them. 
An  elder  Philo  celebrated  Jerusalem  in  a 
long  hexameter  poem.  Another  epic  poem, 
"  on  the  Jews,"  was  written  by  Theodotus. 
The  work  of  Aristobulus  on  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  Law,  was  a  still  more  impor- 
tant result  of  the  combination  of  the  old 
faith  witli  Greek  culture,  as  forming  the 
groundwork  of  later  allegories.  A  second 
time  and  in  a  new  fashion  Egypt  disciplined 
a  people  of  God.  It  first  impressed  upon  a 
nation  the  firm  unity  of  a  family,  and  then 
in  due  time  reconnected  a  matured  people 
with  the  world  from  which  it  had  been 
called  out. 
Ptolemae'us  III.  Euer'getes  (b,  c. 


247-222)  was  the  eldest  son  of  Ptol.  Philad. 
and  brother  of  Berenice  the  wife  of  Antio- 
chus II.  The  repudiation  and  murder  of 
his  sister  furnished  him  with  an  occasion 
for  invading  Syria  (c.  b.  c.  246).  lie  "  stood 
up,  a  branch  out  of  her  stock  [sprung  from 
the  same  parents]  in  his  [father's]  estate  ; 
and  set  himself  at  [the  head  of]  his  army, 
and  came  against  the  fortresses  of  the  king 
of  the  north  [Antiochus],  and  dealt  against 
them  and  prevailed  "  (Dan.  xi.  7).  He  ex- 
tended his  conquests  as  far  as  Antioch,  and 
then  eastwards  to  Babylon,  but  was  recalled 
to  Egypt  by  tidings  of  seditions  which  had 
broken  out  there.  His  success  was  brilliant 
and  complete.  "  He  carried  captive  into 
Egypt  the  gods  [of  the  conquered  nations] 
with  their  molten  images,  and  with  their 
precious  vessels  of  silver  and  gold  "  (Dan. 
xi.  8).  This  capture  of  sacred  trophies 
earned  for  the  king  the  name  Euergetes  — 
"  Benefactor."  After  his  return  to  Egypt 
(cir.  B.  c.  243)  he  suffered  a  great  part  of 
the  conquered  provinces  to  fall  again  under 
the  power  of  Seleucus.  But  the  attempta 
wliich  Seleucus  made  to  attack  Egypt  ter- 
minated disastrously  to  himself.  He  first 
collected  a  fleet,  which  was  almost  totally 
destroyed  by  a  storm ;  and  then,  as  if  by 
some  judicial  infatuation,  "  he  came  against 
the  realm  of  the  king  of  the  south,  and 
[being  defeated]  returned  to  his  own  land 
[to  Antioch]  "  (Dan.  xi.  9 ;  Justin  xxvii. 
2).  After  this  Ptolemy  "  desisted  some 
years  from  [attacking]  the  king  of  the 
north"  (Dan.  xi.  8). 

Ptolemae'us  IV.  Philop'ator  (b.  c. 
222-205).  After  tlie  death  of  Ptol.  Euer- 
getes the  line  of  the  Ptolemies  rapidly 
degenerated.  Ptol.  Philopator,  liis  eldest 
son,  who  succeeded  him,  was  to  the  last 
degree  sensual,  effeminate,  and  debased. 
But  externally  his  kingdom  retained  its 
power  and  splendor;  and  when  circum- 
stances forced  him  to  action,  Ptolemy  him- 
self showed  ability  not  unworthy  of  his 
race.  The  description  of  the  campaign  of 
Raphia  (b.  c.  217)  in  the  Book  of  Daniel 
gives  a  vivid  description  of  his  character. 
"  The  sons  of  Seleucus  [Seleucus  Ceraunus 
and  Antiochus  the  Great]  were  stirred  up, 
and  assembled  a  multitude  of  great  forces  ; 
and  one  of  them  [Antiochus]  came  and 
overflowed  and  passed  through  [even  to 
Pelusium :  Polyb.  v.  62]  ;  and  he  returned 
[from  Seleucia,  to  which  he  had  retired 
during  a  faithless  truce :  Polyb.  V.  66] ;  _ 
and  they  [Antiochus  and  Ptolemy]  were] 
stirred  up  [in  war]  even  to  his  [Antiochus']  ' 
fortress.  And  the  king  of  the  south  [Ptol. 
Pliilopator]  was  moved  with  choler,  and 
came  forth  and  fought  with  him  [at  Ra- 
phia] ;  and  he  set  foHh  a  great  multitude  ; 
and  the  multitude  was  given  into  his  hand  ] 
[to  lead  to  battle]  ;  and  the  multitude  raised' 
itself  [proudly  for  the  conflict],  atid  hi$ 


PTOLEMAEUS 


559 


PTOLEMAEUS 


keart  teas  lifted  up,  and  he  cast  down  ten  ' 
thousands  [cf.  Polyb.  v.  86] ;  but  he  was  , 
not  vigorous "  [to  reap  the  fruits  of  his  : 
victorj']  (Dan.  xi.  10-12 ;    cf.  3  Mace.  i.  j 
1-5).  After  this  decisive  success  Ptol.  Phi-  | 
lopator  visited   the   neighboring  cities   of  i 
Syria,  and  among  others  Jerusalem.    After 
offering  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving  in  the 
Temple   he  attempted  to  enter  the  sane-  j 
tuary.      A  sudden  paralysis  hindered  his 
design ;  but  when  he  returned  to  Alexan-  | 
dria  he  determined  to  inflict  on  the  Alex- 
andrine  Jews   the  vengeance  for  his  dis- 
appointment.     He  was  succeeded  by  his 
only  child,  Ptol.  V.  Epiphanes,  who  was  at 
the  time  only  four  or  five  years  old. 

Ptolemae'us  V.  Epiph'anes  (b.  c. 
205-181).  The  reign  of  Ptol.  Epiphanes 
was  a  critical  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
Jews.  The  rivalry  between  the  Syrian  and 
Egyptian  parties,  wliich  had  for  some  time 
divided  the  people,  came  to  an  open  rup- 
ture in  the  struggles  which  marked  his  mi- 
nority. In  the  strong  language  of  Daniel, 
*'  The  robbers  of  the  people  exalted  them- 
selves to  establish  the  vision"  (Dan.  xi.  14). 
The  accession  of  Ptolemy  and  the  confu- 
sion of  a  disputed  regency  furnished  a 
favorable  opportunity  for  foreign  invasion. 
"  Many  stood  vp  against  the  king  of  the 
south "  under  Antiochus  the  Great  and 
Philip  III.  of  Macedonia,  who  formed  a 
league  for  the  dismemberment  of  his  king- 
dom. "  So  the  king  of  the  noiih  [Antio- 
chus] came,  and  cast  up  a  mount,  and  took 
the  most  fenced  city  [Sidon],  and  the  arms 
of  the  south  did  not  withstand  "  [at  Pa- 
neas,  b.  c.  198]  (Dan.  xi.  14,  15).  The 
Bomans  interfered,  and  in  order  to  retain 
the  provinces  of  Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia, 
and  Judaea,  Antiochus  "  gave  him.  [Ptol- 
emy, his  daughter  Cleopatra]  a  young 
maiden  "  [as  his  betrothed  wife]  (Dan.  xi. 
17).  But  in  the  end  his  policy  only  partial- 
ly succeeded.  After  the  marriage  of  Ptol- 
emy and  Cleopatra  was  consummated  (b. 
c.  193),  Cleopatra  did  "  not  stand  on  his 
side,"  but  supported  her  husband  in  main- 
taining the  alliance  with  Rome.  The  dis- 
puted provinces,  however,  remained  in  the 
possession  of  Antiochus  ;  and  Ptolemy  was 
poisoned  at  the  time  when  he  was  prepar- 
ing an  expedition  to  recover  them  from 
Seleucus,  the  unworthy  successor  of  An- 
tiochus. 

Ptolemae'us  VI.  Philome'tor  (b.  c. 
181-145).  On  the  death  of  Ptol.  Epiphanes, 
his  wife  Cleopatra  held  the  regency  for  her 
young  son,  Ptol.  Philometor,  and  preserved 
peace  with  Syria  till  she  died,  b.  c.  173. 
The  government  then  fell  into  unworthy 
hands,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  recover 
Syria  (comp.  2  Mace.  iv.  21).  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  seems  to  have  made  the  claim  a 
pretext  for  invading  Egypt.  The  gener- 
als of  Ptolemy  were  defeated  near  Pelusi- 


um,  probably  at  the  close  of  b.  c.  171  (1 
Maec.  i.  16,  ff.)  ;  and  in  the  next  year  An- 
tiochus, having  secured  the  person  of  the 
young  king,  reduced  almost  tte  -srhole  of 
Egypt  (comp.  2  Mace.  v.  1).  Meanwhile 
Ptol.  Euergetes  II.,  the  younger  brother  of 
Ptol.  Philometor,  assumed  the  supreme 
power  at  Alexandria ;  and  Antiochus,  under 
the  pretext  of  recovering  the  crown  for 
Philometor,  besieged  Alexandria  in  b.  c. 

169.  By  this  time,  however,  his  selfish 
designs  were  apparent :  the  brothers  were 
reconciled,  and  Antiochus  was  obliged  to 
acquiesce  for  the  time  in  the  arrangement 
wbSch  they  made.  But  while  doing  so  he 
prepared  for  another  invasion  of  Egypt, 
and  was  already  approaching  Alexandria, 
when  he  was  met  by  the  Roman  embassy 
led  by  C.  Popillius  Laenas,  who,  in  the 
name  of  the  Roman  senate,  insisted  on  his 
immediate  retreat  (b.  c.  168),  a  command 
which  the  late  victory  at  Pydna  made  it 
impossible  to  disobey.  These  campaigns, 
which  are  intimately  connected  with  the 
visits  of  Antiochus  to  Jerusalem  in  b.  c. 

170,  168,  are  briefly  described  in  Dan.  xi. 
25-30.  After  the  discomfiture  of  Antio- 
chus, Philometor  was  for  some  time  occu- 
pied in  resisting  the  ambitious  designs  of 
his  brother,  who  made  two  attempts  to  add 
Cyprus  to  the  kingdom  of  Cyrene,  which 
was  allotted  to  him.  Having  effectually 
put  down  these  attempts,  he  turned  his  at- 
tention again  to  Syria.  During  the  brief 
reign  of  Antiochus  Eupator  he  seems  to 
have  supported  Philip  against  the  regent 
Lysias  (comp.  2  Mace.  ix.  29).  After  the 
murder  of  Eupator  by  Demetrius  I.,  Phil- 
ometor espoused  the  cause  of  Alexander 
Balas,  the  rival  claimant  to  the  throne,  be- 
cause Demetrius  had  made  an  attempt  on 
Cyprus ;  and  when  Alexander  had  defeat- 
ed and  slain  his  rival,  he  accepted  the  over- 
tures which  he  made,  and  gave  him  hia 
daughter  Cleopatra  in  marriage  (b.  c.  150 ; 
1  Maec.  X.  51-58).  But,  according  to  1 
Mace.  xi.  1,  10,  &e.,  the  alliance  was  not 
made  in  good  faith,  but  only  as  a  means 
towards  securing  possession  of  Syria.  Ac- 
cording to  others,  Alexander  himself  made 
a  treacherous  attempt  on  the  life  of  Ptolemy 
(comp.  1  Mace.  xi.  10),  which  caused  him 
to  transfer  his  support  to  Demetrius  II., 
to  whom  also  he  gave  his  daughter,  whom 
he  had  taken  from  Alexander.  The  whole 
of  Syria  was  quickly  subdued,  and  he  was 
crowned  at  Antioch  king  of  Egypt  and 
Asia  (1  Mace.  xi.  13).  Alexander  made 
an  effort  to  recover  his  crown,  but  was  de- 
feated by  the  forces  of  Ptolemy  and  Deme- 
trius, and  shortly  afterwards  put  to  death 
in  Arabia.  But  Ptolemy  did  not  long  en- 
joy his  success.  He  fell  from  his  horse  in 
the  battle,  and  died  within  a  few  days  (1 
Mace.  xi.  18).  Ptolemaeus  Philometor  ia 
the  last  king  of  Egypt  who  is  noticed  in 


PTOLEMAIS 


560 


PULSE 


sacred  history,  and  his  reign  was  marked 
also  by  the  erection  of  the  Temple  at 
Leontopolis. 

Ptolema'is.    [Accho.] 

Pu'a,  properly  Puvvah.  Phuvah  the 
eon  of  Issachar  (Num.  xxvi.  23). 

Pu'ah.  .  1.  The  father  of  Tola,  a  man 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  and  judge  of  Is- 
rael after  Abimelech  (Judg.  x.  1).  2.  The 
son  of  Issachar  (1  Chr.  vii.  1),  elsewhere 
called  Phuvah  and  Pua.  3.  One  of  the 
two  midwives  to  whom  Pharaoh  gave  in- 
structions to  kill  the  Hebrew  male  children 
at  their  birth  (Ex.  i.  15).  In  the  A.  V. 
they  are  called  "  Hebrew  midwives,"  a 
rendering  which  is  not  required  by  the 
original.  We  may  translate  Ex.  1.  18  in 
this  way :  "  And  the  king  of  Egypt  said  to 
the  women  who  acted  as  midwives  to  the 
Hebrew  women."  The  two,  Sliiphrah  and 
Puah,  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  chief 
and  representatives  of  their  profession. 

Publican.  The  class  designated  by 
this  word  in  the  N.  T.  were  employed  as 
collectors  of  the  Roman  revenue.  The 
Eoman  senate  farmed  the  vectigalia  (direct 
taxes)  and  the  portoria  (customs)  to  cap- 
italists who  undertook  to  pay  a  given  sum 
into  the  treasury  (in  publicum),  and  so  re- 
ceived the  name  of  pullicani.  Contracts 
of  this  kind  fell  naturally  into  the  hands  of 
the  equites,  as  the  richest  class  of  Romans. 
They  appointed  managers,  under  whom 
were  the  poHitores,  the  actual  custom- 
house officers,  who  examined  each  bale  of 
goods,  exported  or  imported,  assessed  its 
value  more  or  less  arbitrarily,  wrote  out 
the  ticket,  and  enforced  payment.  The 
latter  were  commonly  natives  of  the  prov- 
ince in  which  they  were  stationed,  as 
being  brought  daily  into  contact  with  all 
classes  of  the  population.  The  name  publi- 
cani  was  used  popularly,  and  in  the  N. 
T.  exclusively,  of  the  portitores.  The 
system  was  essentially  a  vicious  one.  The 
portitores  were  encouraged  in  the  mtjst 
vexatious  or  fraudulent  exactions,  and  a 
remedy  was  all  but  impossible.  They  over- 
charged whenever  they  had  an  opportunity 
(Luke  iii.  13).  They  brought  false  charges 
of  smuggling  in  the  hope  of  extorting  hush- 
money  (Luke  xix.  8).  They  detained  and 
opened  letters  on  mere  suspicion.  It  was 
the  basest  of  all  livelihoods.  All  this  was 
enough  to  bring  the  class  into  ill  favor 
everywhere.  In  Judaea  and  Gahlee  there 
were  special  circumstances  of  aggravation. 
The  employment  brought  out  all  the  beset- 
ting vices  of  the  Jewish  character.  The 
strong  feeling  of  many  Jews  as  to  the  abso- 
lute unlawfulness  of  paying  tribute  at  all 
made  matters  worse.  The  Scribes  who 
discussed  the  question  (Matt.  xxii.  15)  for 
the  most  part  answered  it  in  the  negative. 
In  addition  to  their  other  faults,  according- 
ly, the  publicans  of  the  N.  T.  were  regard- 


ed as  traitors  and  apostates,  defiled  by  thoir 
frequent  intercourse  with  the  lieathen,  will 
ing  tools  of  the  oppressor.  The  class  thus 
practically  excommunicated  furnished  some 
of  the  earliest  disciples  both  of  the  Baptist 
and  of  our  Lord.  The  position  of  Zac- 
chaeus  as  a  *'  chief  among  the  publicans  " 
(Luke  xix.  2),  implies  a  gradation  of 
some  kind  among  the  persons  thus  em- 
ployed. 

Pub'lius,  the  chief  man  —  probably 
the  governor  —  of  Melita,  who  received 
and  lodged  St.  Paul  and  his  companions  on 
the  occasion  of  their  being  shipwrecked  off 
that  island  (Acts  xxviii.  7).  Publius  may 
perhaps  have  been  the  delegate  of  the  Ro- 
man praetor  of  Sicily  to  whose  jurisdiction 
Melita  or  Malta  belonged. 

Pu'dens,  a  Christian  friend  of  Timothy 
at  Rome  (2  Tim.  iv.  21).  According  to 
legend  he  was  the  host  of  St.  Peter  and 
friend  of  St.  Paul,  and  was  martyred  under 
Nero. 

Pullites,  The.  According  to  1  Chr. 
ii.  53,  the  "  Puhites  "  or  "  Puthites  "  be- 
longed to  the  families  of  Kirjath-jearim. 

Pul,  a  country  or  nation  mentioned  in 
Is.  Ixvi.  19.  It  is  spoken  of  with  distant 
nations,  and  is  supposed  by  some  to  repre- 
sent the  island  Philae  in  Egypt. 

Pul,  an  Assyrian  king,  and  the  first  of 
those  monarchs  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
He  made  an  expedition  against  Menahem, 
king  of  Israel,  about  b.  c.  770.  Menahem 
appears  to  have  inherited  a  kingdom  which 
was  already  included  among  the  dependen- 
cies of  Assyria.  Under  the  Assyrian  sys- 
tem the  monarchs  of  tributary  kingdoms, 
on  ascending  the  throne,  applied  for  "con- 
firmation in  their  kingdoms  "  to  the  Lord 
Paramount,  and  only  became  established 
on  receiving  it.  We  may  gather  from  2  K. 
XV.  19,  20,  that  Menahem  neglected  to 
make  any  such  application  to  his  liege  lord, 
Pul —  a  neglect  which  would  have  been  re- 
garded as  a  plain  act  of  rebellion.  Possi- 
bly, he  was  guilty  of  more  overt  and  fla- 
grant hostility.  "Menahemsmote  Tiphsah" 
(2  K.  XV.  16),  we  are  told.  However  this 
may  have  been,  it  is  evident  that  Pul  looked 
upon  Menahem  as  a  rebel.  He  conse- 
quently marched  an  army  into  Palestine 
for  the  purpose  of  punishing  his  revolt. 
The  Assyrian  monuments  have  a  king, 
whose  name  is  read  very  doubtfully  as  Vul- 
lush  or  Iva-lush,  at  about  the  period  when 
Pul  must  have  reigned.  His  probable  date 
is  B.  c.  800-750,  while  Pul,  as  we  have 
seen,  ruled  over  Assyria  in  b.  c.  770.  The 
Hebrew  name  Pul  is  undoubtedly  cur- 
tailed ;  for  no  Assyrian  name  consists  of  a 
single  element. 

Pulse  occurs  only  in  the  A.  V.  in  Dan. 
i.  12,  16,  as  the  translation  of  words,  the 
literal  meaning  of  which  is  "  seeds  "  of  any 
kind.    Probably  the  term  denotes  uncooked 


PUNISHMENTS 


561 


PUNITES 


grain  of  any  kind,  whether  barley,  wheat, 
millet,  vetches,  &c. 

Punishments.  The  earliest  theory 
of  punishment  current  among  mankind  is 
doubtless  the  one  of  simple  retaliation, 
"  blood  for  blood."  Viewed  historically, 
the  first  ca*e  of  punishment  for  crime  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  next  to  the  Fall  itself, 
is  that  of  Cain,  the  first  murderer.  That 
death  was  regarded  as  the  fitting  punish- 
ment for  murder  appears  plain  from  the 
remark  of  Lamech  (Gen.  iv.  24).  In  the 
post-diluvian  code,  if  we  may  so  call  it, 
retribution  by  the  hand  of  man,  even  in  the 
case  of  an  oflending  animal,  for  blood  shed, 
is  clearly  laid  down  (Gen.  ix.  5,  G) ,  Pass- 
ing onwards  to  Mosaic  times,  we  find  the 
ser  tence  of  capital  punishment,  in  the  case 
of  nmrder,  plainly  laid  down  in  the  Law. 
The  murderer  was  to  be  put  to  death,  even 
if  he  should  have  taken  refuge  at  God's 
altar  or  in  a  refuge  city,  and  the  same  prin- 
ciple was  to  be  carried  out  even  in  the  case 
of  an  animal.  I.  The  following  offences 
also  are  mentioned  in  the  Law  as  liable  to 
the  punishment  of  death:  1.  Striking,  or 
even  reviling,  a  parent  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17). 
2.  Blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv.  14,  16,  2.S).  3. 
Sabbath-breaking  (Num.  xv.  32-36 ;  Ex. 
xxxi.  14,  XXXV.  2).  4.  Witchcraft,  and 
false  pretension  to  prophecy  (Ex.  xxii.  18 ; 
Lev.  XX.  27;  Deut.  xiii.  5,  xviii.  20).  5. 
Adultery  (Lev.  xx.  10;  Deut.  xxii.  22).  6. 
Unchastity  (Deut.  xxii.  21,  23;  Lev.  xxi. 
9).  7.  Rape  (Deut.  xxii.  25).  8.  Inces- 
tuous and  unnatural  connections  (Lev.  xx. 
11,  14,  16;  Ex.  xxii.  19).  9.  Man-stealing 
(Ex.  xxi.  16;  Deut.  xxiv.  7).  10.  Idolatry, 
actual  or  virtual,  in  any  shape  (Lev.  xx.  2 ; 
Deut.  xiii.  6,  10,  15,  xvii.  2-7 :  see  Josh, 
vii.  and  xxii.  20,  and  Num.  xxv.  8).  11. 
False  witness  in  certain  cases  (Deut.  xix. 
16,  19).  II.  But  there  is  a  large  number 
of  offences,  some  of  them  included  in  this 
list,  which  are  named  in  the  Law  as  involv- 
ing the  penalty  of  "  cutting  off  from  the 
people."  On  the  meaning  of  this  expres- 
sion some  controversy  has  arisen.  There 
are  altogether  thirty-six  or  thirty-seven 
cases  in  the  Pentateuch  in  which  this  for- 
mula is  used.  We  may  perhaps  conclude 
that  the  primary  meaning  of  "  cutting  off"" 
is  a  sentence  of  death  to  be  executed  in 
some  cases  without  remission,  but  in  others 
voidable:  (1.)  by  immediate  atonement  on 
the  offender's  part;  (2.)  by  direct  interposi- 
tion of  the  Almighty,  i.  e.  a  sentence  of 
death  always  "recorded,"  but  not  always 
executed.  III.  Punishments  are  twofold. 
Capital  and  Secondary.  I.  (A.)  Of  the 
former  kind,  the  following  only  are  pre- 
jcribed  by  the  Law.  1.  Stoning,  which 
was  the  ordinary  mode  of  execution  (Ex. 
xvii.  4;  Luke  xx.  6 ;  John  x.  31 ;  Acts  xiv. 
5).  In  the  case  of  idolatry,  and  it  may  be 
presumed  in  other  cases  also,  the  witnesses, 
86 


of  whom  there  were  to  be  at  least  two,  were 
required  to  cast  the  first  stone  (Deut.  xiii. 
9;  Acts  vii.  58).  2.  Hanging  is  mentioned 
as  a  distinct  punisiiment  (Num.  xxv.  4 ;  2 
Sam.  xxi.  6,  9).  3.  Burning,  in  pre-Mosaic 
times,  was  the  punishment  for  unchastity 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  24).  Under  the  Law  it  is 
ordered  in  the  case  of  a  priest's  daughter 
(Lev.  xxi.  9).  4.  Death  by  the  sword  or 
spear  is  named  in  the  Law  (Ex.  xix.  13, 
xxxii.  27;  Num.  xxv.  7);  and  it  occurs 
frequently  in  regal  and  post-Babylonian 
times  (1  K.  ii.  25,  34,  xix.  1 ;  2  Chr.  xxi.  4, 
&c.).  5.  Strangling  is  said  by  the  llab- 
bins  to  have  been  regarded  as  the  most 
common  but  least  severe  of  the  capital  pun- 
ishments, and  to  have  been  performed  by 
immersing  the  convict  in  clay  or  mud,  and 
then  strangling  him  by  a  cloth  twisted 
round  the  neck.  (B.)  Besides  these  or- 
dinary capital  punishments,  we  read  of 
others,  either  of  foreign  introduction  or 
of  an  irregular  kind.  Among  the  former, 
1.  Crucifixion  is  treated  elsewhere.  2. 
Drowning,  though  not  ordered  under  the 
Law,  was  practised  at  Rome,  and  is  said 
by  St.  Jerome  to  have  been  in  use  among 
the  Jews.  3.  Sawing  asunder  ov  cm^hm^ 
beneath  iron  instruments  (2  Sam.  xii.  31, 
and  perhaps  Prov.  xx.  26;  Hcb. xi.  37).  4. 
Pounding  in  a  mortar,  or  heatingto  death, 
is  alluded  to  in  Prov.  xxvii.  22,  but  not  as 
a  legal  punishment,  and  cases  are  described 
(2  Mace.  vi.  28,  80).  5.  Precipitation, 
attempted  in  the  case  of  our  Lord  at  Naza- 
reth, and  carried  out  in  that  of  captives  from 
the  Edomites,  and  of  St.  James,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  cast  from  "  the  pinnacle  " 
of  the  Temple.  Criminals  executed  bylaw 
were  buried  outside  the  city-gates,  and 
heaps  of  stones  were  flung  upon  their 
graves  (Josh.  vii.  25,  26;  2  Sam.  xviii.  17; 
Jer.  xxii.  19).  II.  Of  secondary  punish- 
ments among  the  Jews  the  original  prin- 
ciples were,  1.  Retaliation,  "  eye  for  eye," 
&c.  (Ex.  xxi.  24,  25).  2.  Compensation, 
identical  (restitution),  or  analogous;  pay- 
ment for  loss  of  time  or  of  power  (Ex.  xxi. 
18-36;  Lev.  xxiv.  18-21;  Deut.  xix.  21). 
Slander  against  a  wife's  honor  was  to  be 
compensated  to  her  parents  by  a  fine  of 
100  sliekels,  and  the  traducer  himself  to  be- 
punished  with  stripes  (Deut.  xxii.  18,  19)- 
3.  Stripes,  whose  number  was  not  to  ex- 
ceed forty  (Deut.  xxv.  3) ;  whence  the 
Jews  took  care  not  to  exceed  thirty-nine 
(2  Cor.  xi.  24).  4.  Scotirging  with  thoins 
is  mentioned  Judg.  viii.  16.  The  stocJiS 
are  mentioned  Jer.  xx.  2 ;  passing  through 
fire,  2  Sam.  xii.  31 ;  mutilation,  Judg.  i.  6 ; 
2  Mace.  vii.  4;  and  see  2  Sam.  iv.  12; 
plucking  out  hair.  Is.  1.6;  in  later  times, 
imprisonment,  and  confiscation  or  exile, 
Ezr.  vii.  26;  Jer.  xxxvii.  15,  xxxviii.  6; 
Acts  iv.  3,  V.  18,  xii.  4. 
Fu'nites,  The.     The  descendants  of 


PUNON 


562 


PYGARG 


Pua,  or  Puvah,  the  son  of  Issachar  (Num. 
xxvi.  23). 

Pu'non,  one  of  the  halting-places  of  the 
Israelite  host  during  the  last  portion  of  the 
Wandering  (Num.  xxxiii.  42,  43).  By 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  it  is  identified  with 
Phaeno,  which  contained  the  copper-mines 
so  notorious  at  that  period,  and  was  situ- 
ated between  Petra  and  Zoar. 

Purification,  in  its  legal  and  technical 
sense,  is  applied  to  the  ritual  observances 
whereby  an  Israelite  was  formally  absolved 
from  the  taint  of  uncleanness.  The  essence 
of  purification,  in  all  cases,  consisted  in  the 
use  of  water,  whether  by  way  of  ablution 
or  aspersion;  but  in  the  majora  delida 
of  legal  uncleanness,  sacrifices  of  various 
kinds  were  added,  and  the  ceremonies 
throughout  bore  an  expiatory  character. 
Ablution  of  the  person  and  of  the  clothes 
was  required  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  Lev. 
XV.  18,  xi.  25,  40,  xv.  16,  17.  In  cases  of 
childbirth  the  sacrifice  was  increased  to  a 
lamb  of  the  first  year,  with  a  pigeon  or  tur- 
tle-dove (Lev.  xii.  6).  The  ceremonies  of 
purification  required  in  cases  of  contact  with 
a  corpse  or  a  grave  are  detailed  in  Num. 
xix.  The  purification  of  the  leper  was  a 
yet  more  formal  proceeding,  and  indicated 
the  highest  pitch  of  uncleanness.  The  rites 
are  described  in  Lev.  xiv.  4-32.  The  ne- 
cessity of  purification  was  extended  in  th^ 
post-Babylonian  period  to  a  variety  of  un- 
authorized cases.  Cups  and  pots,  brazen 
vessels  and  couches,  were  washed  as  a  mat- 
ter of  ritual  observance  (Markvii.  4).  The 
washing  of  the  hands  before  meals  was  con- 
ducted in  a  formal  manner  (Mark  vii.  3). 
What  may  have  been  the  specific  causes 
of  uncleanness  in  those  who  came  up  to 
purify  themselves  before  the  Passover  (John 
xi.  55),  or  in  those  who  had  taken  upon 
themselves  the  Nazarite's  vow  (Acts  xxi. 
24,  26),  we  are  not  informed.  In  conclu- 
sion it  may  be  observed,  that  the  distinctive 
feature  in  the  Mosaic  rites  of  purification 
is  their  expiatory  character.  The  idea  of 
uncleanness  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Jew. 
But  with  all  other  nations  simple  ablution 
sufficed ;  no  sacrifices  were  demanded.  The 
Jew  alone  was  taught  by  the  use  of  expi- 
atory offerings  to  discern  to  its  full  extent 
the  connection  between  the  outward  sign 
and  the  inward  fount  of  impurity. 

Purim  (Lois),  the  annual  festival  insti- 
tiited  to  commemorate  the  preservation  of 
the  Jews  in  Persia  from  the  massacre  with 
which  they  were  threatened  through  the 
machinations  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.).  It  was 
probably  called  Purim  by  the  Jews  in  irony. 
Their  great  enemy  Haman  appears  to  have 
been  very  superstitious,  and  much  given  to 
casting  lots  (Esth.  iii.  7).  They  gave  the 
name  Purim,  or  "  Lots,"  to  the  commcm- 
oraUve  festival,  because  he  had  thrown  lots 
to  ascertain  Avhat  day  would  be  auspicious 


for  him  to  carry  into  effect  the  bloody  de« 
crec  which  the  king  had  issued  at  his  in- 
stance (Esth.  ix.  24).  The  festival  lasted 
two  days,  and  was  regularly  observed  on 
the  14th  and  15th  of  Adar.  According  to 
modern  custom,  as  soon  as  the  stars  begin 
to  appear,  when  the  14th  of  the  month  has 
commenced,  candles  are  lighted  up  in  token 
of  rejoicing,  and  the  people  assemble  in 
the  synagogue.  After  a  short  prayer  and 
thanksgiving,  the  reading  of  the  book  of 
Esther  commences.  The  book  is  written 
in  a  peculiar  manner,  on  a  roll  called  "  the 
Roll"  (Megillah).  When  the  reader  comes 
to  the  name  of  Haman,  the  congregation  cry 
out,  "  May  his  name  be  blotted  out,"  or, 
"  Let  the  name  of  the  ungodly  perish." 
When  the  Megillah  is  read  through,  the 
whole  congregation  exclaim,  "Cursed  be 
Haman ;  blessed  be  Mordecai ;  cursed  be 
Zoresh  (the  wife  of  Haman) ;  blessed  be 
Esther ;  cursed  be  all  idolaters ;  blessed  be 
all  Israelites,  and  blessed  be  Harbonah  who 
hanged  Haman."  In  the  morning  service 
in  the  synagogne,  on  the  14th,  after  the 
prayers,  the  passage  is  read  from  the  Law 
(Ex.  xvii.  8-16)  which  relates  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Amalekites,  the  people  of  Agag 
(1  Sara.  xv.  8),  the  supposed  ancestor  of 
Haman  (Esth.  iii.  1).  The  Megillah  is  then 
read  again  in  the  same  manner.  The  14th 
of  Adar,  as  the  very  day  of  the  deliverance 
of  the  Jews,  is  more  solemnly  kept  than  the 
13th ;  but  when  the  service  in  the  synagogue 
is  over,  all  give  themselves  up  to  merry- 
making. 

Purse.  The  Hebrews,  when  on  a  jour- 
ney, were  provided  with  a  bag,  in  which 
they  carried  their  money  (Gen.  xlii.  35; 
Prov.  i.  14,  vii.  20;  Is.  xlvi.  6),  and,  if  they 
were  merchants,  also  their  weights  (Deut. 
XXV.  13 ;  Mic.  vi.  11).  This  bag  is  described 
in  the  N.  T.  by  the  terms  ^aXuvTtov  (Luke 
X.  4,  xii.  33,  xxii.  35,  36),  and  ylmaaoxouoy 
(John  xii.  6,  xiii.  29).  The  girdle  also 
served  as  a  purse  (Matt.  x.  9 ;  Mark  vi. 
8).  Ladies  wore  ornamental  purses  (Is. 
iii.  23). 

Put  ri  Chr.  i.  8 ;  Nah.  iii.  9).     [Phut.] 

Pute  oU,  the  great  landing-place  of 
travellers  to  Italy  from  the  Levant,  and  the 
harbor  to  which  the  Alexandrian  corn-ships 
brought  their  cargoes  (Acts  xxviii.  13). 
The  celebrated  bay  which  is  now  "  the  bay 
of  Naples,"  was  then  called  "  Sinus  Putc- 
olanus."  The  city  was  at  the  north-eastern 
angle  of  the  bay.  The  name  Puteoli  arose 
from  the  strong  mineral  springs  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  place.  It  is  now  a 
fourth-rate  Italian  town,  still  retaining  the 
name  of  Pozzuoli. 

Pu'tiel.  One  of  the  daughters  of  Putiel 
was  wife  of  Eleazar  the  son  of  Aaron,  and 
mother  of  Phinehas  (Ex.  vi.  25). 

Pygarg  occurs  (Deut.  xiv.  5)  in  the  list 
of  clean  animals  as  the  rendering  of  the 


QUAILS 


5G3 


QUIVER 


Heb.  dishdn,  the  name  apparently  of  some 
species  of  antelope,  though  it  is  by  no 
moans  easy  to  identify  it. 


Q. 


Quails  (Heb.  siUv,  sSldiv).  There 
san  be  no  doubt  that  the  Hebrew  word  in 
the  Pentateuch  (Ex.  xvi.  13;  Num.  xi.  31, 
32)  and  the  105th  Ps.  denotes  the  common 
quail  {Coturnix  dactylisonans) .  The  ex- 
pression "as  it  were  two  cubits  (high)  upon 
the  face  of  the  earth  "  (Num.  xi.  31)  refers 
probably  to  the  height  at  which  the  quails 
flew  above  the  ground,  in  their  exhausted 
condition  from  their  long  flight.  As  to  the 
enormous  quantities  which  the  least  suc- 
cessful Israelite  is  said  to  have  taken,  viz. 
"ten  homers,"  in  the  space  of  a  night  and 
two  days,  there  is  every  reason  for  believ- 
ing that  the  "  homers  "  here  spoken  of  do 
not  denote  strictly  the  measure  of  that 
name,  but  simply  "  a  heap."  The  Israel- 
ites would  have  had  little  diflSculty  in  cap- 
turing large  quantities  of  these  birds,  as 
they  are  known  to  arrive  at  places  some- 
times so  completely  exhausted  by  their 
flight  as  to  be  readily  taken,  not  in  nets 
only,  but  by  the  hand.  They  "  spread  the 
quails  round  about  the  camp ;  "  this  was  for 
the  purpose  of  drying  them.  The  Egyptians 
similarly  prepared  these  birds.  The  ex- 
pression *«  quails  from  the  sea  "  (Num.  xi. 
31)  must  not  bo  restricted  to  denote  that  the 
birds  came  from  the  sea  as  their  starting- 
point,  but  it  must  be  taken  to  show  the 
direction  from  which  they  were  coming. 
The  quails  were,  at  the  time  of  the  event 
narrated  in  the  sacred  writings,  on  their 
spring  journey  of  migration  northwards.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  the  time  specified ;  "  it 
was  at  even"  that  they  began  to  arrive; 
and  they  no  doubt  continued  to  come  all 
the  night.  Many  observers  have  recorded 
that  the  quail  migrates  by  night. 

Quar'tUS,  a  Christian  of  Corinth  (Rom. 
xvi.  23),  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
Seventy  disciples,  and  afterwards  bishop 
of  Berytus. 

Quaternion,  a  military  term,  signify- 
ing a  guard  of  four  soldiers,  two  of  whom 
were  attached  to  the  person  of  a  prisoner, 
while  the  other  two  kept  watch  outside  the 
door  of  his  cell  (Acts  xii.  4). 

Queen.  This  title  is  properly  applied 
to  the  queen-mother,  since  in  an  Oriental 
household,  it  is  not  the  wife  but  the  mother 
of  the  master  who  exercises  the  highest 
authority.  Strange  as  such  an  arrange- 
ment at  first  sight  appears,  it  is  one  of  the 
inevitable  results  of  polygamy.  The  extent 
of  the  influence  of  the  queen-mother  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  narrative  of  the  in- 
terview   of    Solomon    and  Bathsheba,   as 


given  in  1  K.  ii.  19,  ff.  The  term  is 
applied  to  Maachah,  Asa's  mother,  who 
was  deposed  from  her  dignity  in  conse- 
quence of  her  idolatry  (1  K.  xv.  13;  2 
Chr.  XV.  16)  ;  to  Jezebel  as  contrasted  with 
Joram  (2  K.  x.  13,  "  the  children  of  the 
king,  and  the  children  of  the  queen ") ; 
and  to  the  mother  of  Jehoiachin  or  Jeco- 
niah  (Jer.  xiii.  18;  compare  2  K.  xxiv.  12; 
Jer.  xxix.  2). 

Queen  of  Heaven  (Jer.  vii.  18,  xliv. 
17,  18,  19,  25)  is  the  moon,  worshipped  as 
Ashtaroth  or  Astarte,  to  whom  the  Hebrew 
women  offered  cakes  in  the  streets  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

Quicksands,  The,  more  properly  thb 
Syrtis  (Acts  xxvii.  17),  the  broad  and  deep 
bight  on  the  North  African  coast  between 
Carthage  and  Cyrene.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  Seri,  an  Arabic  word  for  a  desert. 
For  two  reasons  this  region  was  an  object 
of  peculiar  dread  to  the  ancient  navigators 
of  the  Mediterranean,  partly  because  of  the 
drifting  sands  and  the  heat  along  the  shore 
itself,  but  chiefly  on  account  of  the  shal- 
lows and  the  imcertain  currents  of  water 
in  the  bay.  There  were  properly  two 
Syrtes :  the  eastern  or  larger,  now  called 
the  Gulf  of  Sidra ;  and  the  western  or 
smaller,  now  the  Gidf  of  Cabes.  It  is  the 
former  to  which  our  attention  is  directed  in 
tliis  passage  of  the  Acts. 

Quiver.  Two  distinct  Hebrew  terms 
are  represented  by  this'  word  in  the  A.  V. 
(1.)  Thill.  —  This  occurs  only  in  Gen. 
xxvii.  3.  It  is  derived  from  a  root  which 
has  the  force  of  hanging.  It  may  there- 
fore signify  either  a  quiver  or  a  suspended 


A«8yrian  Chariot  with  Quiver. 

weapon  —  for  instance,  such  a  sword  as  in 
our  own  language  was  formerly  called  a 
"hanger."     (2.)   Ashpdh.—  The  root  of 


EAAMAH 


564 


RAEMAG 


this  word  is  uncertain.  It  is  connected 
with  arrows  only  in  Lam.  iii.  13.  Its  other 
occurrences  are  Job  xxxix.  23,  Is.  xxii.  (J, 
and  Jer.  v.  16.  In  each  of  these  tlic  LXX. 
translate  it  by  "  quiver,"  with  two  excep- 
tions, Job  xxxix.  23,  and  Ps.  cxxvii.  5.  As 
to  the  thing  itself,  there  is  nothing  in  the 
Bible  to  indicate  either  its  form  or  material, 
or  in  what  way  it  was  carried. 


R. 


Ba'amah,  a  son  of  Cush,  and  father  of 
the  Cushite  Sheba  and  Dedan  (Gen.  x.  7). 
The  tribe  of  Eaamah  became  afterwards 
renowned  as  traders  (Ez.  xxvii.  22).  They 
were  settled  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Haami'ah,  one  of  the  chiefs  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii.  7).  In 
Ezr.  ii.  2  he  is  called  Reelaiah. 

Raam'ses,  Ex.  i.  10.    [Rameses.] 

Rab'bah.  1.  A  very  strong  place  on 
the  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  chief  city  of 
the  Ammonites.  In  five  passages  (Deut.  iii. 
11;  2  Sara.  xii.  26,  xvii.  27;  Jer.  xlix.  2; 
Ez.  xxi.  20)  it  is  styled  at  length  Rabbath 
OF  THE  Ammonites,  or  children  of 
Ammon;  but  elsewhere  (Josh.  xiii.  25;  2 
Sam.  xi.  1,  xii.  27,  29;  1  Chr.  xx.  1;  Jer. 
xlix.  3 ;  Ez.  xxv.  5 ;  Amos  i.  14)  simply 
Rabbah.  When  first  named  it  is  men- 
tioned as  containing  the  bed  or  sarcophagus 
of  the  giant  Og  (Deut.  iii.  11).  David 
sent  Joab  to  besiege  Rabbah  (2  Sara.  xi.  1). 
The  siege  must  have  lasted  two  years. 
The  sallies  of  the  Ammonites  appear  to 
have  formed  a  main  feature  of  the  siege 
(2  Sam.  xi.  17,  &c.).  At  the  end  of  that 
time  Joab  succeeded  in  capturing  a  portion 
of  the  place  —  the  "city  of  waters,"  that 
is,  the  lower  town,  so  called  from  its  con- 
taining the  perennial  stream  which  rises 
in  and  still  flows  through  it.  But  the  cita- 
del, which  rises  abruptly  on  the  north  side 
of  the  lower  town,  a  place  of  very  great 
strength,  still  remained  to  be  taken ;  and 
the  honor  of  this  capture  Joab  insists  on 
reserving  for  the  king.  Shortly  after  Da- 
vid's arrival  the  fortress  was  taken  (2  Sara, 
xii.  26-31).  "We  are  not  told  whether  the 
city  was  demolisl^ed,  or  whether  David  was 
satisfied  with  the  slaughter  of  its  inmates. 
In  the  time  of  Amos,  two  centuries  and 
a  half  later,  it  had  again  a  "  wall "  and 
"  palaces,"  and  was  still  the  sanctuary  of 
Molech  —  "  the  king  "  (Am,  i.  14).  So  it 
M-as  also  at  the  date  of  the  invasion  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xlix.  2,  3),  when  its 
dependent  towns  are  mentioned,  and  when 
it  is  named  in  such  terms  as  imply  that 
it  was  of  equal  importance  with  Jerusalem 
(Ez.  xxi.  20).  At  Rabbah,  no  doubt  Baalis, 
king  of  the  Ammonites  (Jer.  xl.  14),  held 
Buch  coijrj  as  he  could  muster;  and  within 


its  walls  was  plotted  the  attack  of  Ishmacl, 
which  cost  Gcdaliah  his  life,  and  drove  Jer- 
emiah into  Egypt.  In  tiie  period  between 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  Raljbath- 
Ammon  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of 
much  importance,  and  the  scene  of  many 
contests.  From  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (b.  c. 
285-247)  it  received  the  name  of  Phila- 
delphia. It  was  one  of  the  cities  of  tlio 
Decapolis,  and  became  the  seat  of  a  Chris- 
tian bishop.  Its  ruins,  which  are  consider- 
able, are  found  at  Amman,  about  22  miles 
from  tlie  Jordan.  It  lies  in  a  valley  wliich 
is  a  branch,  or  perhaps  the  main  course,  of 
the  Wady  Zerka,  usually  identified  with 
the  Jabbok.  The  public  buildings  are  said 
to  be  Roman,  except  the  citadel,  which  is 
described  as  of  large  square  stones  put 
together  without  cement,  and  which  is 
probably  more  ancient  than  the  rest.  2.  A 
city  of  Judah,  named  with  Kirjath-jearim 
in  Josh.  XV.  60  only.  No  trace  of  its  ex- 
istence has  yet  been  discovered.  3.  In  one 
passage  (Josh.  xi.  8)  Zidon  is  mentioned 
with  the  affix  Rabbah  —  Zidon- rabbah.  This 
is  preserved  in  the  margin  of  the  A.  V., 
though  in  the  text  it  is  translated  "  great 
Zidon." 

Rab'bath  Moab.    [Ar.] 

Rab'bath  of  the  Children  of  Am- 
mon, and  R.  of  the  Ammonites.  This 
is  the  full  appellation  of  the  place  commonly 
given  as  Rabbah.  It  occurs  only  in  Deut. 
iii.  11,  and  Ez.  xxi.  20. 

Rab'bi,  a  title  of  respect,  signifying 
Master,  Teacher,  given  bjtthe  Jews  to  their 
doctors  and  teachers,  and  often  addressed 
to  our  Lord  (Matt,  xxiii.  7,  8,  xxvi.  25,  49 ; 
Mark  ix.  5,  xi.  21,  xiv.  45 ;  John  i.  39,  50, 
iii.  2,  26,  iv.  31,  vi.  25,  ix.  2,  xi.  8).  An- 
other form  of  the  title  was  Rabboni  (Mark 
X.  51 ;  John  xx.  16).  The  i  which  is  added 
to  these  titles  has  been  thought  to  be  the 
pronominal  affix  "My;"  but  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  St.  John  does  not  translate 
either  of  these  by  "  My  Master,"  but  simply 
"  Master,"  so  that  the  i  would  seem  to  have 
lost  any  especial  significance  as  a  posses- 
sive pronoun  intimating  appropriation  or 
endearment,  and,  like  the  "  my  "  in  titles 
of  respect  among  ourselves,  or  in  such 
terms  as  JJ/onscigneur,  J/b«sieur,  to  be 
merely  part  of  the  formal  address.  The 
title  Rabbi  is  not  known  to  have  been  used 
before  the  reign  of  Ilerod  the  Great,  and  is 
thought  to  have  taken  its  rise  about  the 
time  of  the  disputes  between  the  rival 
schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai.  Rabbi 
was  considered  a  higher  title  than  Rab,  and 
Rabban  higher  than  Rabbi. 

Rab'bith,  a  town  in  the  territory,  per- 
haps on  the  boundary,  of  Issachar  (Josh, 
xix.  20  only). 

Rabbo'ni,  John  xx.  16.      [Rabbi.] 

Rab-mag  (Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13),  a  title 
borne  by  Norgal-sharezer,  probably  iden- 


EABSARIS 


565 


EAHAB 


tical  with  the  king,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Neriglissar.  [Nergal-sharezer.]  This 
king,  as  well  as  certain  other  important 
personages,  is  found  to  bear  tlie  title  in  the 
Babylonian  inscriptions.  It  is  written  in- 
deed with  a  soniewliat  different  vocalization, 
being  read  as  Rahu-Emga.  The  significa- 
tion is  somewhat  doubtful.  Rabu  is  most 
certainly  "  great,"  or  "  cliief ;"  but  Mag, 
or  Emga,  is  an  obscure  term.  It  has 
been  commonly  identified  with  the  word 
"Magus,"  but  this  identification  is  very 
uncertain. 

Rab'saris.  1.  An  officer  of  the  king 
of  Assyria  sent  up  with  Tartan  and  Rab- 
shakeh  against  Jerusalem  in  tlie  time  of 
Hezekiah  (2  K.  xviii.  17).  2.  One  of  the 
princes  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  pres- 
ent at  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  b.  c.  588 
(Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13).  Rabsaris  is  probably 
rather  the  name  of  an  oflice  than  of  an  in- 
dividual, the  word  signifying  chief  eunuch. 
In  Dan.  i.  3,  Ashpenaz  is  called  the  master 
of  the  eunuchs  (Rab-sarisim).  It  is  not 
improbable  that  in  Jeremiah  xxxix.  we  have 
not  only  the  title  of  the  Rabsaris  given,  but 
his  name  also,  either  Sarsechim  (ver.  3) 
or  (ver.  13)  Nebushasban  (worshipper  of 
Nebo,  Is.  xlvi.  1). 

Rab'shakeh.  (2  K.  xviii.,  xix. ;  Is. 
xxxvi.,  xxxvii.),  one  of  the  officers  of  tlie 
king  of  Assyria  sent  against  Jerusalem  in 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  [Hezekiah.]  Many 
have  imagined,  from  the  familiarity  of  Rab- 
shakeh  with  Hebrew,  that  he  either  was  a 
Jewish  deserter  or  an  apostate  captive  of 
Israel.  The  English  version  takes  Rabsha- 
keh  as  the  name  of  a  person ;  but  it  is  more 
probably  the  name  of  the  office  which  he 
held  at  the  court,  that  of  chief  cupbearer. 

Raca,  a  term  of  reproach  used  by  the 
Jews  of  our  Saviour's  age  (Matt.  v.  22), 
derived  from  the  Chaldee  rtkA,  "worth- 
less." 

Race.     [Games.] 

Ra'chab.  Rahab  the  harlot  (Matt. 
i.  5). 

Ra'chel,  the  younger  of  the  daughters 
of  Laban,  the  wife  of  Jacob,  and  mother  of 
Joseph  and  Benjamin.  The  incidents  of 
her  life  may  be  found  in  Gen.  xxix.-xxxiii., 
XXXV.  The  story  of  Jacob  and  Rachel  has 
always  had  a  peculiar  interest.  The  beauty 
of  Rachel,  the  deep  love  with  which  she  was 
loved  by  Jacob  from  their  first  meeting  by 
the  well  of  Haran,  when  he  showed  to  her 
the  simple  courtesies  of  the  desert  life,  and 
kissed  her  and  told  her  he  was  Rebekah's 
son;  the  long  servitude  with  which  he 
patiently  served  for  her,  in  which  the  seven 
years  "  seemed  to  him  but  a  few  days,  for 
the  love  he  had  to  her ; "  their  marriage  at 
last ;  and  the  death  of  Rachel  at  the  very 
time  when  in  giving  birth  to  another  son  her 
own  long-delayed  hopes  were  accomplished, 
and  she  had  become  still  more  endeared  to 


her  husband;  his  deep  grief  and  ever-living 
regrets  for  her  loss  (Gen.  xlviii.  7)  :  these 
things  make  up  a  touching  tale  of  personal 
and  domestic  history  which  has  kept  alive 
the  memory  of  Rachel.  Yet  from  what  is 
related  to  us  concerning  her  character  there 
does  not  seem  much  to  claim  any  high  de- 
gree of  admiration  and  esteem.  The  dis- 
content and  fretful  impatience  shown  in  her 
grief  at  being  for  a  time  childless,  moved 
even  her  fond  husband  to  anger  (Gen.  xxx. 

1,  2).  She  appears  moreover  to  have  shared 
all  the  duplicity  and  falsehood  of  her  family. 
See,  for  instance,  Rachel's  stealing  her 
father's  images,  and  the  ready  dexterity  and 
presence  of  mind  with  which  she  concealed 
her  theft  (Gen.  xxxi.).  From  this  incident 
we  may  alto  infer  that  she  was  not  alto- 
gether free  from  the  superstitions  and  idol- 
atry which  prevailed  in  the  land  whence 
Abraham  had  been  called  (Josh.  xxiv.  2, 
14).  Rachel's  tomb.  —  "Rachel  died  and 
was  buried  in  the  way  to  Ephrath,  which  is 
Bethlehem.  And  Jacob  set  a  pillar  upon 
her  grave ;  that  is  the  pillar  of  Rachel's 
grave  unto  this  day  "  (Gen.  xxxv.  19,  20). 
The  site  of  Rachel's  tomb,  "  on  the  way  to 
Bethlehem,"  "  a  little  way  to  come  to  Eph- 
rath," "  in  the  border  of  Benjamin,"  has 
never  been  questioned.  It  is  about  two 
miles  S.  of  Jerusalem,  and  one  mile  N.  of 
Bethlehem. 

Rad'dai,  one  of  David's  brothers,  fiftli 
son  of  Jesse  (I  Chr.  ii.  14).  Ewald  con- 
jectures that  he  is  identical  with  Rei,  but 
this  does  not  seem  probable. 

Ra'gau.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  our 
Lord,  son  of  Phalec  (Luke  iii.  35).  He  is 
the  same  person  with  Reu,  son  of  Peleg. 

Ra'ges,  an  important  city  in  north-east- 
ern Media,  where  that  country  bordered 
upon  Parthia.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  but  occurs  frequently 
in  the  Book  of  Tobit  (i.  14,  v.  5,  vi.  10  and 
12,  &c.),  and  twice  in  Judith  (i.  5  and  15). 
Its  ruins,  still  known  by  the  name  of  Rhey, 
lie  about  five  miles  S.  E.  of  Teheran. 

RagU  el,  or  Reu'el.  1.  Probably  the 
same  as  Jethro.     [Jethro   and   Hobab.] 

2.  A  pious  Jew  of  "Ecbatane,  a  city  of 
Media,"  father  of  Sara,  the  wife  of  Tobias 
(Tob.  iii.  7,  17,  &c.). 

Ra'hab,  or  Ra'chab,  a  celebrated  wo- 
man of  Jericho,  who  received  the  spies  sent 
by  Joshua  to  spy  out  the  land,  hid  them  in 
her  house  from  the  pursuit  of  her  country- 
men, was  saved  with  all  her  family  when 
the  Israelites  sacked  the  city,  and  became 
the  wife  of  Salmon,  and  the  ancestress  of 
the  Messiah  (Josh.  ii.  1;  Matt.  i.  5).  She 
was  a  "  harlot,"  and  probably  combined 
the  trade  of  lodging-keeper  for  wayfaring 
men.  She  seems  also  to  have  been  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  linen  and  the 
art  of  dyeing,  for  which  the  Phoenicians 
were  early  famous ;  since  we  find  the  flat 


EAHAB 


566 


RAIN 


roof  of  her  house  covered  with  stalks  of 
flax  put  there  to  dry,  and  a  stock  of  scarlet 
or  crimson  line  in  her  house.  Her  house 
was  situated  on  the  wall,  probably  near  the 
town  gate,  so  as  to  be  convenient  for  per- 
sons ccniing  in  and  going  out  of  the  city. 
We  may  cojjecture  that  Rahab  therefore 
had  been  well  informed  with  regard  to  the 
events  of  the  Exodus.  The  eflfoct  upon  her 
mind  had  been  what  one  would  not  have 
expected  in  a  person  of  her  way  of  life.  It 
led  her  to  a  firm  faith  in  Jehovah  as  the 
true  God,  .and  to  the  conviction  that  He 
purposed  to  give  the  land  of  Canaan  to  the 
Israelites.  When,  therefore,  the  two  spies 
sent  by  Joshua  came  to  her  house,  they 
found  themselves  under  the  roof  of  one 
who,  alone  probably  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion, was  friendly  to  their  nation.  Her  re- 
ception of  the  spies,  the  artifice  by  which 
she  concealed  them  from  the  king,  their 
escape,  and  the  saving  of  Rahab  and  her 
family  at  the  capture  of  the  city,  in  accord 
ance  with  their  promise,  are  all  told  in  the 
narrative  of  Josh.  ii.  The  narrator  adds, 
"  and  she  dwelleth  in  Israel  unto  this  day," 
not  necessarily  implying  that  she  was  alive 
at  the  time  he  wrote,  but  that  the  family  of 
strangers  of  which  she  was  reckoned  the 
head,  continued  to  dwell  among  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel.  As  regards  Rahab  herself, 
we  learn  from  Matt.  i.  5,  that  she  became 
the  wife  of  Salmon  the  son  of  Naasson,  and 
the  mother  of  Boaz,  Jesse's  grandfather. 
The  suspicion  naturally  arises  that  Salmon 
may  have  been  one  of  the  spies  whose  life 
she  saved,  and  that  gratitude  for  so  great  a 
benefit  led  in  his  case  to  a  more  tender 
passion,  and  obliterated  the  memory  of  any 
past  disgrace  attaching  to  her  name.  But, 
however  this  may  be,  it  is  certain,  on  the 
authority  of  St.  Matthew,  that  Rahab  be- 
came the  mother  of  the  line  from  which 
sprung  David,  and  eventually  Christ;  for 
that  the  Rachab  mentioned  by  St.  Matthew 
is  Rahab  the  harlot,  is  as  certain  as  that 
David  in  the  genealogy  is  the  same  person 
as  David  in  the  Books  of  Samuel.  The 
attempts  that  have  been  made  to  prove 
Rachab  different  from  Rahab,  in  order  to 
get  out  of  the  chronological  difficulty,  are 
singularly  absurd.  We  may  also  dismiss, 
as  inconsistent  with  truth,  the  attempt  to 
clear  her  character  of  stain  by  saying  that 
she  was  only  an  innkeeper,  and  not  a  har- 
lot ;  but  it  is  very  possible  that  to  a  woman 
of  her  country  and  religion  such  a  calling 
may  have  implied  a  far  less  deviation  from 
the  standard  of  morality  than  it  does  with 
us;  and,  moreover,  with  a  purer  faith  she 
seems  to  have  entered  upon  a  pure  life. 
As  a  case  of  casuistry,  her  conduct  in  de- 
ceiving the  king  of  Jericho's  messengers 
with  a  false  tale,  and  above  all,  in  taking 
part  against  her  own  countrymen,  has 
been  much  discussed.    With  regard  to  the 


first,  strict  truth,  either  in  Jew  or  heathen, 
was  a  virtue  so  utterly  unknown  before  the 
promulgation  of  the  gospel,  that,  as  far  as 
Rahab  is  concerned,  the  discussion  is  quite 
superfluous.  With  regard  to  her  taking 
part  against  her  own  countrymen,  it  can 
only  be  justified,  but  is  fully  justified,  by 
the  circumstance  that  fidelity  to  her  coun- 
try would  in  her  case  have  been  infidelity 
to  God,  and  that  the  higher  duty  to  her 
Maker  eclipsed  the  lower  duty  to  her  na- 
tive land.  If  her  own  life  of  shame  was 
in  any  way  connected  with  that  idolatry, 
one  can  readily  understand  what  a  further 
stimulus  this  would  give,  now  that  her 
heart  was  purified  by  faith,  to  her  desire 
for  the  overthrow  of  the  nation  to  which 
she  belonged  by  birth,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  that  to  which  she  wished  to  belong 
by  a  community  of  faith  and  hope.  This 
view  of  Rahab's  conduct  is  fully  borne  out 
by  the  references  to  her  in  the  N.  T.  The 
author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  tells 
us  that  "  by  faith  the  harlot  Rahab  perished 
not  with  them  that  believed  not,  when  she 
had  received  the  spies  with  peace  "  (Heb. 
xi.  31) ;  and  St.  James  fortifies  his  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  works,  by  asking, 
"Was  not  Rahab  the  harlot  justified  by 
works,  when  she  had  received  the  messen- 
gers, and  had  sent  them  out  another  way  ?  " 
(James  ii.  25). 

Rai'hab,  a  poetical  name  of  Egypt  (Ps. 
Ixxxix.  10;  Is.  Ii.  9),  signifying  "fierce- 
ness, insolence,  pride."  Rahab,  as  a  name 
of  Egypt,  occurs  once  only  without  refer- 
ence to  the  Exodus  :  this  is  in  Ps.  Ixxxvii. 
4.     In  Is.  XXX.  7  the  name  is  alluded  to. 

Ha'ham.  In  the  genealogy  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Caleb  the  son  of  Hezron  (I 
Chr.  ii.  44),  Raham  is  described  as  the  son 
of  Shema  and  father  of  Jorkoam. 

!Ra'heI,  the  more  accurate  form  of  the 
familiar  name  elsewhere  rendered  Rachel 
(Jer.  xxxi.  15). 

Rain.  In  the  Bible  Early  Rain  signi- 
fies the  rains  of  the  autumn  (Deut.  xi.  14 ; 
Jer.  V.  24) ;  also  mdreh  (Joel  ii.  23) ;  and 
Latter  Rain,  the  rain  of  spring  (Pror. 
xvi.  15 ;  Job  xxix.  23 ;  Jer.  iii.  3 ;  Hos.  vi. 
3 ;  Joel  ii.  23 ;  Zech.  x.  1).  The  early  and 
latter  rains  are  mentioned  together  (Dent, 
xi.  14;  Jer.  v.  24;  Joel  ii.  23;  Hos.  vi.  3; 
James  v.  7).  In  a  country  comprising  so 
many  varieties  of  elevation  as  Palestine, 
there  must  of  necessity  occur  correspond- 
ing varieties  of  climate.  Eor  six  months 
in  the  year  no  rain  falls,  and  the  harvests 
are  gathered  in  without  any  of  the  anxiety 
with  which  we  are  so  familiar  lest  the  work 
be  interrupted  by  unseasonable  storms. 
There  are,  however,  very  considerable, 
and  perhaps  more  than  compensating,  dis- 
advantages occasioned  by  this  long  ab- 
sence of  rain :  the  whole  land  becomes  dry, 
parched,  and  brown,  the  cisterns  are  empty, 


RAIN 


567 


RAM 


the  »i/ring>.  and  fountains  fail,  and  the  au- 
tumnal rai  )s  are  eagerly  looked  for,  to 
prepare  tlie  earth  for  the  reception  of  the 
seei.  These,  the  early  rains,  commence 
about  the  latter  end  of  October  or  begin- 
ning of  November,  in  Lebanon  a  month 
earlier;  not  sudJenly,  but  by  degrees  ;  rtbe 
husbandman  has  thus  the  opportunity  of 
sowing  his  fields  of  wheat  and  Ijarley.  The 
rains  come  mostly  from  the  west  or  south- 
west (Luke  xii.  54),  continuing  for  two  or 
three  days  at  a  time,  and  falling  chiefly  dur- 
ing the  night  ;  the  wind  then  shifts  round 
to  the  north  or  east,  and  several  days  of  fine 
weather  succeed  (Prov.  xxv.  23).  During 
the  months  of  November  and  December 
the  rains  continue  to  fall  heavily,  but  at  in- 
tervals; afterwards  they  return,  only  at 
longer  intervals,  and  are  less  heavy;  but 
at  no  period  during  the  winter  do  they  en- 
tirely cease.  January  and  February  are  the 
coldest  months,  and  snow  fiills,  sometimes 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more,  at  Jeru- 
salem, but  it  does  not  lie  long ;  it  is  very 
seldom  seen  along  the  coast  and  in  the  low 
plains.  Eain  continues  to  fall  more  or  less 
during  the  month  of  March ;  it  is  very  rare 
in  April,  and  even  in  Lebanon  the  showers 
that  occur  are  generally  light.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  the  barley  harvest 
begins  as  early  as  the  middle  of  April, 
and  the  wheat  a  fortnight  later;  in  Leb- 
anon the  grain  is  seldom  ripe  before  the 
middle  of  June.  With 
respect  to  the  distinction 
between  the  early  and 
the  latter  rains,  Robinson 
observes  that  there  are 
not,  at  the  present  day, 
"  any  particular  periods 
of  rain  or  succession  of 
showers,  which  might  be 
regarded  as  distinct  rainy 
seasons.  The  whole  pe- 
riod from  October  to 
March  now  constitutes 
only  one  continued  sea- 
son of  rain,  without  any 
regularly  intervening 
term  of  prolonged  fine 
weather.  Unless,  there- 
fore, there  has  been 
some  change  in  the  cli- 
mate, the  early  and  the 
latter  rains  for  whicli  the 
husbandman  waited  with 
longing,  seem  rather  to 
have  implied  the  first 
showers  of  autumn  which 
revived  the  parched  and 
thirsty  soil,  and  prepared 
it  for  the  seed;  and  the 
later  showers  of  spring, 
which  continued  to  re- 
fresh and  forward  both 
the  ripening  crops   and 


tlie  vernal  products  of  the  fields  (James  t. 
7;  Prov.  xvi.  15)." 

Rainbow,  the  token  of  the  covenant 
which  God  made  with  Noah  when  he  came 
forth  from  the  ark,  that  the  waters  should 
no  more  become  a  flood  to  destroy  all  flesh. 
Tlie  right  interpretation  of  Gen.  ix. .  13 
seems  to  be,  that  God  took  the  rainbow, 
which  had  hitherto  been  but  a  beautiful 
object  shining  in  the  heavens  when  tlie 
sun's  rays  fell  on  falling  rain,  and  conse- 
crated it  as  the  sign  of  His  love  and  the 
witness  of  His  promise  (Ecclus.  xliii.  11). 
The  figurative  and  symbolical  use  of  tJie 
rainbow  as  an  emblem  of  God's  mercy  and 
faithfulness  must  not  be  passed  over.  In 
the  wondrous  vision  shown  to  St.  John  in 
the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  iv.  3),  it  is  said  that 
"there  was  a  rainbow  round  about  the 
throne,  in  sight  like  unto  an  emerald : " 
amidst  the  awful  vision  of  surpassing  glory 
is  seen  the  symbol  of  Hope,  the  bright  em- 
blem of  Mercy  and  of  Love. 

Raisins.     [Vine.] 

Ram,  Battering,  is  mentioned  in  Ez. 
iv.  2,  xxi.  22;  and  both  references  are  to 
the  battering-rams  in  use  among  the  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians.  In  attacking  the 
walls  of  a  fort  or  city,  the  first  step  ap- 
pears to  have  been  to  form  an  inclined 
plane  or  bank  of  earth  (comp.  Ez.  iv.  2, 
"  cast  a  mount  against  it "),  by  which  the 
besiegers  could  bring  their  battering-rams 


Batterinc-ram. 


RAMA 


KAMATII 


and  other  engines  to  the  foot  of  the  walls. 
"The  battering-rams,"  says  Mr.  Layard, 
"were  of  several  kinds.  Some  were  joined 
to  movable  towers  which  lield  warriors 
and  armed  men.  Tlie  wliole  then  formed 
one  great  temi)orary  building,  tiie  top  of 
which  is  represented  in  sculi)tures  as  on  a 
level  with  tlie  walls,  and  even  turrets,  of 
the  besieged  city.  In  some  bas-reliefs  tlie 
battering-ram  is  witliout  wlieels :  it  was 
then  perliaps  constructed  upon  the  spot, 
and  was  not  intended  to  be  moved." 

Ha'ma,  Matt.  ii.  18,  referring  to  Jer. 
xxxi.  15.  The  original  passage  alludes  to 
a  massacre  of  Benjamites  or  Ephraimites 
(conip.  ver.  9,  18),  at  the  Kamah  in  Ben- 
jamin or  in  Mount  Ephraim.  This  is 
seized  by  the  Evangelist  and  turned  into  a 
touching  reference  to  the  slaughter  of  the 
Innocents  at  Bethlehem,  near  to  which  was 
(and  is)  the  sepulchre  of  Rachel. 

Ha'mah,  a  word  signifying  "  a  hill," 
and  which  in  its  simple  or  comi>ound  shape 
forms  the  name  of  several  places  in  the 
Holy  Land.  1.  One  of  the  cities  of  the 
allotment  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  25). 
Its  site  is  at  er-Edm,  on  the  elevation  which 
its  ancient  name  implies,  about  five  miles 
from  Jerusalem.  This  position  is  in  close 
agreement  with  the  notices  of  the  Bible 
(Judg.  iv.  5,  xix.  13;  IK.  xv.  17,  21,  22; 
2  Chr.  xvi.  1,  5,  6 ;  Is.  x.  29 ;  Jer.  xl.  1, 
&c.).  Its  proximity  to  Gibeah  is  implied 
in  1  Sam.  xxii.  6;  Hos.  v.  8;  Ezr.  ii.  2G; 
Neh.  vii.  30 ;  the  last  two  of  which  passages 
show  also  that  its  people  returned  after 
the  Captivity.  The  Ramah  in  Neh.  xi.  33 
occupies  a  different  position  in  the  list,  and 
may  be  a  distinct  place,  situated  farther 
west,  nearer  the  plain.  2.  The  home  of 
Elkanah,  Samuel's  father  (1  Sam.  i.  19,  ii. 
11),  the  birthplace  of  Samuel  himself,  his 
home  and  official  residence,  the  site  of  his 
altar  (vii.  17,  viii.  4,  xv.  34,  xvi.  13,  xix. 
18),  and  finally  his  burial-place  (xxv.  1, 
xxviii.  3).  It  is  a  contracted  form  of  Ra- 
MATHAiM-zoPHiM.  All  that  is  dircctly  said 
as  to  its  situation  is  that  it  was  in  Mount 
Ephraim  (1  Sam.  i.  1),  and  this  would 
naturally  lead  us  to  seek  it  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Shechem.  But  the  whole  tenor  of 
the  narrative  of  the  public  life  of  Samuel 
(in  connection  with  which  alone  this  Ramah 
is  mentioned)  is  so  restricted  to  the  region 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Gibeah,  the  residence  of  Saul, 
that  it  seems  impossible  not  to  look  for 
Samuel's  city  in  the  same  locality.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  boundaries  of  Mount 
Ephraim  are  nowhere  distinctly  set  forth. 
In  the  mouth  of  an  ancient  Hebrew  the 
expression  would  mean  that  portion  of  the 
mountainous  district  which  was  at  the  time 
of  speaking  in  the  possession  of  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim.  In  this  district,  tradition 
places  the  residence  of  Samuel  on  the  lofty 


and  remarkable  eminence  of  Neby  Samici% 
which  rises  four  miles  to  the  N.  W.  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  which  its  height  (greater  tlian 
that  of  Jerusalem  itself),  its  commanding 
position,  and  its  peculiar  shape,  render  tiio 
most  conspicuous  object  in  all  the  land- 
scapes of  that  district,  and  make  the 
names  of  Ramah  and  Zophim  exceedingly 
appropriate  to  it.  Since  the  days  of  Arculf 
the  tradition  appears  to  have  been  continu- 
ous. Here,  then,  we  are  inclined,  in  the 
present  state  of  the  evidence,  to  place  the 
Ramah  of  Samuel.  3.*  One  of  the  nineteen 
fortified  places  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  30) 
named  between  Adamah  and  Hazor.  It 
would  appear  to  have  been  in  the  moun- 
tainous country  N.  W.  of  the  Lake  of  Gen- 
nesareth.  In  this  district  a  i)lace  bearing 
the  name  of  Rameh  has  been  discovered  by 
Dr.  Robinson.  It  lies  on  the  main  track 
between  Akka  and  the  north  end  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  about  8  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Safed.  4.  One  of  the  landmarks  on 
the  boundary  (A.  V.  "coast")  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  29),  apparently  between  Tyre 
and  Zidon.  Two  places  of  the  same  name 
have  been  discovered  in  the  district  allotted 
to  Asher;  the  one  east  of  Tyre,  and  with- 
in about  three  miles  of  it,  the  other  more 
than  ten  miles  off,  and  south-east  of  the 
same  city.  If  either  of  these  places  repre- 
sent the  Ramah  in  question,  it  certainly 
seems  safer  to  identify  it  with  that  nearest 
to  Tyre  and  the  sea-coast.  5.  By  this 
name  in  2  K.  viii.  29  and  2  Chr.  xxii.  [Y, 
only,  is  designated  Ramoth-Gilead.  6. 
A  place  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of 
those  re-inhabited  by  the  Benjamites  after 
their  return  from  the  Captivity  (Neh.  xi. 
33).  It  may  be  the  Ramah  of  Benjamin 
(above,  No.  1)  or  the  Ramah  of  Samuel, 
but  its  position  in  the  list  (remote  from 
Geba,  Michmash,  Bethel,  ver.  31,  comp. 
Ezr.  ii.  26,  28),  seems  to  remove  it  farther 
west,  to  the  neighborhood  of  Lod,  Hadid, 
and  Ono.  The  situation  of  the  modern 
Ramleh  agrees  very  well  with  this,  a  town 
too  important  and  too  well  placed  not  to 
have  existed  in  the  ancient  times. 

Ra'math-le'hi,  the  name  bestowed  by 
Samson  on  the  scene  of  his  slaugliter  of 
the  thousand  Philistines  with  the  jaw-bono 
(Judg.  XV.  17).  "He  cast  away  the  jaw- 
bone out  of  his  hand,  and  called  that  place 
'  Ramath-lehi,' "  —  as  if  "heaving  of  the 
jaw-bone."  But  Gesenius  has  pointed  out 
that,  as  they  at  present  stand,  the  words 
are  exactly  parallel  to  Ramath-mizpeh  and 
Ramath-negeb,  and  mean  the  "  height  of 
Lechi." 

Ra'math-miz'peh.      [  Ramoth  -Gil- 

EAD.] 

Ba'math  of  the  South,  more  accu- 
rately Ramah  of  the  South,  one  of  the 
^owns  in  the  allotment  of  Simeon  (Josh. 
xix.  8),  apparent  at  its  extreme  south  limit 


EAMATHAIM-ZOPHIM 


569 


EAVEN 


It  appears  from  this  pass#ge  to  have  been 
another  name  for  Baalath-Beer.  It  is  in 
all  probability  the  same  place  as  South 
Ramoth  (1  Sam.  xxx.  27). 

Ramatha'im-zo'phim.    [Eamah,2.] 

Ra'matliite,  The.  Shimei  the  Ra- 
mathite  had  charge  of  the  royal  vineyards 
of  king  David  (1  Chr.  xxvii,  27).  The 
name  implies  that  he  was  native  of  t  place 
called  Ramah,  but  there  is  no  tradition  or 
other  clew  by  which  the  particular  Ramah 
to  which  this  worthy  belonged  can  be  iden- 
tified. 

Rame'ses,  or  Haam'ses,  a  city  and 
district  of  Lower  Egj'pt,  is  first  mentioned 
in  the  narrative  of  the  settling  by  Joseph 
of  his  father  and  brethren  in  Egypt,  where 
it  is  related  that  a  possession  was  given 
them  "  in  the  land  of  Rameses "  (Gen. 
xlvii.  11).  This  land  of  Rameses  either 
corresponds  to  the  land  of  Goshen,  or  was 
a  district  of  it,  more  probably  the  former, 
as  appears  from  a  comparison  with  a  paral- 
lel passage  (G).  The  name  next  occurs  as 
that  of  one  of  the  two  store-cities  built  for 
the  Pharaoh  who  first  oppressed  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  (Ex.  i.  11).  In  the  narrative 
of  the  Exodus  it  is  the  starting-point  of  the 
journey  (Ex.  xii.  37;  see  also  Num.  xxxiii. 
3,  6).  Rameses  seems  to  correspond  to  the 
western  part  of  the  land  of  Goshen,  since 
two  full  marches,  and  part  at  least  of  a 
third,  brought  the  Israelites  from  this  town 
to  the  Red  Sea ;  and  the  narrative  appears 
to  indicate  a  route  for  the  chief  part  directly 
towards  the  sea. 

Ra'moth-gil'ead,  thfe  "  heights  of 
Gilead,"  one  of  the  great  fastnesses  on  the 
east  of  Jordan,  and  the  key  to  an  impor- 
tant district,  as  is  evident  not  only  from  the 
direct  statement  of  1  K.  iv.  13,  that  it  com- 
manded the  regions  of  Argob  and  of  the 
towns  of  Jair,  but  also  from  the  obstinacy 
with  which  it  was  attacked, and  defended 
by  the  Syrians  and  Jews  in  the  reigns  of 
Ahab  and  Joram.  It  seems  probable  that 
it  was  identical  with  Ramath-Mizpeh  (Josh, 
xiii.  26),  which,  again,  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  occupied  the  spot  on  which  Jacob 
had  made  his  covenant  with  Laban.  It  was 
the  city  of  refuge  for  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(Deut.  iv.  43;  Josh.  xx.  8,  xxi.  38).  We 
next  encounter  it  as  tlie  residence  of  one  of 
Solomon's  commissariat  officers  (1  K.  iv. 
13).  In  the  second  Syrian  war  Ramoth- 
Gilead  played  a  conspicuous  part.  During 
the  invasion  related  in  1  K.  xv.  20,  or  some 
subsequent  incursion,  this  important  place 
had  been  seized  by  Benhadad  I.  from  Omri. 
The  incidents  of  Ahab's  expedition  are  well 
known.  [Ahab.]  During  Ahaziah's  short 
reign  we  hear  nothing  of  it :  it  probably  re- 
mained in  possession  of  the  Syrians  till  the 
suppression  of  the  Moabite  rebellion  gave 
Joram  time  to  renew  the  siege.  He  was 
more  fortunate  than  Ahab.     The  town  was 


taken  by  Israel,  and  hold  in  spite  of  all  the 
efforts  of  Hazael  (who  was  now  on  the 
throne  of  Damascus)  to  regain  it  (2  K.  ix. 
14).  Henceforward  Ramoth-Gilead  disap- 
pears from  our  view.  Eusebius  and  Jer- 
ome specify  the  position  of  Ramoth  as  15 
miles  from  Philadelphia  (Ammdn).  It  may 
correspond  to  the  site  bearing  the  name  of 
JeVdd,  exactly  identical  with  the  ancient 
Hebrew  Gilead,  which  is  four  or  five  miles 
north  of  es-Salt. 

Ra'motti  in  Gil'ead,  Deut.  iv.  43; 
Josh.  XX.  8,  xxi.  38 ;  1  K.  xxii.  3.  Else- 
where the  shorter  form,  Ramoth-Gilead, 
is  used. 

Rams'  Horns.     [Cornet  ;  Jubilee.] 

Rams'  Skins  dyed  red  formed  part 
of  the  materials  that  the  Israelites  were 
ordered  to  present  as  offerings  for  the 
making  of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxv.  5)  ; 
of  which  they  served  as  one  of  the  inner 
coverings.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
A.  v.,  following  the  LXX.  and  Vulgate, 
and  the  Jewish  interpreters,  is  correct. 
The  original  words,  it  is  true,  admit  of 
being  rendered  thus  —  "  skins  of  red  rams." 

Ra'pha.  Son  of  Binea,  among  the  de- 
scendants of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  37). 

Ra'phael.  "  One  of  the  seven  holy 
angels  which  ...  go  in  .and  out  before  the 
glory  of  the  Holy  One"  (Tob.  xii.  15). 
According  to  another  Jewish  tradition, 
Raphael  was  one  of  the  four  angels  which 
stood  round  the  throne  of  God  (Michael, 
Uriel,  Gabriel,  Raphael).  In  Tobit  he 
appears  as  the  guide  and  counsellor  ol' 
Tobias. 

Ra'phon,  a  city  of  Gilead  (1  Mace.  v. 
37),  perhaps  identical  with  Raphana,  which 
is  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  one  of  the  cities 
of  the  Decapolis. 

Ra'phu.  The  father  of  Palti,  the  Ben- 
jamite  spy  (Num.  xiii.  i)). 

Raven  (Heb.  'drib),  from  a  root  signi- 
fying "  to  be  black."  A  raven  was  sent 
out  by  Noah  from  the  ark  to  see  whether 
the  waters  were  abated  (Gen.  viii.  7).  This 
bird  was  not  allowed  as  food  by  the  Mosaic 
law  (Lev.  xi.  15).  Ravens  were  the 
means,  under  the  Divine  command,  of  sup- 
porting the  prophet  Elijah  at  tlie  brook 
Cherith  (IK.  xvii.  4,  6).  They  are  ex- 
pressly mentioned  as  instances  of  God's 
protecting  love  and  goodness  (Job  xxxviii. 
41,  Luke  xii.  24,  Ps.  cxlvii.  9).  They  are 
enumerated  with  the  owl,  the  bittern, 
&c.,  as  marking  the  desolation  of  Edom 
(Is.  xxxiv.  11).  "The  locks  of  the  be- 
loved "  are  compared  to  the  glossy  black- 
ness of  the  raven's  plumage  (Cant.  v.  1 1). 
The  raven's  carnivorous  habits,  and  espe- 
cially his  readiness  to  attack  the  eye,  are 
alluded  to  in  Prov.  xxx.  17.  To  the  fact 
of  the  raven  being  a  common  bird  in  Pales- 
tine, and  to  its  habit  of  flying  restlessly 
about  in  constant  aearch  for  food  to  satis^ 


BAZOR 


570 


EECHAB 


it«  Toracious  appetite,  may  pcrliaps  be 
traced  the  reason  for  its  being  selected  by 
our  Lord  and  the  inspired  writers  as  the 
especial  object  of  God's  providing  care. 
The  raven  belongs  to  the  order  Incessores, 
family  Corvidae. 

Razor.  Besides  other  usages,  the  prac- 
tice of  shaving  the  head  after  the  comple- 
tion of  a  vow,  must  have  created  among 
the  Jews  a  necessity  for  the  special  trade 
of  a  barber  (Num.  vi.  9,  18,  viii.  7 ;  Lev. 
xiv.  8;  Judg.  xiii.  6;  Is.  vii.  20;  Ez.  v.  1; 
Acts  xviii.  18).  The  instruments  of  his 
work  were  probably,  as  in  modern  times, 
the  razor,  the  basin,  the  mirror,  and  per- 
haps also  the  scissors  (see  2  Sam.  xiv.  26). 
Like  the  Levites,  the  Egyptian  priests 
were  accustomed  to  shave  tlieir  whole 
bodies. 

Reai'a.  A  Reubenite,  son  of  Micah, 
and  aj)parently  prince  of  his  tribe  (1  Chr. 
V.  5).     The  name  is  identical  with 

Keai'ah..  1.  A  descendant  of  Shubal, 
the  son  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  2).  2.  The 
children  of  Reaiah  were  a  family  of  Nethi- 
nim  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  47;  Neh.  vii.  50). 

Re'ba,  one  of  the  five  kings  of  the 
Midianites  slain  by  the  children  of  Israel  in 
their  avenging  expedition  when  Balaam  fell 
(Num.  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

Rebee'ca.  The  Greek  form  of  the 
name  Rebekah  (Rom.  ix.  10  only), 

Rebek'ah,  daughter  of  Bethuel  (Gen. 
xxii.  23)  and  sister  of  Laban,  married  to 
Isaac,  her  father's  cousin.  She  is  first  pre- 
sented to  us  in  the  account  of  the  mission 
of  Eliezer  to  Padan-aram  (Gen.  xxiv.),  in 
which  his  interview  with  Rebekah,  her  con- 
sent and  marriage,  are  related.  For  nine- 
teen years  she  was  childless :  then,  after 
the  prayers  of  Isaac  and  her  journey  to 
inquire  of  the  Lord,  Esau  and  Jacob  were 
born ;  and  while  the  younger  was  more  par- 
ticularly the  companion  and  favorite  of  his 
mother  (xxv.  19-28),  the  elder  became  a 
grief  of  mind  to  her  (xxvi.  35).  When 
Isaac  was  driven  by  a  famine  into  the  law- 
less country  of  the  Philistines,  Rebekah's 
beauty  became,  as  was  apprehended,  a 
source  of  danger  to  her  husband.  It  was 
probably  a  considerable  time  afterwards 
when  Rebekah  suggested  the  deceit  that 
was  practised  by  Jacob  on  his  blind  father. 
She  directed  and  aided  him  in  carrying  it 
out,  foresaw  the  probable  consequence  of 
Esau's  anger,  and  prevented  it  by  moving 
Isaac  to  send  Jacob  away  to  Padan-aram 
(xxvii.)  to  her  own  "kindred  (xxix.  12).  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  she  died  during 
Jacob's  sojourn  in  Padan-aram.  St.  Paul 
(Rom.  ix.  10)  refers  to  her  as  being  made 
acquainted  with  the  purpose  of  God  re- 
garding her  children  before  they  were 
born. 

Re'chab  Qrider).    1.  One  of  the  two 


"  captains  of  Lnnds,"  whom  Ishbosheth 
took  into  liis  service,  and  wlio  conspired  to 
murder  him  (2  Sam.  iv.  2).  2.  Tlie  father 
of  Malcliiah,  ruler  of  part  of  Both-hac- 
cerem  (Neh.  iii.  14).  3.  The  father  or 
ancestor  of  Jchonadab  (2  K.  x.  15,  23;  1 
Clir.  ii.  55;  Jer.  xxxv.  C-19),  identified  by 
some  writers  with  Ilobab.  It  was  from 
tliis  Rechab  that  the  tribe  of  the  Re- 
chabites  derived  their  name.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  personal  history.  In  1  Chr. 
ii.  55,  the  house  of  Rechab  is  identified 
with  a  section  of  the  Kenites,  who  came 
into  Canaan  with  the  Israelites,  and  re- 
tained their  nomadic  habits.  It  has  been 
inferred  from  this  passage  that  the  descend- 
ants of  Rechab  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the 
Kenites  settled  from  the  first  at  Jabez  in 
Judah.  But  it  is  more  probable  that  this 
passage  refers  to  the  locality  occupied  by 
the  Rechabites  after  their  return  from 
the  captivity.  The  real  founder  of  the 
tribe  was  Jehonadab,  whose  history  has 
been  given  elsewhere.  [Jehonadab.]  He 
and  his  people  had  all  along  been  worship- 
pers of  Jehovah,  circumcised,  tliough  not 
reckoned  as  belonging  to  Israel,  and  proba- 
bly therefore  not  considering  themselves 
bound  by  the  Mosaic  law  and  ritual.  The 
worship  of  Baal  was  accordingly  not 
less  offensive  to  them  than  to  the  Israel- 
ites. The  luxury  and  license  of  Phoeni- 
cian cities  threatened  the  destruction  of  the 
simplicity  of  their  nomadic  life  (Amos  ii. 
7,  8,  vi.  3-6).  A  protest  was  needed  against 
both  evils,  and  as  in  the  case  of  Elijah',  and 
of  the  Nazarites  pf  Amos  ii.  11,  it  took  the 
form  of  asceticism.  There  was  to  be  a  more 
rigid  adherence  than  ever  to  the  old  Arab 
life.  They  were  to  drink  no  wine,  nor  build 
house,  nor  sow  seed,  nor  plant  vineyard, 
nor  have  any.  All  their  days  they  were  to 
dwell  in  tents,  as  remembering  that  they 
were  strangers  in  the  land  (Jer.  xxxv.  6, 
7).  This  was  to  be  the  condition  of  their 
retaining  a  distinct  tribal  existence.  For 
two  centuries  and  a  half  they  adhered  faith- 
fully to  this  rule.  The  Nabathaeans  and 
Wahabys  supply  us  with  a  striking  parallel. 
Tlve  invasion  of  Judah  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  B.  c.  607,  drove  the  Rechabites  from  their 
tents.  Some  inferences  may  be  safely  drawn 
from  the  facts  of  Jer.  xxxv.  The  names 
of  the  Rechabites  show  that  they  continued 
to  be  worshippers  of  Jehovah.  They  are 
already  known  to  the  prophet.  One  of  them 
(ver.  3)  bears  the  same  name.  Their  rigid 
Nazarite  life  gained  for  them  admission  into 
the  house  of  the  Lord,  into  one  of  the  cham- 
bers assigned  to  priests  and  Levites,  within 
its  precincts.  Here  they  are  tempted,  and 
are  proof  against  the  temptation.  The  his- 
tory of  this  ti-ial  ends  with  a  special  bless- 
ing: "  Jonadab,  tlie  son  of  Rechab,  shall 
not  want  a  man  to  stand  before  me  forever" 
(ver.  19).     The  words   "  to  stand  before 


EECHABITES 


671 


RED  SEA 


me,"  are  essentially  liturgical.  The  Re- 
chabitcs  were  solemnly  adopted  into  the 
families  of  Israel,  and  were  recognized  as 
incorporated  into  the  tribe  of  Levi.  It 
remains  for  us  to  see  whether  there  are  any 
traces  of  their  after-history  in  the  Biblical 
or  later  writers.  (1.)  We  have  the  singu- 
lar heading  of  Ps.  Ixxi.  in  the  LXX.  ver- 
sion, indicating  that  the  "  sons  of  Jonadab" 
shared  tiie  captivity  of  Israel.  (2.)  There 
is  the  significant  mention  of  a  son  of 
Rechab  in  Neh.  iii.  14,  as  co-operating  with 
the  priests,  Levites,  and  princes  in  the  res- 
toration of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem.  (3.) 
The  mention  of  the  house  of  Rechab  in  1 
Chr.  ii.  55,  though  not  without  difficulty, 
points,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  to  the  same 
conclusion.  The  Rechabites  have  become 
Scribes.  They  give  themselves  to  a  calling 
which,  at  the  time  of  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon, was  chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  in  the 
hands  of  Levites.  (4.)  The  account  of  the 
martyrdom  of  James  the  Just  given  by 
Hegesippus  brings  the  name  of  the  Rechab- 
ites once  more  before  us,  and  in  a  very 
strange  connection.  While  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees  were  stoning  him,  "  one  of  the 
priests  of  tlie  sons  of  Rechab,  the  son  of 
Rcchabim,  wlio  are  mentioned  by  Jeremiah 
the  prophet,"  cried  out,  protesting  against 
the  crime.  We  may  accept  Hegesippus  as 
an  additional  witness  to  the  existence  of  the 
Rechabites  as  a  recognized  body  up  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  sharing  in  the 
ritual  of  the  Temple.  (5.)  Some  later 
notices  are  not  without  interest.  Benjamin 
of  Tudela  in  the  12th  century  mentions  that 
near  El  Jubar  (=  Pumbeditha)  he  found 
Jews  who  were  named  Rechabites.  They 
tilled  the  ground,  kept  flocks  and  herds, 
abstained  from  wine  and  flesli,  and  gave 
tithes  to  teachers  who  devoted  themselves 
to  studying  the  Law,  and  weeping  for  Jeru- 
salem. A  later  traveller,  Dr.  Wolff,  gives 
a  yet  stranger  and  more  detailed  report. 
The  Jews  of  Jerusalem  and  Yemen  told 
him  that  he  would  find  the  Rechabites  of 
Jer.  XXXV.  living  near  Mecca.  When  he 
came  near  Senaa  he  came  in  contact  with  a 
tribe,  the  Beni-Khaibr,  who  identified  them- 
selves with  the  sons  of  Jonadab.  With  one 
of  them,  Mousa,  Wolff  conversed. 

Re'chabites.    [Rechab.] 

Be'chah.  In  1  Chr.  iv.  12,  Beth-rapha, 
Paseah,  and  Tehinnah  the  father,  or  found- 
er, of  Ir-nahash,  are  said  to  have  been  "  the 
men  of  Rachah." 

Recorder,  an  oflicer  of  high  rank  in  the 
Jewish  state,  exercising  the  functions,  not 
simply  of  an  annalist,  but  of  chancellor  or 
president  of  the  privy  council.  In  David's 
court  the  recorder  appears  among  the  high 
officers  of  his  household  (2  Sam.  viii.  IG, 
XX.  24;  1  Chr.  xviii.  15).  In  Solomon's, 
he  is  coupled  with  the  three  secretaries,  and 
is  mentioned  last,  probably  as  being  their 


president  (1  K.  iv.  3 ;  comp.  2  K.  xviii.  18, 
37 ;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  8). 

Hed.  Sea.  The  sea  known  to  us  as  the 
Red  Sea  was  by  the  Israelites  called  "  the 
sea"  (Ex.  xiv.  2,  9,  16,  21,  28,  xv.  1,  4,  8, 
10,  19 ;  Josh.  xxiv.  6,  7 ;  and  many  other 
passages)  ;  and  specially  "the  seaol sUph" 
(Ex.  X.  19,  xiii.  18,  xv.  4,  22,  xxiii.  31 ; 
Num.  xiv.  25;  &c.).  It  is  also  perhaps 
written  silphdh  in  Num.  xxi.  14,  rendered 
"  Red  Sea  "  in  A.  V. ;  and  in  like  manner 
in  Deut.  i.  1,  sUph.  This  word  signifies  a 
sea-weed  resembling  wool,  and  such  sea- 
weed is  thrown  up  abundantly  on  the  shores 
of  the  Red  Sea.  The  LXX.  always  render 
it  I'l  iQvdoa  6uXuaoa  (except  in  Judg.  xi.  IG). 
The  origin  of  this  appellation  has  been  the 
source  of  more  speculation  even  than  the 
obscure  sUph  ;  for  it  lies  more  within  the  ^ 
range  of  general  scholarship.  The  authors 
of  theories  concerning  it  may  be  divided 
into  two  schools.  The  first  have  ascribed 
it  to  some  natural  phenomenon ;  such  as  the 
singularly  red  appearance  of  the  mountains 
of  the  western  coast ;  the  red  color  of  the 
water,  sometimes  caused  by  the  presence 
of  zoophiles;  the  red  coral  of  the  sea ;  the 
red  sea-weed ;  and  the  red  storks  that  have 
been  seen  in  great  numbers,  &c.  The  sec- 
ond have  endeavored  to  find  an  etymo- 
logical derivation.  Of  these  the  earliest 
(European)  writers  proposed  a  derivation 
from  Edom,  "  red,"  by  the  Greeks  trans- 
lated literally.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
tell  us  that  the  sea  received  its  name  from 
a  great  king,  Erythras,  who  reigned  in  the 
adjacent  country ;  the  stories  that  have 
come  down  to  us  appear  to  be  distortions 
of  the  tradition  that  Himyer  was  the  name 
of  apparently  the  chief  family  of  Arabia 
Felix,  the  great  South-Arabian  kingdom, 
whence  the  Himyerites  and  Homeritae. 
Himyer  appears  to  be  derived  fx'om  the 
Arabic  "  ahmar,"  red.  We  can  scarcely 
doubt,  on  these  etymological  grounds,  the 
connection  between  the  Phoenicians  and 
the  Himyerites,  or  that  in  this  is  the  true 
origin  of  the  appellation  of  the  Red  Sea. 
But  when  the  ethnological  side  of  the  ques- 
tion is  considered,  the  evidence  is  much 
strengthened.  The  South-Arabian  kingdom 
was  a  Joktanite  (or  Shemite)  nation  mixed 
with  a  Cushite.  The  Red  Sea,  therefore, 
was  most  probably  the  Sea  of  the  Red  men. 
Ancient  Limits.  —  The  most  important 
change  in  the  Red  Sea  has  been  the  drying 
up  of  its  northern  extremity,  "  the  tongue 
of  the  Egyptian  Sea."  The  land  about  the 
head  of  the  gulf  has  risen,  and  that  near 
the  Mediterranean  become  depressed.  Tlie 
head  of  the  gulf  has  consequently  retired 
gradually  since  the  Christian  era.  Thus 
the  prophecy  of  Isaiali  has  been  fulfilled 
(xi.  15,  xix.  5) ;  the  tongue  of  the  Red  Sea 
has  dried  up  for  a  distance  of  at  least  50 
miles  from  its  ancient  bead.    An  ancient 


RED  SEA 


572 


RED  SEA 


canal  conveyed  the  waters  of  the  Nile  to 
the  Red  Sea  flowing  through  the  Wadi-t- 
Tumeylat,  and  irrigating  with  its  system 
of  water-channels  a  large  extent  of  country. 
The  drying  up  of  the  head  of  the  gulf  ap- 
pears to  have  been  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  the  neglect  and  ruin  of  this  canal.  The 
country,  for  the  distance  above  indicated, 
is  now  a  desert  of  gravelly  sand,  with  wide 
patches  about  the  ol  I  sea-bottom,  of  rank 
marsh  land,  now  called  the  '*  Bitter  Lakes." 
At  the  northern  extremity  of  this  salt 
waste  is  a  small  lake,  sometimes  called  the 
lake  of  Heroopolis ;  the  lake  is  now  Birket 
et-TimsAh,  "  the  lake  of  the  Crocodile," 
and  is  supposed  to  mark  the  ancient  head 
of  the  gulf.  The  canal  that  connected  this 
with  the  Nile  was  of  Pharaonic  origin.  It 
was  anciently  known  as  the  "  Fossa  Re- 
gum,"  and  the  "  Canal  of  Hero."  The  time 
at  which  the  canal  was  extended,  after  the 
drying  up  of  the  head  of  the  gulf,  to  the 
present  head,  is  uncertain,  but  it  must  have 
been  late,  and  probably  since  the  Moham- 
medan conquest.  Traces  of  the  ancient 
channel  throughout  its  entire  length  to  the 
vicinity  of  Bubastis,  exist  at  intervals  in 
the  present  day.  The  land  north  of  the 
ancient  h^od  of  the  gulf  is  a  plain  of  heavy 
sand,  mergmg  into  marsh-land  near  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  and  extending  to 
Palestine.  This  region,  including  Wadi-t- 
Tumeyl.'it,  was  probably  the  frontier  land 
occupied  in  part  by  the  Israelites,  and  open 
to  the  incursions  of  the  wild  tribes  of  the 
Arabian  desert.  Physical  Description.  — 
In  extreme  length  the  Red  Sea  stretches 
from  the  straits  of  Babel-Mendeb  (or  rath- 
ei  Ras  Biib  el-Mendeb)  in  lat.  12°  40'  N., 
to  the  modern  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
lat.  30°  N.  Its  greatest  width  may  be 
stated  roughly  at  about  200  geographical 
miles ;  this  is  about  lat.  16°  30',  but  the 
navigable  channel  is  here  really  narrower 
than  in  some  other  portions.  At  Ras  Mo- 
hammad, the  Red  Sea  is  split  by  the  gra- 
nitic peninsula  of  Sinai  into  two  gulfs ;  the 
westernmost,  or  Gulf  of  Suez,  is  now  about 
130  geographical  miles  in  length,  with  an 
average  width  of  about  18,  though  it  con- 
tracts tc  less  than  10  miles ;  the  eastern- 
most, or  Gulf  of  El-'Akabeh,  is  only  about 
90  miles  long,  from  the  Straits  of  Tirdn,  to 
the  'Akabeh,  and  of  proportionate  narrow- 
ness. Journeying  southwards  from  Suez, 
on  our  left  is  the  peninsula  of  Sinai ;  on  the 
right,  is  the  desert  coast  of  Egypt,  of  lime- 
stone formation  like  the  greater  part  of  the 
Nile  valley  in  Egypt,  the  cliffs  on  the  sea- 
Ihargin  stretching  landwards  in  a  great 
rocky  plateau,  while  more  inland  a  chain 
of  volcanic  mountains  (beginning  about  lat. 
28°  4'  and  running  south)  rear  their  lofty 
peaks  at  intervals  above  the  limestone,  gen- 
erally about  15  miles  distant.  This  coast 
is  espacially  interesting  in  a  Biblical  point 


of  view,  for  here  were  some  of  the  earliest 
monasteries  of  the  Eastern  Church,  nnd  in 
those  secluded  and  barren  mountains  lived 
very  early  Christian  hermits.  The  western 
shore  is  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  Tiie  sea, 
from  its  dangers  and  sterile  shores,  is  en- 
tirely destitute  of  boats.  The  coral  of  the 
Red  Sea  is  remarkably  abundant,  and 
beautifully  colored  and  variegated.  The 
earliest  navigation  of  the  Red  Sea  (passing 
by  the  pre-historical  Phoenicians)  is  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus.  '*  Sesostris  (Rame- 
ses  II.)  was  the  first  who,  passing  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf  in  a  fleet  of  long  vessels,  reduced 
under  his  authority  the  inhabitants  of  the 
coast  bordering  the  Erythraean  Sea." 
Three  centuries  later,  Solomon's  navy  was 
built  "  in  Eziongeber,  which  is  beside  Eloth, 
on  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea  (Yam  Siiph),  in 
the  land  of  Edom  "  (1 K.  ix.  26).  The  king- 
dom of  Solomon  extended  as  far  as  the  Red 
Sea,  upon  which  he  possessed  the  harbors  of 
Elath  and  Eziongeber.  [Elath  ;  Ezion- 
geber.] It  is  possible  that  the  sea  has 
retired  here  as  at  Suez,  and  tliat  Ezion- 
geber is  now  dry  land.  Jehoshaphat  also 
"  made  ships  of  Tharshish  to  go  to  Ophir 
for  gold ;  but  they  went  not,  for  the  ships 
were  broken  at  Eziongeber "  (1  K.  xxii. 
48).  The  scene  of  this  wreck  has  been 
supposed  to  be  Edh-Dliahab.  The  fashion 
of  the  ancient  ships  of  the  Red  Sea,  or  of 
the  Phoenician  ships  of  Solomon,  is  un- 
known. From  Pliny  we  learn  that  the  ships 
were  of  papyrus,  and  like  the  boats  of  the 
Nile ;  and  this  statement  was  in  some  meas- 
ure correct.  More  precise  and  curious  is 
El-Makreezee's  description,  written  in  the 
first  half  of  the  15th  century,  of  the  sliips 
that  sailed  from  Eydhdb  on  the  Egyptian 
coast  to  Juddah  :  "  Their  'jelebehs,' which 
carry  the  pilgrims  on  the  coast,  have  not 
a  nail  used  in  them ;  but  their  planks  are 
sewed  together  with  fibre,  which  is  taken 
from  the  cocoanut-tree ;  and  they  calk 
them  with  the  fibres  of  the  wood  of  tlie  date 
palm ;  then  they  '  pay '  them  with  butter,  or 
the  oil  of  the  palma  Christi,  or  with  the  fat 
of  the  kirsh  (squalus  carcharias).  .  .  . 
The  sails  of  these  jelebehs  are  of  mats  made 
of  the  dom-palm."  The  fleets  appear  to 
have  sailed  about  the  autumnal  equinox, 
and  returned  in  December  or  the  middle 
of  January.  The  Red  Sea,  as  it  possessed 
for  many  centuries  the  most  important  sea- 
trade  of  the  East,  contained  ports  of  celeb- 
rity. Of  these,  Elath  and  Eziongeber  alone 
appear  to  be  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The 
Heroopolite  Gulf  is  of  the  chief  interest ;  it 
was  near  to  Goshen ;  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea;  and  it  was  the 
"  tongue  of  the  Egyptian  Sea."  It  was 
also  the  seat  of  the  Egyptian  trade  in  this 
sea  and  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Heroopolis 
is  doubtless  the  same  as  Hero,  and  its  site 
is  probably  identified    with    the    modern 


RED  SEA 


573 


RED  SEA 


A  ooo-Kesheyd,  at  the  head  of  the  old  gulf. 
Suez  is  a  poor  town,  and  has  only  an  unsafe 
anchorage,  with  very  shoal  water.  But  the 
shoaling  of  the  head  of  the  gulf  rendered 
the  navigation,  always  dangerous,  more 
difficult;  it  destroyed  the  former  anchor- 
ages, and  made  it  necessary  to  carry  mer- 
chandize across  the  desert  to  the  Nile.  This 
change  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
main  causes  of  the  decay  of  the  commerce 
of  Egypt.  Since  the  time  of  Mohammad 
the  lied  Sea  trade  has  been  insignificant. 
Passage  of.  —  The  passage  of  the  Red  Sea 
was  the  crisis  of  the  Exodus.  The  points 
that  arise  are  the  place  of  the  passage,  the 
narrative,  and  the  importance  of  the  event 
in  Biblical  history.  1.  It  is  usual  to  sup- 
pose that  the  most  northern  place  at  which 
the  Red  Sea  could  have  been  crossed  is  the 
present  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  This 
supposition  depends  upon  the  erroneous 
idea  that  in  the  time  of  Moses  the  Gulf  did 
not  extend  farther  to  the  northward  than 
at  present.  An  examination  of  the  country 
north  of  Suez  has  shown,  however,  that  the 
sea  has  receded  many  miles.  The  old  bed 
is  indicated  by  the  Birket-et-Timsdh,  or 
"  Lake  of  the  Crocodile,"  and  the  more 
southern  Bitter  Lakes,  the  northernmost 
part  of  the  former  probably  corresponding 
to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  at  the  time  of  the 
Exodus.  It  is  necessary  to  endeavor  to 
ascertain  the  route  of  the  Israelites  be- 
fore we  can  attempt  to  discover  where 
they  crossed  tlie  Sea.  The  point  from 
which  they  started  was  Rameses,  a  place 
certainly  in  the  Land  of  Goshen,  which 
we  identify  with  the  Wddi-t-Tumeyldt. 
After  the  mention  that  the  people  jour- 
neyed from  Rameses  to  Succoth,  and 
before  the  account  of  their  departure 
from  Succoth,  a  passage  occurs  which  ap- 
pears to  sliow  the  first  direction  of  tlie 
journey,  and  not  a  change  in  the  route  (Ex. 
xiii.  17,  18).  At  the  end  of  the  second 
day's  journey  the  camping-place  was  at 
Etham,  "in  the  edge  of  tlie  wilderness" 
(Ex.  xiii.  20;  Num.  xxxiii.  6).  Here  the 
Wddi-i-  Tumeyldt  was  probably  left,  as  it  is 
cultivable  and  terminates  in  the  desert. 
The  first  passage  relating  to  the  journey, 
after  the  mention  of  the  encamping  at 
Etham,  is  this,  stating  a  command  given  to 
Moses  :  "  Speak  unto  the  children  of  Israel, 
that  they  turn  [or  '  return ']  and  encamp 
[or  '  that  they  encamp  again ']  before  Pi- 
hahiroth,  between  Migdol  and  the  sea,  over 
against  Baal-zephon  "  (Ex.  xiv.  2).  At  the 
end  of  the  third  day's  march,  —  for  each 
camping-place  seems  to  mark  the  close  of 
a  day's  journey,  —  the  Israelites  encamped 
))y  the  sea.  The  place  of  this  last  encamp- 
ment, and  that  of  the  passage,  would  be  not 
very  far  from  the  Persepolitan  monument. 
It  is  here  necessary  to  mention  the  argu- 
ments for  and  against  the  common  opinion 


that  the  Israelites  passed  near  the  present 
head  of  the  gulf.  Local  tradition  is  in  its 
favor,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  local 
tradition  in  Egj'pt  and  the  neighboring 
countries,  judging  from  the  evidence  of 
history,  is  of  very  little  value.  The  Mus- 
lims suppose  Memphis  to  have  been  the 
city  at  which  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus 
resided  before  that  event  occurred.  From 
opposite  Memphis  a  broad  valley  leads  to 
the  Red  Sea.  It  is  in  part  called  the  Wadi- 
t-Teeh,  or  "Valley  of  the  Wandering." 
From  it  the  traveller  reaches  the  sea  be- 
neath the  lofty  Gebel-et-Tdkah,  which  rises 
on  the  north  and  shuts  oflT  all  escape  in  that 
direction,  excepting  by  a  narrow  way  along 
the  sea-shore,  which  Pharaoh  might  have 
occupied.  The  sea  here  is  broad  and  deep, 
as  the  narrative  is  generally  held  to  imply. 
All  the  local  features  seem  suited  for  a 
great  event.  The  supposition  that  the  Is- 
raelites took  an  upper  route,  now  that  of 
the  Mekkeh  caravan,  along  the  desert  to 
the  north  of  the  elevated  tract  between 
Cairo  and  Suez,  must  be  mentioned,  al- 
though it  is  less  probable  than  that  just  no- 
ticed, and  offers  the  same  difficulties.  We 
therefore  think  that  the  only  opinion  war- 
ranted by  the  narrative  is  that  already 
stated,  which  supposes  the  passage  of  the 
sea  to  liave  taken  place  near  the  northern- 
most part  of  its  ancient  extension.  The 
last  camping-i^lace  was  before  Pi-hahiroth. 
It  appears  that  Migdol  was  behind  Pi-ha- 
hiroth, and  on  the  other  hand  Baal-zephoa 
and  the  sea.  These  neighboring  places 
have  not  been  identified.  From  Pi-hahi- 
roth the  Israelites  crossed  the  sea.  The 
only  points  bearing  on  geography  in  the 
account  of  this  event  are,  that  the  sea  was 
divided  by  an  east  wind,  whence  we  may 
reasonably  infer  that  it  was  crossed  from 
west  to  east,  and  that  the  whole  Egyptian 
army  perished,  which  shows  that  it  must 
have  been  some  miles  broad.  On  tlie'whole 
we  may  reasonably  suppose  about  twelve 
miles  as  the  smallest  breadth  of  the  sea. 
2.  A  careful  examination  of  the  narrative 
of  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  is  necessary 
to  a  right  understanding  of  tlie  event. 
When  the  Israelites  had  departed,  Pharaoh 
repented  that  lie  had  let  them  go.  The 
strength  of  Pharaoh's  army  is  not  furtiier 
specified  than  by  the  statement  that  "  he 
took  six  hundred  chosen  chariots,  and  [or 
'  even ']  all  the  chariots  of  Egypt,  and  cap- 
tains over  every  one  of  them  "  (Ex.  xiv.  7). 
With  this  army,  which,  even  if  a  small  one, 
was  mighty  in  comparison  to  the  Israelite 
multitude,  encumbered  with  women,  chil- 
dren, and  cattle,  Pharaoh  overtook  the 
people  "  encamping  by  the  sea  "  (9).  When 
the  Israelites  saw  the  oppressor's  army  they 
were  terrified  and  murmured  against  Moses. 
Then  Moses  encouraged  them,  bidding  thera 
see  bow  God  would  save  them.    It  seems 


RED  SEA 


574 


EEED 


from  the  narrative  that  Moses  did  not  know 
at  this  time  how  the  people  would  be  saved, 
and  spoke  only  from  a  heart  full  of  faith, 
for  we  read,  "  And  the  Lord  said  unto 
Moses,  Wherefore  criest  thou  unto  me? 
speak  unto  the  cliildren  of  Israel,  that  they 
go  forward:  but  lift  thou  up  thy  rod,  and 
stretch  thou  out  thine  hand  over  the  sea, 
and  divide  it :  and  the  children  of  Israel 
shall  go  on  dry  [ground]  through  the  midst 
of  the  sea"  (15,  IG).  That  night  the  two 
armies,  the  fugitives  and  the  pursuers,  were 
encamped  near  together.  Between  them 
was  the  pillar  of  the  cloud,  darkness  to  the 
Egyptians  and  a  light  to  the  Israelites. 
Perhaps  in  the  camp  of  Israel  the  sounds 
of  the  hostile  camp  might  be  heard  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the  roaring  of 
the  sea.  But  the  pillar  was  a  barrier  and 
a  sign  of  deliverance.  The  time  was  now 
come  for  the  great  decisive  miracle  of  the 
Exodus.  "  And  Moses  stretched  out  his 
hand  over  the  sea :  and  the  Lord  caused 
the  sea  to  go  [back]  by  a  strong  east  wind 
all  that  night,  and  made  the  sea  dry  [land], 
and  tlie  waters  were  divided.  And  the 
children  of  Israel  went  through  the  midst 
of  the  sea  upon  the  dry  [ground]  :  and  the 
waters  [were]  a  wall  unto  them  on  their 
right  hand  and  on  their  left"  (21,  22, 
comp.  2i)).  The  narrative  distinctly  states 
that  a  path  was  made  through  the  sea,  and 
that  the  waters  were  a  wall  on  either  hand. 
The  term  "wall "  does  not  appear  to  oblige 
IBS  to  suppose,  as  many  have  done,  that  the 
sea  stood  up  like  a  cliff"  on  either  side,  but 
should  rather  be  considered  to  mean  a  bar- 
rier, as  the  former  idea  implies  a  seeming- 
ly needless  addition  to  the  miracle,  while 
the  latter  seems  to  be  not  discordant  with 
the  language  of  the  narrative.  It  was  dur- 
ing the  night  that  the  Israelites  crossed, 
and  the  Egyptians  followed.  In-  the  morn- 
ing watch,  the  last  third  or  fourth  of  the 
night,  or  the  period  before  sunrise,  Pha- 
raoh's army  was  in  full  pursuit  in  the 
divided  sea,  and  was  there  miraculously 
troubled,  so  that  the  Egyptians  sought  to 
flee  (23-25).  Then  was  Moses  command- 
ed again  to  stretch  out  his  hand,  and  the 
sea  returned  to  its  strength,  and  over- 
whelmed the  Egyptians,  of  whom  not  one 
remained  alive  (26-28).  In  a  later  passage 
some  particulars  are  mentioned  which  are 
not  distinctly  stated  in  the  narrative  in  Ex- 
odus. The  place  is  indeed  a  poetical  one, 
but  its  meaning  is  clear,  and  we  learn  from 
it  that  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the 
sea  there  was  a  storm  of  rain  with  thunder 
and  lightning,  perhaps  accompanied  by  an 
earthquake  (Ps.  Ixxvii.  15-20).  3.  The 
importance  of  this  event  in  Biblical  history 
13  shown  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
spoken  of  in  the  books  of  the  O.  T.  writ- 
ten in  later  times.  In  them  it  is  the  chief 
fact  of  Jewish  history.     It  may  be  inquired 


how  it  is  that  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
record  or  tradition  of  this  miracle  among  the 
Egyptians.  This  question  involves  that  of 
the  time  in  Egyptian  history  to  which  this 
event  should  be  assigned.  The  date  of  the 
Exodus  according  to  different  chronologers 
varies  more  than  three  hundred  years ;  the 
dates  of  the  Egyptian  dynasties  ruling  dur- 
ing this  period  of  three  hundred  years  vary 
full  one  hundred.  If  the  lowest  date  of 
the  beginning  of  the  xviiith  dynasty  be 
taken,  and  the  highest  date  of  the  Exodus, 
both  which  we  consider  the  most  probable 
of  those  which  have  been  conjectured  in 
the  two  cases,  the  Israelites  must  have  left 
Egypt  in  a  period  of  which  monuments  or 
otlier  records  are  almost  wanting. 

Reed.  Under  this  name  may  be  noticed 
the  following  Hebrew  words :  1.  Agmdn 
occurs  Job xl.  26  (A.  V.  xli.  2,  "hook "),  xL 
12  (A.  V.  xli.  20,  "  caldron  ") ;  Is.  ix.  14 
(A.  V.  "rush").  The  agmdn  is  mentioned 
also  as  an  Egyptian  plant,  in  a  sentence 
similar  to  the  last,  in  Is.  xix.  15 ;  while 
from  Iviii.  5  we  learn  that  it  had  a  pendu- 
lous panicle.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  denotes  some  aquatic  reed-like  plant, 
probably  the  Phragmitis  communis,  which, 
if  it  does  not  occur  in  Palestine  and  Egypt, 
is  represented  by  a  very  closely  allied  spe- 
cies, viz.  the  Arundo  isiaca  of  Delisle. 
The  drooping  panicle  of  this  plant  will  an- 
swer well  to  the  "  bowing  down  the  head  " 
of  which  Isaiah  speaks.  —  2.  G6me,  trans- 
lated "  rush  "  and  "  bulrush  "  by  the  A.  V., 
without  doubt  denotes  the  celebrated  paper- 
reed  of  the  ancients  (^Papyrus  antiquorum), 
which  formerly  was  common  in  some  parts 
of  Egypt.  The  Hebrew  word  is  found  four 
times  in  the  Bible  (Ex.  ii.  3 ;  Is.  xviii.  2, 
XXXV.  7;  Job  viii.  11).  The  papyrus  reed 
is  not  now  found  in  Egypt ;  it  grows,  how- 
ever, in  Syria.  Dr.  Hooker  saw  it  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Tiberias,  a  few  miles  north 
of  the  town.  The  papyrus  plant  (Papyrus 
antiquorum)  has  an  angular  stem  from  3  to 
6  feet  high,  though  occasionally  it  grows  to 
the  height  of  14  feet ;  it  has  no  leaves ;  the 
flowers  are  in  very  small  spikelets,  which 
grow  on  the  thread-like  flowering  branchlets 
which  form  a  bushy  crown  to  each  stem.  — 
3.  'Ardth  is  translated  "  paper-reed  "  in  Is- 
xix.  7 ;  but  there  is  not  the  slightest  au- 
thority for  this  rendering  of  the  A.  V.  It 
probably  denotes  the  open  grassy  land  on 
tlie  banks  of  the  Nile.  —  4.  KAneli,  the 
generic  name  of  a  reed  of  any  kind ;  it  oc- 
curs in  numerous  passages  of  the  O.  T.,  and 
sometimes  denotes  the  "stalk"  of  wheat 
(Gen.  xli.  5,  22),  or  the  "  branches  "  of  the 
candlestick  (Ex.  xxv.  and  xxxvii.).  The 
word  is  variously  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by 
"stalk,"  "branch,"  "bone,"  "calamus," 
"  reed."  The  Arundo  donax  is  common 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  may  perhaps 
be  "  the  staff"  of  the  bruised  reed  "  to  wliich 


REELAIAH 


575 


REHOBOAM 


Sennacherib  compared  the  power  of  Egypt 
(2  K.  xviii.  21;  Ez.  xxix.  6,  7).  The  thick 
stem  of  this  reed  may  have  been  used  as 
walking-staves  by  the  ancient  Orientals ; 
perhaps  the  measuring-reed  was  this  plant ; 
at  present  the  dry  culms  of  this  huge  grass 
are  in  much  demand  for  fishing-rods,  &c. 
Some  kind  of  fragrant  reed  is  denoted  by 
the  word  klnSh  (Is.  xliii.  24 ;  Ez.  xxvii. 
19;  Cant.  iv.  14),  or  more  fully  hy  kenih 
hdsem  ;  see  Ex.  xxx.  23,  or  by  kdneh  Jiattdb 
(Jer.  vi.  20)  ;  which  the  A.V.  renders  '*  sweet 
cane,"  and  "  calamus."  It  was  of  foreign 
importation  (Jer.  vi.  20).  It  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  lemon  grass  of  India  and 
Arabia. 

Reela'iah.  One  of  the  children  of  the 
province  who  went  up  with  Zerubbabol 
(Ezr.  ii.  2).  In  Neh.  vii.  7  he  is  called 
Raamiah,  and  in  1  Esd.  v.  8  Reesaias. 

Refiner.  The  refiner's  art  was  essen- 
tial to  the  working  of  the  precious  metals. 
It  consisted  in  the  separation  of  the  dross 
from  the  pure  ore,  which  was  effected  by 
reducing  the  metal  to.  a  fluid  state  by  the 
application  of  heat,  and  by  the  aid  of  sol- 
vents, such  as  alkali  (Is.  i.  25)  or  lead  (Jer. 
vi.  29),  which,  amalgamating  with  the  dross, 
permitted  the  extraction  of  the  unadulter- 
ated metal.  The  instruments  required  by 
the  refiner  were  a  crucible  or  furnace,  and 
a  bellows  or  blow-pipe.  The  workman 
sat  at  his  work  (Mai.  iii.  3)  :  lie  was  thus 
better  enabled  to  watch  the  process,  and 
let  the  metal  run  off  at  the  proper  moment. 

Refuge,  Cities  of.  [Cities  of  Ref- 
uge.] 

Re'gem.  A  son  of  Jahdai  (1  Chr,  ii. 
47). 

Re'gem-me'lech.  The  names  of  She- 
rezer  and  Regem-melech  occur  in  an  ob- 
scure passage  of  Zechariah  (vii.  2).  They 
were  sent  on  behalf  of  some  of  the  captivity 
to  make  inquiries  at  the  Temple  concerning 
fasting.  On  referring  to  Zech.  vii.  5,  tlie 
expression  "  the  people  of  the  land  "  seems 
to  indicate  that  those  who  sent  to  the  Tem- 
ple were  not  the  captive  Jews  in  Babylon, 
but  those  who  hjid  returned  to  their  own 
country;  and  this  being  the  case,  it  is  prob- 
able that  in  ver.  2  "  Bethel  "  is  to  be  taken 
as  the  subject,  "  and  Bethel  (t.  e.  the  in- 
habitants of  Bethel)  sent."  From  its  con- 
nection with  Sherezer,  the  name  Regem- 
melech  (lit.  "  king's  friend,"  comp.  1  Chr. 
xxvii.  33)  was  probably  an  Assyrian  title 
of  office. 

Region  round  about.  The  (^  ntni- 
/oifx.j).  In  the  Old  Test,  it  is  used  by  the 
LXX.  as  the  equivalent  of  the  singular 
Hebrew  word  hac-Ciccar  (literally  "the 
round"),  which  seems  in  its  earliest  occur- 
rences to  denote  the  circle  or  oasis  of  culti- 
vation in  which  stood  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
and  the  rest  of  the  five  *'  cities  of  the 
Ciccar  '  (Gen.  xiii.  10,  11,  12,  xix.  17,  25, 


;  28,  29;  Deut.  xxxiv.  3).  In  Matt.  iii.  5  and 
:  Luke  iii.  3  it  denotes  the  populous  and 
I  flourishing  region  which  contained  the  towns 
of  Jericho  and  its  dependencies,  in  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  enclosed  in  the  amphitheatre  of 
the  hills  of  Quarantana.  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  district  of  Gennesaret  (Mutt.  xiv. 
35;  Mark  vi.  55;  Luke  vi.  37,  vii.  17). 

Rehabi'ah.  The  only  son  of  Eliezer, 
the  son  of  Moses  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  17,  xxiv. 
21,  xxvi.  25). 

Re'hob.  1.  The  father  of  Hadadczer 
king  of  Zobah,  whom  David  smote  at  the 
Euphrates  (2  Sam.  viii.  3,  12).  2.  A  Le- 
vite,  or  family  of  Levites,  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  11).  3. 
The  northern  limit  of  the  exploration  of 
the  spies  (Num.  xiii.  21).  It  is  specified  as 
being  "  as  men  come  unto  Hamath,"  i.  e. 
at  the  commencement  of  the  terj-itory  of 
that  name,  by  which  in  the  early  books  of 
the  Bible  the  great  valley  of  Lebanon  seems 
to  be  roughly  designated.  This  seems  to 
fix  the  position  of  Reliob  as  not  far  from 
Tell  el-Kady  and  Banias.  Inasmuch,  how- 
ever, as  Beth-rehob  is  distinctly  stated  to 
have  been  "  far  from  Zidon  "  (Judg.  xviii. 
28),  it  must  be  a  distinct  place  from  —  4. 
One  of  the  towns  allotted  to  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  28).  5.  Asher  contained  another  Re- 
hob  (Josh.  xix.  30) ;  but  the  situation  of 
these  towns  is  unknown. 

Rehobo'am,  son  of  Solomon,  by  the 
Ammonite  princess  Naamah  (1  K.  xiv.  21, 
31),  and  his  successor  (1  K.  xi.  43).  From 
the  earliest  period  of  Jewish  history  we 
perceive  symptoms  that  the  confederation 
of  the  tribes  was  but  imperfectly  cemented. 
The  powerful  Ephraim  could  never  brook 
a  position  of  inferiority.  When  Solomon's 
strong  hand  was  withdrawn  the  crisis  came. 
Rehoboam  selected  Shechem  as  the  place 
of  his  coronation,  probably  as  an  act  of 
concession  to  the  Ephraimites.  The  people 
demanded  a  remission  of  the  severe  bur- 
dens imposed  by  Solomon,  and  Rehoboam 
promised  them  an  answer  in  three  days, 
during  which  time  he  consulted  first  his 
father's  counsellors,  and  tlicn  the  young 
men  "that  were  grown  up  with  him,  and 
which  stood  before  him."  Rejecting  the 
advice  of  the  elders  to  conciliate  the  people 
at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  he  returned 
as  his  reply  the  frantic  bravado  of  his  con- 
temporaries. Thereupon  rose  the  formida- 
ble song  of  insurrection,  heard  once  before, 
when  the  tribes  quarrelled  after  David's 
return  from  the  war  with  Absalom.  Reho- 
boam sent  Adoram  or  Adoniram  (1  K.  iv. 
6;  2  Sam.  XX.  24)  to  reduce  the  rebels  to 
reason,  but  he  was  stoned  to  death  by  them ; 
whereupon  the  king  and  his  attendants  fled 
to  Jerusalem.  Jeroboam  was  made  king 
of  the  northern  tribes.  [Jeroboam.]  On 
Rehoboam's  return  to  Jerusalem  he  as- 
sembled an  army  of  180,000  men  from  the 


EEHOBOTH 


576 


REMPHAN 


two  faithful  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
in  the  hope  of  reconquering  Israel.  The 
expedition,  however,  was  forbidden  by  the 
prophet  Shemaiah  (1  K.  xii.  24)  :  still  dur- 
ing Rehoboam's  lifetime  peaceful  relations 
between  Israel  and  Judah  were  never  re- 
stored (2  Chr.  xii.  15;  1  K.  xiv.  30).  Re- 
lioboam  now  occupied  himself  in  strength- 
ening the  territories  which  remained  to 
liiui,  by  building  a  number  of  fortresses  (2 
Chr.  xi.  6-10).  The  pure  worship  of  God 
was  maintained  in  Judah.  But  Relioboara 
did  not  check  the  introduction  of  lieathen 
abominations  into  his  capital ;  the  lascivious 
worship  of  Ashtoreth  was  allowed  to  exist 
by  the  side  of  tlie  true  religion,  "  images  " 
were  set  up,  and  the  worst  immoralities 
were  tolerated  (1  K.  xiv.  22-24).  These 
evils  were  punished  and  put  down  by  the 
terrible  calamity  of  an  Egyptian  invasion. 
In  the  5th  year  of  Rehoboam's  reign  the 
country  was  invaded  by  a  host  of  Egyptians 
and  other  African  nations  under  Shishak, 
numbering  1200  chariots,  60,000  cavalry, 
and  a  miscellaneous  multitude  of  infantry. 
The  line  of  fortresses  which  protected  Jeru- 
salem to  the  W.  and  S.  was  forced,  Jerusa- 
lem itself  was  taken,  and  Rehoboam  had  to 
purchase  an  ignominious  peace  by  deliver- 
ing up  all  the  treasures  with  which  Solomon 
had  adorned  the  temple  and  palace,  includ- 
ing his  golden  shields,  200  of  the  larger, 
and  300  of  the  smaller  size  (1  K.  x.  16,  17). 
After  this  great  humiliation  the  moral  con- 
dition of  Judah  seems  to  have  improved  (2 
Chr.  xii.  12),  and  the  rest  of  Rehoboam's 
life  to  have  been  unmarked  by  any  events 
of  importance.  He  died  b.  c.  958,  after  a 
reign  of  17  years,  having  ascended  the 
tlirone  b.  c.  975,  at  the  age  of  41  (1  K.  xiv. 
21 ;  2  Chr.  xii.  13).  He  had  18  wives,  60 
concubines,  28  sons,  and  60  daughters. 

Retio'both..  1.  The  third  of  the  series 
of  wells  dug  by  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvi.  22),  2. 
One  of  the  four  cities  built  by  Asshur,  or  by 
Kimrod  in  Asshur,  according  as  this  diffi- 
cult passage  is  translated  (Gen.  x.  11). 
Nothing  certain  is  known  of  its  position. 
3.  The  city  of  a  certain  Saul  or  Shaul,  one 
of  the  early  kings  of  the  Edomites  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  37;  1  Chr.  i.  48).  The  affix,  "by 
the  river,"  fixes  the  situation  of  Rehoboth 
as  on  the  Euphrates. 

Re'hum.  1.  One  of  the  "  children  of 
the  province  "  who  went  up  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  2).  2.  "Rehum 
tlie  chancellor  "  (Ezr.  iv.  8,  9,  17,  23).  He 
w^as  perhaps  a  kind  of  lieutenant-governor 
of  the  province  under  the  king  of  Persia, 
holding  apparently  the  same  office  as  Tat- 
nai,  who  is  described  in  Ezr.  v.  6  as  taking 
part  in  a  similar  transaction,  and  is  there 
called  "  the  governor  on  this  side  tlie 
river."  3.  A  Levite  of  the  ftimily  of  Bani, 
who  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  17).     4.   One  of  the 


cliief  of  the  people,  who  signed  the  cove- 
nant with  Neliemiah  (Neh.  x.  25).  5.  A 
priestly  family,  or  the  head  of  a  priestly 
house,  who  went  up  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh. 
xii.  3). 

Re'i.  A  person  mentioned  (in  1  K.  i.  8 
only)  as  having  remained  firm  to  David's 
cause  when  Adonijah  rebelled.  Jerome 
states  that  he  is  the  same  with  "  Hiram  the 
Zairite,"  i.  e.  Ira  the  Jarite.  Ew£jd  sug- 
gests that  Rei  is  identical  with  Raddai. 

Heins,  %■  e.  kidneys,  from  the  Latin  renes. 
In  tlie  ancient  system  of  physiology  the 
kidneys  were  believed  to  lie  the  seat  of  de- 
sire and  longing,  which  accounts  for  their 
often  being  coupled  with  the  heart  (Ps.  vii. 
9,  xxvi.  2 ;  Jer.  xi.  20,  xvii.  10,  &c.). 

He'kem.  1.  One  of  the  five  kings  or 
chieftains  of  Midian  slain  by  the  Israelites 
(Num.  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21).  2.  One 
of  the  four  sons  of  Hebron,  and  father  of 
Sbammai  (1  Chr.  ii.  43,  44). 

He'kem.  One  of  the  towns  of  the  al- 
lotment of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  27).  No 
one  has  attempted  to  identify  it  with  any 
existing  site.  But  may  there  not  be  a  trace 
of  the  name  in  Ain  Karim,  the  well-known 
spring  west  of  Jerusalem  ? 

Betnali'ah,  the  father  of  Pekah,  cap- 
tain of  Pekahiah  king  of  Israel,  who  slew 
his  master  and  usurped  his  throne  (2  K.  xv. 
25-37,  xvi.  1,  5;  2  Chr.  xxviii.  6;  Is.  vii. 
1-9,  viii.  6). 

Re'meth.  One  of  the  towns  of  Issa- 
char  (Josh.  xix.  21).  It  is  probably  (though 
not  certainly)  a  distinct  place  from  the  Ra- 
MOTH  of  1  Chr.  vi.  73. 

Rem'mon.  A  town  in  the  allotment  of 
Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  7) ;  elsewhere  accu- 
rately given  in  the  A.  V.  as  Rimmon. 

Rem'mon-meth'oar.  A  place  which 
formed  one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  territory  of  Zcbulun  (Josh. 
xix.  13  only).  Methoar  does  not  really 
form  a  part  of  the  name,  but  should  be 
translated  (as  in  the  margin  of  the  A.  V.), 
—  "  R.  which  reaches  to  Neah."  This 
Rimmon  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
known  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  but  it  is 
mentioned  by  the  early  traveller  Parchi, 
who  says  that  it  is  called  Rumaneh,  and 
stands  an  hour  south  of  Scpphoris.  If  for 
south  we  read  north,  this  is  in  close  agree- 
ment with  the  statements  of  Dr.  Robinson 
and  Mr.  Van  de  Velde,  who  place  Rummd- 
neh  on  the  S.  border  of  the  Plain  of  But- 
taiif,  3  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Seffurieh.  It  is 
difficult,  however,  to  see  how  this  can  have 
been  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  Zebulun. 

Rem'phan  (Acts  vii.  43)  and  Chiun 
(Am.  V.  26)  have  been  supposed  to  be 
names  of  an  idol  worshipped  by  tlie  Israel- 
ites in  the  wilderness.  Much  difficulty  has 
been  occasioned  by  this  corresponding  oc- 
currence of  two  names  so  wholly  difl'erent 
in  sound.     The  most  reasonable  opinion 


EEPHAEL 


577 


EEUBEN 


seems  to  be  that  Chiun  was  a  Hebrew  or 
Semitic  name,  and  Kemphan  an  Egyptian 
equivalent  substituted  by  tiie  LXX.  The 
tbrmer,  rendered  Saturn  in  the  Syr.,  was 
compared  with  the  Arab,  and  Pers.  kaiwdn, 
"  tlie  planet  Saturn."  Egyptology  has, 
however,  shown  that  this  is  not  the  true 
explanation.  Among  the  foreign  divinities 
worshipped  in  Egypt,  two,  the  god  KENPU, 
perhaps  pronounced  REMPU,  and  tiie  god- 
dess KEN,  occur  together.  We  have  no 
clew  to  the  exact  time  of  the  introduction 
of  these  divinities  into  Egypt.  Their  names 
occur  as  early  as  the  period  of  the  xviiith 
and  xixth  dynasties,  and  it  is  therefore  not 
improbable  that  they  were  introduced  by 
the  Shepherds.  KEN  is  a  form  of  the  Syr- 
ian goddess,  and  also  bears  some  relation 
to  the  Egyptian  god  of  productiveness, 
KHEM.  Their  similarity  to  Baal  and  Ash- 
toreth  seems  strong.  The  naked  goddess 
KEN  would  suggest  such  worship  as  that 
of  the  Babylonian  Mylitta,  but  the  thorough- 
ly Shemite  appearance  of  RENPU  is  rather 
in  favor  of  an  Arab  source.  The  mention 
of  CHIUN  or  KEMPHAN  as  worsliipped 
in  the  desert  shows  that  this  idolatry  was, 
in  part  at  least,  that  of  foreigners,  and  no 
doubt  of  those  settled  in  Lower  Egypt. 

Re'phael.  Son  of  Shemaiah,  the  first- 
born of  Obed-edom  (1  Clir.  xxvi.  7). 

Re'phah.  A  son  of  Ephraim,  and  an- 
cestor of  Joshua  (1  Chr.  vii.  25). 

Rdpll'aiall.  1.  The  sons  of  Rephaiah 
appear  among  the  descendants  of  Zerub- 
babel  in  1  Chr.  iii.  21.  2.  A  Simeonite 
chieftain  in  the  reign  of  Hczckiah  (1  Chr. 
iv.  42).  3.  Son  of  Tola,  the  son  of  Issa- 
char  (1  Chr.  vii.  2).  4.  Son  of  Binea,  and 
descendant  of  Saul  (1  Chr.  ix.  43).  5. 
The  son  of  Hur,  and  ruler  of  a  portion  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  9). 

Reph'aim.     [Giants.] 

Heph'aini;  The  Valley  of,  2  Sam.  v. 
18,  22,  xxiii.  13;  1  Chr.  xi.  15,  xiv.  9;  Is. 
xvii.  5.  Also  in  Josh.  xv.  8,  and  xviii.  16, 
where  it  is  translated  in  the  A.  V.  "the 
valley  of  the  giants."  A  spot  which  was 
tlie  scene  of  some  of  David's  most  remark- 
able adventures.  He  twice  encountered 
the  Philistines  there,  and  inHicted  a  de- 
struction on  them  and  on  their  idols  so  sig- 
nal that  it  gave  the  place  a  new  name.  It 
was  probably  during  the  former  of  these 
two  contests  that  the  incident  of  the  water 
of  Bethlehem  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  13,  &c.)  oc- 
curred. The  "hold"  (ver.  14)  in  which 
David  found  himself,  seems  (though  it  is 
not  clear)  to  have  been  the  cave  of  Adul- 
1am.  This  narrative  seems  to  imply  that 
the  valley  of  Rephaim  was  near  Bethlehem. 
Josephus  mentions  it  as  "  the  valley  which 
extends  (from  Jerusalem)  to  the  city  of 
Bethlehem."  Since  the  latter  part  of  the 
16th  century  the  name  has  been  attached  to 
the  upland  plain  which  stretches  south  of 
87 


Jerusalem,  and  is  crossed  by  the  road  to 
Bethlehem  —  the  el  Buk'ah  of  the  modern 
Arabs.  But  this,  though  appropriate  enough 
as  regards  its  proximity  to  Bethleliem,  does 
not  answer  at  all  to  the  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  word  Emek,  which  appears  always 
to  designate  an  enclosed  valley,  never  an 
open  upland  plain  like  that  in  question. 
Tobler,  in  his  last  investigations,  conclu- 
sively adopts  the  Wady  Der  Jasin.  The 
valley  appears  to  derive  its  name  from  the 
ancient  nation  of  the  Rephaim.  It  may 
be  a  trace  of  an  early  settlement  of  theirs, 
possibly  after  they  were  driven  from  their 
original  seats  east  of  the  Jordan  by  Che- 
doriaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  5).     [Giants.] 

Reph'idim  (Ex.  xvii.  l,  8;  xLx.  2). 
The  name  means  "  rests  "or  "  stays ;  "  the 
place  lies  in  the  march  of  the  Israelites 
from  Egypt  to  Sinai.  Its  site  is  not  cer- 
tain, but  it  is  perhaps  Wady  Feiran. 

Re'sen  is  mentioned  only  in  Gen.  x.  12, 
where  it  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
cities  built  by  Asshur,  and  to  have  lain  "  be- 
tween Nineveh  and  Calah."  Assyrian  re- 
mains of  some  considerable  extent  are 
found  near  the  modern  village  of  Selamiyeh, 
and  it  is  perhj^ps  the  most  probable  conjec- 
ture that  these  represent  Resen. 

Re'sheph.  A  son  of  Ephraim  and 
brother  of  Repliah  (1  Chr.  vii.  25). 

Re'u,  son  of  Peleg,  in  the  line  of  Abra- 
ham's ancestors  (Gen.  xi.  18,  19,  20,  21;  1 
Chr.  i.  25). 

Reu'ben  {Behold  a  son).  Jacob's  first- 
born child  (Gen.  xxix.  32),  the  son  of  Leah, 
apparently  not  born  till  an  unusual  inter- 
val hiid  elapsed  after  the  marriage  (31). 
The  notices  of  the  patriarch  Reuben  in  the 
Book  of  Genesis  and  the  early  Jewish  tra- 
ditional literature  are  unusually  frequent, 
and  on  the  whole  give  a  favorable  view  of 
his  disposition.  To  him,  and  him  alone, 
the  preservation  of  Joseph's  life  appears 
to  have  been  due.  His  anguish  at  the  dis- 
appearance of  his  brother,  and  the  frustra- 
tion of  his  kindly  artifice  for  delivering 
him  (Gen.  xxxvii.  22),  his  recollection  of 
the  minute  details  of  the  painful  scene 
many  years  afterwards  (xlii.  22),  his  oifer  to 
take  the  sole  responsibility  of  the  safety  of 
the  brother  who  had  succeeded  to  Joseph's 
place  in  the  family  (xlii.  37),  all  testify  to 
a  warm  and  (for  those  rough  times)  a  kind- 
ly nature.  Of  the  repulsive  crime  which 
mars  his  history,  and  which  turned  th» 
blessing  of  his  dying  father  into  a  curse  — 
his  adulterous  connection  with  Bilhah  —  we 
know  from  the  Scriptures  only  the  fact 
(Gen.  XXXV.  22).  These  traits,  slight  as 
they  are,  are  those  of  an  ardent,  impetuous, 
unbalanced,  but  not  ungenerous  nature; 
not  crafty  and  cruel,  as  were  Simeon  and 
Levi,  but  rather,  to  use  the  metaphor  of 
the  dying  patriarch,  boiling  up  like  a  vessel 
of  water  over  the  rapid  wood-fire  of  the 


REUBEN 


578 


REVELATION 


nomad  tenl ,  and  as  quickly  subsiding  into  ap- 
athy when  the  fuel  was  withdrawn.  At  the 
time  of  the  migration  into  Egypt,  Reuben's 
sons  were  four  (Gen.  xlvi,  9;  1  Chr.  v.  3). 
The  census  at  Mount  Sinai  (Num.  i.  20,  21, 
ii.  11)  shows  that  at  the  Exodus  the  num- 
bers of  the  tribe  were  46,500  men  above 
twenty  years  of  age,  and  fit  for  active  war- 
like service.  During  the  journey  through 
the  wilderness  the  position  of  Reuben  was 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Tabernacle.  The 
"  camp  "  which  went  under  his  name  was 
formed  of  his  own  tribe,  that  of  Simeon 
and  Gad.  The  Reubenites,  like  their  rela- 
tives and  neighbors  on  the  journey,  the 
Gadites,  had  maintained,  through  the  march 
to  Canaan,  the  ancient  calling  of  their  fore- 
fathers. Their  cattle  accompanied  them 
in  their  flight  from  Egypt  (Ex.  xii.  38). 
It  followed  naturally  that  when  the  nation 
arrived  on  the  open  downs  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, the  three  tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and 
the  half  of  Manasseh,  should  prefer  a  re- 
quest to  their  leader  to  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  a  place  so  perfectly  suited  to  their  re- 
quirements. The  part  selected  by  Reuben 
had  at  that  date  the  special  name  of  "  the 
Mishor,"  with  reference  possibly  to  its 
evenness.  Under  its  modern  name  of  the 
Belka  it  is  still  esteemed  beyond  all  others 
by  the  Arab  sheep-masters.  Accordingly, 
when  the  Reubenites  and  their  fellows  ap- 
proach Moses  with  their  request,  his  main 
objection  is  that  by  what  they  propose  they 
will  discourage  the  hearts  of  the  children 
of  Israel  from  going  over  Jordan  into  the 
land  which  Jehovali  had  given  them  (Num. 
xxxii.  7).  It  is  only  on  their  undertaking 
to  fulfil  their  part  in  the  conquest  of  the 
western  country,  the  land  of  Canaan  proper, 
that  Moses  will  consent  to  their  proposal. 
From  this  time  it  seems  as  if  a  bar,  not 
only  the  material  one  of  distance,  and  of 
the  intervening  river  and  mountain  wall, 
but  also  of  dili'erence  in  feeling  and  habits, 
^adually  grew  up  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  tribes.  The  pile  of  stones  which 
they  erected  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Jordan  to  mark  their  boundary  was  erected 
in  accordance  with  the  unalterable  habits 
■of  Bedouin  tribes  both  before  and  since. 
It  was  an  act  identical  with  that  in  which 
Laban  and  Jacob  engaged  at  parting,  with 
that  which  is  constantly  performed  by  the 
Bedouins  of  the  present  day.  But  by  the 
Israelites  west  of  Jordan,  who  were  fast 
relinquishing  their  nomad  habits  and  feel- 
i-ngs  for  those  of  more  settled  permanent 
life, -this  act  was  completely  misunderstood, 
and  was  construed  into  an  attempt  to  set 
up  a  rival  altar  to  that  of  the  Sacred  Tent. 
No  judge,  no  prophet,  no  hero  of  the  tribe 
o^'  Reuben  is  banded  down  to  us.  In  the 
dire  extremity  of  their  brethren  in  the 
north  under  Deborah  and  Barak,  they  con- 
tented tl^mselves  with  debating  the  news 


amongst  the  streams  of  the  Mishor;  the 
distant  distress  of  his  bretliren  could  not 
move  Reuben ;  he  lingered  among  his  sheep- 
folds,  and  preferred  the  shepherd's  pipe  and 
tlie  bleating  of  the  flocks  to  the  clamor  of 
the  trumpet  and  the  turuioil  of  battle.  His 
individuality  fades  more  rapidly  than  Gad's. 
No  person,  no  incident,  is  recorded,  to 
place  Reuben  before  us  in  any  distinctcr 
form  than  as  a  member  of  the  community 
(if  community  it  can  be  called)  of  "the 
Reubenites,  the  Gadites,  and  the  half-tribe 
of  Manasseh"  (1  Chr.  xii.  37).  Being  re- 
mote from  the  central  seat  of  the  national 
government  and  of  the  national  religion,  it 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  Reuben  re- 
linquished the  faith  of  Jehovah.  The  last 
historical  notice  which  we  possess  of  them, 
while  it  records  this  fact,  records  also  as  its 
natural  consequence  that  the  Reubenites 
and  Gadites,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh, were  carried  oflf  by  Pul  and  Tiglath- 
Pileser  (1  Chr.  v.  26). 

Reu'el.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Esau, 
by  his  wife  Bashcmath,  sister  of  Ishmael 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  4,  10,  13,  17 ;  1  Chr.  i.  35,  37). 

2.  One  of  the  names  of  Moses'  father-in- 
law  (Ex.  ii.  18) ;  the  same  which  is  given 
in  another  passjige  of  the  A.  V.  Raguel. 

3.  Father  of  Eliasaph,  tlie  leader  of  tlie 
tribe  of  Gad  at  the  time  of  the  census  at 
Sinai  (Num.  ii.  14).  4.  A  Benjamite,  an- 
cestor of  Elah  (1  Chr.  ix.  8). 

Reu'mah,  the  concubine  of  Nahor, 
Abraham's  brother  (Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Revelation  of  St.  John,  the  last  book 
of  the  N.  T.  It  is  often  called  the  Apoca- 
lypse, which  is  its  title  in  Greek,  signifying 
"  Revelation."  I.  Canonical  Autuoritt 
AND  AuTHOHSHip.  —  The  question  as  to  tiie 
canonical  authority  of  the  Revelation  re- 
solves itself  into  a  question  of  authorship. 
Was  St.  John  the  Apostle  and  Evangelist 
the  writer  of  the  Revelation?  The  evi- 
dence adduced  in  support  of  his  being  the 
author  consists  of  (1)  the  assertions  of  the 
author,  and  (2)  historical  tradition.  (1) 
The  author's  description  of  himself  in  the 
1st  and  22d  chapters  is  certainly  equivalent 
to  an  assertion  that  he  is  the  Apostle.  Ho 
names  himself  simply  John,  without  prefix 
or  addition.  He  is  also  described  as  a  ser 
vant  of  Christ,  one  who  had  borne  testi- , 
niony  as  an  eye-witness  of  the  word  of 
God  and  of  the  testimony  of  Christ  — 
terms  which  were  surely  designed  to  iden- 
tify him  with  the  writer  of  the  verses  John 
xix.  35,  i.  14,  and  1  John  i.  2.  He  is  in 
Patmos  for  the  word  of  God  and  the  testi- 
mony of  Jesus  Christ.  He  is  also  a  fellow- 
sufferer  with  those  whom  he  addresses,  and 
the  authorized  channel  of  the  most  direct 
and  important  communication  that  was  ever 
made  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  of 
which  churches  John  the  Apostle  was  at 
that  time  the  spiritual  governor  and  teach- 


REVELATION 


579 


REVELATION 


er.  Lastly,  the  writer  was  a  fellow-servant 
of  angels  and  a  brother  of  prophets.  All 
these  marks  are  found  united  together  in 
the  Apostle  John,  and  in  him  alone  of  all 
historical  persons.  (2)  A  long  series  of 
writers  testifies  to  St.  John's  authorship, 
(a)  Justin  Martyr,  circ.  150  a.  d.,  says : 
"  A  man  among  us  whose  name  was  John, 
one  of  the  Apostles  of  Christ,  in  a  revela- 
tion which  was  made  to  him,  prophesied 
that  the  believers  in  our  Christ  shall  live 
a  thousand  years  in  Jerusalem."  (6)r  The 
author  of  the  Muratorian  Fragment,  circ. 
170  A.  D.,  speaks  of  St.  John  as  the  writer 
of  the  Apocalypse,  (c)  Melito  of  Sardis, 
circ.  170  A.  D.,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
Revelation  of  John.  Eusebius  (//.  E.  iv. 
26)  mentions  this  among  the  books  of 
Melito  which  had  come  to  his  knowledge ; 
and  it  may  be  presumed  that  he  found  no 
doubt  as  to  St.  John's  authorship  in  the 
book  of  this  ancient  Asiatic  bishop,  {d) 
Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch  (circ.  180), 
in  a  controversy  with  Hermogenes,  quotes 
passages  out  of  the  Revelation  of  John. 
(e)  Irenaeus  (circ.  195),  apparently  never 
having  heard  a  suggestion  of  any  other 
author  than  the  Apostle,  often  quotes  the 
Revelation  as  the  work  of  John.  The  tes- 
timony of  Irenaeus  as  to  the  authorship  of 
Revelation  is  perhaps  more  important  than 
that  of  any  other  writer.  (/)  Apollonius 
(circ.  200)  of.Ephesus  (?),  in  controversy 
with  the  Montanists  of  Phrygia,  quoted 
passages  out  of  the  Revelation  of  John, 
and  narrated  a  miracle  wrought  by  John 
at  Ephesus.  {g)  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(circ.  200)  quotes  the  book  as  the  Revela- 
tion of  John,  and  as  the  work  of  an  Apos- 
tle. (A)  Tertullian  (a.  d.  207),  in  at  least 
one  place,  quotes  by  name  "  the  Apostle 
John  in  the  Apocalypse."  (t)  Origen 
(circ.  233),  in  his  Commentary  on  St.  John, 
quoted  by  Eusebius  (//.  E.  vi.  25),  says  of 
the  Apostle,  "  He  wrote  also  the  Revela- 
tion." The  testimonies  of  later  writers,  in 
the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  in  favor  of 
St.  John's  authorship  of  the  Revelation,  are 
equally  distinct,  and  far  more  numerous. 
All  the  foregoing  writers,  testifying  that 
the  book  came  from  an  Apostle,  believed 
that  it  was  a  part  of  Holy  Scripture.  The 
book  was  admitted  into  the  list  of  the  Third 
Council  of  Carthage,  a.  d.  397.  II.  Time 
AND  Plack  of  Writing.  —  The  datt  f  the 
Revelation  is  given  by  the  great  majority 
of  critics  as  a.  d.  95-97.  Irenaeus  says  : 
"  It  (t.  e.  the  Revelation)  was  seen  no  very 
long  time  ago,  but  almost  in  our  own  gen- 
eration, at  the  close  of  Domitian's  reign." 
Eusebius  also  records  that,  in  the  persecu- 
tion under  Domitian,  John  the  Apostle  and 
Evangelist  was  banished  to  the  island  Pat- 
mos  for  his  testimony  of  the  divine  word. 
There  is  no  mention  in  any  writer  of  the 
first  three  centuries  of  any  other  time  or 


place.  Unsupported  by  any  historical  evi- 
dence, some  commentators  have  put  forth 
the  conjecture  that  the  Revelation  was 
written  as  early  as  the  time  of  Nero.  This 
is  simply  their  inference  from  the  style  and 
contents  of  the  book.  It  has  been  inferred 
from  i.  2,  9,  10,  that  the  Revelation  was 
written  in  Ephesus,  immediately  after  the 
Apostle's  return  from  Patraos.  But  the 
style  in  which  the  messages  to  the  Seven 
Churches  are  delivered  rather  suggests  the 
notion  that  the  book  was  written  in  Pat- 
mos.  III.  Interpketation.  —  A  short  ac- 
count of  the  different  directions  in  which 
attempts  have  been  made  to  interpret  the 
Revelation,  is  all  that  can  be  given  in  this 
place.  In  the  interval  between  the  Apos- 
tolic age  and  that  of  Constantine  the  vis- 
ions of  St.  John  were  chiefly  regarded  as 
representations  of  general  Christian  truths, 
scarcely  yet  embodied  in  actual  facts,  for 
the  most  part  to  be  exemplified  or  fulfilled 
in  the  reign  of  Antichrist,  the  coming  of 
Christ,  the  millennium,  and  the  day  of 
judgment.  Immediately  after  the  triumph 
of  Constantine,  the  Christians,  emancipated 
from  oppression  and  persecution,  and  dom- 
inant and  prosperous  in  their  turn,  began 
to  lose  their  vivid  expectation  of  our  Lord's 
speedy  Advent,  and  their  spiritual  concep- 
tion of  His  kingdom,  and  to  look  upon  the 
temporal  supremacy  of  Christianity  as  a 
fulfilment  of  the  promised  reign  of  Christ 
on  earth.  The  Roman  empire  become 
Christian  was  regarded  no  longer  as  the 
object  of  prophetic  denunciation,  but  as 
the  scene  of  a  millennial  development. 
This  view,  however,  was  soon  met  by  the 
figurative  interpretation  of  the  millennium 
as  the  reign  of  Christ  in  the  hearts  of  all 
true  believers.  As  the  barbarous  and  he- 
retical invaders  of  the  falling  empire  ap- 
peared, they  were  regarded  by  the  suffering 
Christians  as  fulfilling  the  woes  denounced 
in  the  Revelation.  Modern  interpreters 
are  generally  placed  in  three  great  divis- 
ions, a.  The  Historical  or  Continuous  ex- 
positors, in  whose  opinion  the  Revelation 
is  «  progressive  history  of  the  fortunes  of 
the  Church  from  the  first  century  to  the 
end  of  time.  b.  The  Praeterist  expositors, 
who  are  of  opinion  that  the  Revelation  has 
been  almost,  or  altogether,  fulfilled  in  the 
time  which  has  passed  since  it  was  written ; 
that  it  refers  principally  to  the  triumph  of 
Christianity  over  Judaism  and  Paganism, 
signalized  in  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem 
and  of  Rome.  c.  The  Futurist  expositors, 
whose  views  show  a  strong  reaction  against 
some  extravagances  of  the  two  preceding 
schools.  They  believe  that  the  whole  book, 
excepting  perhaps  the  first  three  chapters, 
refers  principally,  if  not  exclusively,  to 
events  which  are  yet  to  come.  Each  of 
these  three  schemes  is  open  to  objection. 
In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  two 


EEZEPH 


580 


EIBLAH 


methods  have  been  proposed  by  which  the 
student  of  the  Revelation  may  escape  the 
incongruities  and  fallacies  of  the  different 
interpretations,  whilst  he  may  derive  edifi- 
cation from  whatever  truth  they  contain. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  book  may  be 
regarded  as  9,  prophetic  poem,  dejiling  in 
general  and  inexact  descriptions,  much  of 
which  may  be  set  down  as  poetic  imagery, 
mere  embellishment.  But  such  a  view 
would  be  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the 
belief  that  the  book  is  an  inspired  prophe- 
cy. A  better  suggestion  is  made,  or  rather 
la  revived,  by  Dr.  Arnold  in  his  Sermons 
O71  the  Interpretation  of  Prophecy :  that 
we  should  bear  in  mind  that  predictions 
have  a  lower  historical  sense,  as  well  as  a 
higher  spiritual  sense ;  that  there  may  be 
one  or  more  than  one  typical,  imperfect, 
historical  fulfilment  of  a  prophecy,  in  each 
of  which  the  higher  spiritual  fulfilment  is 
shadowed  forth  more  or  less  distinctly. 

Ke'zeph,  one  of  the  places  which  Sen- 
nacherib mentions,  in  his  taunting  message 
to  Ilezekiah,  as  having  been  destroyed  by  his 
predecessor  (2  K.  xix.  12;  Is.  xxxvii.  12). 

Hezi'a.  An  Asherite,  of  the  sons  of 
Ulla  (1  Chr.  vii.  39). 

Re'zin.  1.  King  of  Damascus,  con- 
temporary with  Pekah  in  Israel,  and  with 
Jotham  and  Ahaz  in  Judaea.  He  attacked 
Jotham  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign 
(2  K.  XV.  37)  ;  but  his  chief  war  was  with 
Ahaz,  whose  territories  he  invaded,  in  com- 
pany with  Pekah  (about  b.  c.  741).  The 
combined  army  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem, 
where  Ahaz  was,  but  "  could  not  prevail 
against  it"  (Is.  vii.  1 ;  2  K.  xvi.  5).  Rezin, 
however,  "recovered  Elath  to  Syria"  (2 
K.  xvi.  6) .  Soon  after  this  he  was  attacked, 
defeated,  and  slain  by  Tiglath-Pileser  II., 
king  of  Assyria  (2  K.  xvi.  9 ;  compare 
Tiglath-Pileser's  own  inscriptions,  where 
the  defeat  of  Rezin  and  the  destruction  of 
Damascus  are  distinctly  mentioned.  2. 
One  of  the  families  of  the  Nethinim  (Ezr. 
ii.  48;  Neh.  vii.  50). 

Re'zon,  son  of  Eliadah,  a  Syrian,  who 
when  David  defeated  Hadadezer  king  of 
Zobah,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  band 
of  freebooters  and  set  up  a  petty  kingdom 
at  Damascus  (1  K.  xi.  23).  From  his 
position  at  Damascus  Rezon  harassed  the 
kingdom  of  Solomon  during  his  whole 
reign.  The  name  is  Aramaic,  and  may  be 
compared  with  Rezin. 

B>he'giuin,  an  Italian  town  situated  on 
the  Bruttian  coast,  just  at  the  southern  en- 
trance of  the  Straits  of  Messina,  occurs  in 
the  account  of  St.  Paul's  voyage  from  Syra- 
cuse to  Puteoli,  after  the  shipwreck  at 
Malta  (Acts  xxviii.  13).  By  a  curious 
coincidence  the  figures  on  its  coins  are  the 
very  "twin  brothers"  which  gave  the 
name  to  St.  Paul's  ship.  As  to  the  history 
of  the  place,  it  was  originally  a  Greek 


colony:  it  was  miserably  destroyed  by 
Dionysius  of  Syracuse :  from  Augustus  it 
received  advantages  which  combined  with 
its  geographical  position  in  making  it  im- 
portant throughout  the  duration  of  the  Ro- 
man empire.  The  modern  Reggio  is  a 
town  of  10,000  inhabitants.  Its  distance 
across  the  straits  from  Messina  is  only 
about  six  miles. 

Bhe'sa,  son  of  Zorobabel  in  the  gen* 
ealogy  of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  27).  Lord  A. 
Hervey  has  ingeniously  conjectured  that 
Rhesa  is  no  person,  but  merely  the  title 
Rosh,  i.  e.  "  Prince,"  originally  attached  to 
the  name  of  Zerubbabel. 

Rho'da,  the  name  of  a  maid  who  an- 
nounced Peter's  arrival  at  the  door  of 
Mary's  house  after  his  miraculous  release 
from  prison  (Acts  xii.  13). 

Hhodes.  The  history  of  this  island  ia 
so  illustrious  that  it  is  interesting  to  see  it 
connected,  even  in  a  small  degree,  with  the 
life  of  St.  Paul.  He  touched  at  this  island 
on  his  return  voyage  to  Syria  from  the  third 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xxi.  1).  Rhodes 
is  immediately  opposite  the  high  Carian  and 
Lycian  headlands  at  the  S.  W.  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  Its  posi- 
tion has  had  much  to  do  with  its  history. 
Its  real  eminence  began  (about  400  b.  c.) 
with  the  founding  of  that  city  at  the  N.  E. 
extremity  of  the  island,  which  still  con- 
tinues to  be  the  capital.  After  Alexander's 
death  it  entered  on  a  glorious  period,  its 
material  prosperity  being  largely  developed, 
and  its  institutions  deserving  and  obtaining 
general  esteem.  As  we  approach  the  time 
of  the  consolidation  of  the  Roman  power 
in  the  Levant,  we  have  a  notice  of  the 
Jewish  residents  in  Rhodes  (1  Mace.  xv. 
23).  The  Romans,  after  the  defeat  of 
Antiochus,  assigned,  during  some  time,  to 
Rhodes  certain  districts  on  the  mainland. 
Its  Byzantine  history  is  again  eminent. 
Under  Constantino  it  was  tlie  metropolis 
of  the  "Province  of  the  Islands."  It  was 
the  last  place  where  the  Christians  of  the 
East  held  out  against  the  advancing  Sara- 
cens ;  and  subsequently  it  was  once  more 
famous  as  the  home  and  fortress  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John. 

Hi'bai,  the  father  of  Ittai  the  Benjamite 
of  Gibeah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  29 ;  1  Chr.  xi.  31). 

Bib'lah..  1.  One  of  the  landmarks  on 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  land  of  Israel, 
as  specified  by  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  11). 
It  seems  hardly  possible,  without  entirely 
disarranging  the  specification  of  the  boun- 
dary, that  the  Riblah  in  question  can  be 
the  same  with  the  following.  2.  Rib- 
lah in  the  land  of  Ilamath,  a  place  on  the 
great  road  between  Palestine  and  Baby- 
lonia, at  which  the  kings  of  Babylonia 
were  accustomed  to  remain  while  direct- 
ing the  operations  of  their  armies  in  Pales- 
tine and  Phoenicia.    Here  Nebuchadnez- 


RIDDLE 


581 


RISSAH 


rar  waited  while  the  sieges  of  Jerusalem 
and  of  Tyre  were  being  conducted  by  his 
lieutenants  (Jer.  xxxix.  5,  6,  Hi.  9,  10,  26, 
27;  2  K.  XXV.  6,  20,  21).  In  like  manner 
Pharaoh-Necho,  after  his  victory  over  the 
Babylonians  at  Carchemish,  returned  to 
Riblah  and  summoned  Jehoahaz  from  Jeru- 
salem before  him  (2  K.  xxiii.  33).  This 
Riblali  still  retains  its  ancient  name,  on 
the  right  (east)  bank  of  the  cl  Asy  (Oron- 
tes),  upon  the  great  road  which  connects 
Baalbek  and  Hums,  about  35  miles  N.  E. 
of  the  former  and  20  miles  S.  W.  of  the 
latter  place. 

Riddle.  The  Hebrew  word  is  derived 
from  an  Arabic  root  meaning  "  to  bend  off," 
"to  twist"  (Judg.  xiv.  12-19),  and  is  used 
for  artifice  (Dan.  viii.  23),  a  proverb  (Prov. 
i.  6),  a  song  (Ps.  xlix.  4,  Ixxviii.  2),  an 
oracle  (Num.  xii.  8),  a  parable  (Ez.  xvii. 
2),  and  in  genera^  anj'  wise  or  intricate  sen- 
tence (Ps.  xciv.  4;  Hab.  ii.  6,  &c.).  The 
riddles  which  the  queen  of  Sheba  came  to 
ask  of  Solomon  (1  K.  x.  1;  2  Chr.  ix.  1) 
were  ratlier  "  hard  questions  "  referring  to 
profound  inquiries.  Solomon  is  said,  how- 
ever, to  have  been  very  fond  of  riddles. 
We  know  that  all  ancient  nations,  and 
especially  Orientals,  have  been  fond  of 
riddles.  We  find  traces  of  the  custom 
among  the  Arabs  (Koran  xxv.  85),  and  in- 
deed several  Arabic  books  of  riddles  exist ; 
but  these  are  rather  emblems  and  devices 
than  what  we  call  riddles,  although  they 
are  very  ingenious.  They  were  also  known 
to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  were  espe- 
cially used  in  banquets  both  by  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Riddles  were  generally  proposed 
in  verse,  like  the  celebrated  riddle  of  Sam- 
son, which,  however,  was  properly  no  rid- 
dle at  all,  because  the  Philistines  did  not 
possess  the  only  clew  on  which  the  solution 
could  depend. 

Him'mon  (pomegranate)  the  name  of 
several  towns,  probably  so  called  from 
producing  pomegranates.  1.  A  city  of 
Zebulun  belonging  to  the  Merarite  Levites 
(1  Chr.  vi.  77).  It  is  not  impossible  that 
DiMNAii  (Josh.  xxi.  35)  may  have  been 
originally  Rimmon,  as  the  D  and  R  in  He- 
brew are  notoriously  easy  to  confound.  2. 
A  town  in  the  southern  portion  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  3),  allotted  to  Simeon  (Josh, 
xix.  7;  1  Chr.  iv,  32).  In  each  of  the 
above  lists  the  name  succeeds  that  of  Ain, 
also  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah  and  Sim- 
eon. In  the  catalogue  of  the  places  re- 
occupied  by  the  Jews  after  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi.  29)  the  two  are 
joined,  and  appear  in  the  A.  V.  as  En- 
Rimmon.  3.  RiMMoy-PAREZ,  the  name 
of  a  march-station  in  the  wilderness  (Num. 
xxxiii.  19,  20).  No  place  now  known  has 
been  identified  with  it.  4.  Rimmon,  the 
Rock,  a  cliff  or  inaccessible  natural  ftvst- 
ness,  in  which  the  six  hundred  Benjamites 


who  escaped  the  slaughter  of  Giheah  took 
refuge  (Judg.  xx.  45,  47,  xxi.  13).  It  is  de- 
scribed as  in  the  "  wilderness,"  that  is,  the 
wild  uncultivated  country  which  lies  on  the 
east  of  the  central  highlands  of  Benjamin, 
on  which  Gibeah  was  situated  —  between 
them  and  the  Jordan  Valley.  Here  the 
name  is  still  found  attached  to  a  village 
perched  on  the  summit  of  a  conical  chalky 
hill,  visible  in  all  directions,  and  command- 
ing the  whole  country.  5.  A  Benjamite 
of  Beeroth,  the  father  of  Rechab  and  Baa- 
nah,  the  murderers  of  Ishbosheth  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2,  5,  9). 

Rirn'mon,  a  deity  worshipped  by  the 
Syrians  of  Damascus,  where  there  was  a 
temple  or  house  of  Rimmon  (2  K.  v.  18). 
Rimmon  is  perhaps  the  abbreviated  form 
of  Hadad-Rimmon,  Hadad  being  the  sun- 
god  of  the  Syrians.  Combining  this  with 
the  pomegranate,  which  was  his  symbol, 
Hadad-Rimmon  would  then  be  the  sun-god 
of  the  late  summer,  who  ripens  the  pome- 
granate and  other  fruits. 

Sing.  The  ring  was  regarded  as  an  in- 
dispensable article  of  a  Hebrew's  attire, 
inasmuch  as  it  contained  his  signet.  It 
was  hence  the  symbol  of  authority,  and  as 
such  was  presented  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph 
(Gen.  xli.  42),  and  by  Ahasuerus  to  Hamun 
(Esth.  iii.  10).  Such  rings  were  worn  not 
only  by  men,  but  by  women  (Is.  iii.  21), 
and  are  enumerated  among  the  articles 
presented  by  men  and  women  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxv.  22). 
The  signet-ring  was  worn  on  the  right 
hand  (Jer.  xxii.  24).  We  may  conclude 
from  Ex.  xxviii.  11  that  the  rings  contained 
a  stone  engraven  with  a  device,  or  with  the 
owner's  name.  The  custom  appears  also 
to  have  prevailed  among  the  Jews  of  the 
Apostdlic  age ;  for  in  James  ii.  2,  a  rich 
man  is  described  as  not  simply  "with  a 
gold  ring,"  as  in  the  A.  V.,  but  "golden- 
ringed." 


Eg;ptiaa  Rings. 

.  Bin'nah,  one  of  the  sons  of  Shimon  in 
an  obscure  genealogy  of  the  descendants 
of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

Hi'phatb.,  the  second  son  of  Gomer, 
and  the  brother  of  Ashkenaz  and  Togar- 
mah  (Gen.  x.  3).  The  Hebrew  text  in  1 
Chr.  i.  6  gives  the  form  Diphath,  but 
this  arises  out  of  a  clerical  error.  The 
name  may  be  identified  with  the  Rhipaean 
mountains,  i.  e.  the  Carpatliian  range  in 
the  N.  E.  of  Dacia. 

His'sah,  a  march-station  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  xxxiii.  21,  22). 


EITHMAH 


582 


ROE 


Hith'mah,  a  march-station  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  xxxiii.  18,  19),  probably 
N.  E.  of  Hazeroth. 

River.  In  the  sense  in  which  we  em- 
ploy the  word,  viz.  for  a  perennial  stream 
of  considerable  size,  a  river  is  a  much 
rarer  object  in  the  East  than  in  the  West. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Jordan  and  the 
Litany,  the  streams  of  the  Holy  Land  are 
either  entirely  dried  up  in  the  summer 
months,  and  converted  into  hot  lanes  of 
glaring  stones,  or  else  reduced  to  very 
small  streamlets,  deeply  sunk  in  a  nar- 
row bed,  and  concealed  from  view  by  a 
dense  growth  of  shrubs.  The  perennial 
river  is  called  Nahar  by  the  Hebrews. 
With  the  definite  article,  ^Hhe  river,"  it 
signifies  invariably  the  Euphrates  (Gen. 
xxxi.  21 ;  Ex.  xxiii.  31 ;  Num.  xxiv.  6 ;  2 
Sam.  X.  16,  &c.,  &c.).  It  is  never  applied 
to  the  fleeting  fugitive  torrents  of  Pales- 
tine. The  term  for  these  is  nachal,  for 
which  our  translators  have  used  promis- 
cuously, and  sometimes  almost  alternately, 
"valley,"  "  brook,"  and  "  river."  No  one 
of  these  words  expresses  the  thing  in- 
tended; but  the  term  "brook"  is  pecu- 
liarly unhappy.  Many  of  the  wadys  of 
Palestine  are  deep,  abrupt  chasms  or  rents 
in  the  solid  rock  of  the  hills,  and  have  a 
savage,  gloomy  aspect,  far  removed  from 
that  of  an  English  brook.  Unfortunately 
our  language  does  not  contain  any  single 
word  which  has  both  the  meanings  of-  the 
Hebrew  Nachal  and  its  Arabic  equivalent 
wady,  which  can  be  used  at  once  for  a  dry 
valley  and  for  the  stream  which  occasion- 
ally flows  through  it. 

River  of  Egypt.  1.  The  Nile  (Gen. 
XV.  18).  [Nile.]  2.  A  desert  stream  on 
the  border  of  Egypt,  still  occasionally 
flowing  in  the  valley  called  WAdi-l-'  Areesh. 
The  centre  of  the  valley  is  occupied  by  the 
bed  of  this  torrent,  which  only  flows  after 
rains,  as  is  usual  in  the  desert  valleys. 
This  stream  is  first  mentioned  as  the  point 
where  the  southern  border  of  the  Promised 
Land  touched  the  Mediterranean,  which 
formed  its  western  border  (Num.  xxxiv. 
3-6).  In  the  later  history  we  find  Solo- 
mon's kingdom  extending  from  the  "  enter- 
ing in  of  Hamath  unto  the  river  of  Egypt " 
(1  K.  viii.  65),  and  Egypt  limited  in  the 
same  manner  where  the  loss  of  the  eastern 
provinces  is  mentioned  (2  K.  xxiv.  7). 

Riz'pah,  concubine  to  king  Saul,  and 
mother  of  his  two  sons  Armoni  and  Mephib- 
osheth.  After  the  death  of  Saul  and  oc- 
cupation of  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan 
by  the  Philistines,  Rizpah  accompanied  the 
other  members  of  the  royal  family  to  their 
new  residence  at  Mahanaim  (2  Sara.  iii.  7). 
We  hear  nothing  more  of  Rizpah  till  the 
tragic  story  which  has  made  her  one  of  the 
most  familiar  objects  in  the  whole  Bible 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  8-11).     Every  one  can  appre- 


ciate the  love  and  endurance  with  which 
the  mother  watched  over  the  bodies  of  her 
two  sons  and  her  five  relatives,  to  save 
them  from  an  indignity  peculiarly  painful 
to  the  whole  of  the  ancient  world  (see  Pa. 
Ixxix.  2).  But  it  is  questionable  whether 
the  ordinary  conception  of  the  scene  is  ac- 
curate. Tlie  seven  victims  were  not,  as  the 
A.  V.  implies,  "hung;  "  they  were  cruci- 
fied. The  seven  crosses  were  planted  in 
the  rock  on  the  top  of  the  sacred  hill  of 
Gibeah.  The  victims  were  sacrificed  at 
the  beginning  of  barley  harvest,  —  the  sa- 
cred and  festiil  time  of  the  Passover,  —  and 
in  the  full  blaze  of  the  summer  sun  they 
hung  till  the  fall  of  the  periodical  rain  in 
October.  During  the  wliole  of  that  time 
Rizpah  remained  at  the  foot  of  the  crosses 
on  which  the  bodies  of  her  sons  were  ex- 
posed ;  the  Mater  dolorosa,  if  the  expres- 
sion may  be  allowed,  of  the  ancient  dispen- 
sation. 

Road.  This  word  occurs  but  once  in 
the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible,  viz.  in 
1  Sam.  xxvii.  10,  Avhere  it  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  "  raid  "  or  "  inroad." 

Robbery.  Whether  in  the  larger  sense 
of  plunder,  or  the  more  limited  sense  of 
theft,  systematically  organized,  robbery  has 
ever  been  one  of  the  principal  employments 
of  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  East.  From  the 
time  of  Ishmael  to  the  present  day  the  Bed- 
ouin has  been  a  "wild  man,"  and  a  robber 
by  trade  (Gen.  xvi.  12).  An  instance  of 
an  enterprise  of  a  truly  Bedouin  character, 
but  distinguished  by  the  exceptional  fea- 
tures belonging  to  its  principal  actor,  is 
seen  in  the  night-foray  of  David  (1  Sara, 
xxvi.  6-12).  Predatory  inroads  on  a  large 
scale  are  seen  in  the  incursions  of  the  Sa- 
baeans  and  Chaldaeans  on  the  property  of 
Job  (Job  i.  15,  17) ;  the  revenge  coupled 
with  plunder  of  Siraeon  and  Levi  (Gen. 
xxxiv.  28,  29)  ;  the  reprisals  of  the  He- 
brews upon  the  Midianites  (Nura.  xxxi. 
32-54),  and  the  frequent  and  often  pro- 
longed invasions  of  "spoilers"  upon  the 
Israelites  (Judg.  ii.  14,  vi.  3,  4;  1  Sam. 
xi.,  XV.;  2  Sam.  viii.,  x. ;  2  K.  v.  2;  1 
Chr.  V.  10,  18-22).  Similar  disorder  in 
the  country,  complained  of  more  than  once 
by  the  prophets  (Hos.  iv.  2,  vi.  9 ;  Mic.  ii. 
8),  continued  more  or  less  through  Macca- 
baean  down  to  Roman  times.  The  Mosaic 
law  on  the  subject  of  theft  is  contained  in 
Ex.  xxii.  There  seems  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  the  law  underwent  any  alteration 
in  Solomon's  time.  Man-stealing  was  pun- 
ishable with  death  (Ex.  xxi.  16;  Deut. 
xxiv.  7).  Invasion  of  right  in  land  was 
strictly  forbidden  (Deut.  xxvii.  17 ;  Is.  v. 
8;  Mic.  ii.  2). 

Roe,  Roebuck.  The  Hebrew  words 
thus  translated  denote  some  species  of  an- 
telope, probably  the  Gazella  Atalica  of 
Syria  and  Arabia.     The  gazelle  was  al- 


EOGELIM 


583 


ROMAN  EMPIRE 


lowed  as  food  (Deut.  xii.  15,  22,  &c.)  ;  it  is 
mentioned  as  very  fleet  of  foot  (2  Sam.  ii. 
18 ;  1  Chr.  xii.  8)  ;  it  was  hunted  (Is.  xiii. 
14 ;  Prov.  vi.  5)  ;  it  was  celebrated  for  its 
loveliness  (Cant.  ii.  9,  17,  viii.  14). 

Roge'lim,  the  residence  of  Barzillai  the 
Gileadite  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27,  xix.  31)  in  the 
highlands  east  of  the  Jordan. 

Hoh'gah,  an  Asherite,  of  the  sons  of 
Shamer  (1  Chr.  vii.  34). 

HoU.  A  book  in  ancient  times  consisted 
of  a  single  long  strip  of  paper  or  parch- 
ment, wliich  was  usually  kept  rolled  up  on 
a  stick,  and  was  unrolled  when  a  person 
wished  to  read  it.  The  roll  was  usually 
written  on  one  side  only,  and  hence  the 
particular  notice  of  one  that  v;as  "  written 
within  and  without"  (Ez.  ii.  10).  The 
writing  was  arranged  in  columns.  We 
may  here  add  that  the  term  in  Is.  viii.  1, 
rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "roll,"  more  cor- 
rectly means  tablet. 

Romam'ti-e'zer,  one  of  the  fourteen 
sons  of  Heman  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4,  31). 

Homan  Empire.  The  notices  of  Ro- 
man history  which  occur  in  the  Bible  are 
confined  to  the  last  century  and  a  half  of 
the  commonwealth  and  the  first  century  of 
the  imperial  monarchy.  The  first  historic 
mention  of  Home  in  the  Bible  is  in  1  Mace. 
1.  10.  About  the  year  161  b.  c.  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus  heard  of  the  Romans  as  the  con- 
querors of  Philip,  Perseus,  and  Antiochus 
(1  Mace.  viii.  5,  6).  In  order  to  strengthen 
himself  against  Demetrius  king  of  Syria  he 
sent  ambassadors  to  Rome  (viii.  17),  and 
concluded  a  defensive  alliance  with  the 
senate  (viii.  22-32).  This  was  renewed  bj' 
Jonathan  (xii.  1)  and  by  Simon  (xv.  17). 
In  the  year  65  b.  c,  when  Syria  was  made 
a  Roman  province  by  Pompey,  the  Jews 
were  still  governed  by  one  of  the  Asmonae- 
an  princes.  Aristobulus  had  lately  driven 
his  brother  Hyrcanus  from  the  chief  priest- 
hood, and  was  now  in  his  turn  attacked  by 
Aretas,  king  of  Arabia  Petraea,  the  ally  of 
Hyrcanus.  Pompey's  lieutenant,  M.  Aemil- 
ius  Scaurus,  interfered  in  the  contest  b.  c. 
64,  and  the  next  year  Pompey  himself 
marched  an  army  into  Judaea  and  took 
Jerusalem.  From  this  time  the  Jews  were 
practically  under  the  government  of  Rome. 
Hyrcanus  retained  the  high-priesthood  and 
a  titular  sovereignty,  subject  to  the  watch- 
ful control  of  his  minister  Antipater,  an 
active  partisan  of  the  Roman  interests. 
Finally,  Antipater's  son,  Herod  the  Great, 
was  made  king  by  Antony's  interest,  b.  c. 
40,  and  confirmed  in  the  kingdom  by  Au- 
gustus, B.  c.  30.  The  Jews,  however,  were 
all  this  time  tributaries  of  Rome,  and  their 
princes  in  reality  were  mere  Roman  proc- 
urators. On  the  banishment  of  Archelaus, 
A.  D.  G,  Judaea  became  a  mere  appendage 
of  the  province  of  Syria,  and  was  governed 
by  a  Roman  procurator,  who  resided  at 


Caesarea.  Such  were  the  relations  of  the 
Jewish  people  to  the  Roman  government 
at  the  time  when  the  N.  T.  history  begins. 
In  illustration  of  the  sacred  narrative  it 
may  be  well  to  give  a  general  account  of 
the  position  of  the  Emperor,  the  extent  of 
the  empire,  and  the  administration  of  the 
provinces  in  the  time  of  our  Lord  and  His 
Apostles.  I.  When  Augustus  became  sole 
ruler  of  the  Roman  world  he  was  in  theory 
simply  the  first  citizen  of  the  republic,  in- 
trusted with  temporary  powers  to  settle  the 
disorders  of  the  state.  The  old  magistracies 
were  retained,  but  the  various  powers  and 
prerogatives  of  each  were  conferred  upon 
Augustus.  Above  all  he  was  the  Emperor 
(Imperator).  This  word,  used  originally 
to  designate  any  one  intrusted  with  the 
imperium  or  full  military  authority  over 
a  Roman  army,  acquired  a  new  signifi- 
cance when  adopted  as  a  permanent  title 
by  Julius  Caesar.  By  his  use  of  it  as 
a  constant  prefix  to  his  name  in  the  city 
and  in  the  camp  he  openly  asserted 
a  paramount  military  authority  over  the 
state.  The  Empire  was  nominally  elective, 
but  practically  it  passed  by  adoption ;  and 
till  Nero's  time  a  sort  of  hereditary  right 
seemed  to  be  recognized.  II.  Extent  of 
the  Empire.  —  Cicero's  description  of  the 
Greek  states  and  colonies  as  a  "  fringe  on 
the  skirts  of  barbarism,"  has  been  well 
applied  to  the  Roman  dominions  before  the 
conquests  of  Pompey  and  Caesar.  The 
Roman  Empire  was  still  confined  to  a  nar- 
row strip  encircling  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
Pompey  added  Asia  Minor  and  Syria. 
Caesar  added  Gaul.  The  generals  of  Au- 
gustus overran  the  N.  W.  portion  of  Spain, 
and  the  country  between  the  Alps  and  the 
Danube.  The  boundaries  of  the  Empire 
were  now,  the  Atlantic  on  the  W.,  the 
Euphrates  on  the  E.,  the  deserts  of  Africa, 
the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  the  Arabian 
deserts  on  the  S.,  the  British  Channel,  the 
Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  N.  The  only  subsequent  conquests  of 
importance  were  those  of  Britain  by  Clau- 
dius and  of  Dacia  by  Trajan.  The  only  in- 
dependent powers  of  importance  were  the 
Parthians  on  the  E.  and  the  Germans  on 
the  N.  The  population  of  the  Empire  in 
the  time  of  Augustus  has  been  calculated 
at  85,000,000.  III.  The  Provinces.  —  The 
usual  fate  of  a  country  conquered  by  Rome 
was  to  become  a  subject  province,  governed 
directly  from  Rome  by  officers  sent  out  for 
that  purpose.  Sometimes,  however,  petty 
sovereigns  were  left  in  possession  of  a 
nominal  independence  on  the  borders,  or 
within  the  natural  limits,  of  the  province. 
Augustus  divided  the  provinces  into  two 
classes:  (1.)  Imperial;  (2.)  Senatorial; 
retaining  in  his  own  hands,  for  obvious 
reasons,  those  provinces  where  the  pres- 
ence of  a  la.  ge  military  force  was  necca- 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO 


584 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO 


Bary,  and  committing  the  peaceful  and 
unarmed  provinces  to  the  Senate.  The 
Imperial  pi'ovinces  at  first  were  —  Gaul, 
Lusitania,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Cilicia,  Cyprus, 
and  Aegypt.  The  Senatorial  provinces 
were  Africa,  Numidia,  Asia,  Achaia  and 
Epirus,  Dalmatia,  Macedonia,  Sicily,  Crete 
and  Cyrene,  Bithynia  and  Pontus,  Sardin- 
ia, Baetica.  Cyprus  and  Gallia  Narbonen- 
sis  were  subsequently  given  up  by  Augustus, 
who  in  turn  received  Dalmatia  from  Uie 
Senate.  Manj'  other  changes  were  made 
afterwards.  The  N.  T.  writers  invariably 
designate  the  governors  of  Senatorial  prov- 
inces by  tlie  correct  title  of  ai6i'jtaroi,  pro- 
consuls (Acts  xiii.  7,  xviii.  12,  xix.  38). 
!For  the  governor  of  an  Imperial  province, 
properly  styled  "  Legatus  Caesaris,"  the 
word  *I/yiuwv  (Governor)  is  used  in  tiie 
N.  T.  The  provinces  were  heavily  taxed 
for  the  benefit  of  Rome  and  her  citizens. 
They  are  said  to  have  been  better  governed 
under  the  Empire  than  under  the  Common- 
wealtli,  and  those  of  the  Emperor  better 
than  those  of  the  Senate.  Two  important 
changes  were  introduced  under  the  Empire. 
Tlie  governors  received  a  fixed  pay,  and 
the  term  of  their  command  was  prolonged. 
The  condition  of  the  Roman  Empire  at  the 
time  wlien  Christianity  appeared  has  often 
been  dwelt  upon,  as  affording  obvious  illus- 
trations of  St.  Paul's  expression,  that  the 
"fulness  of  time  had  come"  (Gal.  iv.  4). 
The  general  pea,ce  within  the  limits  of  the 
Empire,  tiie  formation  of  military  roads, 
the  suppression  of  piracy,  the  march  of  the 
legions,  the  voyages  of  the  corn  fleets,  the 
general  increase  of  traffic,  the  spread  of 
the  Latin  language  in  tlie  West  as  Greek 
had  already  spread  in  tlie  East,  the  exter- 
nal unity  of  the  Empire,  offered  facilities 
hitherto  unknown  for  the  spread  of  a  world- 
wide religion.  Tlie  tendency,  too,  of  a  des- 
potism like  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  to 
reduce  all  its  subjects  to  a  dead  level,  was 
a  powerful  instrument  in  breaking  down 
the  pride  of  privileged  races  and  national 
religions,  and  familiarizing  men  with  tlie 
truth  that  "  God  had  made  of  one  blood  all 
nations  on  the  face  of  the  earth  "  (Acts  xvii. 
24,  26).  But  still  more  striking  tlian  this 
outward  preparation  for  the  diffusion  of  the 
Gospel  was  the  appearance  of  a  deep  and 
wide-spread  corruption,  which  seemed  to 
defy  any  human  remedy.  Tiie  chief  pro- 
phetic notices  of  the  Roman  Empire  are 
found  in  the  Book  of  Daniel.  According 
to  some  interpreters  the  Romans  are  in- 
tended in  Deut.  xxviii.  49-57. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the.  1.  The 
date  of  this  Epistle  is  fixed  with  more  ab- 
solute certainty  and  within  narrower  limits 
than  that  of  any  other  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 
The  following  considerations  determine  the 
time  of  writing.  First.  Certain  names  in 
vthe  salutations  point  to  Corinth,  as  the  place 


from  which  the  letter  was  sent.  (1.)  Phoebe, 
a  deaconess  of  Cenchreae,  one  of  the  port 
towns  of  Corinth,  is  commended  to  the 
Romans  (xvi.  1,  2).  (2.)  Gains,  in  whose 
house  St.  Paul  was  lodged  at  the  time  (xvi. 
23),  is  probably  the  person  mentioned  as 
one  of  the  chief  members  of  tlie  Corinthian 
Church  in  1  Cor.  i.  14,  though  tlie  name 
was  very  common.  (3.)  Erastus,  here 
designated  "the  treasurer  of  tlie  city" 
(xvi.  23,  A.  V.  "  chamberlain ")  is  else- 
where mentioned  in  connection  with  Cor- 
inth (2  Tim.  iv.  20;  see  also  Acts  xix.  22). 
Secondly.  Having  thus  determined  the 
place  of  writing  to  be  Corinth,  we  have  no 
hesitation  in  fixing  upon  the  visit  recorded 
in  Acts  XX.  3,  during  tlie  winter  and  spring 
following  the  Apostle's  long  residence  at 
Ephesus,  as  the  occasion  on  which  the 
Epistle  was  written.  For  St.  Paul,  when 
he  wrote  tlie  letter,  was  on  the  point  of 
carrying  the  contributions  of  Macedonia 
and  Achaia  to  Jerusalem  (xv.  25-27),  and 
a  comparison  witli  Acts  xx.  22,  xxiv.  17, 
and  also  1  Cor.  xvi.  4 ;  2  Cor.  viii.  1,  2,  ix. 
1,  ff.,  shows  that  he  was  so  engaged  at  tliis 
period  of  his  life.  Tiie  Epistle  then  was 
written  from  Corintli  during  St.  Paul's  third 
missionary  journey,  on  tlie  occasion  of  the 
second  of  the  two  visits  recorded  in  the.  Acts. 
On  this  occasion  he  remained  three  months 
in  Greece  (Acts  xx.  3).  It  was  in  the  win- 
ter or  early  spring  of  the  year  that  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written.  Ac- 
cording to  the  most  probable  system  of 
chronology,  this  would  be  the  year  a.  c. 
58.  2.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  thus 
placed  in  chronological  connection  with  the 
Epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  Corinthians, 
which  appear  to  have  been  written  withia 
the  twelve  months  preceding.  They  pro- 
sent  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  each  oth- 
er in  stj'^le  and  matter — a  much  greater 
resemblance  than  can  be  traced  to  any 
other  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  3.  The  occu' 
sion  which  prompted  this  Epistle,  and  the 
circumstances  attending  its  writing,  were  as 
follows.  St.  Paul  had  long  purposed  visit* 
ing  Rome,  and  still  retained  tiiis  purpose, 
wishing  also  to  extend  his  journey  to  Spain 
(i.  9-13,  XV.  22-29).  For  the  time,  how- 
ever, he  was  prevented  from  carrying  out 
his  design,  as  lie  was  bound  for  Jerusalem 
with  the  alms  of  the  Gentile  Cliristians,  and 
meanwhile  he  addressed  this  letter  to  the 
Romans,  to  supply  the  lack  of  his  person-- 
al  teaching.  Phoebe,  a  deaconess  of  the 
neighboring  Churcli  of  Cenchreae,  was  on 
the  point  of  starting  for  Rome  (xvi.  1,  2), 
and  probably  conveyed  tlie  letter.  The 
body  of  the  Epistle  was  written  at  the 
Apostle's  dictation  by  Tei'tius  (xvi.  22) ; 
but  perhaps  we  may  infer  from  i!ie  abrupt- 
ness of  the  final  doxology,  that  it  was  added 
by  the  Apostle  himself.  4.  The  Origin 
of  the  Roman  Church  is  involved  in  obsuit* 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO 


585 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO 


rity.  [Rome,  p.  588.1  Ifit  had  been  found- 
ed by  St.  Peter,  according  to  a  later  tradi- 
tion, the  absence  of  any  allusion  to  hira 
both  in  this  Epistle  and  in  the  letters  written 
by  St.  Paul  from  Home  would  admit  of  no 
explanation.  It  is  equally  clear  that  no 
other  Apostle  was  the  Founder.  The  state- 
ment in  the  Clementines  that  the  first  tid- 
ings of  the  Gospel  reached  Rome  during  the 
lifetime  of  our  Lord,  is  evidently  a  fiction 
for  the  purposes  of  the  romance.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  clear  that  the  foundation 
of  this  Church  dates  very  far  back.  It  may 
be  that  some  of  those  Romans,  "  both  Jews 
and  proselytes,"  present  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost (Acts  ii.  10),  carried  back  the  earliest 
tidings  of  the  new  doctrine,  or  the  Gospel 
may  have  first  reached  the  imperial  city 
through  those  who  were  scattered  abroad 
to  escape  the  persecution  which  followed 
on  the  death  of  Stephen  (Acts  viii.  4,  xi. 
19).  At  first  we  may  suppose  that  the  Gos- 
pel was  preached  there  in  a  confused  and 
imperfect  form,  scarcely  more  than  a  phase 
of  Judaism,  as  in  the  case  of  ApoUos  at 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  25),  or  the  disciples  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  1-3).  As  time  advanced 
and  better  instructed  teachers  arrived,  the 
clouds  would  gradually  clear  away,  till  at 
length  tlie  presence  of  the  gre?  t  Apostle 
himself  at  Rome  dispersed  thf  mists  of 
Judaism  which  still  hung  about  t\»e  Roman 
Church.  5.  A  question  next  arises  as  to 
the  composition  of  the  Roman  Church,  at 
the  time  when  St.  Paul  wrote.  It  is  more 
probable  that  St.  Paul  addressed  a  mixed 
Church  of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  the  latter 
perhaps  being  the  more  numerous.  There 
are  certainly  passages  which  imply  the 
presence  of  a  large  number  of  Jewish  con- 
verts to  Christianity.  If  we  analyze  the 
list  of  names  in  the  KJth  chapter,  and  assume 
that  this  list  approximately  represents  the 
proportion  of  Jew  and  Gentile  in  the  Roman 
Church  (an  assumption  at  least  not  improb- 
able), we  arrive  at  the  same  result.  Alto- 
gether it  appears  that  a  very  large  fraction 
of  the  Christian  believers  mentioned  in 
these  salutations  were  Jews,  even  supposing 
that  the  others,  bearing  Greek  and  Latin 
names,  of  whom  we  know  nothing,  were 
heathens.  Nor  does  the  existence  of  a  large 
Jewish  element  in  the  Roman  Church  pre- 
sent any  difficulty.  The  captives  carried  to 
Rome  by  Pompeius  formed  the  nucleus  of 
the  Jd*ish  population  in  the  metropolis. 
Since  that  time  they  had  largely  increased. 
On  the  other  hand,  situated  in  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  great  empire  of  heathendom,  the 
Roman  Church  must  necessarily  have  been 
in  great  measure  a  Gentile  Church;  and 
the  language  of  the  Epistle  bears  out  this 
supposition.  These  Gentile  converts,  how- 
ever, were  not  for  the  most  part  native 
Romans.  Strange  as  the  paradox  appears, 
nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  the  Church 


of  Rome  was  at  this  time  a  Greek  and 
not  a  Latin  Church.  All  the  literature 
of  the  early  Roman  Church  was  written 
in  the  Greek  tongue.  The  names  of  the 
bishops  of  Rome  during  the  first  two  cen- 
turies are,  with  but  few  exceptions,  Greek. 
And  we  find  that  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  names  in  the  salutations  of  this  Epis- 
tle are  Greek  names.  When  we  inquire 
into  the  probable  rank  and  station  of  the 
Roman  believers,  an  analysis  of  the  names 
in  the  list  of  salutations  again  gives  an  ap- 
proximate answer.  These  names  belong 
for  the  most  part  to  the  middle  and  lower 
grades  of  society.  Many  of  them  are  found 
in  the  columbaria  of  the  freedmen  and 
slaves  of  the  early  Roman  emperors. 
Among  the  less  wealthy  merchants  and 
tradesmen,  among  the  petty  officers  of  the 
army,  among  the  slaves  and  freedmen  of 
the  imperial  palace  —  whether  Jews  or 
Greeks  —  the  Gospel  would  first  find  a  firm 
footing.  To  this  last  class  allusion  is  made 
in  Phil.  iv.  22,  "  they  that  are  of  Caesar's 
household."  6.  The  heterogeneous  com- 
position of  this  Church  explains  the  general 
character  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  In 
an  assemblage  so  various,  we  should  expect 
to  find,  not  the  exclusive  predominance  of  a 
single  form  of  error,  but  the  coincidence  of 
different  and  opposing  forms.  It  was  there- 
fore the  business  of  the  Christian  teacher 
to  reconcile  the  opposing  difficulties  and  to 
hold  out  a  meeting  point  in  the  Gospel. 
This  is  exactly  what  St.  Paul  does  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Again,  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  letter  was  specially  written 
to  answer  any  doubts  or  settle  any  contro- 
versies then  rife  in  the  Roman  Church. 
There  were  therefore  no  disturbing  influ- 
ences, such  as  arise  out  of  personal  rela- 
tions, or  peculiar  circumstances,  to  derange 
a  general  and  systematic  exposition  of  the 
nature  and  working  of  the  Gospel.  Thus 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  more  of  a 
treatise  than  of  a  letter.  In  this  respect  it 
differs  widely  from  the  Epistles  to  the  Co- 
rinthians and  Galatians,  which  are  full  of 
personal  and  direct  allusions.  In  one  in- 
stance alone  (xiii.  1)  we  seem  to  truce  a 
special  reference  to  the  Church  of  the  me- 
tropolis. 7.  This  explanation  is  in  fact  to 
be  sought  in  its  relation  to  the  contempora- 
neous Epistles.  The  letter  to  the  Romans 
closes  the  group  of  Epistles  written  during 
the  second  missionary  journey.  This  group 
contains  besides,  as  already  mentioned,  the 
letters  to  the  Corintliians  and  Galatians, 
written  probably  within  the  few  months 
preceding.  In  the  Epistles  to  these  two 
Churches  we  study  the  attitude  of  the  Gos- 
pel towards  the  Gentile  and  Jewish  world 
respectively.  These  letters  are  direct  and 
special.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  the 
summary  of  what  St.  Paul  had  written  be- 
fore, the  result  of  his  dealing  with  the  t^Q 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO 


586 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO 


antagonistic  forms  of  error,  the  gathering  I 
together  of  the  fragmentary  teaching  in  the 
Corinthian  and  Galatian  letters.  8.  View- 
ing this  Epistle  then  rather  in  the  light  of  a 
treatise  than  of  a  letter,  we  are  enabled  to 
explain  certain  phenomena  in  the  text.  In 
the  received  text  a  doxology  stands  at  the 
close  of  the  Epistle  (xvi.  25-27).  The  pre- 
ponderance of  evidence  is  in  favor  of  this 
position,  but  there  is  respectable  authority 
for  placing  it  at  the  end  of  ch.  xir.  In  some 
texts,  again,  it  is  found  in  both  places,  while 
others  omit  it  entirely.  The  phenomena 
of  the  MSS.  seem  best  explained  by  sup- 
posing that  the  letter  was  circulated  at  an 
early  date  (whether  during  the  Apostle's 
lifetime  or  not  it' is  idle  to  inquire)  in  two 
forms,  both  with  and  without  the  two  last 
chapters.  9.  In  describing  the  purport  of 
this  Epistle  we  may  start  from  St.  Paul's 
own  words,  which,  standing  at  the  beginning 
of  the  doctrinal  portion,  may  be  taken  as 
giving  a  summary  of  the  contents  (i.  16, 
17).  Accordingly  the  Epistle  has  been 
described  as  comprising  "  the  religious 
philosophy  of  the  world's  history."  The 
atonemt  nt  of  Clirist  is  the  centre  of  reli- 
gious hijitory.  The  Epistle,  from  its  gen- 
eral character,  lends  itself  more  readily  to 
an  analysis  than  is  often  the  case  with  St. 
Paul's  Epistles.  The  following  is  a  table 
of  its  contents  :  Salutation  (i.  1-7).  The 
Apostle  at  the  outset  strikes  the  key-note  of 
the  Epistle  in  the  expressions  "  called  as  an 
apostle,"  "  called  as  saints."  Divine  grace 
is  everything,  human  merit  nothing.  I. 
Personal  explanations.  Purposed  visit  to 
Rome  (i.  8-15).  II.  Doctrinal  (i.  16-xi. 
36).  The  general  proposition.  The  Gos- 
pel is  the  salvation  of  Jew  and  Gentile  alike. 
This  salvation  comes  by  faith  (i.  16,  17). 
(a)  All  alike  were  under  condemnation  be- 
fore the  Gospel.  The  heatlien  (i,  18-32). 
•  The  Jew  (ii.  1-29).  Objections  to  this 
statement  answered  (iii.  1-8).  And  the 
position  itself  established  from  Scripture 
(iii.  9-20).  (i)  A  W(7/i/eo»sMC5s  (justifica- 
tion) is  revealed  under  the  Gospel,  wliich 
being  of  faith,  not  of  law,  is  also  universal 
(iii.  21-26).  And  boasting  is  thereby  ex- 
cluded (iii.  27-31).  Of  this  justification  by 
faith  Abraham  is  an  example  (iv.  1-25). 
Thus  then  we  are  justified  in  Christ,  in 
whom  alone  we  glory  (v.  1-11).  And  this 
acceptance  in  Christ  is  as  universal  as  was 
the  condemnation  in  Adam  (v.  12-19).  (c) 
The  moral  consequences  of  our  deliverance. 
The  law  was  given  to  multiply  sin  (v.  20, 
21).  When  we  died  to  the  law  we  died  to 
sin  (vi.  1-14).  The  abolition  of  the  law, 
however,  is  not  a  signal  for  moral  license 
(vi.  15-23).  On  the  contrary,  as  the  law 
has  passed  away,  so  must  sin,  for  sin  and 
the  law  are  correlative ;  at  the  same  time 
this  is  no  disparagement  of  the  law,  but 
rather  a  proof  of  human  weakness  (vii.  1- 


25).  So  henceforth  in  Christ  we  are  free 
from  sin ;  we  have  the  Spirit,  and  look  for- 
ward in  hope,  triumphing  over  our  present 
afilictions  (viii.  1-39).  (d)  The  rejection 
of  the  .Tevis  is  a  matter  of  deep  sorrow  (ix. 
1-5).  Yet  we  must  remember — (i.)  That 
the  promise  was  not  to  the  whole  people, 
but  only  to  a  select  seed  (ix.  6-13).  And 
the  absolute  purpose  of  God  in  so  ordaining 
is  not  to  be  canvassed  by  man  (ix.  14-19). 
(ii.)  That  the  Jews  did  not  seek  justifica- 
tion aright,  and  so  missed  it.  Tliis  justifi- 
cation was  promised  hy  faith,  and  is  offered 
to  all  alike,  the  preaching  to  tlie  Gentiles 
being  implied  therein.  The  character  and 
results  of  the  Gospel  dispensation  are  fore- 
shadowed in  Scripture  (x.  1-21).  (iii.) 
That  the  rejection  of  the  Jews  is  not  final. 
This  rejection  has  been  the  means  of  gather- 
ing in  the  Gentiles,  and  through  the  Gentiles 
they  themselves  will  ultimately  be  brought 
to  Christ  (xi.  1-36).  III.  Practical  ex- 
hortations (xii.  1-xv.  13).  (fl)  To  holiness 
of  life  and  to  charity  in  general,  the  duty 
of  obedience  to  rulers  being  inculcated  by 
the  way  (xii.  1-xiii.  14).  (i)  And  more 
particularly  against  giving  ofl'cnce  to  weaker 
brethren  (xiv.  1-xv.  13).  IV.  Personal 
matters.  (a)  The  Apostle's  motive  in 
writing  the  letter,  and  his  intention  of  visit- 
ing the  Romans  (xv.  14-33).  (b)  Greet- 
ings (xvi.  1-23).  The  letter  ends  with  a 
benediction  and  doxology  (xvi.  24-27). 
While  this  Epistle  contains  t!ie  fullest  and 
most  systematic  exposition  of  tlie  Apostle's 
teaching,  it  is  at  the  same  time  a  very 
striking  expression  of  his  character.  No- 
where do  his  earnest  and  affectionate  nature 
and  his  tact  and  delicacy  in  handling  un- 
welcome topics  appear  more  strongly  than 
when  he  is  dealing  with  the  rejection  of  his 
fellow-countrymen  the  Jews.  10.  Internal 
evidence  is  so  strongly  in  favor  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  Epi.stle  to  the  Romans 
that  it  has  never  been  seriously  questioned. 
But  while  the  Epistle  bears  in  itself  the 
strongest  proofs  of  its  Pauline  authorsliip, 
the  external  testimony  in  its  favor  is  not 
inconsiderable.  It  is  not  the  practice  of 
the  Apostolic  fathers  to  cite  the  N.  T. 
writers  by  name,  but  marked  passages  from 
the  Romans  are  found  embedded  in  the 
Epistles  of  Clement  and  Polycarp.  It 
seems  also  to  have  been  directly  cited  by 
the  elder  quoted  in  Irenaeus,  and  is  alluded 
to  by  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  Di«gnetus, 
and  by  .Tustin  Martyr.  It  has  a  place  more- 
over in  the  Muratorian  Canon  and  in  the 
Syriac  and  Old  Latin  Versions.  Nor  have 
we  the  testimony  of  orthodox  writers  alone. 
The  Epistle  was  commonly  quoted  as  an 
authority  by  the  heretics  of  the  subapostolic 
age,  by  the  Ophites,  by  Basilides,  by  Val- 
entinus,  by  the  Valentinians  Heracleon 
and  Ptolemaeus,  and  perhaps  also  by  Ta- 
tian,  besides  being  included  in  Marcion's 


ROME 


587 


BOME 


Canon.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century  the  evidence  in  its  favor  is  still 
fuller. 

Rome,  the  famous  capital  of  the  ancient 
world,  is  situated  on  the  Tiber  at  a  distance 
of  about  15  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
"  seven  hills  "  (Rev.  xvii.  9)  which  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  ancient  city  stand  on  the 
left  hank.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river 
rises  the  far  higher  side  of  the  Janiculum. 
Here  from  very  early  times  was  a  fortress 
with  a  suburb  beneath  it  extending  to  the 
river.  Modern  Rome  lies  to  the  N.  of  the 
ancient  city,  covering  with  its  principal  por- 
tion the  plain  to  the  N.  of  the  seven  hills, 
once  known  as  the  Campus  Martins,  and  on 
the  opposite  bank  extending  over  the  low 
ground  beneath  tlie  Vatican  to  the  N.  of  the 
ancient  Janiculum.  Rome  is  not  mentioned 
iii  the  Bible  except  in  the  books  of  Macca- 
bees and  in  three  books  of  the  N.  T.,  viz., 
the  Acts,  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and 
the  2d  Epistle  to  Timothy.  For  the  notices 
of  Rome  in  the  books  of  Maccabees  see 
Roman  Empire. — The  conquests  of  Pom- 
pey  seem  to  have  given  rise  to  the  first  set- 
tlement of  Jews  at  Rome.  The  Jewish  king 
Aristobulus  and  his  son  formed  part  of 
Pompey's  triumph,  and  many  Jewish  cap- 
tires  and  emigrants  were  brought  to  Rome 
at  that  time.  A  special  district  was  as- 
signed to  them,  not  on  the  site  of  the  mod- 
ern "  Ghetto,"  between  the  Capitol  and  the 
island  of  the  Tiber,  but  across  the  Tiber. 
Many  of  these  Jews  were  made  freedmen. 
Julius  Caesar  showed  them  some  kindness ; 
they  were  favored  also  by  Augustus,  and 
by  Tiberius  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign.  At  an  earlier  period  apparently  he 
banished  a  great  number  of  them  to  Sar- 
dinia. Claudius  "  commanded  all  Jews  to 
depart  from  Rome"  (Acts  xviii.  2),  on  ac- 
count of  tumults  connected,  possibly,  with 
the  preaching  of  Christianity  at  Rome. 
This  banishment  cannot  have  been  of  long 
duration,  for  we  find  Jews  residing  at  Rome 
apparently  in  considerable  numbers  at  the 
time  of  St.  Paul's  visit  (Acts  xxviii.  17). 
It  is  chiefly  in  connection  with  St.  Paul's 
history  that  Rome  comes  before  us  in  tlie 
Bible.  In  illustration  of  that  history  it  may 
be  useful  to  give  some  account  of  Rome  in 
•■he  time  of  Nero,  the  "  Caesar  "  to  whom  St. 
^aul  appealed,  and  in  whose  reign  he  suf- 
fered martyrdom.  1.  The  city  at  that  time 
mfist  be  imagined  as  a  large  and  irregular 
mass  of  buildings  unprotected  by  an  outer 
wall.  It  had  long  outgrown  the  old  Ser- 
vian wall;  but  the  limits  of  the  suburbs 
cannot  be  exactly  defined.  Neither  the 
nature  of  the  buildings  nor  the  configura- 
tion of  the  ground  was  such  as  to  give 
a  striking  appearance  to  the  city  viewed 
from  without.  "Ancient  Rome  had  nei- 
ther cupola  nor  campanile,"  and  the  hills, 
never  lofty  or  imposing,  would  present, 


when  covered  with  the  buildings  and 
streets  of  a  huge  city,  a  confused  appear- 
ance like  the  hills  of  modern  London,  to 
which  they  liave  sometimes  been  compared. 
The  visit  of  St.  Paul  lies  between  two  famous 
epochs  in  the  history  of  the  city,  viz.  its 
restoration  by  Augustus  and  its  restoration 
by  Nero.  The  boast  of  Augustus  is  well 
known,  "  that  he  found  the  city  of  brick,  and 
left  it  of  marble."  Some  parts  of  the  city, 
especially  the  Forum  and  Campus  Martins, 
must  now  have  presented  a  magnificent 
appearance,  of  which  Niebuhr's  Lectures 
on  Rom.  Hist.,  ii.  177,  will  give  a  general 
idea ;  but  many  of  the  principal  buildings 
which  attract  the  attention  of  modern  trav- 
ellers in  ancient  Rome  were  not  yet  built. 
The  streets  were  generally  narrow  and 
winding,  flanked  by  densely  crowded  lodg- 
ing-houses {insulae)  of  enormous  height. 
Augustus  found  it  necessary  to  limit  their 
height  to  70  feet.  St.  Paul's  first  visit  to 
Rome  took  place  before  the  Neronian  con- 
flagration ;  but  even  after  the  restoration  of 
the  city,  which  followed  upon  that  event, 
many  of  the  old  evils  continued.  The  pop- 
ulation of  the  city  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated. Probably  Gibbon's  estimate  of  one 
million  two  hundred  thousand  is  nearest 
to  the  truth.  One  half  of  the  population 
consisted,  in  all  probability,  of  slaves.  The 
larger  part  of  the  remainder  consisted  of 
pauper  citizens  supported  in  idleness  by 
the  miserable  system  of  public  gratuities. 
There  appears  to  have  been  no  middle  class, 
and  no  free  industriiil  population.  Side  by 
side  with  the  wretched  classes  just  men- 
tioned was  the  comparatively  small  body 
of  the  wealthy  nobility,  of  whose  luxury 
and  profligacy  we  hear  so  much  in  the 
heathen  writers  of  the  time.  —  Such  was 
the  population  which  St.  Paul  would  find 
at  Rome  at  the  time  of  his  visit.  We  learn 
from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  that  he  was 
detained  at  Rome  for  "  two  whole  years," 
"  dwelling  in  his  own  hired  house  with  a 
soldier  that  kept  him"  (Acts  xxviii.  IG,  30), 
to  whom,  apparently,  according  to  Roman 
custom,  he  was  bound  with  a  chain  (Acta 
xxviii.  20;  Eph.  vi.  20;  Phil.  i.  13).  Here 
he  preached  to  all  that  came  to  him,  no  man 
forbidding  him  (Acts  xxviii.  30,  31).  It  is 
generally  believed  that  on  his  "  appeal  to 
Caesar "  he  was  acquitted,  and  after  some 
time  spent  in  freedom,  was  a  second  time 
imprisoned  at  Rome.  Five  of  his  Epistles, 
viz.  those  to  the  Colossians,  Ephesians, 
Philippians,  that  to  Philemon,  and  the  2d 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  were  in  all  probability, 
written  from  Rome,  the  latter  shortly  be- 
fore his  death  (2  Tim.  iv.  6),  the  others 
during  his  first  imprisonment.  It  is  uni- 
versally believed  that  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom at  Rome.  2.  The  localities  in  and 
about  Rome  especially  connected  with 
the  life  of  St.  PaiU,  are  -  (1.)  The  Ap- 


ROME 


588 


ROSH 


plan  Way,  by  which  he  approached  Rome 
(Acts  xxviii.  15).  [Appii  Forum.]  (2.) 
"The  palace,"  or  "Caesar's  court"  (Prae- 
torium,  Phil.  i.  13).  This  may  mean 
either  the  great  camp  of  the  Praetorian 
guards  which  Tiberius  established  outside 
the  walls  on  the  N.  E.  of  tlie  city,  or,  as 
seems  more  probable,  a  barrack  attached 
to  tlie  Imperial  residence  on  the  Palatine. 
There  is  no  sufficient  proof  that  the  word 
"Praetorium  "  was  ever  used  to  designate 
the  emperor's  palace,  though  it  is  used  for 
the  official  residence  of  a  Roman  governor 
(John  xviii.  28 ;  Acts  xxiil.  35).  The  men- 
tion of  "Caesar's  household"  (Phil.  iv. 
22)  confirms  the  notion  that  St.  Paul's 
residence  was  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  emperor's  house  on  the  Pala- 
tine. 3.  The  connection  of  other  locali- 
ties at  Rome  with  St.  Paul's  name  rests 
only  on  traditions  of  more  or  less  probabil- 
ity. We  may  mention  especially  —  (1.)  The 
Mamertine  prison,  or  Tullianum,  built  by 
Ancus  Martins  near  the  Forum.  It  still 
exists  beneath  tlie  church  of  S.  Giuseppe 
dei  Falegnami.  Here  it  is  said  that  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  were  fellow-prisoners 
for  nine  months.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
discuss  the  question  whether  St.  Peter  was 
ever  at  Rome.  It  may  be  sufficient  to 
state,  that  though  there  is  no  evidence  of 
such  a  visit  in  the  N.  T.,  unless  Babylon 
in  1  Pet.  V.  13  is  a  mystical  name  for 
Home,  yet  early  testimony  and  the  univer- 
sal belief  of  the  early  Church  seem  suffi- 
cient to  establish  the  fact  of  his  having 
suffered  martyrdom  there.  [Peter.]  The 
story,  however,  of  the  imprisonment  in  the 
Mamertine  prison  seems  inconsistent  with 
2  Tim.,  esp.  iv.  11.  (2.)  The  chapel  on 
the  Ostian  road  which  marks  the  spot  where 
the  two  Apostles  are  said  to  have  separat- 
ed on  their  way  to  martyrdom.  (3.)  The 
kupposed  scene  of  St.  Paul's  martyrdom, 
"viz.  the  church  of  St.  Paolo  alle  tre  fontane 
on  the  Ostian  road.  To  these  may  be  add- 
ed (4.)  The  supposed  scene  of  St.  Peter's 
martyrdom,  viz.  the  church  of  St.  Pietro 
in  Montorio,  on  the  Janiculum.  (5.)  The 
chapel  "  Domine  quo  Vadis,"  on  the  Ap- 
pian  road,  the  scene  of  the  beautiful  le- 
gend of  our  Lord's  appearance  to  St.  Peter 
as  he  was  escaping  from  martyrdom.  (6.) 
The  places  where  the  bodies  of  the  two 
Apostles,  after  having  been  deposited  first 
in  the  catacombs,  are  supposed  to  Vave 
been  finally  buried  —  that  of  St.  Paul 
by  the  Ostian  road  —  that  of  St.  Peter  be- 
neath the  dome  of  the  famous  Basilica 
which  bears  his  name.  4.  We  may  add, 
as  sites  unquestionably  connected  with  the 
Roman  Christians  of  the  Apostolic  age  — 
(1.)  The  Gardens  of  Nero  in  the  Vatican, 
not  far  from  the  spot  where  St.  Peter's 
now  stands.  Here  Christians  wrapped  in 
tbe  skins  of  beasts  were  torn  to  pieces  by 


dogs,  or,  clothed  in  inflammable  robes,  were 
burnt  to  serve  as  torches  duriig  the  mid- 
night games.  Others  were  crucified.  (2.) 
The  Catacombs.  These  subterranean  gal- 
leries, commonly  from  8  to  10  feet  in  height, 
and  from  4  to  6  in  width,  and  extend- 
ing for  miles,  especially  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  old  Appian  and  Nomentan 
Ways,  were  unquestionably  used  as  places 
of  refuge,  of  worship,  and  of  burial  by  the 
early  Christians.  The  earliest  dated  in- 
scription in  the  catacombs  is  a.  d.  71. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  first  founder  of 
the  Christian  Church  at  Rome.  Christian- 
ity may,  perhaps,  have  been  introduced  into 
the  city  not  long  after  the  outpouring  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  by 
the  "  strangers  of  Rome,"  who  were  then 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  ii.  10) .  It  is  clear  that 
there  were  many  Christians  at  Rome  before 
St.  Paul  visited  the  city  (Rom.  i.  8,  13,  15, 
XV.  20).  The  names  of  twenty-four  Chris- 
tians at  Rome  are  given  in  the  salutations 
at  the  end  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
Linus  (who  is  mentioned,  2  Tim.  iv.  21), 
and  Clement  (Phil.  iv.  3)  are  supposed  to 
have  succeeded  St.  Peter  as  bishops  of 
Rome.  Rome  seems  to  be  described  under 
the  name  of  Babylon  in  Rev.  xiv.  8,  xvL 
19,  xvii.  5,  xviii.  2,  21 ;  and  again,  as  the 
city  of  the  seven  hills  (Rev.  xvii.  9,  cf.  xii. 
3,  xiii.  1). 

Koof.     [House.] 

Room.  This  word  is  employed  in  the 
A.  V.  of  the  New  Testament  as  the  equiv- 
alent of  no  less  than  eight  distinct  Greek 
terms.  The  only  one  of  these,  however, 
which  need  be  noticed  here  is  Tr^itoroxitoia 
(Matt,  xxiii.  6 ;  Mark  xii.  39 ;  Luke  xiv.  7, 
8,  XX.  46),  which  signifies  the  highest  place 
on  the  highest  couch  round  the  dinner  or 
supper  table  —  the  "  uppermost  seat,"  aa 
it  is  more  accurately  rendered  in  Luke  xi. 
43. 

Hose  occurs  twice  only,  viz.  in  Cant.  ii. 
1 ;  Is.  XXV.  1.  There  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  what  particular  flower  is  here 
denoted ;  but  it  appears  to  us  most  probable 
that  the  narcissus  is  intended.  The  nar- 
cissus and  the  lily  {LUium  candidum) 
would  be  in  blossom  together  in  the  early 
spring,  while  the  Colchicum  is  an  autumn 
plant.  Chateaubriand  men  dons  the  narcis- 
sus as  growing  in  the  plain  of  Sharon. 
Though  the  rose  is  appai'ently  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  it  is  referred 
to  in  Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  (comp.  also  ch.  1.  8 ; 
xxxix.  13;  Wisd.  ii.  8).  Roses  are  greatly 
prized  in  the  East,  more  especially  for  the 
sake  of  the  rose-water,  which  is  in  much 
request.  Dr.  Hooker  observed  seven  spe- 
cies of  wild  roses  in  Syria. 

Bosh.  In  the  genealogy  of  Gen.  xlvL 
21,  Rosh  is  reckoned  among  the  sons  of 
Benjamin;  but  the  name  does  not  occur 
elsewhere,  and  it  is   extremely  probabl* 


ROSH 


589 


RUTH 


that"Ehi  and  Rosh"  is  a  corruption  of 
"  Ahirain  "  (comp.  Num.  xxvi.  38). 

Hosh  (Ez.  xxxviii.  2,  3,  xxxix.  1).  The 
whole  sentence,  thus  rendered  by  the  A. 
v.,  "  Magog  the  chief  prince  of  Meshech 
and  Tubal,"  ought  to  run,  "  Magog  the 
prince  of  Rosh,  Meshech,  and  Tubal." 
Tlie  moaning  is,  that  Magog  is  the  head  of 
the  three  great  Scythian  tribes,  of  which 
"  Rosh  "  is  thus  the  first.  By  Rosh  is  ap- 
parently meant  the  tribe  on  the  north  of  the 
Taurus,  so  called  from  the  neighborhood  to 
the  Rha,  or  Volga,  and  thus  in  this  name 
and  tribe  we  have  the  first  trace  of  the 
Russ  or  Russian  nation.  The  name  prob- 
ably occurs  again  under  the  altered  form  of 
Rasses,  in  Judith  ii.  23. 

Rosin.  Properly  "  naphtha,"  as  it  is 
both  in  the  LXX.  and  Vulg.  as  well  as  the 
Peshito-Syriac.  In  the  Song  of  the  Three 
Children  (23),  the  servants  of  the  king  of 
Babylon  are  said  to  have  "  ceased  not  to 
make  the  oven  hot  with  rosin,  pitch,  tow, 
and  small  wood."  Pliny  mentions  naphtha 
as  a  product  of  Babylonia,  similar  in  ap- 
pearance to  liquid  bitumen,  and  having  a 
remarkable  affinity  to  fire.  To  this  natural 
product  (known  also  as  Persian  naphtha, 
petroleum,  rock  oil,  Rangoon  tar,  Burmese 
naphtha,  &c.)  reference  is  made  in  the  pas- 
sage in  question. 

Rubies.  Concerning  the  meaning  of 
the  Hebrew  words  translated  "  rubies " 
there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  (Job 
xxviii.  18;  see  also  Prov.  iii.  15,  viii.  11, 
xxxi.  10).  In  Lam.  iv.  7  it  is  said,  "  the 
Nazarites  were  purer  than  snow,  they  were 
whiter  than  milk,  they  were  more  ruddy  in 
body  than  rubies."  Some  suppose  "  coral  " 
to  be  intended.  Others  contend  that  the 
Hebrew  term  denotes  pearls,  and  explain 
the  "  ruddiness,"  alluded  to  above,  by  sup- 
posing that  the  original  word  signifies  mere- 
ly "bright  in  color,"  or  "  color  of  a  red- 
dish tinge." 

Rue  occurs  only  in  Luke  xi.  42,  The 
rue  here  spoken  of  is  doubtless  the  com- 
mon Ruta  graveolens,  a  shrubby  plant  about 
2  feet  higii,  of  strong  medicinal  virtues.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  and 
has  been  found  by  Hasselquist  on  Mount 
Tabor.  The  Talmud  enumerates  rue 
amongst  kitchen-herbs,  and  regards  it  as 
free  of  tithe,  as  being  a  plant  not  cultivated 
in  gardens.  In  our  Lord's  time,  however, 
rue  was  doubtless  a  garden-plant,  and  there- 
fore tithable. 

Ru'fus  is  mentioned  in  Mark  xv.  21, 
along  with  Alexander,  as  a  son  of  Simon 
the  Cyrenian  (Luke  xxiii.  26).  Again,  in 
Rom.  xvi.  13,  the  Apostle  Paul  salutes  a 
Rufus  whom  he  designates  as  *'  elect  in  the 
Lord."  It  is  generally  supposed  that  this 
Rufus  was  identical  with  the  one  to  whom 
Mark  refers.  Yet  we  are  to  bear  in  mind 
that  Rufus  was  not  an  uncommon  name, 


and  possibly,   therefore,   Mark   and  Paul 
may  have  had  in  view  different  individuals. 

Ru'hamah.  The  margin  of  our  ver- 
sion renders  it  "having  obtained  mercy ^ 
(llos.  ii.  1).  The  name,  if  name  it  be,  is, 
like  Loruhamah,  symbolical,  and  is  ad- 
dressed to  the  daughters  of  the  people  to 
denote  that  they  were  still  the  objects  of 
his  love  and  tender  compassion. 

Ru'mall,  mentioned  once  only  (2  K. 
xxiii.  36).  It  has  been  conjectured  to  be 
the  same  place  as  Arumah  (Judg.  ix.  41), 
which  was  apparently  near  Shechem.  It  is 
more  probable  that  it  is  identical  with  Dtt- 
mah  (Josh.  xv.  52). 

Rush.     [Reed.] 

Rust  occurs  as  the  translation  of  two 
different  Greek  words  in  Matt.  vi.  19,  20, 
and  in  James  v.  3.  In  the  former  passage 
the  word  p^ioa ig,  which  is  joined  with 
"  moth,"  has  by  some  been  understood  to 
denote  the  larva  of  some  moth  injurious  to 
corn,  as  the  Tinea  granella.  It  can  scarce- 
ly be  taken  to  signify  "rust,"  for  which 
there  is  another  term,  lug,  which  is  used  by 
St.  James  to  express  rather  the  "tarnish" 
which  overspreads  silver  than  "rust,"  by 
which  name  we  now  understand  "  oxide  of 
iron." 

Ruth,  a  Moabitish  woman,  the  wife, 
first,  of  Mahlon,  secondly  of  Boaz,  the  an- 
cestress of  David  and  of  Christ,  and  one 
of  the  four  women  who  are  named  by  St. 
Matthew  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ.  A 
severe  famine  in  the  land  of  Judah  in- 
duced Elimelech,  a  native  of  Bethlehem 
Ephratah,  to  emigrate  into  the  land  of 
Moab,  with  his  wife  Naomi,  and  his  two 
sons,  Mahlon  and  Chilion.  At  the  end  of 
ten  years,  Naomi,  row  left  a  widow  and 
childless,  having  iieard  that  there  was 
plenty  again  in  Judah,  resolved  to  return  to 
Bethlehem,  and  her  daughter-in-law,  Ruth, 
returned  with  her.  They  arrived  at  Beth- 
lehem just  at  the  beginning  of  barley  har- 
vest, and  Ruth,  going  out  to  glean,  chanced 
to  go  into  the  field  of  Boaz,  a  wealthy  man, 
and  near  kinsman  of  her  father-in-law 
Elimelech.  Upon  learning  who  the  stran- 
ger was,  Boaz  treated  her  with  the  utmost 
kindness  and  respect,  and  sent  her  home 
laden  with  corn  which  she  had  gleaned. 
Encouraged  by  this  incident,  Naomi  in 
structed  Ruth  to  claim  at  the  hand  of  Boaz 
that  he  should  perform  the  part  of  her 
husband's  near  kinsman,  by  purchasing  the 
inherit.ince  of  Elimelech,  and  taking  her 
to  be  his  wife.  But  there  was  a  nearer 
kinsman  than  Boaz,  and  it  was  necessary 
that  he  should  have  the  option  of  redeem- 
ing the  inheritance  for  himself.  He,  how- 
ever, declined,  fearing  to  mar  his  own  in- 
heritance. Upon  which,  with  all  due 
solemnity,  Boaz  took  Ruth  to  be  his  wife, 
amidst  the  blessings  and  congratulations 
of  their  neighbors.    Their  son,  Obed,  was 


EUTH,  BOOK  OF 


590 


SABBATH 


the  father  of  Jesse,  who  was  the  father  of 
David. 

Huth,  Sook  of,  contains  the  history 
of  Ruth,  as  narrated  in  the  preceding  arti- 
cle. The  main  object  of  the  writer  is 
evidently  to  give  an  account  of  David's 
ancestors ;  and  the  book  was  avowedly 
composed  long  after  the  time  of  the  heroine. 
(See  Ruth  i.  1,  iv.  7,  17.)  Its  date  and 
author  are  quite  uncertain.  It  is  probable 
that  the  books  of  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel, 
and  Kings  originally  formed  but  one  work. 
The  book  of  Ruth  clearly  forms  part  of 
those  of  Samuel,  supplying  as  it  does  the 
essential  point  of  David's  genealogy  and 
early  flimily  history,  and  is  no  less  clearly 
connected  with  the  book  of  Judges  by  its 
opening  verse,  and  the  epoch  to  which  the 
whole  book  relates. 

Rye  (Heb.  cussemeth)  occurs  in  Ex.  ix. 
82 ;  Is.  xxviii.  25 :  in  the  latter  the  margin 
reads  "spelt."  In  Ez.  iv.  9  the  text  has 
"fitches,"  and  the  margin  "rie."  It  is 
probable  that  by  cussemeth  "  spelt "  is  in- 
tended. Spelt  {Triticum  spelta)  is  grown 
in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  Germany ;  it 
diflFers  but  slightly  from  our  common  wheat 
(T.  vulgare). 


S. 


Sabaoth,  The  Lord  of,  occurs  in 
Kom.  ix.  29 ;  James  v.  4,  but  is  more 
familiar  through  its  occurrence  in  the  Sanc- 
tus  of  Te  Deum — "Holy,  Holy,  Holy, 
Lord  God  of  Sabaoth."  Sabaoth  is  the 
Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  word  tsebddth, 
"  armies,"  and  is  translated  in  the  Author- 
ized Version  of  the  O.  T.  by  "Lord  of 
Hosts,"  "  Lord  God  of  Hosts."  In  the 
mouth  and  the  mind  of  an  ancient  He- 
brew, Jehovah-isebdoth  was  the  leader  and 
commander  of  the  armies  of  the  nation, 
who  "  went  forth  with  them"  (Ps.  xliv.  9), 
and  led  them  to  certain  victory  over  the 
worshippers  of  Baal,  Chemosh,  Molech, 
Ashtaroth,  and  other  false  gods. 

Sabbath  (shabb&th,  "a  day  of  rest," 
from  shdbath,  "  to  cease  to  do,"  "  to  rest "). 
The  name  is  applied  to  divers  great  festi- 
vals, but  principally  and  usually  to  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week,  the  strict  obser- 
vance of  which  is  enforced  not  merely  in 
the  general  Mosaic  code,  but  in  the  Deca- 
logue itself.  The  consecration  of  the  Sab- 
bath was  coeval  with  the  Creation.  The 
first  Scriptural  notice  of  it,  though  it  is  not 
mentioned  by  name,  is  to  be  found  in  Gen. 
ii.  3,  at  the  close  of  the  record  of  the  six 
days'  creation.  It  has  been  maintained  by 
some  that  this  is  only  an  anticipatory  ref- 
erence to  the  Fourth  Commandment,  be- 
cause there  is  no  record  of  the  observance 
of  the  Sabbalh  between  the  Creation  and 
the  Exodus.    But  this  is  just  in  accord- 


ance with  the  plan  of  the  Scripture  narra- 
tive, in  whicli  regular  and  ordinary  events 
are  unnoticed.  There  are  not  wanting 
indirect  evidences  of  its  observance,  as 
the  intervals  between  Noah's  sending  forth 
the  birds  out  of  the  ark,  an  act  naturally 
associated  with  the  weekly  service  (Gen. 
viii.  7-12),  and  in  the  week  of  a  wedding 
celebration  (Gen.  xxix.  27,  28) ;  but  when 
a  special  occasion  arises,  in  connection 
with  the  prohibition  against  gatliering  manna 
on  the  Sabbath,  the  institution  is  mentioned 
as  one  calready  known  (Ex.  xvi.  22-30).* 
And  that  this  was  especially  one  of  the 
institutions  adopted  by  Moses  from  the 
ancient  patriarchal  usage  is  implied  in  the 
very  words  of  the  law,  "  Remember  the 
Sabbath  day,  to  keep  it  holy."  But  even 
if  such  evidence  were  wanting,  the  reason 
of  the  institution  would  be  a  sufficient  proof. 
It  was  to  be  a  joyful  celebration  of  God's 
completion  of  His  creation.  It  has  indeed 
been  said  that  Moses  gives  quite  a  different 
reason  for  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath,  as 
a  memorial  of  the  deliverance  from  Egyp- 
tian bondage  (Deut.  v.  15).  As  if  Moses, 
in  his  repetition  of  the  law,  had  forgotten 
the  reason  given  by  God  himself  from  Sinai 
(Ex.  XX.  11).  The  words  added  in  Deu- 
teronomy are  a  special  motive  for  the  joy 
with  which  the  Sabbath  should  be  cele- 
brated, and  for  the  kindness  which  extended 
its  blessings  to  the  slave  and  beast  of  bur- 
den as  well  as  the  master :  "  that  thy  man- 
servant and  thy  maidservant  may  rest  as 
well  as  thou "  (Deut.  v.  14).  These  at- 
tempts to  limit  the  ordinance  proceed  from 
an  entire  misconception  of  its  spirit,  as  if 
it  were  a  season  of  stern  privation  rather 
than  of  special  privilege.  But,  in  truth, 
the  prohibition  of  work  is  only  subsidiary 
to  the  positive  idea  of  joyful  rest  and  recrea- 
tion, in  communion  with  Jehovah,  who  him- 
self "  rested  and  was  refreshed"  (Ex.  xxxi. 
17  :  comp.  xxiii.  12.)  It  is  in  Ex.  xvi.  23-29 
that  we  find  the  first  incontrovertible  institu- 
tion of  the  day,  as  one  given  to,  and  to  be  kept 
by,  the  children  of  Israel.  Shortly  after- 
wards it  was  re-enacted  in  the  Fourth  Com- 
mandment. The  Sabbath  was  the  key-note 
to  a  scale  of  Sabbatical  observance  —  con- 
sisting of  itself,  the  seventh  month,  tlie 
seventh  year,  and  the  year  of  Jubilee.  As 
each  seventh  day  was  sacred,  so  was  each 
seventh  month,  and  each  seventh  year. 
Of  the  observances  of  the  seventh  month, 
little  needs  be  said.  That  month  opened 
with  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  and  contained 
the  day  of  Atonement  and  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles —  the  last  named  being  the  most 
joyful  of  Hebrew  festivals.  Its  great  cen- 
tre was  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  or  In- 
gathering, the  year  and  the  year's  labor 


*  AU  this  is  confirmed  by  the  great  antiquity  of  the  divii- 
ion  of  time  into  weelo,  and  the  naming  the  daya  after  th* 
lun,  moon,  and  plaueta. 


SABBATH 


591 


SABBATH 


having  then  done  their  work  and  yielded  | 
their  issues.  The  rules  for  the  Sabbatical 
year  are  very  precise.  As  labor  was  pro- 
hibited on  the  seventh  day,  so  the  land  was 
to  rest  every  seventh  year.  And  as  each 
forty-ninth  year  wound  up  seven  of  such 
weeks  of  years,  so  it  either  was  itself,  or 
it  ushered  in,  wliat  was  called  "  the  year  of 
Jubilee."  In  Exodus  xxiii.  10,  11,  we  find 
the  Sabbatical  year  placed  in  close  connec- 
tion with  the  Sabbath-day,  and  the  words 
in  which  the  former  is  prescribed  are  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  Fourth  Commandment. 
This  is  immediately  followed  by  a  renewed 
proclamation  of  the  law  of  the  Sabbath.  It 
is  impossible  to  avoid  perceiving  that  in 
these  passages  the  two  institutions  are  put 
on  the  same  ground,  and  are  represented 
as  quite  homogeneous.  Their  aim,  as  here 
exhibited,  is  eminently  a  beneficent  one. 
To  give  rights  to  classes  that  would  other- 
wise have  been  without  such,  to  the  bond- 
man and  bondmaid,  nay,  to  the  beast 
of  the  field,  is  viewed  here  as  their  main 
end.  "  The  stranger,"  too,  is  compre- 
hended in  the  benefit.  The  same  benefi- 
cent aim  is  still  more  apparent  in  the  fuller 
legislation  respecting  the  Sabbatical  year 
which  we  find  in  Lev.  xxv.  2-7.  One 
great  aim  of  both  institutions,  the  Sabbath- 
day  and  the  Sabbatical  year,  clearly  was 
to  debar  the  Hebrew  from  the  thought 
of  absolute  ownership  of  anything.  The 
year  of  Jubilee  must  be  regarded  as  com- 
pleting tliis  Sabbatical  Scale,  whether  we 
consider  it  as  really  the  forty-ninth  year, 
the  seventh  of  a  week  of  Sabbatical  years 
or  the  fiftieth,  a  question  on  which  opinions 
are  divided.  This  beneficent  character 
of  the  Fourth  Commandment  is  very  ap- 
parent in  the  version  of  it  which  we  find 
in  Deuteronomy  (Deut.  v.  12-15).  But 
although  this  be  so,  and  though  it  be  plain 
that  to  come  within  the  scope  of  the  com- 
mandment was  to  possess  a  franchise,  to 
share  in  a  privilege,  yet  does  the  original 
proclamation  of  it  in  Exodus  place  it  on  a 
ground  which,  closely  connected,  no  doubt, 
with  these  others,  is  yet  higher  and  more 
comprehensive.  The  Divine  method  of 
working  and  rest  is  there  proposed  to  man 
as  the  model  after  which  he  is  to  work  and 
to  rest.  Time  then  presents  a  perfect  wliole, 
is  then  well  rounded  and  entire,  when  it  is 
shaped  into  a  week,  modelled  on  the  six 
days  of  creation  and  their  following  Sab- 
bath. Six  days'  work  and  the  seventh  day's 
rest  conform  the  life  of  man  to  the  method 
of  his  Creator.  In  distributing  his  life  thus, 
man  may  look  up  to  God  as  liis  Archetype. 
It  is  most  important  to  remember  that  the 
Fourth  Commandment  is  not  limited  to  a 
mere  enactment  respecting  one  day,  but 
prescribes  the  due  distribution  of  a  week, 
and  enforces  the  six  days'  work  as  much  as 
the  seventh  day's  rest.   This  higher  ground 


of  observance  was  felt  to  invest  the  Sabbath 
with  a  theological  character,  and  rendered 
it  the  great  witness  for  faith  in  a  personal 
and  creating  God.  In  all  this,  however,  we 
have  but  an  assertion  of  the  general  prin- 
ciple of  resting  on  the  Sabbath,  and  must 
seek  elsewhere  for  information  as  to  the 
details  wherewith  that  principle  was  to  be 
brought  out.  It  was  to  be  a  sacred  pause 
in  the  ordinary  labor  by  which  man  earns 
his  bread ;  the  curse  of  the  fall  was  to  be 
suspended  for  one  day ;  and,  having  spent 
that  day  in  joyful  remembrance  of  God's 
mercies,  man  had  a  fresh  start  in  Ms  course 
of  labor.  A  great  snare,  too,  has  always 
been  hidden  in  the  word  wo rA;,  as  if  the 
commandment  forbade  occupation  and  im- 
posed idleness.  The  terms  in  the  com- 
mandment show  plainly  enough  the  sort 
of  work  which  is  contemplated.  They  are 
servile  work,  and  business.  The  Pentateuch 
presents  us  with  but  three  applications  of 
the  general  principle  (Ex.  xvi.  29,  xxxv.  3 ; 
Num.  XV.  32-36).  The  reference  of  Isaiah 
to  the  Sabbath  gives  us  no  details.  Those 
in  Jeremiah  and  Nehemiah  show  that  car- 
rying goods  for  sale,  and  buying  such,  were 
equally  profanations  of  the  day.  There  is 
no  ground  for  supposing  that  to  engage  the 
enemy  on  the  Sabbath  was  considered  un- 
lawful before  the  Captivity.  At  a  subse- 
quent period  we  know  (1  Mace.  ii.  34-88) 
that  the  scruple  existed,  and  was  acted  on 
with  most  calamitous  efiects.  Yet  the 
scruple,  like  many  other  scruples,  proved 
a  convenience,  and  under  the  Roman  Em- 
pire the  Jews  procured  exemption  from 
military  service  by  means  of  it.  It  was 
not,  however,  without  its  evils.  In  tlie 
siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey,  as  well  as 
in  the  final  one  by  Titus,  the  Romans  took 
advantage  of  it.  A  consideration  of  the 
spirit  of  the  law  and  of  Christ's  comments 
on  it  will  show  that  it  is  work  for  worldly 
gain  that  was  to  be  suspended ;  and  hence 
the  restrictive  clau»e  is  prefaced  with  the 
positive  command,  "  Six  days  sJialt  thou 
labor,  and  do  all  thy  work ;  "  for  so  only 
could  the  Sabbatic  rest  be  fairly  earned. 
Hence,  too,  the  stress  constantly  laid  on 
permitting  the  servant  and  beast  of  burden 
to  share  the  rest  which  selfishness  would 
grudge  to  them.  Thus  the  spirit  of  tlie 
Sabbath  was  joy,  refreshment,  and  mercy, 
arising  from  remembrance  of  God's  good- 
ness as  the  Creator,  and  as  the  Deliverer 
from  bondage.  We  have  seen,  then,  that, 
for  whomsoever  else  the  provision  was  in- 
tended, the  chosen  race  were  in  possession 
of  an  ordinance,  whereby  neither  a  man's 
time  nor  his  property  could  be  considered 
absolutely  his  own,  the  seventh  of  each 
week  being  holy  to  God,  and  dedicated  to 
rest  after  the  pattern  of  God's  rest,  and 
giving  equal  rights  to  all.  We  have  also 
seen  that  this  provision  was  the  tonic  to  a 


SABBATH 


592 


SABBATH 


chord  of  Sabbatical  observance,  tlirough 
which  the  same  preat  principles  of  God's 
claim  and  society's,  on  every  man's  time 
and  every  man's  property,  were  extended 
and  developed.  Of  the  Sabbatical  year, 
indeed,  and  of  the  year  of  Jubilee,  it  may 
be  questioned  whether  they  were  persis- 
tently observed.  These  views  are  practi- 
cally illustrated  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  Israelites  were  to  spend,  and  in  which 
the  prophets  afterwards  reprove  them  for 
not  spending,  the  Sabbath  and  the  other 
festivals.  The  Sabbath  was  a  perpetual 
sign  and  covenant,  and  the  holiness  of  the 
day  is  connected  with  the  holiness  of  the 
people ;  "  that  ye  may  know  that  I  am  Je- 
hovah that  doth  sanctify  you  "  (Ex.  xxxi. 
12-17;  Ez.  XX.  12).  Joy  was  the  key-note 
of  their  service.  Moses  declared  that  a 
place  of  sacrifice  should  be  given  them ; 
"  and  there  shall  ye  eat  before  Jehovah 
your  God,  and  ye  shall  rejoice,  ye  and  your 
households  "  (Deut.  xii.  7,  xiv.  26,  xvi.  14, 
15,  xxvi.  11).  The  Psalmists  echo  back 
the  same  spirit :  "  This  is  the  day  which 
Jehov%h  hath  made ;  we  will  rejoice  and  be 
glad  in  it"  (Ps.  cxviii.  24).  Isaiah  re- 
proves the  fasts  which  were  kept  with  mere 
outward  observance,  in  place  of  acts  of 
charity,  by  promising  that  those  who  called 
the  Sabbath  a  delight  and  honored  God  by 
doing  His  works  in  it,  should  delight  them- 
selves in  Jehovah  (Is.  Iviii.  3-14).  Nehe- 
niiah  commanded  the  people,  on  a  day  holy 
to  Jehovah,  *'  Mourn  not,  nor  weep :  eat  the 
fat,  and  drink  the  sweet,  and  send  portions  to 
them  for  whom  nothing  is  prepared  "  (Neh. 
viii.  9-13).  The  Sabbath  is  named  as  a  day 
of  special  worship  in  the  sanctuary  (Lev.  xix. 
30,  XX vi.  2) .  It  was  proclaimed  as  a  holy  con- 
vocation (Lev.  xxiii.  3).  The  public  reli- 
gious services  consisted  in  the  doublingof  the 
morning  and  evening  sacrifice,  and  the  re- 
newal of  the  shewbread  in  the  Holy  Place. 
In  later  times  the  worship  of  the  sanctuary 
was  enlivened  by  sacred  music  (Ps.  Ixviii. 
25-27,  cl.,  &,c.).  On  this  day  the  people  were 
accustomed  to  consult  tlipir  prophets  (2  K. 
iv.  23),  and  to  give  to  their  children  that 
instruction  in  the  truths  recalled  to  memory 
by  the  day,  which  is  so  repeatedly  enjoined 
as  the  duty  of  parents ;  it  was  "the  Sab- 
bath of  Jehovah  "  not  only  in  the  Sanctuary, 
but  "  in  all  their  dwellings  "  (Lev.  xxiii.  3). 
It  is  quite  true  that  we  have  but  little 
information  on  this  part  of  the  subject 
in  the  Scriptures  themselves,  but  the  in- 
ferences drawn  from  what  is  told  us,  and 
from  the  character  of  the  day,  are  confirmed 
by  the  testimony  of  later  writers,  and  by 
the  system  of  public  worship  in  the  syna- 
gogues, which  we  find  in  full  operation  at 
the  time  of  Christ.  The  prohibitory  part 
of  the  law  is  general ;  and  the  only  special 
cases  mentioned  relate  to  the  preparation  of 
food.    The  manna  was  not  given  on  the  Sab- 


bath, but  a  double  supply  was  to  be  gath- 
ered on  the  day  before  (Ex.  xvi.  22-30),  just 
as  the  rest  of  the  Sabbatic  year  was  compen- 
sated by  the  extraordinary  fertility  of  the 
year  before.  No  fire  was  to  be  kindled  on 
the  Sabbath,  under  the  penalty  of  death 
(Ex.  XXXV.  2,  3;  comp.  xxxi.  14),  which 
was  inflicted  on  a  man  who  went  out  to 
gather  sticks  on  the  Sabbath  (Num.  xv. 
35).  Its  observance  is  enjoined  in  the 
time  of  earing  and  harvest,  wlien  there 
was  a  special  temptation  to  find  an  excuse 
for  work  (Ex.  xxxiv.  21).  The  habituaL 
transgression  of  tliese  laws,  by  priests  aa 
well  as  people,  was  denounced  by  the 
prophets  (Is.  Ivi.  2,  Iviii.  13;  Ez.  xxii.  26, 
comp.  xliv.  22),  and  excited  tlie  reforming 
zeal  of  Nehemiah  after  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  xiii.  15-19).  Hencefoiw^ard 
there  is  no  evidence  of  the  Sabbath  being 
neglected  by  the  Jews,  except  such  as  (1 
Mace.  i.  11-15,  39-45)  went  into  open 
apostasy. — When  we  come  to  the  N.  T. 
we  find  the  most  marked  stress  laid  on 
the  Sabbath.  In  whatever  ways  the  Jew 
might  err  respecting  it,  he  had  altogether 
ceased  to  neglect  it.  On  the  contrary, 
wherever  he  went  its  observance  became 
tlie  most  visible  badge  of  his  nationality. 
Our  Lord's  mode  of  observing  the  Sab- 
bath was  one  of  the  main  features  of  His 
life,  which  His  Pharisaic  adversaries  most 
eagerly  watched  and  criticised.  They  had 
invented  many  prohibitions  respecting  the 
Sabbath  of  which  we  find  nothing  in  the 
original  institution.  Some  of  these  pro- 
hibitions were  fantastic  and  arbitrary,  in 
the  number  of  those  "  heavy  burdens  and 
grievous  to  be  borne  "  which  the  latter  ex- 
pounders of  the  Law  "laid  on  men's  shoul- 
ders "  (comp.  Matt.  xii.  1-13 ;  John  v.  10). 
That  this  perversion  of  the  Sabbath  had 
become  very  general  in  our  Saviour's  time 
is  apparent  both  from  the  recorded  objec- 
tions to  acts  of  His  on  that  day,  and  from 
His  markeil  conduct  on  occasions  to  which 
those  objections  were  sure  to  be  urged 
(Matt.  xii.  1-15 ;  Mark  iii.  2 ;  Luke  A'i.  1- 
5,  xiii.  10-17;  John  v.  2-18,  vii.  23,  ix.  1- 
34).  The  Epistles,  it  must  be  admitted, 
with  the  exception  of  one  place,  and  per- 
haps another  (Heb.  iv.  9),  are  silent  on  tlie 
subject  of  the  Sabbath.  No  rules  for  its 
observance  are  ever  given  by  the  Apostles 
—  its  violation  is  never  denounced  by  them; 
Sabbath-breakers  are  never  included  in  any 
list  of  ofienders.  Col.  ii.  16,  17,  seems  a 
far  stronger  argument  for  the  abolition  of 
the  Sabbath  in  tlie  Christian  dispensation 
than  is  furnished  by  Heb.  iv.  9  for  its  con- 
tinuance ;  and  while  the  first  day  of  the 
week  is  more  than  once  referred  to  as  one 
of  religious  observance,  it  is  never  identi- 
fied with  the  Sabbath.  When  we  turn  to 
the  monuments,  which  we  possess  of  the 
early  Church,  we  find  ourselves  on  the 


SABBATH-DAY'S  JOUxlNEY       593 


SABTAH 


whole  carried  in  the  same  direction.  Again, 
tiie  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day  as  a  Sab- 
bath would  have  been  well  nigh  impossible 
to  the  majority  of  Christians  in  the  first 
ages.  When  the  early  Fathers  speak  of 
tlie  Lord's  Day,  they  sometimes,  perhaps 
by  comparing,  connect  it  with  the  Sabbath ; 
but  we  have  never  found  a  passage,  previ- 
ous to  the  conversion  of  Constantine,  pro- 
hibitory of  any  work  or  occupation  on  the 
former,  and  any  such,  did  it  exist,  would 
have  been  in  a  great  measure  nugatory,  for 
tlie  reasons  just  alleged.  After  Constantine 
tilings  become  different  at  once.  His  cele- 
brated edict  prohibitory  of  judicial  proceed- 
ings on  the  Lord's  Day  was  probably  dic- 
tated by  a  wish  to  give  the  great  Christian 
festival  as  much  honor  as  was  enjoyed  by 
those  of  the  heathen,  rather  than  by  any 
reference  to  the  Sabbath  or  the  Fourth 
Commandment  ;  but  it  was  followed  by 
several  which  extended  the  prohibition  to 
many  other  occupations,  and  to  many  forms 
of  pleasure  held  innocent  on  ordinary  days. 
But  it  was  surely  impossible  both  to  observe 
tlie  Lord's  Day,  as  was  done  by  Christians 
after  Constantine,  and  to  read  the  Fourth 
Commandment,  without  connecting  the  two ; 
and,  seeing  that  such  was  to  be  the  practice 
of  the  developed  Church,  we  can  understand 
bow  the  silence  of  the  N.  T.  Epistles,  and 
even  the  strong  words  of  St.  Paul  (Col.  ii. 
1(3,  17),  do  not  impair  the  human  and  uni- 
versal scope  of  the  Fourth  Commandment, 
CKhibited  so  strongly  in  the  very  nature  of 
the  Law,  and  in  the  teaching  respecting  it 
of  Him  who  came  not  to  destroy  the  Law, 
but  to  fulfil.  —  Among  the  Christians  the 
"Lord's  Day  "  —  the  first  day  of  the  week 
—  gradually  took  the  place  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath.     [Lord's  Day.] 

Sabbath-day's  Journey  (Acts  i.  12). 
On  occasion  of  a  violation  of  the  command- 
ment by  certain  of  the  people  who  went  to 
look  for  manna  on  the  seventh  day,  Moses 
enjoined  every  man  to  "  abide  in  his  place," 
and  forbade  any  man  to  "  go  out  of  his 
place"  on  that  day  (Ex.  xvi.  29).  It  seems 
natural  to  look  on  this  as  a  mere  enactment 
pro  re  natd,  and  having  no  bearing  on  any 
state  of  affairs  subsequent  to  the  journey 
through  tli^  wilderness  and  the  daily  gath- 
ering of  manna.  Whether  the  earlier  He- 
brews did  or  did  not  regard  it  thus,  it  is 
not  easy  to  say.  In  after  times  the  pre- 
cept in  Ex.  xvi.  was  undoubtedly  viewed 
as  a  permanent  law.  But  as  some  depart- 
ure from  a  man's  own  place  was  unavoid- 
able, it  was  thought  necessary  to  determine 
tlie  allowable  amount,  which  was  fixed  at 
2000  paces,  or  about  six  furlongs,  from  the 
wall  of  the  city.  The  permitted  distance 
seems  to  have  been  grounded  on  the  space 
to  be  kept  Ix-tween  the  Ark  and  the  people 
(Josh.  iii.  4)  in  the  wilderness,  which  tra- 
ditiuD  said  was  that  between  the  Ark  and 
38 


the  tents.  "We  find  the  same  distance  given 
as  the  circumference  outside  the  walls  oi 
the  Levitical  cities  to  be  counted  as  their 
suburbs  (Num.  xxxv.  5).  The  terminus  A 
quo  was  thus  not  a  man's  own  house,  but 
the  wall  of  the  city  where  he  dwelt. 

Sabbatical  Year.  As  each  seventh 
day  and  each  seventh  month  were  holy,  so 
was  each  seventh  year,  by  the  Mosaic  code. 
We  first  encounter  this  law  in  Ex.  xxiii. 
10,  11.  The  commandment  is,  to  sow  and 
reap  for  six  years,  and  to  let  the  land  rest 
on  the  seventh,  "that  the  poor  of  thy  peo- 
ple may  eat ;  and  what  they  leave  the  beasts 
of  the  field  shall  eat."  It  is  added,  "In 
like  manner  thou  shalt  deal  with  thy  vine- 
yard and  thy  olive-yard."  We  next  meet 
with  the  enactment  in  Lev.  xxv.  2-7,  and 
finally  in  Deut.  xv.,  in  which  last  place  the 
new  feature  presents  itself  of  the  seventh 
year  being  one  of  release  to  debtors.  When 
M'e  combine  these  several  notices,  we  find 
that  every  seventh  year  the  land  was  to 
have  rest  to  enjoy  her  Sabbaths.  Neither 
tillage  nor  cultivation  of  any  sort  was  to  be 
practised.  This  singular  institution  has 
the  aspect,  at  first  sigiit,  of  total  impracti- 
cability. This,  however,  wears  off  when  we 
consider  that  in  no  year  was  the  owner  al- 
lowed to  reap  the  whole  harvest  (Lev.  xix. , 
9,  xxiii.  22).  Moreover,  it  is  clear  that  the 
owners  of  land  were  to  lay  by  corn  in  pre- 
vious years  for  their  own  and  their  families* 
wants  (Lev.  xxv.  20-22).  The  release  of 
debtors  during  the  Sabbatical  year  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  release  of 
slaves  on  the  seventh  year  of  their  service. 
The  spirit  of  this  law  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  weekly  Sabbath.  Both  have  a  be- 
neficent tendency,  limiting  the  rights  and 
checking  the  sense  of  property ;  the  one 
puts  in  God's  claims  on  time,  the  other  on 
the  land.  There  may  also  have  been  an 
eye  to  the  benefit  which  would  accrue  to 
the  land  from  lying  fallow  every  seventli! 
year,  in  a  time  when  the  rotation  of  crops; 
was  unknown.  The  Sabbatical  year  openedi 
in  the  Sabbatical  month,  and  the  whole  Law 
was  to  be  read  every  such  year,  during  the- 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  to  the  assembled  peo- 
ple. At  the  completion  of  a  week  of  Sab- 
batical years,  the  Sabbatical  scale  received' 
its  completion  in  the  year  of  Jabilee.  [Ju- 
bilee.] The  constant  neglect  of  this  law^ 
from  the  very  first  was  one  of  the  national 
sins  that  were  punished  by  the  Babylonian 
captivity.  Moses  warned  Israel  of  the  ret- 
ribution, that  their  land  should  be  desolate 
till  it  had  enjoyed  its  Sabbaths  (Lev.  xxvi. 
32-35) ;  and  the  warning  was  fulfilled  in 
the  seventy  years'  duration  of  the  captivity 
(2  Chr.  xxxvi.  20,  21).  Of  the  observance 
of  the  Sabbatic  year  after  the  captivity  we 
have  a  proof  in  1  Mace.  vi.  49. 

Sabe'ans.    [Sheba.] 

Sab'tah  (Gen.  x.  7),  or  Sab'ta  (l  Chr. 


SABTECHA 


594 


SACRIFICE 


i.  0),  the  third  in  order  of  the  sons  of  Cush. 
The  statements  of  Pliny  and  Ptolemy  re- 
specting Siibbatha,  Sabota,  or  Sobotale,  the 
metropolis  of  the  Atramitae  (probably  the 
Chatramotitae),  seem  to  point  to  a  trace  of 
the  tribe  which  descended  from  Sabtah. 
Ptolemy  places  Sabbatha  in  77°  long.  16° 
30'  lat.  It  was  an  important  city,  contain- 
ing no  less  than  sixty  temples. 

Sab'techa,  and  Sab'techah  (Gen.  x. 
7 ;  1  Chr.  i.  9),  the  fifth  in  order  of  the 
sons  of  Cush,  whose  settlements  would 
probably  be  near  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Sa'car.  1.  A  Hararite,  fother  of  Ahiam 
(1  Chr.  xi.  35).  2.  The  fourth  son  of 
Obed-edom  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  4). 

Sackbut  (Dan.  iii.  5,  7,  10,  15),  the 
rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Chaldee 
sabheca.  If  this  musical  instrument  be 
the  same  as  the  Greek  and  Latin  sambuca, 
the  English  translation  is  entirely  wrong. 
The  sackbut  was  a  wind-instrument;  the 
sambuca  was  played  with  strings. 

Sackcloth,  a  coarse  texture,  of  a  dark 
color,  made  of  goats'-hair  (Is.  1.  3;  Rev. 
vi.  12),  and  resembling  the  cilicium  of  the 
Romans.  It  was  used  for  making  sacks 
(Gen.  xlii.  25 ;  Lev.  xi.  32;  Josh.  ix.  4), 
and  for  making  the  rough  garments  used  by 
mourners,  which  were  in  extreme  cases 
worn  next  the  skin  (1  K.  xxi.  27 ;  2  K.  vi. 
30;  Job  xvi.  15;  Is.  xxxii.  11),  and  this 
even  by  females  (Joel  i.  8 ;  2  Mace.  iii.  19), 
but  at  other  times  were  worn  over  the 
coat  (Jon.  iii.  6)  in  lieu  of  the  outer  gar- 
ment. 

Sacrifice.  The  peculiar  features  of 
each  kind  of  sacrifice  are  referred  to  under 
their  respective  hands.  I.  (A.)  Origin 
OF  Sacrifice.  —  The  universal  prevalence 
of  sacrifice  shows  it  to  have  been  primeval, 
and  deeply  rooted  in  the  instincts  of  hu- 
manity. Whether  it  was  first  enjoined  by 
an  external  command,  or  whether  it  was 
based  on  that  sense  of  sin  and  lost  com- 
munion with  God  which  is  stamped  by  His 
hand  on  the  heart  of  man,  is  an  historical 
question,  perhaps  insoluble.  The  great 
difHculty  in  the  theory  which  refers  it  to  a 
distinct  command  of  God,  is  the  total  silence 
of  Holy  Scripture.  Nor  is  the  fact  of  the 
mysterious  and  supernatural  character  of 
the  doctrine  of  Atonement,  with  which  the 
sacrifices  of  the  O.  T.  are  expressly  con- 
nected, any  conclusive  argument  on  this 
side  of  the  question.  AH  allow  that  the 
eucharistic  and  deprecatory  ideas  of  sacri- 
fice are  perfectly  natural  to  man.  The 
higher  view  of  its  expiatory  character,  de- 
pendent, as  it  is,  entirely  on  its  typical 
nature,  appears  but  gradually  in  Scripture. 
It^is  only  in  the  N.  T.  (especially  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews)  that  its  nature  is 
clearly  unfolded.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that, 
except  in  Gen.  xv.  9,  the  method  of  patri- 
archal sacrifice  is  left  free.     The  inference 


is  at  last  probable,  that  when  God  sanc- 
tioned formally  a  natural  rite,  then,  and 
not  till  then,  did  He  define  its  method. 
(B.)  Ante-Mosaic  History  of  Sacrifice. 
—  In  examining  the  various  sacrifices  re- 
corded in  Scripture  before  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Law,  we  find  that  the  words 
specially  denoting  expiatory  sacrifice  are 
not  applied  to  them.  This  fact  does  not 
at  all  show  that  they  were  not  actually  ex- 
piatory, but  it  justifies  the  inference  that 
this  idea  was  not  then  the  prominent  one  in 
the  doctrine  of  sacrifice.  The  sacrifice  of 
Cain  and  Abel  is  called  minchah,  although 
in  the  case  of  the  latter  it  was  a  bloody 
sacrifice.  In  the  case  of  both  it  would  ap- 
pear to  have  been  eucharistic.  The  sacri- 
fice of  Noah  after  the  flood  (Gen.  viii.  20) 
is  called  burnt-ofiering.  This  sacrifice  is 
expressly  connected  with  the  institution  of 
the  Covenant  wliich  follows,  in  ix.  8-17. 
The  sacrifice  of  Jacob  at  Mispah  also 
marks  a  covenant  with  Laban,  to  which 
God  is  called  to  be  a  witness  and  a  party. 
In  all  these,  therefore,  the  prominent  idea 
seems  to  have  been  what  is  called  the 
federative  —  the  recognition  of  a  bond  be- 
tween the  sacrificer  and  God,  and  the  dedi- 
cation of  himself,  as  represented  by  the 
victim,  to  the  service  of  the  Lord.  Tlie 
sacrifice  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  1-13)  stands 
by  itself.  Yet  in  its  principle  it  appears  to 
have  been  of  the  same  nature  as  before : 
the  voluntary  surrender  of  an  only  son  on 
Abraham's  part,  and  the  willing  dedication 
of  himself  on  Isaac's,  are  in  the  fore- 
ground ;  the  expiatory  idea,  if  recognized 
at  all,  holds  certainly  a  secondary  position. 
In  the  burnt-oiferings  of  Job  for  his  chil- 
dren (Job  i.  5)  and  for  his  three  friends 
(xlii.  8),  we  for  the  first  time  find  the  ex- 
pression of  the  desire  of  expiation  for  sin. 
The  same  is  the  case  in  the  words  of  Moses 
to  Pharaoh  (Ex.  x.  25).  Here  the  main 
idea  is  at  least  deprecatory.  (C)  The  Sac- 
rifices of  the  Mosaic  Period.  —  These 
are  inaugurated  by  the  oflTering  of  the  Pass- 
over and  the  sacrifice  of  Ex.  xxiv.  The 
Passover  indeed  is  unique  in  its  character ; 
but  it  is  clear  that  the  idea  of  salvation  from 
death  by  means  of  sacrifice  is  brought  out 
in  it  with  a  distinctness  before  unknown. 
The  sacrifice  of  Ex.  xxiv.,  offered  as  a 
solemn  inauguration  of  the  Covenant  of 
Sinai,  has  a  similarly  comprehensive  char- 
acter. The  Law  of  Leviticus  now  unfolds 
distinctly  the  various  forms  of  sacrifice : 
(a.)  The  burnt-offering.  Self-dedica- 
tory. (6.)  The  meat-offeritig  (unbloody), • 
the  peace-offering  (bloody).  Eucharistic. 
(c.)  The  sin-offering ;  the  trespass-offer- 
ing. Expiatory.  —  To  these  may  be  add- 
ed, (d.)  The  incense  offered  after  sacri- 
fice in  the  Holy  Place,  and  (on  the  Day  of 
Atonement)  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  sym- 
bol of  the  intercession  of  the  priest  (as  a 


SACRIFICE 


595 


SACRIFICE 


type  of  the  Great  High  Priest),  accom- 
panying and  making  efficacious  tlie  prayer 
of  the  people.  In  the  consecration  of 
Aaron  and  his  sons  Lev.  viii.)  we  find 
these  offered  in  what  became  ever  after- 
wards the  appointed  order :  first  came  the 
rin-offering,  to  prepare  access  to  God; 
next,  the  burnt-offering,  to  mark  their 
dedication  to  his  service;  and  thirdly, 
the  meat-offering  of  thanksgiving.  Hence- 
forth the  sacrificial  system  was  fixed  in  all 
its  parts,  until  He  should  come  whom  it 
typified.  (D.)  Post-Mosaic  Sacrifices. 
—  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  pursue,  in 
detail,  the  history  of  Post-Mosaic  Sacrifice, 
for  its  main  principles  were  now  fixed  for- 
ever. The  regular  sacrifices  in  the  Temple 
service  were,  (a.)  Burnt-Offekings.  1. 
The  daily  burnt-offerings  (Ex.  xxix.  38- 
42).  2.  The  double  burnt-offerings  on  the 
Sabbath  (Num.  xxviii.  9,  10).  3.  The 
burnt-offerings  at  the  great  festivals  (Num. 
xxviii.  11-xxix.  39).  (6.)  Meat-Offer- 
ING8.  1.  The  daily  meat-offerings  accom- 
panying the  daily  burnt-offerings  (Ex.  xxix. 
40, 41).  2.  The  shewbread,  renewed  every 
Sabbath  (Lev,  xxiv.  5,  9).  3.  The  special 
meat-offerings  at  the  Sabbath  and  the  great 
festivals  (Num.  xxviii.,  xxix.).  4.  The 
first-fruits,  at  the  Passover  (Lev.  xxiii.  10- 
14),  at  Pentecost  (xxiii.  17-20)  ;  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  dough  and  threshing-floor  at 
the  harvest-time  (Num.  xv.  20,  21 ;  Deut. 
xxvi.  1-11).  (c.)  Sin-0ffeeing8.  1.  Sin- 
offering  each  new  moon  (Num.  xxviii.  15). 
2.  Sin-offerings  at  tlie  Passover,  Pente- 
cost, Feast  of  Trumpets,  and  Tabernacles 
(Num.  xxviii.  22,  30,  xxLx.  5,  16,  19,  22,- 
25,  28,  31,  34,  38).  3.  The  offering  of 
the  two  goats  for  the  people,  and  of  the 
bullock  for  the  priest  himself,  on  the  Great 
Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.).  (<?.)  In- 
cense. 1.  The  morning  and  evening  in- 
cense (Ex.  XXX.  7,  8).  2.  The  incense  on 
the  Great  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi. 
12).  Besides  these  public  sacrifices,  there 
were  offerings  of  the  people  for  themselves 
individually.  II.  By  the  order  of  sacrifice 
in  its  perfect  form  (as  in  Lev.  viii.)  it  is 
clear  that  the  sin-offering  occupies  the  most 
important  place ;  the  burnt-offering  comes 
next,  and  the  meat-offering  or  peace-offer- 
ing last  of  all.  The  second  could  only  be 
offered  after  the  first  had  been  accepted ; 
the  third  was  only  a  subsidiary  part  of  the 
second.  Yet,  in  actual  order  of  time,  it 
has  been  seen  that  the  patriarchal  sacri- 
fices partook  much  more  of  the  nature 
of  the  peace-offering  and  burnt-offering; 
and  that,  under  the  Law,  by  which  was 
"  the  knowledge  of  sin  "  (Rom.  iii.  20),  the 
sin-offering  was  for  the  first  time  explicitly 
set  forth.  This  is  but  natural,  that  the 
deepest  ideas  should  be  the  last  in  order  of 
development.  It  is  needless  to  dwell  on 
the  universality  of  heathen  sacrifices,  and 


diflicult  to  reduce  to  any  single  theory  the 
various  ideas  involved  therein.  It  is  clear 
that  the  sacrifice  was  often  looked  upon  as 
a  gift  or  tribute  to  the  gods.  It  is  also 
clear  that  sacrifices  were  used  as  prayers 
to  obtain  benefits,  or  to  avert  wrath.  On 
the  other  hand,  that  they  were  regarded  as 
thank-offerings  is  equally  certain.  Nor  was 
the  higher  idea  of  sacrifice,  as  a  represen- 
tation of  the  self-devotion  of  the  offerer, 
body  and  soul,  to  the  god,  wholly  lost, 
although  generally  obscured  by  the  grosser 
and  more  obvious  conceptions  of  the  rite. 
But,  besides  all  these,  there  seems  always 
to  have  been  latent  the  idea  of  propitiation, 
that  is,  the  belief  in  a  communion  with  the 
gods,  natural  to  man,  broken  off  in  some 
way,  and  by  sacrifice  to  be  restored.  Now, 
the  essential  difference  between  these  hea- 
then views  of  sacrifice  and  the  Scriptural 
doctrine  of  the  O.  T.  is  not  to  be  found  in 
its  denial  of  any  of  these  ideas.  In  fact,  it 
brings  out,  clearly  and  distinctly,  the  ideas 
wliich  in  heathenism  were  uncertain,  vague, 
and  perverted.  But  the  essential  points 
of  distinction  are  two.  First,  that  whereas 
the  heathen  conceived  of  their  gods  as 
alienated  in  jealousy  or  anger,  to  be  sought 
after  and  to  be  appeased  by  the  unaided 
action  of  man.  Scripture  represents  God 
Himself  as  approaching  man,  as  pointing 
out  and  sanctioning  the  way  by  which  the 
broken  covenant  should  be  restored.  The 
second  mark  of  distinction  is  closely  con- 
nected with  this,  inasmuch  as  it  shows 
sacrifice  to  be  a  scheme  proceeding  from 
God,  and,  in  His  foreknowledge,  connected 
with  the  one  central  fact  of  all  human  his- 
tory. The  nature  and  meaning  of  the 
various  kinds  of  sacrifice  are  partly  gathered 
from  the  form  of  their  institution  and  cere- 
monial, partly  from  the  teaching  of  tlie 
Prophets,  and  partly  from  the  N.  T.,  es- 
pecially the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  All 
had  relation,  under  different  aspects,  to  a 
Covenant  between  God  and  man.  The 
Sin-Offering  represented  that  Covenant 
as  broken  by  man,  and  as  knit  together 
again,  by  God's  appointment,  through  the 
"  shedding  of  blood."  The  shedding  of  the 
blood,  the  symbol  of  life,  signified  that  the 
death  of  the  offender  was  deserved  for  sin, 
but  that  the  death  of  the  victim  was  accept- 
ed for  his  death  by  the  ordinance  of  God's 
mercy.  Beyond  all  doubt  the  sin-offering 
distinctly  witnessed  that  sin  existed  in  man, 
that  the  "  wages  of  that  sin  was  death,"  and 
that  God  had  provided  an  Atonement  by 
the  vicarious  suffering  of  an  appointed  vic- 
tim. The  ceremonial  and  meaning  of  the 
Bcrnt-Offering  were  very  different.  The 
idea  of  expiation  seems  not  to  have  been 
absent  from  it,  for  the  blood  was  sprinkled 
round  about  the  altar  of  sacrifice ;  but  the 
main  idea  is  the  ofi'ering  of  the  whole  vic- 
tim to  God,  representing  (as  the  laying  of. 


SACEIFICE 


596 


&ACBIFICE 


the  hand  on  its  liead  shows)  the  devotion 
of  the  sacrificer,  body  and  soul,  to  Him 
(Rom.  xii.  1).  The  death  of  the  victim 
was,  so  to  speak,  an  incidental  feature. 
The  MEAT-OrrEKiNGS,  the  peace  or  thank- 
offering,  the  first-fruits,  &c.,  were  simply 
offerings  to  God  of  His  own  Isest  gifts,  as  a 
sign  of  thankful  homage,  and  as  a  means 
of  maintaining  His  service  and  His  ser- 
vants. The  characteristic  ceremony  in  the 
peace-offering  was  the  eating  of  the  flesh 
by  the  sacrificer.  It  betokened  the  enjoy- 
ment of  communion  with  God.  It  is  clear 
from  this  that  the  idea  of  sacrifice  is  a  com- 
plex idea,  involving  the  propitiatory,  the 
dedicatory,  and  the  eucharistic  elements. 
Any  one  of  these,  taken  by  itself,  would 
lead  to  error  and  superstition.  All  three 
probably  were  more  or  less  implied  in  each 
sacrifice,  each  element  predominating  in  its 
turn.  Now,  the  Israelites,  while  they  seem 
always  to  have  retained  the  ideas  of  propi- 
tiation and  of  eucharistic  offering,  con- 
stantly ignored  the  self-dedication  which  is 
the  link  between  the  two,  and  which  the 
regular  burnt-offering  should  have  im- 
pressed upon  them  as  their  daily  thought 
and  duty.  It  is  therefore  to  this  point  that 
the  teaching  of  the  Prophets  is  mainly  di- 
rected (1  Sara.  XV.  22;  Is.  i.  10-20;  Jer. 
vii.  22,  23 ;  Ez.  xx.  39-44 ;  Hos.  vi.  6 ;  Am. 
V.  21-27;  Mic.  vi.  6-8).  The  same  truth, 
here  enunciated  from  without,  is  recog- 
nized from  within  by  the  Psalmist  (Ps.  xl. 
«-ll,  1.  13,  14,  li.  16,  17,  cxli.  2).  It  is 
not  to  be  argued  from  these  passages  that 
the  idea  of  self-dedication  is  the  main  one 
of  sacrifice.  The  idea  of  propitiation  lies 
below  it,  taken  for  granted  by  the  prophets 
as  by  the  whole  people,  but  still  enveloped 
in  mystery  until  the  Antitype  should  come 
to  make  all  clear.  For  the  evolution  of 
this  doctrine  we  must  look  to  the  N.  T. 
Without  entering  directly  on  the  great  sub- 
ject of  the  Atonement  (which  would  be 
foreign  to  the  scope  of  this  article),  it  will 
be  sufiicient  to  refer  to  the  connection, 
established  in  the  N.  T.,  between  it  and  the 
sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic  system.  The  mean- 
ing of  sacrifice  is  set  forth  fully  in  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews,  which  contains  the  key 
of  the  whole  sacrificial  doctrine.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  Epistle  is  to  show  the  typical 
and  probationary  character  of  sacrifices, 
and  to  assert  that  in  virtue  of  it  alone  they 
had  a  spiritual  meaning.  Our  Lord  is  de- 
clared (see  1  Pet.  i.  20)  "  to  have  been 
foreordained"  as  a  sacrifice  "before  the 
foundation  of  the  world,"  or  (as  it  is  more 
strikingly  expressed  in  Rev.  xiii.  8)  "  slain 
from  the  foundation  of  the  world."  The 
material  sacrifices  represented  this  Great 
Atonement  as  already  made  and  accepted 
in  God's  foreknowledge ;  and  to  those  who 
grasped  the  ideas  of  sin,  pardon,  and  self- 
dedication  symbolized  in  them,  they  were 


means  of  entering  into  the  blessings  which 
the  One  True  Sacrifice  alone  procured. 
They  could  convey  notliing  in  themselves ; 
yet,  as  types,  they  might,  if  accepted  by  a 
true,  though  necessarily  imperfect,  faith, 
be  means  of  conveying  in  some  degree  the 
blessings  of  the  Antitype.  This  typical 
character  of  all  sacrifice  being  thus  set 
forth,  the  next  point  dwelt  upon  is  the  union 
in  our  Lord's  Person  of  the  priest,  the  offer- 
er, and  the  sacrifice.  It  is  clear  that  the 
Atonement,  in  this  Epistle,  as  in  the  N.  T. 
generally,  is  viewed  in  a  twofold  light.  On 
the  one  hand,  it  is  set  forth  distinctly  as  a 
vicarious  sacrifice,  which  was  rendered  ne- 
cessary by  the  sin  of  man,  and  in  which  the 
Lord  "  bare  the  sins  of  many."  It  is  its 
essential  characteristic  that  in  it  He  stands 
absolutely  alone,  offering  His  sacrifice  with- 
out any  reference  to  the  faith  or  the  con- 
version of  men.  In  it  He  stands  out  alone 
as  the  Mediator  between  God  and  man  ;  and 
His  sacrifice  is  offered  once  for  all,  never 
to  be  imitated  or  repeated.  Now,  this  view 
of  the  Atonement  is  set  forth  in  tlie  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  as  typified  by  the  sin-offer- 
ing. All  the  expiatory  and  propitiatory 
sacrifices  of  the  Law  are  now  for  the  first 
time  brought  into  full  light.  As  the  sin- 
offering,  tliough  not  the  earliest,  is  the  most 
fundamental  of  all  sacrifices,  so  the  aspect 
of  the  Atonement,  which  it  symbolizes,  is 
the  one  on  which  all  others  rest.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  is  set 
forth  to  us,  as  the  completion  of  that  per- 
fect obedience  to  the  will  of  the  Father, 
wliich  is  the  natural  duty  of  sinless  man, 
in  which  He  is  the  representative  of  all 
men,  and  in  which  He  calls  upon  us,  when 
reconciled  to  God,  to  *'  take  up  the  Cross 
and  follow  Him."  In  this  view  His  death 
is  not  the  principal  object;  we  dwell  rather 
on  His  lowly  incarnation,  and  His  life  of 
humility,  temptation,  and  suffering,  to 
which  that  death  was  but  a  fitting  close. 
The  main  idea  of  this  view  of  the  Atone- 
ment is  representative  rather  than  vicarious. 
It  is  typified  by  the  burnt-offering,  in  re- 
spect of  which  the  N.  T.  merely  quotes  and 
enforces  the  language  already  cited  from 
the  O.  T.,  and  especially  (see  Hcb.  x.  6-9) 
the  words  of  Ps.  xl.  6,  &c.,  which  contrast 
with  material  sacrifice  the  "  doing  the  will 
of  God."  As  without  the  sin-offering  of  the 
Cross,  this,  our  burnt-offering,  would  be 
impossible,  so  also  without  the  burnt-offer- 
ing the  sin-offering  will  to  us  be  unavail- 
ing. With  these  views  of  our  Lord's 
sacrifice  on  earth,  as  typified  in  the  Levit- 
ical  sacrifices  on  the  outer  altar,  is  also 
to  be  connected  the  offering  of  His  inter- 
cession for  us  in  heaven,  which  was  repre- 
sented by  the  incense.  The  typical  sense 
of  the  meat-offering,  or  peace-offering,  i» 
less  connected  with  the  sacrifice  of  Christ 
Himself,  than  with  those  sacrifices  of  praise, 


SADDUCEES 


597 


SADDUCEES 


thanksgiving,  charity,  and  devotion,  which 
we,  as  Christians,  offer  to  God,  and  "  with 
which  He  is  well  pleased  "  (Heb.  xiii.  15, 
16)  as  with  *'  an  odor  of  sweet  smell,  a 
sacrifice  acceptable  to  God"  (Phil.  iv.  18). 
Sadducees  (Matt.  iii.  7,  xvi.  1,  6,  11, 
12,  xxii.  23,  34 ;  Mark  xii.  18 ;  Luke  xx. 
27;  Acts  iv.  1,  v.  17,  xxiii.  6,  7,  8),  a  reli- 
gious party  or  school  among  the  Jews  at 
the  time  of  Christ,  who  denied  that  the  oral 
law  was  a  revelation  of  God  to  the  Israel- 
ites, and  who  deemed  the  written  law  alone 
to  be  obligatory  on  the  nation,  as  of  divine 
authority.  Although  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament  in  conjunction  with 
the  Pharisees,  they  do  not  throw  such  vivid 
light  as  their  great  antagonists  on  the  real 
significance  of  Cliristianity.  Except  on  one 
occasion,  when  they  united  with  the  Phar- 
isees in  insidiously  asking  for  a  sign 
from  heaven  (Matt.  xiv.  1,  4,  6),  Christ 
never  assailed  the  Sadducees  with  the 
same  bitter  denunciations  which  he  ut- 
tered against  the  Pharisees ;  and  they  do 
not,  like  the  Pharisees,  seem  to  have  taken 
active  measures  for  causing  Him  to  be 
put  to  death.  The  origin  of  their  name  is 
involved  in  great  difficulties.  The  Hebrew 
word  by  which  they  are  called  in  the  Mishna 
is  Tesdukim,  the  plural  of  Tsdddk,  which 
undoubtedly  means  "just,"  or  *'  righteous," 
but  which  is  never  used  in  the  Bible  except 
as  a  proper  name,  and  in  the  English  Ver- 
sion is  always  translated  "  Zadoc  "  (2  K. 
XV.  33;  2  Sam.  viii.  17;  1  Chr.  vi.  8,  13, 
&c. ;  Neh.  iii.  4,  29,  xi.  11).  The  most  ob- 
vious translation  of  the  word,  therefore,  is 
to  call  them  Zadocs  or  Zadokites ;  and  a 
question  would  then  arise  as  to  why  they 
were  so  called.  The  ordinary  Jewish  state- 
ment is,  that  they  are  named  from  a  certain 
Zadoc,  a  disciple  of  the  Antigonus  of  Socho, 
who  is  mentioned  in  the  Mishna  as  having 
received  the  oral  law  from  Simon  the  Just, 
the  last  of  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue ;  but  it  is  certain  that  this  statement 
must  be  rejected.  As  recourse  is  had  to  con- 
jecture, the  firit  point  to  be  considered  is, 
whether  the  word  is  likely  to  have  arisen 
from  the  meaning  of  "  righteousness,"  or 
from  the  name  of  an  individual.  This  must 
be  decided  in  favor  of  the  latter  alternative, 
inasmuch  as  the  word  Zadok,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  never  occurs  in  the  Bible, 
except  as  a  proper  name ;  and  then  we  are 
led  to  inquire  as  to  who  the  Zadok  of  the 
Sadducees  is  likely  to  have  been.  Now 
there  was  one  Zadok  of  transcendent  im- 
portance, and  only  one  :  viz.  the  priest  who 
acted  such  a  prominent  part  at  the  time  of 
David,  and  who  declared  in  favor  of  Solo- 
mon, when  Abiathar  took  the  part  of  Ado- 
nijah  as  successor  to  the  throne  (1  K.  i.  32- 
45).  His  line  of  priests  appears  to  have 
had  decided  pre-eminence  in  subsequent 
history,   ''^hus,  in  Ezekiel's  prophetic  vision 


of  the  future  Temple,  "  the  sons  tf  Zadok," 
and  "  the  priests  the  Levites  of  the  seed  of 
Zadok,"  are  spoken  of  with  peculiar  honor, 
as  those  who  kept  the  charge  of  the  sanctu- 
ary of  Jehovah  when  the  children  of  Israel 
went  astray  (Ez.  xl.  46,  xlii.  19,  xliv.  15, 
xlviii.  11).  Now,  as  the  transition  from  tlie 
expression  "  sons  of  Zadok,"  and  "priests 
of  the  seed  of  Zadok,"  to  Zadokites  is  easy 
and  obvious,  and  as  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  V.  17,  it  is  said,  "  Then  the  high 
priest  rose,  and  all  they  that  were  with  him, 
which  is  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees,  and  were 
filled  with  indignation,"  it  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  tiie  Sadducees  or  Zadokites  were 
originally  identical  with  the  sons  of  Zadok, 
and  constituted  what  may  be  termed  a  kind 
of  sacerdotal  aristocracy.  To  these  were 
afterwards  attached  all  who  for  any  reason 
reckoned  themselves  as  belongingto  the  aris- 
tocracy ;  such,  for  example,  as  the  families 
of  the  high-priest,  who  had  obtained  consid- 
eration under  the  dynasty  of  Herod.  These 
were  for  the  most  part  judges,  and  individ- 
uals of  the  official  and  governing  class. 
Now,  although  this  view  of  the  Sadducees 
is  only  inferential,  and  mainly  conjectural, 
it  certainly  explains  the  name  better  than 
any  other,  and  elucidates  at  once  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  the  otherwise  obscure  state- 
ment that  the  high-priest,  and  those  who 
were  with  him,  were  the  sect  of  the  Saddu- 
cees. —  I.  The  leading  tenet  of  the  Saddu- 
cees was  the  negation  of  the  leading  tenet 
of  their  opponents.  As  the  Pharisees  as- 
serted, so  the  Sadducees  denied,  that  the 
Israelites  were  in  possession  of  an  Oral 
Law  transmitted  to  them  by  Moses.  [Phar- 
isees.] In  opposition  to  the  Pharisees, 
they  maintained  that  the  written  law  alone 
was  obligatory  on  the  nation,  as  of  divine 
authority.  II.  The  second  distinguishing 
doctrine  of  the  Sadducees,  the  denial  of 
man's  resurrection  after  death,  followed  in 
their  conceptions  as  a  logical  conclusion 
from  their  denial  that  Moses  had  revealed 
to  the  Israelites  the  Oral  Law.  For  on  a 
point  so  momentous  as  a  second  life  be- 
yond the  grave,  no  religious  party  among 
the  Jews  would  have  deemed  themselves 
bound  to  accept  any  doctrine  as  an  article 
of  faith,  unless  it  had  been  proclaimed  by 
Moses,  their  great  legislator ;  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  in  the  written  Law  of  the  Penta- 
teuch there  is  a  total  absence  of  any  asser- 
tion by  Moses  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead.  This  fact  is  presented  to  Christians 
in  a  striking  manner  by  the  well-known 
words  of  the  Pentateuch  which  are  quoted 
by  Christ  in  argument  with  the  Sadducees 
on  this  subject  (Ex.  iii.  6,  16;  Mark  xii, 
26,27;  Matt.  xxii.  31,32;  Luke  xx.  37). 
It  cannot  be  doubted  that  in  such  a  case 
Christ  would  quote  to  his  powerful  ad- 
versaries the  most  cogent  text  in  the  Law ; 
and  yet  the  text  actually  quoted  does  not 


SADDUCEES 


598 


SAFFRON 


do  more  than  susrgest  an  inference  on  this 
great  doctrine.  It  is  true  that  in  other 
j)arts  of  the  Old  Testament  there  are  indi- 
vidual passages  which  express  a  belief 
in  a  resurrection,  such  as  in  Is.  xxvi.  19, 
Dan.  xii.  2,  Job  xix.  26,  and  in  some  of  the 
Psalms ;  and  it  may  at  first  sight  be  a  sub- 
ject of  surprise  that  the  Sadducees  were 
not  convinced  by  the  autliority  of  those  pas- 
sages. But,  although  the  Sadducees  regard- 
ed the  books  which  contained  these  passages 
as  sacred,  it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether 
any  of  the  Jews  regarded  them  as  sacred  in 
precisely  the  same  sense  as  the  written  Law. 
In  connection  with  tlie  disbelief  of  a  resui*- 
rection  by  the  Sadducees,  it  is  proper  to  no- 
tice the  statement  (Acts  xxiii.  8)  that  they 
likewise  denied  there  was  "  angel  or  spirit." 
A  perplexity  arises  as  to  the  precise  sense 
in  which  this  denial  is  to  be  understood. 
Angels  are  so  distinctly  mentioned  in  the 
Pentateuch  and  other  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  that  it  is  hard  to  understand  how 
those  who  acknowledged  the  Old  Testament 
to  have  divine  authority  could  deny  the  ex- 
istence of  angels  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  xix.  1,  xxii. 
11,  xxviii.  12;  Ex.  xxiii.  20;  Num.  xxii. 
23;  Judg.  xiii.  18;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  16).  The 
two  principal  explanations  which  have  been 
suggested  are,  either  that  the  Sadducees 
regarded  the  angels  of  the  Old  Testament 
as  transitory,  unsubstantial  representations 
of  Jehovah,  or  that  they  disbelieved,  not  the 
angels  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  merely 
the  angelical  system  which  had  become 
developed  in  the  popular  belief  of  the  Jews 
after  their  return  from  the  Babylonian  Cap- 
tivity. Either  of  these  explanations  may 
possibly  be  correct;  and  the  first,  althougli 
there  are  numerous  texts  to  which  it  did  not 
apply,  would  have  received  some  counte- 
nance from  passages  wherein  the  same  di- 
vine appearance,  which  at  one  time  is  called 
the  "angel  of  Jehovah,"  is  afterwards  called 
simply  "  Jehovah  "  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  13,  xxii. 
11,  12,  xxxi.  11,  16;  Ex.  iii.  2,  4;  Judg.vi. 
14,  22,  xiii.  18,  22).  III.  Josephus  states 
that  the  Sadducees  believed  in  the  freedom 
of  the  will,  which  the  Pharisees  denied. 
Possibly  the  great  stress  laid  by  the  Saddu- 
cees on  the  freedom  of  the  will  may  have 
had  some  connection  with  their  forming 
such  a  large  portion  of  that  class  from 
which  criminal  judges  were  selected.  Those 
Jews  who  were  almost  exclusively  religious 
teachers  would  naturally  insist  on  the  ina- 
bility of  man  to  do  anything  good  if  God's 
Holy  Spirit  were  taken  away  from  him  (Ps. 
li.  11,  12),  and  would  enlarge  on  the  perils 
which  surrounded  man  from  the  tempta- 
tions of  Satan  and  evil  angels  or  spirits  (1 
Chr.  xxi.  1 ;  Tob.  iii.  17).  But  it  is  likely 
that  the  tendencies  of  the  judicial  class 
would  be  more  practical  and  direct.  IV. 
Some  of  the  early  Christian  writers  attrib- 
ute to  the  Sadducees  the  rejection  of  all 


the  Sacred  Scriptures  except  the  Pentateuch. 
Such  rejection,  if  true,  would  undoubtedly 
constitute  a  most  important  additional  dif- 
ference between  the  Sadducees  and  Phari- 
sees. The  statement  of  these  Christian 
writers  is,  however,  now  generally  admitted 
to  have  been  founded  on  a  misconception 
of  the  truth,  and  it  seems  to  have  arisen 
from  a  confusion  of  the  Sadducees  with  the 
Samaritans.  V.  An  important  fact  in  the 
history  of  the  Sadducees  is  their  rapid 
disappearance  from  history  after  the  first 
century,  and  the  subsequent  predominance 
among  the  Jews  of  the  opinions  of  the 
Pharisees.  Two  circumstances,  indirectly 
but  powerfully,  contributed  to  produce  this 
result:  1st.  The  state  of  the  Jews  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus ;  and  2dly. 
The  growth  of  the  Christian  religion.  As 
to  the  first  point,  it  is  difficult  to  over-esti- 
mate the  consternation  and  dismay  which 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  occasioned  in 
the  minds  of  sincerely  religious  Jews. 
In  this  their  hour  of  darkness  and  anguish, 
they  naturally  turned  to  the  consolations 
and  hopes  of  a  future  state ;  and  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Sadducees,  that  there  was  noth- 
ing beyond  the  present  life,  would  have 
appeared  to  them  cold,  heartless,  and  hate- 
ful. Again,  while  they  were  sunk  in  the 
lowest  depths  of  depression,  a  new  religion, 
which  they  despised  as  a  heresy  and  a  super- 
stition, was  gradually  making  its  way  among 
the  subjects  of  their  detested  conquerors, 
the  Romans.  One  of  the  causes  of  its  sue* 
cess  was  undoubtedly  the  vivid  belief  in  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus,  and  a  consequent 
resurrection  of  all  mankind,  which  was  ac- 
cepted by  its  heathen  converts  with  a  pas- 
sionate earnestness,  of  which  those  who  at 
the  present  day  are  familiar  from  infancy 
with  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  can  form  only  a  faint  idea.  To  at- 
tempt to  check  the  progress  of  this  new  re- 
ligion among  the  Jews  by  an  appeal  to  the 
temporary  rewards  and  punishments  of  the 
Pentateuch,  would  have  been  as  idle  as  an 
endeayor  to  check  an  explosive  power  by 
ordinary  mechanical  restraints.  Conscious- 
ly, therefore,  or  unconsciously,  many  cir- 
cumstances combined  to  induce  the  Jews 
who  were  not  Pharisees,  but  who  resisted 
the  new  heresy,  to  rally  round  the  standard 
of  the  Oral  Law,  and  to  assert  that  their 
holy  legislator,  Moses,  had  transmitted  to 
his  faithful  people  by  word  of  mouth,  al- 
though not  in  writing,  the  revelation  of  a 
future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments. 

Sa'doc  1.  Zadok  the  ancestor  of  Ezra 
(2  Esd.  i.  1;  comp.  Ezr.  vii.  2).  2.  A 
descendant  of  Zerubbabel  in  the  genealogy 
of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  14). 

Saffron   (Cant.   iv.    14).     Saffron   has 

from  the  earliest  times  been  in  high  esteem 

as  a  perfume.    "  It  was  used,"  says  Rosen- 

I  mUller  "  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  mod- 


bALA 


599 


SALMA 


evil  pot-pourri."  The  word  saffron  is  de- 
rived from  the  Arabic  Zafran,  "yellow." 

Sa'la.  Salah,  or  SuELAH,  the  father 
of  Eber  (Luke  iii.  35). 

Sa'lall,  tlie  son  of  Arphaxad,  and  father 
of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  24,  xi.  12-14 ;  Luke  iii. 
35).  The  name  is  significant  of  extension. 
It  thus  seems  to  imply  the  historical  fact  of 
the  gradaal  extension  of  a  branch  of  the 
Semitic  race  from  its  original  seat  in  North- 
ern Assyria  towards  the  river  Euphrates. 

Saramis,  a  city  at  the  east  end  of  the 
inland  of  Cyprus,  and  the  first  place  visited 
by  Paul  and  Barnabas,  on  the  first  mission- 
ary journey,  after  leaving  the  mainland  at 
Seleucia.  Here  alone,  among  all  the  Greek 
cities  visited  by  St.  Paul,  we  read  expressly 
of  "  synagogues  "  in  the  plural  (Acts  xiii. 
5).  Hence  we  conclude  that  there  were 
many  Jews  in  Cyprus.  And  this  is  in  har- 
mony with  what  we  read  elsewhere.  Salamis 
was  not  far  from  the  modern  Famagousta. 
It  was  situated  near  a  river  called  the 
Pediaeus,  on  low  ground,  which  is  in  fact 
a  continuation  of  the  plain  running  up  into 
the  interior  towards  the  place  where  Nicosia, 
the  present  capital  of  Cyprus,  stands. 

Sala'tblel  {I have  asked  of  God),  son 
of  Jechonias  king  of  Judah,  and  father  of 
Zorobabel,  according  to  Matt.  i.  12;  but 
son  of  Ncri,  and  father  of  Zorobabel,  ac- 
cording to  Luke  iii.  27;  while  the  geneal- 
ogy in  1  Chr.  iii.  17-19,  leaves  it  doubtful 
whether  he  is  the  son  of  Assir  or  Jechonias, 
and  makes  Zerubbabel  his  nephew.  Upon 
the  incontrovertible  principle  that  no  gene- 
alogy would  assign  to  the  true  son  and 
heir  of  a  king  any  inferior  and  private 
parentage,  whereas,  on  the  contrary,  the 
son  of  a  private  person  would  naturally  be 
placed  in  the  royal  pedigree  on  his  becom- 
ing the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne ;  we  may 
assert,  with  tlie  utmost  confidence,  that  St. 
Luke  gives  us  the  true  state  of  the  case, 
when  he  informs  us  that  Salathiel  was  the 
son  of  Neri,  and  a  descendant  of  Nathan 
the  son  of  David.  And  from  his  insertion 
in  the  royal  pedigree,  both  in  1  Chr.  and 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  after  the  childless 
Jechonias,  we  infer,  with  no  less  confi- 
dence, that,  on  the  failure  of  Solomon's 
line,  he  was  the  next  heir  to  the  throne  of 
David.  It  may  therefore  be  considered 
as  certain,  that  Salathiel  was  the  son  of 
Neri,  and  the  heir  of  Jechoniah.  As  re- 
gards the  orthography  of  the  name,  it  has 
two  forms  in  Hebrew.  The  A.  V.  has 
Salathiel  in  1  Chr.  iii.  17,  but  everywhere 
else  in  the  O.  T.  Shealtiel. 

Sal'cah,  a  city  named  in  the  early 
records  of  Israel  as  tlie  extreme  limit  of 
Bashan  (Deut.  iii.  10;  Josh.  xiii.  11),  and 
of  the  tribe  of  Gad  (1  Chr.  v.  11).  On 
another  occasion  the  name  seems  to  denote 
a  district  rather  than  a  town  (Josh.  xii.  5). 
It  is  identical  with  the  town  of  Sulkhad.      \ 


Sal'chah,  another  form  of  Salcah 
(Deut.  iii.  10). 

Salem  (peace).  1.  The  place  of  which 
Melchizedek  was  king  (Gen.  xiv.  18 ;  Heb. 
vii.  1,  2).  No  satisfactory  identification  of^ 
it  is  perhaps  possible.  Two  main  opinions 
have  been  current  from  the  earliest  ages 
of  interpretation.  1.  That  of  the  Jewish 
commentators,  who  affirm  that  Salem  is 
Jerusalem,  on  the  ground  that  Jerusalem 
is  so  called  in  Ps.  Ixxvi.  2.  2.  Jerome 
himself,  however,  is  not  of  the  same 
opinion.  He  states  without  hesitation,  that 
the  Salem  of  ]\^elchizedek  was  not  Jerusa- 
lem, but  a  town  near  Scythopolis,  which  in 
his  day  was  still  called  Salem.  Elsewhere 
he  places  it  more  precisely  at  eight  Roman 
miles  from  Scythopolis,  and  gives  its  then 
name  as  Salumias.  Further,  he  identifies 
this  Salem  with  the  Salira  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist.  2.  Ps.  Ixxvi.  2.  It  is  agreed  on 
all  hands  that  Salem  is  here  employed  for 
Jerusalem,  but  whether  as  a  mere  abl)revia- 
tion  to  suit  some  exigency  of  the  poetry, 
and  point  the  allusion  to  the  peace  {salemj 
which  the  city  enjoyed  through  the  protec- 
tion of  God,  or  whether,  after  a  well-known 
habit  of  poets,  it  is  an  antique  name  pre- 
ferred to  the  more  modern  and  familiar  one, 
is  a  question  not  yet  decided. 

Sa'lim,  a  place  named  (John  iii.  23)  to 
denote  the  situation  of  Aenon,  the  scene 
of  St.  John's  last  baptisms  —  Salim  being 
the  well-known  town  or  spot,  and  Aenon 
a  place  of  fountains,  or  other  water,  near 
it.  [Salem.]  The  name  of  Saltan  has 
been  discovered  by  Mr.  Van  de  Velde  in  a 
position  exactly  in  accordance  with  the 
notice  of  Eusebius,  viz.  six  English  miles 
south  of  JBeisdn  (Scythopolis),  and  two 
miles  west  of  the  Jordan.  Salim  fulfils 
also  the  conditions  implied  in  the  name  of 
Aenon  (springs),  and  the  direct  statement 
of  the  text,  that  the  place  contained  abun- 
dance of  water. 

Sal'ma,  or  Sal'mon  (Ruth  iv.  20,  21 ; 
1  Chr.  ii.  11,  51,  54;  Matt.  i.  4,  5;  Luke 
iii.  32).  Son  of  Nahshon,  the  prince  of 
the  children  of  Judah,  and  father  of  Boaz, 
the  husband  of  Ruth.  On  the  entrance  of 
the  Israelites  into  Canaan,  Salmon  took 
Rahab  of  Jericho  to  be  his  wife,  and  from 
this  union  sprang  the  Christ.  [Raiiab.] 
Two  circumstances  connected  with  Salmon 
have  caused  some  perplexity :  one,  the 
variation  in  the  orthography  of  his  name ; 
the  otlier,  an  apparent  variation  in  his 
genealogy.  As  regards  the  first,  tl  e  vari- 
ation in  proper  names  is  so  extremely 
common  that  such  slight  differences  are 
scarcely  worth  noticing.  The  variation  in 
Salma's  genealogy  is  more  apparent  than 
real.  It  arises  from  the  circumstance  that 
Bethlehem  Ephratah,  which  was  Salmon's 
inheritance,  was  part  of  tlie  territory  of 
Caleb,  the  grandson  of  Ephratah ;  and  tMa 


SALMON 


600 


SALUTATION 


caused  him  to  be  reckoned  among  the  sons  ' 
of  Caleb.  I 

Sal'mon,  a  hill  near  Shechern,  on  which  ! 
Abimelech  and  his  followers  cut  down  the 
boughs  with  wiiich  tiiey  set  the  tower  of 
Sliechem  on  fire  (Judg.  ix.  48).  Its  exact 
position  is  not  known.  It  is  usually  sup- 
posed that  this  hill  is  mentioned  in  a  verse 
of  the  Psalms  (Ps.  Ixviii.  14).  The  allusion 
is  probably  to  the  ground  being  snow-white 
with  bones  after  a  defeat  of  the  Can.aan- 
itish  kings ;  and  this  may  be  accepted  by 
those  who  will  admit  the  scarcely  permis- 
sible meaning,  "white  as  snow,"  and  who 
cannot  rest  satisfied  without  attaching  some 
definite  signification  to  the  passage.  In 
despair  of  understanding  the  allusion  to 
Salmon,  some  suppose  that  Salnidn,  i.  e. 
Tsalmdn,  is  not  a  proper  name  in  this 
passage,  but  merely  signifies  "  darkness." 

Sal'mon,  the  father  of  Boaz.  [Salma.] 

Salmo'ne,  the  east  point  of  the  island 
of  Crete  (Acts  xxvii.  7). 

Salo'me.  1.  The  wife  of  Zebedee,  as 
appears  from  comparing  Matt,  xxvii.  56 
with  Mark  XV.  40.  It  is  further  the  opinion 
of  many  modern  critics  that  she  was  the 
sister  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  to 
whom  reference  is  made  in  John  xix.  25. 
The  words  admit,  however,  of  another  ex- 
planation, according  to  which  they  refer  to 
the  "  Mary  the  wife  of  Cleophas  "  imme- 
diately afterwards  mentioned.  We  can 
hardly  regard  the  point  as  settled,  though 
the  weight  of  modern  criticism  is  decided- 
ly in  favor  of  the  former  view.  The  only 
events  recorded  of  Salome  arc,  that  she 
preferred  a  request  on  behalf  of  her  two 
sons  for  seats  of  honor  in  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  (Matt.  xx.  20),  that  she  at- 
tended at  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  (Mark 
XV.  40),  and  that  she  visited  his  sepulchre 
(Mark  xvi.  1).  She  is  mentioned  by  name 
only  on  the  two  later  occasions.  2.  The 
daughter  of  Herodias  by  her  first  husband, 
Herod  Philip  (Matt.  xiv.  6).  She  married 
in  the  first  place  Philip  the  tetrarch  of 
Trachonitis,  her  paternal  uncle,  and  second- 
ly Aristobulus,  the  king  of  Chalcis. 

Salt.  Indispensable  as  salt  is  to  our- 
selves, it  was  even  more  so  to  the  He- 
brews, being  to  them  not  only  an  appetiz- 
ing condiment  in  the  food  both  of  man  (Job 
xi.  6)  and  beast  (Is.  xxx.  24,  see  margin), 
and  a  most  valuable  antidote  to  the  effects 
of  the  heat  of  climate  on  animal  food,  but 
also  entering  largely  into  their  religious 
services  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  vari- 
ous off"erings  presented  on  the  altar  (Lev. 
ii.  13).  They  possessed  an  inexhaustible 
and  ready  supply  of  it  on  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  [Sea,  the  Salt.] 
The  Jews  appear  to  have  distinguished  be- 
tween rock-salt  and  that  wliich  was  gained 
by  evaporation,  as  the  Talmudists  particu- 
larize one  species  (probably  the  latter)  as 


the  "salt  of  Sodom."  The  salt-pits  formed 
an  important  source  of  revenue  to  the  rulers 
of  the  country,  and  Antiochus  conferred  a 
valuable  boon  on  Jerusalem  by  presenting 
the  city  with  375  bushels  of  salt  for  the 
Temple  service.  In  addition  to  the  uses 
of  salt  already  specified,  the  inferior  sorts 
were  appliea  Jas  a  manure  to  the  soil,  or  to 
hasten  the  decomposition  of  dung  (Matt.  v. 
13;  Luke  xiv.  35).  Too  large  an  admix- 
ture, however,  was  held  to  produce  steril- 
ity; and  hence  also  arose  the  custom  of 
sowing  with  salt  the  foundations  of  a  de- 
stroyed city  (Judg.  ix.  45),  as  a  token  of 
its  irretrievable  ruin.  The  associations 
connected  with  salt  in  Eastern  countries 
are  important.  As  one  of  the  most  essen- 
tial articles  of  diet,  it  symbolized  hospitali- 
ty;  as  an  antiseptic,  durability,  fidelity,  and 
purity.  Hence  the  expression  "covenant 
of  salt"  (Lev.  ii.  13;  Num.  xviii.  19;  2 
Chr.  xiii.  5),  as  betokening  an  indissoluble 
alliance  between  friends ;  and  again  the 
expression,  "  salted  with  the  salt  of  the 
palace "  (Ezr.  iv.  14),  not  necessarily 
meaning  that  they  had  "  maintenance  from 
the  palace,"  as  the  A.  V.  has  it,  but  that 
they  were  bound  by  sacred  obligations  of 
fidelity  to  the  king.  So  in  the  present  day, 
"  to  eat  bread  and  salt  together"  is  an  ex- 
pression for  a  league  of  mutual  amity.  It 
was  probably  with  a  view  to  keep  this  idea 
prominently  before  the  minds  of  the  Jews 
that  the  use  of  salt  was  enjoined  on  the 
Israelites  in  their  off"erings  to  God. 

Salt,  City  of,  the  fifth  of  the  six  cities 
of  Judah  wiiich  lay  in  the  "  wilderness  " 
(Josh.  XV.  62).  Dr.  Robinson  expresses 
his  belief  that  it  lay  somewhere  near  tlie 
plain  at  the  south  end  of  the  Salt  Sea. 

Salt  Sea,  or  Dead  Sea.  [Sea,  the 
Salt.] 

Salt,  Valley  of,  a  valley  in  which  oc- 
curred two  memorable  victories  of  the  Is- 
raelite arms.  1.  That  of  David  over  the 
Edomites  (2  Sam.  viii.  13 ;  1  Chr.  xviii. 
12).  2.  That  of  Amaziah  (2  K.  xiv.  7;  2 
Chr.  XXV.  11).  Neither  of  these  notices 
aff'cfrds  any  clew  to  the  situation  of  the 
Valley  of  Salt.  It  is  perhaps  the  broad, 
open  plain  which  lies  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  intervenes  between  the 
lake  itself  and  the  range  of  heights  which 
crosses  the  valley  at  six  or  eight  miles  to 
the  south.  This  same  view  is  taken  by 
Dr.  Robinson.  Others  suggest  that  it  lay 
nearer  to  Petra.  What  little  can  be  in- 
ferred from  the  narrative  as  to  its  situation 
is  in  favor  of  this  theory. 

Sa'Iu,  the  father  of  Zimri  the  prince  of 
the  Simeonites,  who  was  slain  by  Phine- 
has    Num.  xxv.  14).     Called  also  Salom. 

Salutation.  Salutations  may  be  classed 
under  the  two  heads  of  conversational  and 
epistolary.  The  salutation  at  meeting  con- 
sisted in  early  times  of  various  expressions 


SAMARIA 


601 


SAMARIA 


of  blessing,  such  as  "  God  be  gracious  unto 
thee  "  (Gen.  xliii.  29)  ;  "  Blessed  be  thou 
of  the  Lord  "  (Ruth  iii.  10 ;  1  Sara.  xv.  13)  ; 
"  The  Lord  be  with  you,"  "  Tlie  Lord  bless 
thee  "  (Ruth  ii.  4)  ;  "  The  blessing  of  the 
Lord  be  upon  you ;  we  bless  you  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord"  (Ps.  cxxix.  8).  Hence 
the  term  "  bless  "  received  the  secondary 
sense  of  "  salute."  The  Hebrew  term  used 
in  these  instances  (^shdldm)  has  no  special 
reference  to  "peace,"  as  stated  in  the  mar- 
ginal translation,  but  to  general  well-being, 
and  strictly  answers  to  our  "welfiire."  The 
salutation  at  parting  consisted  originally  of 
a  simple  blessing  (Gen.  xxiv.  60,  xxviii.  1, 
xlvii.  10;  Josh.  xxii.  6),  but  in  later  times 
the  term  shdl6mwa.s  introduced  here  also  in 
the  form  "  Go  in  peace,"  or  rather  "  Fare- 
well" (1  Sam.  i.  17,  xx.  42;  2  Sam.  xv.  9). 
In  modern  times  the  ordinary  mode  of  ad- 
dress current  in  the  East  resembles  the 
Hebrew  :  Es-seldm  aleykum,  "  Peace  be  on 
you,"  and  the  term  "  salam"  has  been  in- 
troduced into  our  own  language  to  describe 
the  Oriental  salutation. — The  epistolary 
salutations  in  the  period  subsequent  to  the  O. 
T.  were  framed  on  the  model  of  the  Latin 
style :  the  addition  of  the  term  "  peace " 
may,  however,  be  regarded  as  a  vestige  of 
the  old  Hebrew  form  (2  Mace.  i.  1).  The 
writer  placed  his  own  name  first,  and  then 
that  of  the  person  whom  he  saluted ;  it  was 
only  in  special  cases  that  this  order  was  re- 
versed (2  Mace.  i.  1,  ix.  19;  1  Esdr.  vi.  7). 
A  combination  of  the  first  and  third  per- 
sons in  the  terms  of  the  salutation  was  not 
unfrequent  (Gal.  i.  1,  2;  Philem.  1;  2  Pet. 
i.  1).  A  form  of  prayer  for  spiritual  mer- 
cies was  also  used.  The  concluding  salu- 
tation consisted  occasionally  of  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Latin  valete  (Acts  xv.  29,  xxiii. 
30),  but  more  generally  of  the  term  "I 
salute,"  or  the  cognate  substantive,  accom- 
panied by  a  prayer  for  peace  or  grace. 

Sama'ria  (Heb.  Shomerdn),  a  city  of 
Palestine.  The  word  Shomerdn  means, 
etymologically,  "  pertaining  to  a  watch," 
or  "a  watch-mountain;"  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  peculiarity  of  the  situ- 
ation gave  occasion  to  its  name.  In  the 
territory  originally  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  Joseph,  about  six  miles  to  the  north- 
west of  Shechem,  there  is  a  wide  basin- 
shaped  valley,  encircled  with  high  hills, 
almost  on  the  edge  of  the  great  plain  which 
borders  upon  the  Mediterranean.  In  the 
centre  of  this  basin,  which  is  on  a  lower 
level  than  the  valley  of  Shechem,  rises  a 
less  elevated  oblong  hill,  with  steep  yet  ac- 
cessible sides,  and  a  long  flat  top.  This  hill 
was  chosen  by  Omri  as  the  site  of  the  capi- 
tal of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  He  "  bought 
the  hill  of  Samaria  of  Shemer  for  two  talents 
of  silver,  and  built  on  the  hill,  and  called 
the  name  of  the  city  which  he  built,  after 
the  name  of  the  owner  of  the  hill,  Samaria  " 


(IK.  xvi.  23,  24) .  From  the  date  of  Omri's 
purchase,  b.  c.  925,  Samaria  retained  its 
dignity  as  the  capital  of  the  ten  tribes,  and 
the  name  is  given  to  the  nortliern  kingdom 
as  well  as  to  the  city.  Ahab  built  a  temple 
to  Baal  there  (1  K.  xvi.  32,  33) ;  and  from 
this  circumstance  a  portion  of  the  city, 
possibly  fortified  by  a  separate  wall,  was 
called  *'  the  city  of  the  house  of  Baal "  (2 
K.  X.  25).  Samaria  must  have  been  a 
place  of  great  strength.  It  was  twice  be- 
sieged by  the  Syrians,  in  b.  c.  901  (1  K. 
XX.""  1),  and  in  b.  c.  892  (2  K.  vi.  24-vii. 
20) ;  but  on  both  occasions  the  siege  was 
ineffectual.  The  possessor  of  Samaria  was 
considered  de  facto  king  of  Israel  (2  K.  xv. 
13,  14) ;  and  woes  denounced  against  the 
nation  were  directed  against  it  by  name  (Is. 
vii.  9,  &c.).  In  b.  c.  721,  Samaria  was 
taken,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  by  Shal- 
maneser  king  of  Assyria  (2  K.  xviii.  9,  10), 
and  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  was  put 
an  end  to.  Some  years  afterwards  the  dis- 
trict of  which  Samaria  was  the  centre  was 
repeopled  by  Esarhaddon ;  but  we  do  not 
hear  especially  of  the  city  until  the  days 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  That  conqueror 
took  the  city,  which  seems  to  have  some- 
what recovered  itself,  killed  a  large  portion 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  suffered  the  remain- 
der to  settle  at  Shechem.  He  replaced 
them  by  a  colony  of  Syro-Macedonians. 
These  Syro-Macedonians  occupied  the  city 
until  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus,  who  took 
it  after  a  year's  siege,  and  did  his  best  to 
demolish  it  entirely.  After  this  disaster 
(which  occurred  in  b.  c.  109),  the  Jews  in- 
habited what  remained  of  the  city ;  at  least 
we  find  it  in  their  possession  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  Jannaeus,  and  until  Pompey 
gave  it  back  to  the  descendants  of  its  origi- 
nal inhabitants.  By  directions  of  Gabin- 
ius,  Samaria  and  other  demolished  cities 
wer6  rebuilt.  But  its  more  effectual  re- 
building was  undertaken  by  Herod  the 
Great.  He  called  it  Sebaste  =  Augusta, 
after  the  name  of  his  patron.  How  long 
Samaria  maintained  its  splendor  after  Her- 
od's improvements  we  are  not  informed. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  city  itself  does  not  appear 
to  be  mentioned,  but  rather  a  portion  of 
tlie  district  to  which,  even  in  older  times,  it 
had  extended  its  name  (Matt.  x.  6;  John 
iv.  4,  6).  At  this  day  the  city  is  repre- 
sented by  a  small  village  retaining  few 
vestiges  of  the  past  except  its  name,  Sebus- 
iiyeh,  an  Arabic  corruption  of  Sebaste. 
Some  architectural  remains  it  has,  partly 
of  Christian  construction  or  adaptation,  as 
the  ruined  church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
partly,  perhaps,  traces  of  Idumaean  mag- 
nificence. St.  Jerome,  whose  acquaint- 
ance with  Palestine  imparts  a  sort  of  proba- 
bility to  the  tradition  which  prevailed  so 
strongly  in  later  days,  asserts  that  Sebaste, 
which  he  invariably  identifies  with  Samaria, 


SAMARITANS 


602 


SAMARITANS 


was  the  j)lace  in  which  St.  John  the  Bap- 
tist was  imprisoned  and  suflered  death. 
He  also  makes  it  the  burial-place  of  the 
prophets  Elislia  and  Obadiah. 

Samar'itans.  In  the  strictest  sense  of 
the  term,  a  Samaritan  would  be  an  inhab- 
itant of  the  city  of  Samaria.  But  it  is  not 
found  at  all  in  this  sense,  exclusively  at  any 
rate,  in  tiie  O.  T.  Samaria  at  first  in- 
cluded all  the  tribes  over  which  Jeroboam 
made  himself  king,  whether  east  or  west  of 
the  river  Jordan  (IK.  xiii.  82).  In  other 
places  in  the  liistorical  books  of  the  O.  T. 
(with  the  exception  of  2  K.  xvii.  24,  26,  28, 
29)  Samaria  seems  to  denote  the  city  ex- 
clusively. But  the  prophets  use  the  word  in 
a  greatly  extended  sense.  Hence  the  word 
Samaritan  must  have  denoted  every  one 
subject  to  the  king  of  the  northern  capital. 
But  whatever  extent  the  word  might  have 
acquired,  it  necessarily  became  contracted 
as  the  limits  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  be- 
came contracted.  In  all  probability  tiie 
territory  of  Simeon  and  that  of  Dan  were 
very  early  absorbed  in  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah.  It  is  evident  from  an  occurrence  in 
Hezekiah's  reign,  that  just  before  the  depo- 
sition and  death  of  Hoshea,  the  last  king 
of  Israel,  the  authority  of  the  king  of  Ju- 
dah,  or,  at  least,  his  influence,  was  recog- 
nized by  portions  of  Asher,  Issachar,  and 
Zebulun,  and  even  of  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh  (2  Chr.  xxx.  1-26).  Men  came  from  all 
those  tribes  to  the  Passover  at  Jerusalem. 
This  was  about  b.  c.  726.  Samaria  (the 
city),  and  a  few  adjacent  cities  or  villages 
only,  represented  that  dominion  which  had 
once  extended  from  Bethel  to  Dan  north- 
wards, and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
borders  of  Syria  and  Ammon  eastwards. 
This  brings  us  more  closely  to  the  second 
point  of  our  discussion,  the  origin  of  those 
who  are  in  2  K.  xvii.  29,  and  in  the  N.  T., 
called  Samaritans.  Shalmaneser,  as '  we 
have  seen  (2K.  xvii.  5,6,  26),  carried  Israel, 
1.  e.  the  remnant  of  the  ten  tribes  which 
still  acknovvlodged  Hoshea's  authority,  into 
Assyria.  This  remnant  consisted,  as  has 
been  shown,  of  Samaria  (the  city)  and  a 
few  adjacent  cities  and  villages.  We  may 
conclude  that  the  cities  of  Samaria  were 
not  merely  partially,  but  wholly,  evacuated 
of  their  inhabitants  in  b.  c.  721,  and  that 
they  remained  in  this  desolated  state  until, 
in  the  words  of  2  K.  xvii.  24,  "  the  king  of 
Assyria  brought  men  from  Babylon,  and 
from  Cuthah,  and  from  Ava  (Ivah,  2  K. 
xviii.  34) ,  and  from  Hamath,  and  from  Seph- 
arvaim,  and  placed  them  in  the  cities  of 
Samaria  instead  of  the  children  of  Israel : 
and  thoy  possessed  Samaria,  and  dwelt  in 
the  cities  tliercof."  Thus  the  new  Samari- 
tans were  Assyrians  by  birth  or  subjuga- 
tion. An  incidental  question,  however, 
arises.  Who  was  the  king  of  Assyria  that 
eflected  this  colonization?    The  Samari- j 


tans  themselves,  in  Ezr.  iv.  2,  1\.  attrib- 
uted their  colonization  not  to  Shalmaneser, 
but  to  "  Esarhaddon  king  of  Assur,"  or 
to  "  the  great  and  noble  Asnapper,"  either 
the  king  himself  or  one  of  liis  generals 
(about  B.  c.  677).  The  fact,  too,  that  some 
of  these  foreigners  came  from  Babylon, 
would  seem  to  direct  us  to  Esarhaddon, 
rather  than  to  his  grandfather,  Shalmane- 
ser. And  there  is  another  reason  why  this 
date  should  be  preferred.  It  coincides 
with  the  termination  of  the  sixty-five  years 
of  Isaiah's  prophecy,  delivered  b.  c.  742, 
within  which  "Ephraim  should  be  broken, 
that  it  should  not  be  a  people  "  (Is.  vii.  8). 
These  strangers,  whom  we  will  now  assume 
to  have  been  placed  in  "  the  cities  of  Sa- 
maria "  by  Esarhaddon,  were  of  course 
idolaters,  and  worshipped  a  strange  medley 
of  divinities.  God's  displeasure  was  kin- 
dled, and  they  were  infested  by  beasts  of 
prey,  which  had  probably  increased  to  a 
great  extent  before  their  entrance  upon  it. 
On  their  explaining  their  miserable  condi- 
tion to  the  king  of  Assyria,  he  despatched 
one  of  tlie  captive  priests  to  teach  them 
"  how  they  should  fear  tlie  Lord."  The 
priest  came  accordingly,  and  henceforth, 
in  the  language  of  the  sacred  historian, 
they  "  feared  the  Lord  and  served  their 
graven  images,  both  their  children  and  their 
children's  children:  as  did  their futliers,  so 
do  they  unto  this  day"  (2  K.  xvii.  41).  A 
gap  occurs  in  their  history  until  Judah  has 
returned  from  captivity.  They  then  de- 
sire to  be  allowed  to  participate  in  the  re- 
building of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  But 
they  do  not  call  it  a  national  undertaking. 
They  advance  no  pretensions  to  Jewish 
blood.  They  confess  their  Assyrian  de- 
scent, and  even  put  it  forward  ostentatious- 
ly, perhaps  to  enhance  the  merit  of  their 
partial  conversion  to  God.  Ezra,  no  doubt, 
from  whose  pen  we  have  a  record  of  the 
transaction,  saw  them  througli  and  through. 
On  this  the  Samaritans  throw  ofl"  tlie  mask, 
and  become  open  enemies,  frustrate  the 
operations  of  the  Jews  through  the  reigns 
of  two  Persian  kings,  and  are  only  effectu- 
ally silenced  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystas- 
pis,  B.  c.  519.  The  feud,  thus  unliappily 
begun,  grew  year  by  year  more  inveterate. 
Matters  at  length  came  to  a  climax.  About 
B.  c.  409,  a  certain  Manasseh,  a  man  of 
priestly  lineage,  on  being  expelled  from 
Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah  for  an  unlawful 
marriage,  obtained  permission  from  the 
Persian  king  of  his  day,  Darius  Nothus,  to 
build  a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  for  the 
Samaritans,  with  whom  he  had  found  ref- 
uge. The  animosity  of  the  Samaritans 
became  more  intense  than  ever.  They  are 
said  to  have  done  everything  in  their  power 
to  annoy  the  Jews.  Their  own  temple  on 
Gerizim  they  considered  to  be  much  su- 
perior to  that  at  Jerusalem.    There  they 


SAMARITANS 


603       SAMARITAN  lENTATEUCH 


sacnficcd  a  passover.  Towards  the  moun- 
tain, even  after  the  temple  on  it  had 
fallen,  wherever  they  were,  they  directed 
their  worship.  To  their  copy  of  the  Law 
they  arrogated  an  antiquity  and  authority 
greater  than  attached  to  any  copy  in  the 
possession  of  the  Jews.  The  Law  (i.  e.  the 
live  books  of  Moses)  was  their  sole  code ; 
for  they  rejected  every  other  book  in  the 
Jewish  canon.  The  Jews,  on  tlie  other 
hand,  were  not  more  conciliatory  in  their 
treatment  of  the  Samaritans.  The  copy 
of  tlie  Law  possessed  by  that  people  they 
declared  to  be  the  legacy  of  an  apostate 
(Manasseh),  and  cast  grave  suspicions  upon 
its  genuineness.  Certain  other  Jewish  ren- 
egades had  from  time  to  time  taken  refuge 
with  the  Samaritans.  Hence,  by  degrees 
the  Samaritans  claimed  to  partake  of  Jew- 
ish blood,  especially  if  doing  so  happened 
to  suit  their  interest.  A  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this  is  exhibited  in  a  request 
which  they  made  to  Alexander  the  Great, 
about  B.  c.  332.  They  desired  to  be  ex- 
cused payment  of  tribute  in  the  Sabbatical 
year,  on  the  plea  that  as  true  Israelites, 
descendants  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 
eons  of  Joseph,  they  refrained  from  culti- 
vating their  land  in  that  year.  Another  in- 
stance of  claim  to  Jewish  descent  appears 
in  the  words  of  the  woman  of  Samaria  to 
our  Lord,  John  iv.  12  :  "  Art  thou  greater 
than  our  father  Jacob,  who  gave  us  the 
well?"  Very  far  were  the  Jews  from  ad- 
mitting this  claim  to  consanguinity  on  the 
part  of  these  people.  They  were  ever  re- 
minding them  that  they  were,  after  all,  mere 
Cuthaeans,  mere  strangers  from  Assyria. 
The  traditional  hatred  in  which  the  Jew 
held  tlie  Samaritan  is  expressed  in  Ecclus. 
1.  25,  26.  And  so  long  was  it  before  such 
a  temper  could  be  banished  frona  the  Jew- 
ish mind,  that  we  find  even  the  Apostles 
believing  that  an  inhospitable  slight  shown, 
by  a  Samaritan  village  to  Christ  would  be 
not  unduly  avenged  by  calling  down  fire 
from  heaven.  Such  were  the  Samaritans 
of  our  Lord's  day ;  a  people  distinct  from 
the  Jews,  though  lying  in  the  very  midst 
of  the  Jews ;  a  people  preserving  their 
identity,  though  seven  centuries  had  rolled 
away  since  they  had  been  brought  from 
Assyria  by  Esarhaddon,  and  though  they 
had  abandoned  their  polytheism  for  a  sort 
of  ultra  Mosaicism ;  a  people,  who  — 
though  their  limits  had  gradually  contract- 
ed, and  the  rallying-place  of  their  religion 
on  Mount  Gerizim  had  been  destroyed  one 
hundred  and  sixty  years  before  by  John 
Hyrcanus  (b.  c.  130),  and  though  Samaria 
(the  city)  had  been  again  and  again  de- 
stroyed —  still  preserved  their  nationality, 
still  worshipped  from  Shechem  and  their 
impoverished  settlements  towards  their 
sacred  hill;  still  retained  their  nationality, 
aud  could  not  coalesce  with  the  Jews.    Not 


indeed  that  we  must  suppose  that  the  whole 
of  the  country  called  in  our  Lord's  time 
Samaria",  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Cuthaean  Samaritans,  or  that  it  had  ever 
been  so.  It  was  bounded  northward  by 
the  range  of  hills  which  commences  at 
Mount  Carmel  on  the  west,  and,  after 
making  a  bend  to  the  south-west,  runs 
almost  due  east  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
forming  the  southern  border  of  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  It  touched  towards  the  south, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  the  northern  limits 
of  Benjamin.  Thus  it  comprehended  the 
ancient  territory  of  Ephraim,  and  of  those 
Manassites  who  were  west  of  Jordan.  The 
Cuthaean  Samaritans,  however,  possessed 
only  a  few  towns  and  villages  of  this  large 
area,  and  these  lay  almost  together  in  tlie 
centre  of  the  district.  At  NAblus  the 
Samaritans  have  still  a  settlement,  consist- 
ing of  about  200  persons.  _  [Suechem.] 

Samaritan  Pentateuch,  a  Recension 
of  the  commonly  received  Hebrew  Text  of 
the  Mosaic  Law,  in  use  with  the  Samari- 
tans, and  written  in  the  ancient  Hebrew, 
or  so-called  Samaritan  character.  The 
origin  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  has 
given  rise  to  much  controversy,  into  wliich 
we  cannot  enter  in  this  place.  The  two 
most  usual  opinions  are :  1.  That  it  came 
into  the  bands  of  the  Samaritans  as  an  in- 
heritance from  the  ten  tribes  whom  they 
succeeded.  Because  (a.)  It  seems  improb- 
able that  the  Samaritans  should  have  ac- 
cepted their  code  at  the  hands  of  the  Jews 
after  the  exile,  since  there  existed  an  in- 
tense hatred  between  the  two  nationalities, 
(i.)  The  Samaritan  Canon  has  only  the 
Pentateuch  in  common  with  the  Hebrew 
Canon :  had  that  book  been  received  at  a 
period  when  the  Hagiographa  and  the 
Prophets  were  in  the  Jews'  hands,  it  would 
be  surprising  if  they  had  not  also  received 
those.  2.  That  it  was  introduced  by  Ma- 
nasseh at  the  time  of  the  foundatien  of  the 
Samaritan  Sanctuary  on  Mount  Gerizim, 
and  written  in  the  ancient  Hebrew,  or  so- 
called  Samaritan  character.  It  differs  in 
several  important  points  from  the  Hebrew 
text.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned :  1. 
Emendations  of  passages  and  words  of  the 
Hebrew  text  which  contain  something  ob- 
jectionable in  the  eyes  of  the  Samaritans, 
on  account  either  of  historical  improbabil- 
ity or  apparent  want  of  dignity  in  the  terms 
applied  to  the  Creator.  Thus  in  the  Samar- 
itan Pentateuch  no  one  in  the  antediluvian 
times  begets  his  first  son  after  he  has  lived 
150  years :  but  one  hundred  years  are, 
where  necessary,  subtracted  before,  and 
added  after,  the  birth  of  the  first  son.  An 
exceedingly  important  and  often  discussed 
emendation  of  this  class  is  the  passage  in 
Ex.  xii.  40,  which  in  our  text  reads,  "  Now 
the  sojourning  of  the  cliildren  of  Israel 
who  dwelt  in  Egypt  was  four  hundred  and 


SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH      604 


SAMSON 


thirty  years."  The  Samaritan  has  *'  The 
Bojourning  of  the  children  of  Israel  [^and 
their  fathers  who  dwelt  in  the  land  of 
Canaan  and  in  the  land  of  Egypf]  was 
four  hundred  and  thirty  years  ;  "  an  inter- 
polation of  very  late  date  indeed.  Again, 
in  Gen.  ii.  2,  "And  God  [?]  had  finished 
on  the  seventh  day,"  is  altered  into  "  the 
sixth,"  lest  God's  rest  on  the  Sahbath-day 
might  seem  incomplete.  2.  Alterations 
made  in  favor  of  or  on  behalf  of  Samaritan 
theology,  hermeneutics,  and  domestic  wor- 
ship. Thus  the  word  Elohim,  four  times 
construed  with  the  plural  verb  in  the  He- 
brew Pentateuch,  is  in  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateuch joined  to  the  singular  verb  (Gen. 
XX.  13,  xxxi.  53,  XXXV.  7 ;  Ex.  xxii.  9)  ;  and 
further,  anthropomorphisms  as  well  as 
aothropopathisms  are  carefully  expunged 
—  p  practice  very  common  in  later  times. 
Tne  last  and  perhaps  most  momentous  of 
all  intentional  alterations  is  the  constant 
change  of  all  the  phrases,  "  God  will 
choose  a  spot,"  into  "  He  has  chosen,"  viz. 
Gerizim,  and  the  well-known  substitution 
of  Gerizim  for  Ebal  in  Deut.  xxvii.  4.  In 
Exodus  as  well  as  in  Deuteronomy  the 
Sam.  has,  immediately  after  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  following  insertions  from 
Deut.  xxvii.  2-7  and  xi.  30 :  "  And  it  shall 
be  on  the  day  when  ye  shall  pass  over  Jor- 
dan ...  ye  shall  set  up  these  stones  ...  on 
Mount  Gerizim  .  .  .  and  there  shalt  thou 
build  an  altar  .  .  .  '  That  mountain '  on  the 
other  side  Jordan  by  the  way  where  the 
6un  goeth  down  ...  in  the  champaign  over 
against  Gilgal,  beside  the  plains  of  Moreh, 
*  over  against  Shechem.'"  It  may  perhaps 
not  be  superfluous  to  add  here  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  Samaritan  literature.  1.  Chron- 
icon  Samaritanum.  —  Joshua  alone  seems 
to  have  found  favor  in  their  eyes ;  but  the 
Book  of  Joshua,  which  they  perhaps  pos- 
sessed in  its  original  form,  gradually  came 
to  form  ooly  the  groundwork  of  a  fictitious 
national  Samaritan  history,  overgrown  with 
the  most  fantastic  and  anachronistic  le- 
gends. This  is  the  so-called  "  Samaritan 
Joshua,"  or  Chronicon  Samaritanum,  sent 
to  Scaliger  by  the  Samaritans  of  Cairo  in 
1584.  It  was  edited  by  JuynboU  (Leyden, 
1848),  and  his  acute  investigations  have 
shown  that  it  was  redacted  into  its  present 
form  about  a.  d.  1300,  out  of  four  special 
documents,  three  of  which  were  Arabic, 
and  one  Hebrew  (i.  e.  Samaritan).  The 
chronicle  embraces  the  time  from  Joshua 
to  about  A.  D.  350,  and  was  originally  writ- 
ten in,  or  subsequently  translated  into, 
Arabic.  2.  From  this  work  chiefly  has 
been  compiled  another  Chronicle  written 
in  the  14th  century  (1355),  by  Abu'l  Fatah. 
This  comprises  the  history  of  the  Jews  and 
Samaritans  from  Adam  to  a.  h.  756  and  798 
(a.  d.  1355  and  1397)  respectively.  It  is  of 
equally  low  historical  value;  its  only  re- 


markable feature  being  the  adoption  of  cer- 
tain Talmudical  legends,  which  it  took  at 
second  hand  from  Josippon  ben  Gorion. 
3.  Another  "  historical "  work  is  on  the 
history  and  genealogy  of  the  patriarchs, 
from  Adam  to  Moses,  attributed  to  Moses 
himself;  perhaps  the  same  which  Peter- 
mann  saw  at  Ndhlus,  and  which  consisted 
of  sixteen  vellum  leaves  (supposed,  how- 
ever, to  contain  the  history  of  the  world 
down  to  the  end).  4.  There  are  various 
other  Samaritan  works  chiefly  in  Arabic  — 
their  Samaritan  and  Hebrew  literature  hav- 
ing mostly  been  destroyed  by  the  Emperor 
Commodus  —  that  do  not  require  special 
notice. 

Sam'gar-ne'bo,  one  of  the  princes 
or  generals  of  the  king  of  Babylon  who 
commanded  the  victorious  army  of  the 
Chaldaeans  at  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
(Jer.  xxxix.  3).  The  Neho  is  the  Chal- 
daean  Mercury ;  about  the  Samgar,  opin- 
ions are  divided. 

Sam'lah,  Gen.  xxxvi.  36,  37 ;  1  Chr.  i. 
47,  48.  One  of  the  kings  of  Edom,  succes- 
sor to  Hadad  or  Hadar. 

Sa'mos,  a  Greek  island  off  that  part  of 
Asia  Minor  whore  Ionia  touches  Caria. 
Saraos  comes  before  our  notice  in  the  de- 
tailed account  of  St.  Paul's  return  from  his 
third  missionary  journey  (Acts  XX.  15).  He 
had  been  at  Chios,  and  was  about  to  pro- 
ceed to  Miletus,  having  passed  by  Ephesus 
without  touching  there.  The  topograph- 
ical notices  given  incidentally  by  St.  Luke 
are  most  exact.  In  the  time  of  Herod  the 
Great,  and  when  St.  Paul  was  there,  it  was 
politically  a  "  free  city  "  in  the  province  of 
Asia. 

Samothra'cia.  The  mention  of  this 
island  in  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  first 
voyage  to  Europe  (Acts  xvi.  11)  is  for  two 
reasons  worthy  of  careful  notice.  In  the 
first  place,  being  a  very  lofty  and  conspic- 
uous island,  it  is  an  excellent  landmark  for 
sailors,  and  must  have  been  full  in  view, 
if  the  weather  was  clear,  throughout  that 
voyage  from  Troas  to  Neapolis.  Secondly, 
tliis  voyage  was  made  with  a  fair  wind.  Not 
only  are  we  told  that  it  occupied  only  parts 
of  two  days,  whereas  on  a  subsequent  re- 
turn-voyage (Acts  XX.  6)  the  time  spent  at 
sea  was  five,  but  the  technical  word  here 
used  implies  that  they  ran  before  the  wind. 
Now,  the  position  of  Samothrace  is  exactly 
such  as  to  correspond  with  these  notices, 
and  thus  incidentally  to  confirm  the  accu- 
racy of  a  most  artless  narrative.  St.  Paul 
and  his  companions  anchored  for  the  night 
off  Samothrace.  The  ancient  city,  and 
therefore  probably  the  usual  anoiiorage, 
vas  on  the  N.  side,  which  would  be  suffi- 
ciently sheltered  from  a  S.  E.  wind. 

Sam'son  (properly  Sham-sun,  t.  e. 
"  little  sun,"  or  "  sun-like,"  from  shemesh, 
the  sun'),  son  of  Manoah,  a  man  of  the  town 


SAMSON 


605 


SAMSON 


of  Zorah,  in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  on  the  border 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  33,  xix.  41).  Tlie 
miraculous  circumstances  of  his  birth  are 
recorded  in  Judg.  xiii. ;  and  the  tliree  fol- 
lowing chapters  are  devoted  to  the  history 
of  his  life  and  exploits.  Samson  takes  his 
place  in  Scripture,  (1.)  as  a  judge  —  an 
office  which  he  filled  for  twenty  years 
(Judg.  XV.  20,  xvi.  31) ;  (2.)  as  a  Nazarite 
(Judg.  xiii.  5,  xvi.  17);  and,  (3.)  as  one 
endowed  with  supernatural  power  by  the 
Spirit  of  the  Lord  (Judg.  xiii.  25,  xiv.  6, 
li),  XV.  14).  As  a  judge  his  authority  seems 
to  have  been  limited  to  the  district  border- 
ing upon  the  country  of  the  Philistines.  It 
is  evident  from  Judg.  xiii.  1,  5,  xv.  9-11, 
20,  and  the  whole  history,  that  the  Israel- 
ites, or  at  least  Judah  and  Dan,  which  are 
the  only  tribes  mentioned,  were  subject  to 
the  Philistines  through  the  whole  of  Sam- 
son's judgeship;  so  that  Samson's  twenty 
years  of  office  would  be  included  in  the 
forty  years  of  the  Philistiue  dominion. 
Fr(im  the  angel's  speech  to  Samson's  mother 
(Judg.  xiii.  5),  it  appears  further  that  the 
Israelites  were  already  subject  to  the  ;^hilis- 
tines  at  his  birth;  and  as  Samson  cannot 
have  begun  to  be  judge  before  he  was  twen- 
ty years  of  age,  it  follows  that  his  judge- 
ship must  have  coincided  with  the  last 
twenty  years  of  Philistine  dominion.  But 
when  we  turn  to  the  First  Book  of  Samuel, 
and  especially  to  vii.  1-14,  we  find  that  the 
Piiilistine  dominion  ceased  under  the  judge- 
ship of  Samuel.  Hence  it  is  obvious  to 
conclude  that  the  early  part  of  Samuel's 
judgeship  coincided  with  the  latter  part 
of  Samson's,  and  that  the  capture  of  the 
ark  by  the  Philistines  in  the  time  of  Eli 
occurred  during  Samson's  lifetime.  The 
divine  inspiration,  which  Samson  shared 
with  Othniel,  Gideon,  and  Jephthah,  as- 
sumed in  him  the  unique  form  of  vast 
personal  strength,  animated  by  undaunted 
bravery.  It  was  inseparably  connected 
with  the  observance  of  his  vow  af  a  Naza- 
rite ;  "  his  strength  was  in  his  hair."  Con- 
scious of  his  power,  he  began  to  seek  a 
quarrel  with  the  Philistines ;  and  with  tliis 
view  he  asked  the  hand  of  a  Philistine  wo- 
man whom  he  had  seen  at  Timnath.  One 
day,  as  he  passed  by  the  vineyards  of  the 
city  on  a  visit  to  his  intended  bride,  a  young 
li(m  rushed  out  upon  him;  the  spirit  of 
Jeliovah  came  on  Samson,  and  without  a 
weapon  he  tore  the  lion  as  he  would  have 
torn  a  kid,  but  he  told  no  one  of  the  exploit. 
As  he  passed  that  way  again,  he  saw  a  swarm 
of  bees  in  the  carcass  of  the  lion ;  and  he 
ate  of  the  honey,  but  still  he  told  no  one. 
He  availed  himself  of  this  circumstance, 
and  of  the  custom  of  proposing  riddles  at 
marriage-feasts,  to  lay  a  snare  for  the  Phi- 
listines. But  Samson  told  the  riddle  to  his 
wife,  and  she  told  it  to  the  men  of  the  city. 
The   afirit  of  Jehovah  came   again   upon 


him ;  and  going  down  to  Askelon,  he  sleyr 
thirty  men  of  the  city,  and  gave  their  spoil 
to  their  fellow-countrymen  of  Timnath.  He 
then  returned  to  his  own  house.  His  wife 
was  given  to  one  of  the  groomsmen,  and  on 
Samson's  visiting  her  soon  after,  her  father 
refused  to  let  him  see  her.  Samson  re- 
venged himself  by  taking  300  foxes  (or 
rather  jackals)  and  tying  them  together  two 
by  two  by  the  tails,  with  a  firebrand  be- 
tween every  pair  of  tails,  and  so  he  let  them 
loose  into  the  standing  corn  of  the  Philis- 
tines, which  was  ready  for  harvest.  The 
Philistines  took  vengeance  by  burning  Sam- 
son's wife  and  her  father ;  but  he  fell  upon 
them  in  return,  and  smote  them  "  hip  and 
thigh  with  a  great  slaugiiter,"  after  which 
he  took  refuge  on  the  top  of  the  rock  of 
Etam,  in  the  territory  of  Judah.  The 
Philistines  gathered  an  army  and  marched 
against  the  men  of  Judah,  who  hastened  to 
make  their  peace  by  giving  up  Samson. 
Three  thousand  of  them  went  up  to  the 
rock  of  Etam  to  bind  him,  and  he  submitted 
on  their  promise  not  to  fall  upon  him  them- 
selves. Bound  with  two  new  cords,  he  was 
brought  down  to  the  camp  of  the  Philis- 
tines, who  received  him  with  a  shout  of 
triumph ;  but  the  spirit  of  Jehovah  came 
upon  him :  he  broke  the  cords  like  burnt 
flax,  and  finding  a  jawbone  of  an  ass  at 
hand,  he  slew  with  it  a  thousand  of  the 
Pliilistines.  The  place  was  henceforth 
called  Ramath-Lehi  (the  height  of  the  jaw- 
bone). The  supernatural  character-  of  the 
exploit  was  confirmed  by  the  miraculous 
bursting  out  of  a  spring  of  water  to  revive 
the  champion  as  he  was  ready  to  die  of 
thirst.  He  called  the  spring  JEii-hakkore, 
that  is,  the  well  of  him,  that  cried.  This 
achievement  raised  Samson  to  the  position 
of  a  judge,  which  he  held  for  twenty  years. 
After  a  time  he  began  to  fall  into  the  temp- 
tations which  addressed  themselves  to  his 
strong  animal  nature ;  but  he  broke  through 
every  snare  in  which  he  was  caught  so  long 
as  he  kept  his  Nazarite's  vow.  While  he 
was  visiting  a  harlot  in  Gaza,  the  Philis- 
tines shut  the  gates  of  the  city,  intending 
to  kill  him  in  the  morning ;  but  at  midnight 
he  went  out  and  tore  away  the  gates,  with 
the  posts  and  bar,  and  carried  them  to  tlie 
top  of  a  hill  looking  towards  Hebron.  Next 
he  formed  his  fatal  connection  with  Delilah, 
a  woman  who  lived  in  the  valley  of  Sorek. 
She  was  bribed  by  tlie  lords  of  the  Philistines 
to  entice  Samson  to  tell  her  the  secret  of 
his  strength ;  and  though  not  at  once  be- 
traying it,  he  played  with  -the  temptation. 
Thrice  he  suffered  himself  to  be  bound  with 
green  withes,  witli  new  ropes,  and  by  weav- 
ing the  seven  locks  of  his  hair  to  the  beam 
of  a  loom;  and  each  time,  when  Delilah 
gave  the  signal,  "The  Philistines  are  upon 
thee,  Samson,"  he  burst  the  withes  and 
ropes,   and  tore  away  the  beam   with  it3 


SAMUEL 


606 


SAMUEL 


pin.  Instead  of  resenting  Delilah's  evident 
treachery,  he  seems  to  have  enjoyed  the 
certainty  of  triumph  over  each  new  snare, 
till  he  was  betrayed  into  the  presumption 
that  perhaps  his  strength  miglit  survive  the 
loss  of  his  Nazarite's  locks.  Wearied  out 
with  her  importunity,  he  at  last  "told  her 
all  his  heart,"  and,  while  he  was  asleep,  she 
had  him  shaven  of  his  seven  locks  of  hair. 
For  the  last  time  he  was  awakened  by  her 
cry,  "  The  Philistines  are  upon  thee,  Sam- 
son," and  thought  he  had  only  to  go  out  and 
shake  himself,  as  at  the  other  times,  for 
"  he  wist  not  that  Jehovah  was  departed  from 
him."  They  put  out  his  eyes,  and  led  him 
down  to  Gaza,  bound  in  brazen  fetters,  and 
made  him  grind  in  the  prison.  As  his  Imir 
grew,  his  strength  returned ;  but  his  infatu- 
ated foes  only  saw  in  this  the  means  of  their 
diversion.  Tlie  lords  and  chief  people  of 
the  PhiHstines  held  a  great  festival  in  the 
temple  of  Dagon,  to  celebrate  their  victory 
over  Samson.  They  brought  forth  the  blind 
champion  to  make  sport  for  them;  and, 
after  he  had  shown  his  feats  of  strength, 
they  placed  him  between  the  two  chief  pil- 
lars which  supported  the  roof  that  surround- 
ed the  court,  which,  as  well  as  the  court 
itself,  was  crowded  with  spectators,  to  the 
number  of  3000.  Samson  asked  the  lad 
who  guided  him  to  let  him  feel  the  pillars, 
to  lean  upon  them.  Then,  with  a  fervent 
prayer  that  God  would  strengthen  him  only 
this  once,  to  be  avenged  on  the  Philistines, 
he  bore  with  all  his  might  upon  the  two  pil- 
lars ;  they  yielded,  and  the  house  fell  upon 
the  lords  and  all  the  people.  "  So  the  dead 
which  he  slew  at  his  death  were  more  than 
they  which  he  slew  in  his  life."  His  name 
is  enrolled  among  the  worthies  of  the  Jew- 
ish church  in  Heb.  xi.  32. 

Satn'uel  was  the  son  of  Elkanah,  an 
Ephrathite  or  Ephraimite,  and  Hannah  or 
Anna,  and  was  born  at  Ramathaim-Zophim. 
[Ramah,  No.  2.]  It  is  on  the  mother  of 
Samuel  that  our  chief  attention  is  fixed  in 
the  account  of  his  birth.  She  is  described 
as  a  woman  of  a  high  religious  mission. 
Almost  a  Nazarite  by  practice  (1  Sam.  i. 
15),  and  a  prophetess  in  her  gifts  (1  Sara. 
ii.  1),  she  sought  from  God  the  gift  of  the 
child  for  which  she  longed  with  a  passion- 
ate devotion  of  silent  prayer,  of  which  there 
is  no  other  example  in  the  O.  T. ;  and  when 
the  son  was  granted,  the  name  which  he 
bore,  and  thus  first  introduced  into  the 
world,  expressed  her  sense  of  the  urgency 
of  her  entreaty  —  Samuel,  "  the  Asked  or 
Heard  of  God."  She  had  before  his  birth 
dedicated  him  to  the  oflJce  of  a  Nazarite. 
As  soon  as  he  was  weaned,  she  herself  with 
her  husband  brought  him  to  the  Tabernacle 
at  Shiloh,  where  she  had  received  the  first 
intimation  of  his  birth,  and  there  solemnly 
consecrated  him.  The  hj-^mn  which  followed 
on  this  consecration  is  the  first  of  the  kind 


in  the  sacred  volume.  From  this  time  the 
child  is  shut  up  in  the  tabernacle,  and 
"  ministered  unto  the  Lord  before  Eli."  He 
seems  to  have  slept  within  the  Holiest 
Place,  and  his  special  duty  was  to  put 
out  the  sacred  candlestick,  and  to  open 
the  doors  at  sunrise.  In  this  way  his  child- 
hood was  passed.  It  was  whilst  thus  sleep- 
ing in  the  tabernacle  that  he  received  his 
first  prophetic  call  (1  Sam.  iii.  1-18).  From 
this  moment  the  prophetic  character  of 
Samuel  was  established.  His  words  were 
treasured  up,  and  Shiloh  became  the  resort 
of  those  who  came  to  hear  him  (iii.  19-21). 
In  the  overthrow  of  the  sanctuarj',  which 
followed  shortly  on  this  vision,  we  hear  not 
what  became  of  Samuel  (iv.  11).  He  next 
appears,  probably  twenty  years  afterwards, 
suddenly  amongst  the  people,  warning  them 
against  their  idolatrous  practices  (vii.  3,  4). 
He  convened  an  assembly  at  Mizpeh,  prob- 
ably the  place  in  Benjamin.  It  was  at  tlie 
moment  that  he  was  offering  up  a  sacrifice 
that  the  Philistine  host  suddenly  burst  upon 
them.  A  violent  thunderstorm  came  to  the 
timely  assistance  of  Israel.  The  Philistines 
fled,  and,  exactly  at  the  spot  where  twenty 
years  before  they  had  obtained  their  great 
victory,  they  were  totally  routed.  A  stone 
was  set  up,  which  long  remained  as  a 
memorial  of  Samuel's  triumph,  and  gave 
to  the  place  its  name  of  Eben-ezer,  "  the 
Stone  of  Help"  (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  Tliis 
was  Samuel's  first,  and,  as  far  as  we  know, 
his  only  military  achievement.  But  it  was 
apparently  this  which  raised  him  to  the 
office  of  "Judge"  (comp.  1  Sam.  xii.  11, 
and  Ecclus  xlvi.  15-18).  He  visited,  in 
discharge  of  his  duties  as  ruler,  the  three 
chief  sanctuaries  on  the  west  of  Jordan  — 
Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpeh  (1  Sam.  vii.  16). 
His  own  residence  was  still  his  native  city, 
Ramah  or  Ramathaim,  which  he  further 
consecrated  by  an  altar  (vii.  17).  Here  he 
married,  and  two  sons  grew  up  to  repeat 
under  liis  eyes  the  same  perversion  of  high 
office  that  he  had  himself  witnessed  in  his 
childhood  in  the  case  of  the  two  sons  of 
Eli.  In  his  old  age  he  shared  his  power 
with  them  (1  Sam.  viii.  1-4).  —  Down  to 
tins  point  in  Samuel's  life  there  is  but  little 
to  distinguish  his  career  from  that  of  his 
predecessors.  But  his  peculiar  position  in 
the  sacred  narrative  turns  on  the  events 
which  follow.  He  is  the  inaugurator  of  tlie 
transition  from  what  is  commonly  called 
the  theocracy  to  the  monarchy.  The  mis- 
demeanor of  his  own  sons  precipitated  the 
catastrophe  which  had  been  long  prepar- 
ing. The  people  demanded  a  king.  For 
the  whole  night  he  lay  fasting  and  sleepless, 
in  the  perplexity  of  doubt  and  difficult)'.  In 
the  vision  of  that  night,  as  recorded  by  the 
sacred  historian,  is  given  the  dark  side  of 
the  new  institution,  on  which  Samuel  dwells 
on  /be  following  day  (1  Sam.  vii. ■0-18) 


SAMUEL 


607 


SAMUEL,  BOOKS  OF 


This  presents  his  reluctance  to  receive  the 
new  order  of  things.  The  whole  narrative 
of  the  reception  and  consecration  of  Saul 
gives  his  acquiescence  in  it.  The  final  con- 
flict of  feeling  and  surrender  of  his  office 
are  given  in  the  last  assemhly  over  which  lie 
presided,'  and  in  liis  subsequent  relations 
witli  Saul.  The  assembly  was  held  at  Gil- 
gal,  immediately  after  the  victory  over  the 
Ammonites.  The  monarchy  was  a  second 
time  solemnly  inaugurated.  Then  takes 
place  his  farewell  address.  It  is  the  most 
signal  example  afforded  in  the  O.  T.  of  a 
great  character  reconciling  himself  to  a 
changed  order  of  things,  and  of  the  Divine 
banction  resting  on  his  acquiescence.  —  His 
subsequent  relations  with  Saul  are  of  the 
same  mixed  kind.  The  two  institutions 
which  they  respectively  represented  ran  on 
side  by  side.  Samuel  was  still  Judge.  He 
judged  Israel  "all  the  days  of  his  life" 
(vii.  15),  and  from  time  to  time  came  across 
the  king's  path.  But  these  interventions 
are  chiefly  in  another  capacity,  which  this 
is  the  place  to  unfold.  Samuel  is  called 
emphatically  "  the  Prophet  "  (Acts  iii.  24, 
xiii.  20).  He  was  especially  known  in  his 
old  age  as  "  Samuel  the  Seer  "  (1  Sam.  ix. 
11,  18,  19;  1  Chr.  ix.  22,  xxvi.  28,  xxix. 
29).  He  was  consulted  far  and  near  on  the 
small  affairs  of  life  (1  Sam.  ix.  7,  8).  From 
this  faculty,  combined  with  his  office  of 
ruler,  an  awful  reverence  grew  up  around 
him.  No  sacrificial  feast  was  thought  com- 
plete without  his  blessing  (ib.  ix.  13).  A 
peculiar  virtue  was  believed  to  reside  in  his 
intercession.  There  was  something  pecu- 
liar in  the  long-sustained  cry  or  shout  of 
supplication,  which  seemed  to  draw  down 
as  by  force  the  Divine  answer  (1  Sam.  vii. 
8,  9).  But  there  are  two  other  points 
which  more  especially  placed  him  at  the 
head  of  the  prophetic  order,  as  it  afterwards 
appeared.  The  first  is  brought  out  in  his 
relation  with  Saul,  the  second  in  his  rela- 
tion with  David.  (1)  He  represents  the 
independence  of  the  moral  law,  of  the  Di- 
vine Will,  as  distinct  from  regal  or  sacer- 
dotal enactments,  which  is  so  remarkable  a 
characteristic  of  all  the  later  prophets.  He 
was,  if  a  Levite,  yet  certainly  not  a  Priest; 
and  all  the  attempts  to  identify  his  opposi- 
tion to  Saul  with  a  hierarchical  interest  are 
founded  on  a  complete  misconception  of 
the  facts  of  the  case.  From  the  time  of 
the  overthrow  of  Shiloh,  he  never  appears 
in  the  remotest  connection  with  the  priestly 
order.  When  he  counsels  Saul,  it  is  not  as 
the  priest,  but  as  the  prophet.  Saul's  sin,  in 
both  cases  where  he  came  into  collision  with 
Samuel,  was  not  of  intruding  into  sacerdotal 
functions,  but  of  disobedience  to  the  pro- 
phetic voice.  The  first  was  that  of  not  wait- 
ing for  Samuel's  arrival,  according  to  the 
sign  given  by  Samuel  at  his  original  meet- 
ing at  Uamah  (1  Sam.  x.  8,  xiii,  8) ;  the 


second  was  that  of  not  carrying  out  the  stem 
prophetic  injunction  for  the  destruction  of 
the  Amalekites.  He  is  the  first  of  the  reg- 
ular succession  of  prophets  (Acts  iii.  24). 
Moses,  Miriam,  and  Deborah,  perhaps  Ehud, 
had  been  prophets.  But  it  was  only  from 
Samuel  that  the  continuous  succession  was 
unbroken.  It  is  in  his  lifetime,  long  after 
he  hati  been  "  established  as  a  prophet"  (1 
Sam.  iii.  20),  that  we  hear  of  the  compa- 
nies of  disciples,  called  in  the  O.  T.  "  the 
sons  of  the  prophets,"  by  modern  writers 
"  the  schools  of  the  prophets."  In  those 
schools,  and  learning  to  cultivate  the  pro- 
phetic gifts,  were  some,  whom  we  know  for 
certain,  others  whom  we  may  almost  cer- 
tainly conjecture,  to  have  been  so  trained 
or  influenced.  One  was  Saul.  Twice  at 
least  he  is  described  as  having  been  in  the 
company  of  Samuel's  discix)les  (1  Sam.  x. 
10,  11,  xix.  24).  (2)  The  first  acquaint- 
ance of  Samuel  with  David  was  when  he 
privately  anointed  him  at  the  house  of 
Jesse.  But  the  connection  tlius  begun  with 
the  shepherd  boy  must  have  been  continued 
afterwards.  David,  at  first,  fled  to  "  Naioth 
in  Ramah,"  as  to  his  second  home  (1  Sam. 
xix.  19).  It  is  needless  to  enlarge  on  the 
importance  witli  which  these  incidents  in- 
vest the  appearance  of  Samuel.  He  there 
becomes  the  spiritual  father  of  the  Psalmist 
king.  He  is  also  the  Founder  of  the  first 
regular  institutions  of  religious  instruction, 
and  communities  for  the  purposes  of  educa- 
tion. The  death  of  Samuel  is  described  as 
taking  place  in  the  year  of  the  close  of 
David's  wanderings.  It  is  said  with  pecu- 
liar emphasis,  as  if  to  mark  the  loss,  that 
"  all  the  Israelites  were  gathered  together" 
from  all  parts  of  this  hitherto  divided  coun- 
try, and  "  lamented  him,"  and  "  buried 
him,"  not  in  any  consecrated  place,  nor 
outside  the  walls  of  his  city,  but  within  his 
own  house,  thus  in  a  manner  consecrated 
by  being  turned  into  his  tomb  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
1).  The  place  long  pointed  out  as  his  tomb 
is  the  height,  most  conspicuous  of  all  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  immediately 
above  the  town  of  Gibcon,  known  to  the 
Crusaders  as  "  Montjoye,"  as  tlie  spot  from 
whence  they  first  saw  Jerusalem,  now  called 
I^eby  Samwil,  "the  Prophet  Samuel."  He- 
man,  his  grandson,  was  one  of  the  chief 
singers  in  the  Levitical  choir  (1  Chr.  vi.  3.3, 
XV.  17,  xxv.  6).  The  apparition  of  Samuel 
at  Endor  (1  Sam.  xx^iii.  14)  belongs  to  tlie 
history  of  Saul. 

Samuel,  Books  of,  are  not  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  in  the  Hebrew  MSS., 
and,  from  a  critical  point  of  view,  must  be 
regarded  as  one  book.  The  present  division 
was  first  made  in  the  Septuagint  translation, 
and  was  adopted  in  the  Vulgate  from  the 
Septuagint.  The  book  was  called  by  the 
Hebrews  "  Samuel,"  probably  because  the 
birth  and  life  of  Samuel  were  the  subjects 


SAMUEL,  BOOKS  OF 


608 


SAMUEL,  BOOKS  OF 


treated  of  in  the  beginning  of  the  work.  — 
The  books  of  Samuel  commence  with  the 
history  of  Eli  and  Samuel,  and  contain  an 
account  of  the  establishment  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy  and  of  the  reigns  of  Saul  and 
David,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  days 
of  the  latter  monarch,  which  are  related  in 
the  beginning  of  the  books  of  Kings,  of 
which  those  of  Samuel  form  the  previous 
portion.  [Kings,  Books  of.]  Authorship 
and  Date  of  the  Book.  —  1.  As  to  the  au- 
thorship. In  common  with  all  the  historical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  except  the 
beginning  of  Nehemiah,  tJie  Book  of  Sam- 
uel contains  no  mention  in  the  text  of  the 
name  of  its  author.  It  is  indisputable  that 
the  title  "  Samuel  "  does  not  imply  that  the 
prophet  was  the  author  of  the  Book  of 
Samuel  as  a  whole ;  for  the  death  of  Samuel 
is  recorded  in  the  beginning  of  the  25th 
cliapter.  Again,  in  reference  to  the  Book 
of  Samuel,  the  absence  of  the  historian's 
name  from  both  the  text  and  the  title  is  not 
supplied  by  any  statement  of  any  other 
writer,  made  within  a  reasonable  period 
from  the  time  when  the  book  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written.  No  mention 
of  the  author's  name  is  made  in  the  Book 
of  Kings,  nor,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown, 
in  the  Chronicles,  nor  in  any  other  of  the 
sacred  writings.  In  like  manner,  it  is  not 
mentioned  either  in  the  Apocrypha  or  in 
Josephus.  And  it  is  not  until  we  come  to 
the  Babylonian  Gemara,  which  is  siipposed 
to  have  been  completed  in  its  present  form 
somewhere  about  500  a.  d.,  that  any  Jewish 
statement  respecting  the  authorship  can  be 
pointed  out,  and  then  it  is  for  the  first  time 
asserted  that  "  Samuel  wrote  his  book," 
t.  e.  as  the  words  imply,  the  book  which 
bears  his  name.  But  this  statement  cannot 
be  proved  to  have  been  made  earlier  than 
1560  years  after  the  death  of  Samuel;  and 
unsupported  as  it  is  by  reference  to  any 
authority  of  any  kind,  it  would  be  unworthy 
of  credit,  even  if  it  were  not  opposed  to 
the  internal  evidence  of  the  book  itself. 
At  the  revival  of  learning,  an  opinion  was 
l)ropounded  by  Abrabanel,  a  learned  Jew, 
t  A.  D.  1508,  that  the  Book  of  Samuel  was 
written  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  and  this 
opinion  was  adopted  by  Hugo  Grotius.  Not- 
withstanding tlie  eminence,  however,  of 
these  writers,  this  opinion  must  be  rejected 
as  highly  improbable.  In  our  own  time  the 
most  prevalent  idea  in  the  Anglican  Church 
seems  to  have  been  that  the  first  twenty- 
four  chapters  of  the  Book  of  Samuel  were 
written  by  the  prophet  himself,  and  the  rest 
cf  the  chapters  by  the  prophets  Nathan  and 
Gad.  Two  circumstances  have  probably 
contributed  to  the  adoption  of  tliis  opinion 
at  the  present  day :  —  1st,  the  growth  of 
stricter  ideas  as  to  the  importance  of  know- 
ing wlio  was  the  author  of  any  historical 
work  which  advances  claims  to  be  trust- 


worthy; and  2dly,  the  mistranslation  of 
an  ambiguous  passage  in  the  First  Book  of 
I  Chronicles  (xxix.  29),  which  ought  to  be 
rendered,  —  "  Now  the  history  of  David, 
first  and  last,  behold,  it  is  written  in  the 
history  of  Samuel  the  seer,  and  in  the  his- 
tory of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  in  the 
history  of  Gad  the  seer,"  —  which  does  not 
imply  that  the  books  were  written  by  these 
persons.  2.  But  although  the  authorship 
cannot  be  ascertained  with  certainty,  it  ap- 
pears clear  that,  in  its  present  form,  it  must 
have  been  composed  subsequent  to  the  se- 
cession of  the  Ten  Tribes  (b.  c.  975).  This 
results  from  the  passage  in  1  Sam.  xxvii.  6, 
wherein  it  is  said  of  David,  "  Tlien  Achish 
gave  him  Ziklag  that  day :  wherefore  Zik- 
lag  pertaineth  unto  the  kings  of  Judah  to 
this  day : "  for  neither  Saul,  David,  nor 
Solomon  is  in  a  single  instance  called  king 
of  Judah  simply.  Before  the  secession,  the 
designatidn  of  the  kings  was  that  they  were 
kings  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  1,  xv.  I,  xvi. 
1;  2  Sam.  v.  17,  viii.  15;  1  K.  ii.  11,  iv.  1, 
vi.  1,  xi.  42).  On  the  other  hand,  it  would 
hardly  have  been  written  later  than  the 
reformation  of  Josiah,  since  it  seems  to 
have  been  composed  at  a  time  when  the 
Pentateuch  was  not  acted  on  as  the  rule  of 
religious  observances.  It  is  in  accordance 
witli  this  early  date  of  the  Book  of  Samuel 
that  allusions  in  it  even  to  the  existence  of 
Moses  are  so  few.  After  the  return  from 
the  Captivity,  and  more  especially  after  the 
changes  introduced  by  Ezra,  Moses  became 
that  great  central  figure  in  tlie  thoughts 
and  language  of  devout  Jews  whicli  he 
could  not  fail  to  be  when  all  the  laws  of 
the  Pentateuch  were  observed,  and  they 
were  all  referred  to  him  as  the  divine 
prophet  who  communicated  them  directly 
from  Jehovah.  This  transcendent  impor- 
tance of  Moses  must  already  have  com- 
menced at  the  finding  of  the  Book  of  the 
Law  at  the  reformation  of  Josiah.  Now  it 
is  remarkable  that  the  Book  of  Samuel  is 
the  historical  work  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  which  the  name  of  Moses  occurs  most 
rarely.  To  a  religious  Jew,  when  the  laws 
of  the  Pentateuch  were  observed,  Moses 
could  not  fail  to  be  the  predominant  idea  in 
his  mind;  but  Moses  would  not  necessarily 
be  of  equal  importance  to  a  Hebrew  histo- 
rian who  lived  before  the  reformation  of 
Josiah.  3.  It  tallies  with  an  early  date  for 
the  composition  of  the  Book  of  Samuel 
that  it  is  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  He- 
brew prose  in  the  golden  age  of  Hebrew 
literature.  In  prose  it  holds  the  same  place 
wliicii  Joel  and  the  undisputed  prophecies 
of  Isaiah  hold  in  poetical  or  prophetical 
language.  At  the  same  time  this  argument 
from  language  must  not  be  puslied  so  far 
as  to  imply  that,  standing  alone,  it  would 
be  conclusive ;  for  some  writings,  the  date 
of  which  is  about  the  time  of  the  Captivity, 


SANBAL],AT 


609 


SANHEDRIM 


are  in  pure  Hebrew.  Acc(/rding  to  the 
Mosaic  Law,  sacrifices  to  Jehovah  were 
not  lawful  anywhere  but  before  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation, 
whether  this  was  a  permanent  temple,  as 
at  Jerusalem,  or  otherwise  (Deut.  xii.  13, 
14;  Lev.  xvii.  3,  4;  but  see  Ex.  xx.  24). 
But  in  the  Book  of  Samuel,  the  offering 
of  sacrifices,  or  the  erection  of  altars,  which 
implies  sacrifices,  is  mentioned  at  several 
places,  such  as  Mizpeh,  Ramah,  Bethel,  the 
threshing-place  of  Araunah  the  Jebusite, 
and  elsewhere,  not  only  without  any  dis- 
approbation, apology,  or  explanation,  but 
in  a  way  which  produces  the  impression 
that  such  sacrifices  were  pleasing  to  Jeho- 
vah (1  Sam.  vii.  9,  10,  17,  ix.  13,  x.  3,  xiv. 
35;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  18-25).  Now  we  know 
that  after  the  reformation  of  Josiah  the 
worship  upon  high-places  was  abolished  by 
the  king's  orders  (2  K.  xxii.  8,  xxiii.  8,  13, 
15,  19,  21).  All,  therefore,  that  can  be 
asserted  with  any  certainty  is,  that  the 
book,  as  a  whole,  can  scarcely  have  been 
composed  later  tlian  the  reformation  of  Jo- 
siah, and  that  it  could  not  have  existed  in 
its  present  form  earlier  than  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam. 

Sanbal'lat,  a  Moabite  of  Horonaim 
(Neh.  ii.  10,  19,  xiii.  28).  He  held  ap- 
parently some  civil  or  military  command 
in  Samaria,  in  the  service  of  Artaxerxes 
(Neh.  iv.  2),  and,  from  the  moment  of  Ne- 
hemiah's  arrival  in  Judaea,  he  set  himself 
to  oppose  every  measure  for  the  welfare  of 
Jerusalem.  His  companions  in  this  hostil- 
ity were  Tobiah  the  Ammonite,  and  Geshem 
the  Arabian  (Neh.  ii.  19,  iv.  7).  The  only 
other  incident  in  his  life  is  his  alliance  with 
the  high-priest's  family  by  the  marriage  of 
his  daughter  with  one  of  the  grandsons  of 
Eliashib,  which,  from  the  similar  connection 
formed  by  Tobiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh.  xiii. 
4),  appears  to  have  been  part  of  a  settled 
policy  concerted  between  Eliashib  and  the 
Samaritan  faction.  The  expulsion  from  the 
priesthood  of  the  guilty  son  of  Joiada  by 
Nehemiah  must  have  still  farther  widened 
the  breach  between  him  and  Sanballat,  and 
between  the  two  parties  ^n  the  Jewish  state. 
Here,  however,  the  Scriptural  narrative 
ends  —  owing,  probably,  to  Nehemiah's  re- 
turn to  Persia  —  and  with  it  likewise  our 
knowledge  of  Sanballat. 

Sandal  was  the  article  ordinarily  used 
by  the  Hebrews  for  protecting  the  feet.  It 
consisted  simply  of  a  sole  attached  to  the 
foot  by  thongs.  We  have  express  notice  of 
the  thong  (A.  V.  "shoe-latchet")  in  sev- 
eral passages  (Gen.  xiv.  23;  Is.  v.  27; 
Mark  i.  7).  In  Assyria  the  heel  and  the 
side  of  the  foot  were  encased,  and  some- 
times the  sandal  consisted  of  little  else  than 
this.  Sandals  were  worn  by  all  classes  of 
society  in  Palestine,  even  by  the  very  poor 
(Am.  viii.  6),  and  both  the  sandal  and  the 

8d 


thong  or  shoe-latchet  were  so  cheap  and 
common,  that  they  passed  into  a  proverb 
for  the  most  insignificant  thing  (Gen.  xiv. 
23;  Ecclus.  xlvi.  19).  They  were  not, 
however,  worn  at  all  periods ;  they  were 
dispensed  with  in-doors,  and  were  only  put 
on  by  persons  about  to  undertake  some 
business  away  from  their  homes ;  such  as 
a  military  expedition  (Is.  v.  27;  Eph.  vi. 
15),  or  a  journey  (Ex.  xii.  11 ;  Josh.  ix.  5, 
13 ;  Acts  xii.  8)  :  on  such  occasions  per- 
sons carried  an  extra  pair.  During  meal- 
times the  feet  were  undoubtedly  uncovered, 
as  implied  in  Luke  vii.  38 ;  John  xiii.  5,  6. 
It  was  a  mark  of  reverence  to  cast  off  the 
shoes  in  approaching  a  place  or  person  of 
eminent  sanctity  (Ex.  iii.  5 ;  Josh.  v.  15). 
It  was  also  an  indication  of  violent  emo- 
tion, or  of  mourning,  if  a  person  appeared 
barefoot  in  public  (2  Sam.  xv.  30 ;  Is.  xx. 


Astyrian  Sandala.    (From  Layard,  ii.  231.) 

2;  Ez.  xxiv.  17,  23).  To  carry  or  to  un- 
loose a  person's  sandal  was  a  menial  office 
betokening  great  inferiority  on  the  part  of 
the  person  performing  it  (Matt.  iii.  11; 
Mark  i.  7;  John  i.  27;  Acts  xiii.  25). 
The  expression  in  Ps.  Ix.  8,  cviii.  9,  "  over 
Edom  I  cast  out  my  shoe,"  evidently  sig- 
nifies the  subjection  of  that  country,  but; 
the  exact  point  of  the  comparison  is  ob- 
scure. The  use  of  the  shoe  in  the  transfer- 
of  property  is  noticed  in  Ruth  iv.  7,  8. 

San'hedrim  (accurately  Sanhedrin^ 
from  the  Greek  avridgtor,  "  a  council- 
chamber"),  called  also  in  the  Talmud  ^Aer 
great  Sanhedrim,  the  supreme  council  of 
the  Jewish  people  in  the  time  of  Christ  and! 
earlier.  1.  The  origin  of  this  assembly  is 
traced  in  the  Mishna  to  the  seventy  elders 
whom  Moses  was  directed  (Num.  xi.  16, 
17)  to  associate  with  him  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Israelites;  but  this  tribunal 
was  probably  temporary,  and  did  not  con- 
tinue to  exist  after  the  Israelites  had  en- 
tered Palestine.  In  the  lack  of  definite- 
historical  information  as  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Sanhedrim,  it  can  only  be  said 
in  general  that  the  Greek  etymology  of  the 
name  seems  to  point  to  a  period  subsequent 
to  the  Macedonian  supremacy  in  Palestine. 
From  the  few  incidental  notices  in  the  New- 
Testament,  we  gather  that  it  consisted  of 


SANSANNAH 


610 


SARAPH 


chief  priests,  or  the  heads  of  the  24  classes 
into  which  the  priests  were  divided,  eklers, 
men  of  age  and  experience,  and  scribes, 
lawyers,  or  those  learned  in  the  Jewish  law 
(Matt.  xxvi.  57,  59 ;  Mark  xv.  1 ;  Luke 
xxii.  66;  Acts  v.  21).  2.  The  number  of 
'members  is  usually  given  as  71.  The  pres- 
ident of  this  body  was  styled  Nasi,  and  was 
chosen  on  account  of  his  eminence  in  worth 
and  wisdom.  Often,  if  not  generally,  this 
pTe-emincnce  was  accorded  to  the  liigh- 
priest.  The  vice-president,  called  in  the 
Talmud  "father  of  the  house  of  judg- 
ment," sat  at  the  right  hand  of  tiie  presi- 
dent. Some  writers  speak  of  a  second 
vice-president,  but  this  is  not  sufficiently 
confirmed.  While  in  session  the  Sanhe- 
drim sat  in  the  form  of  a  half-circle.  3. 
The  place  in  which  the  sessions  of  the  San- 
hedrim were  ordinarily  held  was,  according 
to  the  Talmud,  a  hall  called  Gazzith,  sup- 
posed by  Lightfoot  to  have  been  situated  in 
the  south-east  corner  of  one  of  the  courts 
near  the  temple  building.  In  special  ex- 
igencies, however,  it  seems  to  have  met 
in  the  residence  of  the  high-priest  (Matt. 
xxvi.  3).  Forty  years  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  consequently  while 
the  Saviour  was  teaching  in  Palestine,  the 
sessions  of  the  Sanhedrim  were  removed 
from  the  hall  Gazzith  to  a  somewhat  greater 
distance  from  the  temple  building,  although 
still  on  Mt.  Moriah.  After  several  otiier 
changes,  its  seat  was  finally  established  at 
Tiberias.  —  As  a  judicial  body  the  Saniie- 
drim  constituted  a  supreme  court,  to  which 
belonged  in  the  first  instance  the  trial  of  a 
tribe  fallen  into  idolatry,  false  prophets, 
and  the  high-priest ;  also  the  other  priests. 
As  an  administrative  council  it  determined 
other  important  matters.  Jesus  was  ar- 
raigned before  this  body  as  a  false  prophet 
(John  xi.  47),  and  Peter,  John,  Stephen, 
and  Paxil  as  teachers  of  error  and  deceivers 
of  the  people.  From  Acts  ix.  2  it  appears 
that  the  Sanhedrim  exercised  a  degree  of 
authority  beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine. 
According  to  the  Jerusalem  Gemara  the 
power  of  inflicting  capital  punishment  was 
taken  away  from  this  tribunal  forty  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  With 
tills  agrees  the  answer  of  the  Jews  to  Pilate 
(John  xix.  31).  The  Talmud  also  mentions 
a  lesser  Sanhedrim,  of  twenty-three  mem- 
bers in  every  city  in  Palestine  in  wliich 
-were  not  less  than  120  householders. 

Sansan'nah.,  one  of  the  towns  in  the 
south  district  of  Judah,  named  in  Josh.  xv. 
51  only.  We  have  nothing  to  guide  us  to 
the  position  of  Sansannah.  It  does  not 
appear  to  be  mentioned  by  any  explorer, 
a.'^cient  or  modern. 

Saph.,  one  of  the  sons  of  the  giant 
slain  by  Sibbechai  the  Hushathite  (2 
Sam.  xxi.  18).     In  1  Chr.  xx.  4  he  is  called 

.SiPPAI. 


Sapll'ir,  one  of  the  villages  addressed 
by  the  Prophet  Micah  (i.  11),  is  described 
by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  "in  the  mountain 
district  between  Eleutheropolis  and  Asca- 
lon,"  perhaps  represented  by  the  village 
es-Sawdfir  seven  or  eight  miles  to  the 
N.  E.  of  Ascalon. 

Sapphi'ra.     [Ananias.] 

Sapphire  (Heb.  sappir),  a  precious 
stone,  apparently  of  a  bright  blue  color  (see 
Ex.  xxiv.  10) ;  the  second  stone  in  the 
second  row  of  the  high  priest's  breastplate 
(Ex.  xxviii.  18);  extremely  precious  (Job 
xxviii.  16) ;  it  was  one  of  the  precious 
stones  that  ornamented  the  king  of  Tyre 
(Ez.  xxviii.  13).  The  sapphire  of  the  an- 
cients was  not  our  gem  of  tiiat  name,  viz, 
the  azure  or  indigo  blue,  crystalline  variety 
of  Corundum,  but  our  Lapis  lazuli  {Ultra- 
marine). 

Sa'ra.     [Sarah.] 

Sa'rah.  1.  The  wife  of  Abraham,  and 
mother  of  Isaac.  Of  her  birth  and  parent- 
age we  have  no  certain  account  in  Scrip- 
ture. Her  name  is  first  introduced  in  Gen. 
xi.  29,  as  follows  :  "  Abram  and  Nahor  took 
them  wives  :  the  name  of  Abram's  wife  was 
Sarai ;  and  the  name  of  Nahor's  wife  was 
Milcah,  the  daughter  of  Haran,  the  father 
of  Milcah  and  the  father  of  Iscah."  In 
Gen.  XX.  12,  Abraham  speaks  of  her  as  "  his 
sister,  the  daughter  of  the  same  father, 
but  not  the  daughter  of  the  same  mother." 
The  common  Jewish  tradition  is,  that  Sarai 
is  the  same  as  Iscah,  the  daughter  of  Haran, 
and  the  sister  of  Lot.  The  change  of  her 
name  from  "  Sarai "  to  "  Sarah  "  was  made 
at  the  same  time  that  Abram's  name  was 
changed  to  Abraham,  on  the  establishment 
of  the  covenant  of  circumcision  between 
him  and  God.  That  the  name  "Sarah" 
signifies  "  princess "  is  universally  ac- 
knowledged; but  the  meaning  of  "Sarai" 
is  still  a  subject  of  controversy.  The 
older  interpreters  suppose  it  to  mean  "  my 
princess."  Her  history  is  of  course  that 
of  Abraham.  [Abraham.]  She  died  at 
Hebron  at  the  age  of  127  years,  28  years 
before  her  husband,  and  was  buried  by  him 
in  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  She  is  referred 
to  in  the  N.  T.  as  a  type  of  conjugal  obe- 
dience in  1  Pet.  iii.  6,  and  as  one  of  the 
types  of  faith  in  Heb.  xi.  11.  2.  Sarah, 
the  daugliter  of  Asher  (Num.  xxvi.  46). 

Sa'rai,  the  original  name  of  Sarah,  tlw 
wife  of  Abraham.  The  meaning  of  the 
name  may  possibly  be,  as  Ewald  has  sug- 
gested, "  contentious." 

Sar'amel,  the  name  of  the  place  in 
which  the  assembly  of  the  Jews  was  held 
at  which  the  high-priesthood  was  conferred 
upon  Simon  Maccabaeus  (1  Mace.  xiv.  28). 
Some  have  treated  it  as  a  corruption  of 
Jerusalem ;  but  this  is  inadmissible,  though 
it  was  probably  some  part  of  the  city. 

Sa'raph,  mentioned  in  1  Chr.  iv.  22, 


SARDINE 


611 


SATAN 


amoTig  the  descendant?  of  Shelah  the  son 
of  Judah. 

Sardine,  Sardius  (Heb.  ddem),  the 
stone  wliich  occupied  the  first  place  in  the 
first  row  of  the  high-priest's  breastplate 
(Ex.  xxviii.  17,  xxxix.  10;  Ez.  xxviii.  13). 
In  Rev.  iv.  3,  St.  John  declares  that  he 
whom  he  saw  sitting  on  the  heavenly  throne 
"  was  to  look  upon  like  a  jasper  and  a 
sardine  stone."  The  sixth  foundation  of 
the  wall  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  was  a 
sardius  (Rev.  xxi.  20).  The  sard,  which  is 
the  stone  probably  denoted  by  ddem,  is  a 
superior  variety  of  agate,  and  has  long 
been  a  favorite  stone  for  the  engraver's 
art.  Sards  differ  in  color :  there  is  a  bright 
red  variety,  and  perhaps  the  Heb.  ddem, 
from  a  root  which  means  "  to  be  red," 
points  to  this  kind. 

Sar'dis,  a  city  situated  about  two  miles 
to  the  south  of  the  river  Hermus,  just  be- 
low tlie  range  of  Tmolus  (Bos  Dagh),  on 
a  spur  of  which  its  acropolis  was  built.  It 
was  the  ancient  residence  of  the  kings  of 
Lydia.  Sardis  was  in  very  early  times, 
both  from  the  extremely  fertile  character 
of  the  neighboring  region,  and  from  its 
convenient  position,  a  commercial  mart  of 
importance.  Chestnuts  were  first  produced 
in  the  neighborhood.  The  art  of  dyeing 
wool  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  invented 
there ;  and  at  any  rate  Sardis  was  the  en- 
trepot of  the  dyed  woollen  manufactures. 
Sardis  too  was  the  place  where  the  metal 
electrum  was  procured;  and  it  was  thither 
that  the  Spartans  sent,  in  the  6th  century 
B.  c,  to  purchase  gold  for  the  purpose  of 
gilding  the  face  of  the  Apollo  at  Amyclae. 
In  the  year  214  b.  c.  it  was  taken  and 
racked  by  the  army  of  Antiochus  the 
(ireat.  After  the  ruin  of  Antiochus'  for- 
tunes, it  passed,  with  the  rest  of  Asia  on 
that  side  of  Taurus,  under  the  dominion 
of  the  kings  of  Pergamus,  whose  interests 
led  them  to  divert  the  course  of  traffic  be- 
tween Asia  and  Europe  away  from  Sardis. 
Its  productive  soil  must  always  have  con- 
tinued a  source  of  wealth ;  but  its  impor- 
tance as  a  central  mart  appears  to  have 
diminislied  from  the  time  of  the  invasion  of 
Asia  by  Alexander.  The  massive  temple 
of  Cybele  still  bears  witness  in  its  fragmen- 
tary remains  to  the  wealth  and  architec- 
tural skill  of  the  people  that  raised  it.  On 
the  north  side  of  the  acropolis,  overlooking 
the  valley  of  the  Hermus,  is  a  theatre  near 
400  feet  in  diameter,  attached  to  a  stadium 
of  about  1000.  This  probably  was  erected 
after  the  restoration  of  Sardis  by  Alex- 
ander. There  are  still  considerable  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  city  at  Sert-Kalessi. 
Travellers  describe  the  appearance  of  the 
locality  as  that  of  complete  solitude.  The 
only  passage  in  which  it  is  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  is  Rev.  iii.  1-6. 


Sar'dites,  The,  descendants  of  Sered 
the  son  of  Zebulun  (Num.  xxvi.  26). 

Sardonyx  is  mentioned  in  the  N.  T. 
once  only,  viz.  in  Rev.  xxi.  20.  The  sar- 
donyx consists  of  "  a  white  opaque  layer, 
superimposed  upon  a  red  transparent  stra- 
tum of  the  true  red  sard."  It  is,  like  the  sard, 
merely  a  variety  of  agate,  and  is  frequently 
employed  by  engravers  for  a  signet-ring. 

Sarep'ta.    [Zarephath.] 

Sar'gon,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  As- 
syrian kings,  is  mentioned  by  name  only 
once  in  Scripture  (Is.  xx.  1).  Earlier 
writers  had  identified  him  with  either  Shal- 
maneser,  or  Sennacherib,  or  Esarhaddon. 
All  these  conjectures  are  now  shown  to  be 
wrong  by  the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  wiiich 
prove  Sargon  to  have  been  distinct  from 
the  several  monarchs  named,  and  fix  his 
place  in  the  list  between  Shalmaneser  and 
Sennacherib.  His  name  is  read  in  the  in- 
scriptions as  "  Sargina."  He  was  Sennache- 
rib's father,  and  his  immediate  predeces- 
sor, and  reigned  from  b.  c.  721  to  702, 
and  seems  to  have  been  a  usurper.  He 
was  undoubtedly  a  great  and  successful 
warrior.  In  his  annals,  which  cover  a  space 
of  fifteen  years  (from  b.  c.  721  to  706),  he 
gives  an  account  of  his  warlike  expeditions 
against  Babylonia  and  Susiana  on  the 
south.  Media  on  the  east,  Armenia  and 
Cappadocia  towards  the  north,  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, Arabia,  and  Egypt  towards  the  west 
and  south-west.  In  b.  c.  712  he  took 
Ashdod,  by  one  of  his  generals,  which  is 
the  event  which  causes  the  mention  of  his 
name  in  Scripture.  It  is  not  as  a  warrior 
only  that  Sargon  deserves  special  mention 
among  the  Assyrian  kings.  He  was  also  the 
builder  of  useful  works,  and  of  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  of  the  Assyrian  palaces. 

Sa'rid,  a  chief  landmark  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  10,  12).  All 
that  can  be  gathered  of  its  position  is  that 
it  lay  to  the  west  of  Chisloth-Tabor. 

Sa'ron,  the  district  in  which  Lydda 
stood  (Acts  ix.  35  only) ;  the  Shakon  of 
the  O.  T.     [Sharon.] 

Saro'thie.  "  The  sons  of  Sarothie  "  are 
among  the  sons  of  the  servants  of  Solomon 
who  returned  with  Zorobabel  (1  Esd.  v.  34). 

Sarse'chim,  one  of  the  generals  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  army  at  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3).  He  appears  to 
have  held  the  office  of  chief  eunuch.  In 
Jer.  xxxix.  13,  Nebushasban  is  called  Rab- 
saris,  "  chief  eunuch ;  "  and  perhaps  Nebu- 
shasban and  Sarsechim  may  be  names  of  the 
same  person. 

Sa'ruch.  Serug  the  son  of  Reu  (Luko 
iii.  35).  ■< 

Sa'tan.  The  word  itself,  the  Hebrew 
sdtdn,  is  simply  an  "adversary,"  and  is  so 
used  in  1  Sam.  xxix.  4 ;  2  Sam.  xix.  22 ;  I 
K.  V.  4,  xi.  14,  23,  25;  Num.  xxii.  22,  82; 


SATAN 


612 


SATAN 


Ps.  cix.  6.  This  originul  sense  is  still  found 
in  our  Lord's  application  of  the  name  to 
St.  Peter  in  Matt.  xvi.  2i5.  It  is  used  as  a 
proper  name  or  title  only  four  times  in  the 
O.  T.  viz.  (with  the  article)  in  Job  i.  G,  12, 
ii.  1,  Zech.  ii.  1,  and  (witliout  the  article) 
in  l^Chr.  xxi.  i.  It  is  with  the  scriptural 
revelation  on  the  subject  that  we  are  here 
concerned ;  and  it  is  clear,  from  this  simple 
enumeration  of  passages,  that  it  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  New,  rather  than  in  the  Old 
Testament.  I.  The  personal  existence  of  a 
Spirit  of  Evil  is  clearly  revealed  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  but  the  revelation  is  made  gradually, 
in  accordance  with  the  progressiveness  of 
God's  method.  In  the  first  entrance  of  evil 
into  the  world,  the  temptation  is  referred 
only  to  the  serpent.  Throughout  the  whole 
period  of  the  patriarchal  and  Jewish  dis- 
pensation, this  vague  and  imperfect  revela- 
tion of  the  Source  of  Evil  alone  was  given. 
The  Book  of  Job  stands  alone  on  the  basis 
ef  "  natural  religion,"  apart  from  the  grad- 
ual evolutions  of  the  Mosaic  revelation.  In 
it,  for  the  first  time,  we  find  a  distinct  men- 
tion of  "  Satan,"  the  "  adversary  "  of  Job. 
But  it  is  important  to  remark  the  emphatic 
stress  laid  on  his  subordinate  position,  on 
tlie  absence  of  all  but  delegated  power,  of 
all  terror,  and  all  grandeur  in  his  character. 
It  is  especially  remarkable  that  no  power 
of  spiritual  influence,  but  only  a  power  over 
outward  circumstances,  is  attributed  to  liim. 
The  Captivity  brought  the  Israelites  face  to 
face  with  the  great  dualism  of  the  Persian 
mythology,  the  conflict  of  Ormuzd  with 
Ahriman,  the  co-ordinate  Spirit  of  Evil.  In 
the  books  written  after  the  Captivity  we 
have  again  the  name  of  *'  Satan"  twice 
mentioned  (1  Chr.  xxi.  1-;  Zech.  iii.  1,2); 
but  it  is  confessed  by  all  that  the  Satan  of 
Scripture  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  Per- 
sian Ahriman.  His  subordination  and  in- 
feriority are  as  strongly  marked  as  ever. 
In  the  interval  between  the  Old  and  New 
Test,  the  Jewish  mind  had  pondered  on  the 
scanty  revelations  already  given  of  evil 
spiritual  influence.  But  the  Apocryphal 
Books  (as,  for  example,  Tobit  and  Judith), 
while  dwelling  on  "  demons,"  have  no 
notice  of  Satan.  The  same  may  be  ob- 
served of  Josephus.  But,  while  a  mass  of 
fable  and  superstition  grew  up  on  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  evil  spiritual  influence,  still 
the  existence  and  nature  of  Satan  remained 
in  the  background,  felt,  but  not  understood. 
The  N.  T.  first  brings  it  plainly  forward. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel,  when  he 
appears  as  the  personal  tempter  of  our 
Lord,  through  all  the  Gospels,  Epistles, 
and  Apocalypse,  it  is  asserted  or  implied, 
again  and  again,  as  a  familiar  and  impor- 
tant truth.  Without  dwelling  on  other  pas- 
sages, the  plain,  solemn,  and  unmetaphori- 
cal  words  of  John  viii.  44  must  be  sufficient. 


II.  Of  the  nature  and  original  state  of 
Satan,  little  is  revealed  in  Scripture.  He 
is  spoken  of  as  a  "  spirit "  in  Eph.  ii.  2,  as 
the  prince  or  ruler  of  the  "  demons  "  in 
Matt.  xii.  24-2G,  and  as  having  "angels" 
subject  to  him  in  Matt.  xxv.  41 ;  Rev.  xii. 
7,  9.  The  whole  description  of  his  power 
implies  spiritual  nature  and  spiritual  in- 
fluence. We  conclude  therefore  that  he 
was  of  angelic  nature,  a  rational  and 
spiritual  creature,  superhuman  in  power, 
wisdom,  and  energy ;  and  not  only  so, 
but  an  archangel,  one  of  the  "  princes " 
of  heaven.  We  cannot,  of  course,  con- 
ceive that  anything  essentially  and  ori- 
ginally evil  was  created  by  God.  We  can 
only  conjecture,  therefore,  that  Satan  is  a 
fallen  angel,  who  once  had  a  time  of  pro- 
bation, but  whose  condemnation  is  now 
irrevocably  fixed.  But  of  tlie  time,  cause, 
and  manner  of  his  fall,  Scripture  tells 
us  scarcely  anything.  It  limits  its  dis- 
closures, as  always,  to  that  which  we 
need  to  know.  The  passage  on  which  all 
the  fabric  of  tradition  and  poetry  has 
been  raised  is  Rev.  xii.  7,  9.  Whatever 
be  the  meaning  of  this  passage,  it  is  certain 
that  it  cannot  refer  to  the  original  fall  of 
Satan.  The  only  other  passage  which  re- 
fers to  the  fall  of  the  angels  is  2  Pet.  ii.  4, 
with  the  parallel  passage  in  Jude  6.  Here, 
again,  the  passage  is  mysterious ;  but  it 
seems  hardly  possible  to  consider  Satan  as 
one  of  these ;  for  they  are  in  chains  and 
guarded  till  the  Great  Day ;  he  is  permitted 
still  to  go  about  as  the  Tempter  and  the 
Adversary,  until  his  appointed  time  be 
come.  Setting  these  passages  aside,  we 
have  still  to  consider  the  declaration  of  out 
Lord  in  Luke  x.  18,  "  I  beheld  Satan,  as 
lightning,  fall  from  heaven."  This  may 
refer  to  the  fact  of  his  original  fall ;  but, 
in  any  case,  it  tells  nothing  of  its  cause  or 
method.  There  is  also  the  passage  already 
referred  to  (John  viii.  44) ;  but  here  it 
seems  likely  the  words  refer  to  the  begin- 
ning of  his  action  upon  man.  Perhaps  the 
only  one,  which  has  any  value,  is  1  Tim. 
iii.  6,  "  lest,  being  lifted  up  by  pride,  he  fall 
into  the  condemnation  of  the  devil."  It  is 
concluded  from  this  that  pride  was  the 
cause  of  the  devil's  condemnation.  But, 
while  these  points  are  passed  by  almost  in 
silence.  Scripture  describes  to  us  distinctly 
the  moral  nature  of  the  Evil  One.  The 
ideal  of  goodness  is  made  up  of  the  three 
great  moral  attributes  of  God  —  Love, 
Truth,  and  Purity  or  Holiness ;  combined 
with  that  spirit  which  is  the  natural  temper 
of  a  finite  and  dependent  creature,  the 
spirit  of  Faith.  We  find,  accordingly, 
that  the  opposites  of  these  qualities  are 
dwelt  upon  as  the  characteristics  of  the 
devil.  III.  The  power  of  Satan  over  the 
soul  is   represented    as    exercised    either 


SATAN 


613 


SAUL 


directly  or  by  his  instruments.  His  direct 
influence  over  the  soul  is  siraply  that  of  a 
powerful  and  evil  nature  on  those  in  whom 
lurks  the  germ  of  the  same  evil.  Besides 
this  direct  influence,  we  learn  from  Scrip- 
ture that  Satan  is  the  leader  of  a  host  of 
evil  spirits  or  angels  who  share  his  evil 
work,  and  for  whom  the  "  everlasting  fire 
is  prepared"  (Matt.  xxv.  41).  Of  their 
origin  and  fiiU  we  know  no  more  than  of 
his,  for  they  cannot  be  the  same  as  the 
fallen  and  imprisoned  angels  of  2  Pet.  ii.  4, 
and  Jude  6;  but  one  passage  (Matt.  xii. 
24-26)  identifies  them  distinctly  with  the 
*'  demons  "  (A.  V.  "  devils  ")  who  had 
power  to  possess  the  souls  of  men.  They 
are  mostly  spoken  of  in  Scripture  in  ref- 
erence to  possession;  but  in  Eph.  vi.  12, 
they  are  described  in  various  lights,  as 
"principalities,"  "powers,"  "rulers  of  the 
darkness  of  this  world,"  and  "  spiritual 
powers  of  wickedness  in  heavenly  places  " 
(or  "things");  and  in  all  as  "wrestling" 
against  the  soul  of  man.  In  Rev.  xii.  7-9, 
they  are  spoken  of  as  fighting  with  "  the 
dragon,  the  old  serpent,  called  the  devil  and 
Satan,"  against  "  Michael  and  his  angels," 
and  as  cast  out  of  heaven  with  their  chief. 
Taking  all  these  passages  together,  we  find 
them  sharing  the  enmity  to  God  and  man 
implied  in  the  name  and  nature  of  Satan ; 
but  their  power  and  action  are  but  little 
dwelt  upon  in  comparison  with  his.  But 
tlie  Evil  One  is  not  only  the  "  prince  of  the 
demons,"  but  also  he  is  called  the  "  prince 
of  this  world,"  in  John  xii.  31,  xiv.  30, 
xvi.  11,  and  even  the  "god  of  this  world" 
in  2  Cor.  iv.  4 ;  the  two  expressions  being 
united  in  Eph.  vi.  12.  This  power  he 
claimed  for  himself,  as  a  delegated  author- 
ity, in  the  temptation  of  our  Lord  (Luke 
iv.  C) ;  and  the  temptation  would  have 
been  unreal  had  he  spoken  altogether 
falsely.  The  indirect  action  of  Satan  is 
best  discerned  by  an  examination  of  the 
title  by  which  he  is  designated  in  Scripture. 
He  is  called  emphatically  6  8iu^oXof,  "  the 
devil."  The  derivation  of  the  word  in  it- 
self implies  only  the  endeavor  to  break  the 
bonds  between  others,  and  "set  them  at 
variance ;  "  but  common  usage  adds  to  this 
general  sense  the  special  idea  of  "  setting 
at  variance  by  slander."  In  the  applica- 
tion of  the  title  to  Satan,  both  the  general 
and  special  senses  should  be  kept  in  view. 
His  general  object  is  to  break  the  bonds  of 
Communion  between  God  and  man,  and  the 
bonds  of  truth  and  love  which  bind  men  to 
each  other.  The  slander  of  God  to  man  is 
seen  best  in  the  words  of  Gen.  iii.  4,  5. 
They  attribute  selfishness  and  jealousy  to 
tlie  Giver  of  all  good.  The  slander  of  man 
to  God  is  illustrated  by  the  Book  of  Job 
(Job  i.  9-11,  ii.  4,  5).  In  reference  to  it, 
Siitan  is  called  the  "  adversary "  of  man 
in  1  Pet  v.  8,  and  represented  in  that  char- 


acter in  Zech.  iii.  1,  2;  and  more  plainly 
still  designated  in  Rev.  xii.  10,  as  "  the  ac- 
cuser of  our  brethren,  who  accuse  them 
before  our  God  day  and  night."  It  is  diffi- 
cult for  us  to  understand  what  can  be  the 
need  of  accusation,  or  the  power  of  slander, 
under  the  all-searching  eye  of  God.  But 
these  points,  important  as  they  are,  are  of 
less  moment  than  the  disclosure  of  the 
method  of  Satanic  action  upon  the  heart 
itself.  It  may  be  summed  up  in  two  words 
—  Temptation  and  Possession.  The  sub- 
ject of  temptation  is  illustrated,  not  only  by 
abstract  statements,  but  also  by  the  record 
of  the  temptations  of  Adam  and  of  our  Lord. 
It  is  expressly  laid  down  (as  in  James  i.  2- 
4)  that  "  temptation,"  properly  so  called, 
t.  e.  "trial,"  is  essential  to  man,  and  is  ac- 
cordingly ordained  for  him  and  sent  to  him 
by  God  (as  in  Gen.  xxii.  1).  It  is  this  tenta- 
bility  of  man,  even  in  his  original  nature, 
which  is  represented  in  Scripture  as  giving 
scope  to  the  evil  action  of  Satan.  He  is 
called  the  "tempter"  (as  in  Matt.  iv.  3; 
1  Thess.  iii.  5).  He  has  power,  first,  to 
present  to  the  appetites  or  passions  their 
objects  in  vivid  and  captivating  forms ;  and 
next,  to  act  upon  the  false  desire  of  the 
will  for  independence.  It  is  a  power  which 
can  be  resisted,  because  it  is  under  the  con- 
trol and  overruling  power  of  God  (1  Cor.  x. 
13 ;  James  iv.  7,  &c.).  It  is  exercised  both 
negatively  and  positively.  Its  negative  exer- 
cise is  referred  to  in  the  parable  of  the  sower. 
Its  positive  exercise  is  set  forth  in  the  par- 
able of  the  wheat  and  the  tares.  This  ex- 
ercise of  the  tempter's  power  is  possible, 
even  against  a  sinless  nature.  We  see  this 
in  the  temptation  of  our  Lord.  But  in  the 
temptation  of  a  fallen  nature  Satan  has  a 
greater  power.  Every  sin  committed  makes 
a  man  the  "  servant;  of  sin  "  for  the  future 
(John  viii.  34 ;  Rom.  vi.  16)  :  it  therefore 
creates  in  the  spirit  of  man  a  positive  ten- 
dency to  evil,  which  sympathizes  with,  and 
aids,  the  temptation  of  the  Evil  One.  On 
the  subject  of  Possession,  see  Demoniacs. 

Satjrrs  are  mentioned  in  Is.  xiii.  21,  and 
xxxiv.  14,  where  the  prophet  predicts  the 
desolation  of  Babylon.  The  Hebrew  word 
signifies  "hairy"  or  "rough,"  and  is  fre- 
quently applied  to  "  he-goats."  In  the 
passages  cited  it  probably  refers  to  demons 
of  woods  and  desert  places,  half  men  and  half 
goats  (comp.  Lev.  xvii.  7;  2  Chr.  xi.  15). 

Saul,  more  accurately  Shaul.  — 1.  Saul 
of  Rehoboth  by  the  River  was  one  of  the 
early  kings  of  Edom,  and  successor  of 
Samlah  (Gon.  xxxvi.  37,  38;  1  Chr.  i.  48). 
2.  The  first  king  of  Israel,  was  tlie  son  of 
Kish  and  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  His 
character  is  in  part  illustrated  by  the  fierce, 
wayward,  fitful  nature  of  the  tribe,  and  in 
part  accounted  for  by  the  struggle  between 
the  old  and  new  systems  in  which  he  found 
himself  involved.    To  this  we  must  add  a 


SAUL 


614 


SAUL 


taint  of  madness,  which  broke  out  in  vio- 
lent frenzy  at  times,  leaving  him  with  long 
lucid  intervals.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
strength  and  activity  (2  Sam.  i.  23)  and 
like  the  Homeric  heroes,  of  gigantic  stat- 
ure, taller  by  head  and  shoulders  than  the 
rest  of  the  people,  and  of  that  kind  of 
beauty  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  word 
"  good  "  (1  Sam.  ix.  2),  and  which  caused 
him  to  be  compared  to  the  gazelle,  "  the 
gazelle  of  Israel."  His  birthplace  is  not 
expressly  mentioned;  but,  as  Zelah  was 
the  place  of  Kisli's  sepulchre  (2  Sam.  xxi.), 
it  was  probably  his  native  village.  His 
father,  Kisli,  was  a  powerful  and  wealthy 
chief,  though  the  family  to  which  he  be- 
longed was  of  little  importance  (ix.  1,  21). 
A  portion  of  his  property  consisted  of  a 
drove  of  asses.  In  search  of  these  asses, 
gone  astray  on  the  mountains,  he  sent  his 
son  Saul,  accompanied  by^  a  servant,  who 
acted  also  as  a  guide  and  guardian  of  the 
young  man  (ix.  3-10).  It  was  while  pros- 
ecuting this  adventure  that  Saul  met  with 
Samuel  for  the  first  time.  A  Divine  inti- 
mation had  indicated  to  him  the  approach 
and  the  future  destiny  of  the  youthful  Ben- 
jamite.  In  anticipation  of  some  distin- 
guished stranger,  Samuel  had  bade  the 
cook  reserve  a  boiled  shoulder,  from  which 
Saul,  as  the  chief  guest,  was  bidden  to  tear 
oif  the  first  morsel.  They  then  descended 
to  the  city,  and  a  bed  was  prepared  for 
Saul  on  the  house-top.  At  daybreak  Sam- 
uel roused  him.  They  descended  again  to 
the  skirts  of  the  town,  and  there  (the  ser- 
vant having  left  them)  Samuel  poured  over 
Saul's  head  the  consecrated  oil,  and  with  a 
kiss  of  salutation  announced  to  him  that 
he  was  to  be  tlie  ruler  of  the  nation  (ixl  25 
-X.  1).  From  that  moment  a  new  life 
dawned  upon  him ;  and  on  his  return  home- 
wards, his  call  was  confirmed  by  the  inci- 
dents which,  according  to  Samuel's  predic- 
tion, awaited  him  (x.  9,  10).  This  is  what 
may  be  called  the  private,  inner  view  of 
his  call.  The  outer  call,  which  is  related 
independently  of  the  other,  was  as  follows  : 
—  An  assembly  was  convened  by  Samuel 
at  Mizpeh,  and  lots  were  cast  to  find  the 
tribe  and  the  family  which  was  to  produce 
the  king.  Saul  was  named  —  and,  by  a  Di- 
vine intimation,  found  hid  in  the  circle  of 
baggage  which  surrounded  the  encampment 
(x.  17-24).  His  stature  at  once  conciliated 
the  public  feeling,  and  for  the  first  time  the 
shout  was  raised,  afterwards  so  often  re- 
peated in  modern  times,  "Long  live  the 
king"  (x.  23-34),  and  he  returned  to  Gib- 
eah,  where  he  usually  resided.  He  was 
(having  apparently  returned  to  his  private 
life)  on  his  way  home,  driving  his  herd  of 
oxen,  when  he  heard  one  of  those  wild 
lamentations  in  the  city  of  Gibeah,  such  as 
mark  in  Eastern  towns  the  arrival  of  a 
great  calamity.    It  was  the  tidings  of  the 


tlireat  issued  by  Nahash  king  of  Amraon 
against  Jabesh-Gilead.  "  The  spirit  of  the 
Lord  came  upon  him,"  as  on  the  ancient 
Judges.  He  speedily  collected  an  army, 
and  Jabesh  was  rescued.  The  effect  was 
instantaneous  on  the  people,  and  the  mon- 
archy was  inaugurated  anew  at  Gilgal  (xi. 
1-15).  It  should  be,  however,  observed 
that  according  to  1  Sam.  xii.  12,  the  affair 
of  Nahash  preceded  and  occasioned  the 
election  of  Saul.  He  becomes  king  of  Is- 
rael. But  he  still  so  far  resembles  the 
earlier  Judges,  as  to  be  virtually  king  only 
of  his  own  tribe,  Benjamin,  or  of  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood.  Almost  all  his  ex- 
ploits are  confined  to  this  circle  of  territory 
or  associations.  Samuel,  who  had  up  to 
this  time  been  still  named  as  ruler  with  Saul 
(xi.  7,  12,  14),  now  withdrew,  and  Saul 
became  the  acknowledged  chief.  In  the 
2d  year  of  his  reign,  he  began  to  organize 
an  attempt  to  shake  off  the  Philistine  yoke 
which  pressed  on  his  country ;  not  least  on 
his  own  tribe,  where  a  Philistine  ofiicer  had 
long  been  stationed  even  in  his-  own  field 
(x.  6,  xiii.  3).  An  army  of  3000  was 
formed,  which  he  soon  afterwards  gathered 
together  round  him ;  and  Jonathan,  appar- 
ently with  his  sanction,  rose  against  the 
officer  and  slew  him  (xiii.  2-4).  This 
roused  the  wliole  force  of  the  Philistine 
nation  against  him.  The  spirit  of  Israel 
was  completely  broken.  In  this  crisis, 
Saul,  now  on  the  very  confines  of  his  king- 
dom at  Gilgal,  found  himself  in  the  posi- 
tion long  before  described  by  Samuel; 
longing  to  exercise  his  royal  right  of  sacri- 
fice, yet  deterred  by  his  sense  of  obedience 
to  the  Prophet.  At  last,  on  the  7th  day,  he 
could  wait  no  longer,  laut  just  after  the 
sacrifice  was  completed  Samuel  arrived, 
and  pronounced  the  first  curse,  on  his  im- 
petuous zeal  (xiii.  5-14).  Meanwhile  the 
adventurous  exploit  of  Jonatlian  at  Mich- 
mash  brought  on  the  crisis  which  ultimate- 
ly drove  the  Philistines  back  to  their  owa 
territory.  It  was  signalized  by  two  re- 
markable incidents  in  the  life  of  Saul. 
One  was  the  first  appearance  of  his  mad- 
ness in  the  rash  vow  which  all  but  cost  the 
life  of  his  son  (1  Sam.  xiv.  24,  44).  The 
other  was  the  erection  of  his  first  altar, 
built  either  to  celebrate  the  victory,  or  to 
expiate  the  savage  feast  of  the  famished 
people  (xiv.  35).  The  expulsion  of  the 
Philistines  (altliough  not  entirely  complet- 
ed, xiv.  52)  at  once  placed  Saul  in  a  position 
higher  than  that  of  any  previous  ruler  of 
Israel.  The  warlike  character  of  his  reign 
naturally  still  predominated,  and  lie  was 
now  able  to  attack  the  neighboring  tribes 
of  Moab,  Ammon,  Edom,  Zobah,  and  final- 
ly Amalek  (xir,  47).  The  war  with  Ama- 
lek  is  twice  related,  first  briefly  (xiv.  48), 
and  then  at  length  (xv.  1-9).  Its  chief 
connection  with  Saul's  history  lies  in  th« 


SAUL 


615 


SAW 


disobedi  jnr<3  to  the  prophetical  command 
of  Samutl,  shown  in  tlie  sparing  of  the 
king  and  the  retention  of  the  spoil.  This 
second  act  of  disobedience  called  down  the 
second  cnrse,  and  tlie  first  distinct  intima- 
tion of  the  transference  of  the  kingdom  to 
a  rival.  The  struggle  between  Samuel  and 
Saul  in  their  final  parting  is  indicated  by 
the  rent  of  Samuel's  robe  of  state,  as  he 
tears  himself  away  from  Saul's  grasp,  and 
by  the  long  mourning  of  Samuel  for  the 
separation —  "  Samuel  mourned  for  Saul." 

—  The  rest  of  Saul's  life  is  one  long  trage- 
dy. The  frenzy,  which  had  given  indica- 
tions of  itself  before,  now  at  times  took  al- 
most entire  possession  of  him.  It  is  de- 
scribed in  mixed  phrases,  as  '*  an  evil  spirit 
of  God  "  (much  as  we  might  s^Kjak  of,  "  re- 
ligious madness "),  which,  when  it  came 
upon  him,  almost  choked  or  strangled  him 
from  its  violence.  In  this  crisis  David  was 
recommended  to  him  by  one  of  the  young 
men  of  his  guard.  From  this  time  forward 
their  lives  are  blended  together.  [David.] 
In  Saul's  better  moments  he  never  lost  the 
strong  affection  which  he  had  contracted 
for  David.  Occasionally,  too,  his  propheti- 
cal gift  returned,  blended  with  his  madness 
(six.  24).  But  his  acts  of  fierce,  wild  zeal 
increased.  At  last  the  monarchy  itself, 
which  he  had  raised  up,  broke  down  under 
the  weakness  of  its  head.  The  Philistines 
re-entered  the  country,  and  with  their  char- 
iots and  ^horses  occupied  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon.  Their  camp  was  pitched  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  range  now  called 
Little  Hermon,  by  Shunem.  On  the  oppo- 
site side,  on  Mount  Gilboa,  was  the  Israel- 
ite army,  clinging,  as  usual,  to  the  heights 
which  were  th»jr  safety.  It  was  near  the 
spring  of  Gideon's  encampment,  hence 
called  the  spring  of  ilarod  or  "  trembling  " 

—  and  now  the  name  assumed  an  evil  omen, 
and  the  heart  of  the  king,  as  he  pitched  his 
camp  there,  "trembled  exceedingly"  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  5).  In  the  loss  of  all  the 
usual  means  of  consulting  the  Divine  Will, 
Le  determined,  with  that  wayward  mixture 
of  superstition  and  religion  which  marked 
liis  whole  career,  to  apply  to  one  of  the 
necromancers  who  had  escaped  his  perse- 
cution. She  was  a  woman  living  at  Endor, 
on  the  other  side  of  Little  Hermon.  Vol- 
umes have  been  written  on  the  question, 
whether  in  tiie  scene  that  follows  we  are  to 
understand  an  imposture  or  a  real  appari- 
tion of  Samuel.  At  this  distance  of  time 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  relative 
amount  of  fraud  or  of  reality,  though  the 
obvious  meaning  of  the  narrative  itself 
tends  to  the  hypothesis  of  some  kind  of 
apparition.  She  recognizes  the  disguised 
king  first  by  the  appearance  of  Samuel, 
seemingly  from  his  threatening  aspect  or 
tone  as  towards  his  enemy.  Saul  appar- 
ently saw  nothing,  but  listened  to  her  de- 


scription of  a  godlike  figure  of  an  aged 
man,  wrapped  round  with  the  royal  or  sa- 
cred robe.  On  hearing  the  denunciation 
which  the  apparition  conveyed,  Saul  fell 
the  whole  length  of  his  gigantic  stature  on 
the  ground,  and  remained  motionless  till 
the  woman  and  his  servants  forced  him  to 
eat.  The  next  day  the  battle  came  on.  The 
Israelites  were  driven  up  tiie  side  of  Gilboa,. 
The  three  sons  of  Saul  were  slain.  Stnil 
himself,  with  his  armor-bearer,  was  pursued 
by  the  archers  and  the  charioteers  of  the 
enemy.  He  was  wounded.  According  to 
one  account,  he  fell  upon  his  own  sword  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  4).  According  to  another  ac- 
count, an  Amalekite  came  up  at  the  mo- 
ment of  his  death-wound,  and  found  hira 
"  fallen,"  but  leaning  on  his  spear;  and  he 
was,  at  his  own  request,  put  out  of  his  pain 
by  the  Amalekite,  who  took  off  his  royal 
diadem  and  bracelet,  and  carried  the  news 
to  David  (2  Sam.  i.  7-10).  The  body  on 
being  found  by  the  Philistines  was  stripped, 
and  decapitated.  The  armor  was  sent  into 
the  Philistine  cities,  as  if  in  retribution  for 
the  spoliation  of  Goliath,  and  finally  de- 
posited in  the  temple  of  Astarte,  apparently 
in  the  neighboring  Canaanitish  city  of 
Bethshan ;  and  over  tiie  walls  of  the  same 
city  was  hung  the  naked  headless  corpse, 
with  those  of  his  three  sons  (ver.  9,  10). 
The  head  was  deposited  (probably  at  Ash- 
dod)  in  the  temple  of  Dagon  (1  Chr.  x.  10.) 
The  corpse  was  removed  from  Bethshan 
by  the  gratitude  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ja- 
besh-gilead,  who  came  over  the  Jordan  by 
night,  carried  off  the  bodies,  burnt  tliem, 
and  buried  them  under  the  tamarisk  at 
Jabesh  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  13).  Thence,  after 
the  lapse  of  several  years,  his  ashes  and 
those  of  Jonathan  were  removed  by  David 
to  their  ancestral  sepulclire  at  Zelah  in  Ben- 
jamin (2  Sam.  xxi.  14).  3.  The  Jewish 
name  of  St.  Paul.  This  was  the  most 
distinguished  name  in  the  genealogies  of 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  to  which  the  Apostle 
felt  some  pride  in  belonging  (Rom.  xi.  1 ; 
Phil.  iii.  5).  Nothing  certain  is  known 
about  the  change  of  the  Apostle's  name 
from  Saul  to  Paul  (Acts  xiii.  9).  Two 
chief  conjectures  prevail  concerning  the 
change.  (1.)  Tiiat  the  name  was  derived 
from  Sergids  Paulus,  the  first  of  his 
Gentile  converts.  (2.)  That  Paulus  was 
the  Apostle's  Koman  name  as  a  citizen  of 
Tarsus,  which  was  naturally  adopted  into 
common  use  by  his  biographer  wlicn  his 
labors  among  the  heathen  commenced. 

Saw.  Egyptian  saws,  so  far  as  has 
yet  been  discovered,  were  single-handed, 
though  St.  Jerome  has  been  thought  to  al- 
lude to  circular  saws.  As  is  the  case  in 
modern  Oriental  saws,  the  teeth  usually  in- 
cline towards  the  handle,  instead  of  away 
from  it,  like  ours.  They  have,  in  most 
case),  bronze  blades,  apparertly  attached 


SCArE-GOAT 


616 


SCRIBES 


to  the  handles  by  leathern  thongs ;  but 
some  of  those  in  the  British  Museum  have 
their  blades  let  into  them  like  our  knives. 
A  double-handed  iron  saw  has  been  found 
at  Ninirftd.  No  evidence  exists  of  the  use 
of  the  saw  applied  to  stone  in  Egypt,  nor 
without  the  double-handed  saw  does  it  seem 
likely  that  this  should  be  the  case ;  but  we 
read  of  sawn  stones  used  in  the  Temple  (1 
K.  vii.  9).  The  saws  "under"  or  "in" 
which  David  is  said  to  have  placed  his  cap- 
tives were  of  iron.  The  expression  in  2 
Sam.  xii.  31,  does  not  necessarily  imply 
torture,  but  the  word  "  cut "  in  1  Chr.  xx. 
3,  can  hardly  be  understood  otherwise. 

Scape-goat.     [Atonement,  Day  of.] 

Scarlet.     [Colors.] 

Sceptre,  originally  meant  a  rod  or  staff. 
It  was  thence  specifically  applied  to  the 
shepherd's  crook  (Lev.  xxvii.  32;  Mic.  vii. 
14),  and  to  the  wand  or  sceptre  of  a  ruler. 
The  use  of  the  staff"  as  a  symbol  of  author- 
ity was  not  confined  to  kings;  it  might  be 
used  by  any  leader,  as  instanced  in  Judg. 
V.  14,  where  for  "  pen  of  the  writer,"  as  in 
the  A.  v.,  we  should  read  "  sceptre  of  the 
leader."  The  allusions  to  it  are  all  of  a 
metaphorical  character,  and  describe  it 
simply  as  one  of  the  insignia  of  supreme 
power  (Gen.  xlix.  10;  Num.  xxiv.  17;  Ps. 
xlv.  6;  Is.  xiv.  5;  Am.  i.  5;  Zech.  x.  11; 
Wisd.  X.  14;  Bar.  vi.  14).  We  are  con- 
sequently unable  to  describe  the  article 
from  any  Biblical  notices ;  we  may  infer 
that  it  was  probably  made  of  wood.  The 
sceptre  of  tlie  Persian  monarch  is  described 
as  "  golden,"  i.  e.  probably  of  massive  gold 
(Esth.  iv.  11). 

Sce'va,  a  Jew  residing  at  Ephesus  at 
the  time  of  St.  Paul's  second  visit  to  that 
town  (Acts  xix.  14-16).  He  is  described 
as  a  "high-priest,"  either  as  having  exer- 
cised the  office  at  Jerusalem,  or  as  being 
chief  of  one  of  the  twenty -four  classes. 

Science.  In  the  A.  V.  this  word  oc- 
curs only  in  Dan.  i.  4,  and  1  Tim.  vi.  20. 
Its  use  in  Dan.  i.  4  is  probably  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  number  of  synonymous 
words  in  the  verse,  forcing  the  translators 
to  look  out  for  diversified  equivalents  in 
English.  Why  it  should  have  been  chosen 
for  1  Tim.  vi.  20  is  not  so  obvious.  Its 
effect  is  injurious,  as  leading  the  reader  to 
suppose  that  St.  Paul  is  speaking  of  some- 
thing else  than  the  "  knowledge  "  of  which 
both  the  Judaizing  and  the  mystic  sects 
of  the  Apostolic  age  continually  boasted, 
against  which  he  so  urgently  warns  men  (1 
Cor.  viii.  1,  7),  the  counterfeit  of  the  true 
knowledge  which  he  prizes  so  highly  (1 
Cor.  xii.  8,  xiii.  2;  Phil.  i.  9;  Col.  iii.  10). 
A  natural  perversion  of  the  meaning  of  the 
text  has  followed  from  this  translation. 

Scorpion  (Heb.  'akrdb),  twice  men- 
tioned in  the  O.  T.  (Deut.  viii.  15 ;  Ez.  ii. 
6),  and  four  times  in  the  N.  T.  (Luke  x. 


19,  xi.  12;  Rev.  ix.  3,  10).  The  wilder- 
ness of  Sinai  is  especially  alluded  to  as 
being  inhabited  by  scorpions  at  the  time  of 
the  Exodus,  and  to  this  day  these  animals 
are  common  in  the  same  district,  as  well 
as  in  some  parts  of  Palestine.  Scorpions 
are  generally  found  in  dry  and  in  dark 
places,  under  stones  and  in  ruins,  chiefly 
in  warm  climates.  They  are  carnivorous 
in  their  habits,  and  move  along  in  a  threat- 
ening attitude,  with  the  tail  elevated.  The 
sting,  which  is  situated  at  the  extremity  of 
the  tail,  has  at  its  base  a  gland  that  secret€8 
a  poisonous  fluid,  which  is  discharged  into 
tlie  wound  by  two  minute  orifices  at  its 
extremity.  In  hot  climates  the  sting  often 
occasions  much  suffering,  and  sometimes 
alarming  symptoms.  The  "scorpions" 
of  1  K.  xii.  11,  14,  2  Chr.  x.  11,  14,  have 
clearly  no  allusion  whatever  to  the  animal, 
but  to  some  instrument  of  scourging  — 
unless  indeed  the  expression  is  a  mere 
figure. 


Seorpion. 


Scourging.  The  punishment  of  scour- 
ging was  prescribed  by  the  Law  in  the  case 
of  a  betrothed  bondwoman  guilty  of  un- 
chastity,  and  perhaps  in  the  case  of  both 
the  guilty  persons  (Lev.  xix.  20).  The  in- 
strument of  punishment  in  ancient  Egypt, 
as  it  is  also  in  modern  times  generally  in 
the  East,  was  usually  the  stick,  applied  to 
the  soles  of  the  feet  —  bastinado.  Under 
the  Roman  method  the  culprit  was  strippedi 
stretched  with  cords  or  thongs  on  a  frame, 
and  beaten  with  rods. 

Screecli-owl.    [Owl.] 

Scribes  {Reh.  sdpherim) .  I.  Name. — 
(1.)  Three  meanings  are  connected  with 
the  verb  sdphar,  the  root  of  S(^pherim  — 
(1)  to  write,  (2)  to  set  in  order,  (3)  to 
count.  The  explanation  of  the  word  has 
been  referred  to  each  of  these.  The  Sd' 
phertm  were  so  called  because  they  wrote 
out  the  Law,  or  because  they  classified 
and  arranged  its  precepts,  or  because  they 
counted  with  scrupulous  miRuteness  every 
clause  and  letter  it  contained.      The  au- 


SCRIBES 


617 


SCRIBES 


thoi-fty  of  most  Hebrew  scholars  is  with 
the  first.  (2.)  The  name  of  Kirjath- 
Skphek  (Josh.  XV.  15 ;  Jadg.  i.  12)  may 
possibly  connect  itself  with  some  early  use 
of  the  title.  In  the  song  of  Deborah  (Judg. 
V.  1-1)  the  word  appears  to  point  to  military 
functions  of  some  kind.  The  "pen  of  the 
writer"  of  the  A.  V.  is  probably  the  rod  or 
sceptre  of  the  commander  numbering  or 
marshalling  his  troops.  Three  men  are 
mentioned  as  successively  filling  the  ofiice 
of  Scribe  under  David  and  Solomon  (2 
Sum.  viii.  17,  xx.  25;  1  K.  iv.  3).  We 
may  think  of  them  as  the  king's  secreta- 
ries, writing  liis  letters,  drawing  up  his  de- 
crees, managing  his  finances  (comp.  2  K. 
xii.  10) .  At  a  later  period  the  word  again 
connects  itself  with  the  act  of  numbering 
the  military  forces  of  the  country  (Jer.  lii. 
25,  and  probably  Is.  xxxiii.  18).  Other  as- 
sociations, however,  began  to  gather  round 
it  about  the  same  period.  Tlie  zeal  of 
Hezekiah  led  him  to  foster  the  growth  of  a 
body  of  men  whose  work  it  was  to  tran- 
scribe old  records,  or  to  put  in  writing  what 
had  been  handed  down  orally  (Prov.  xxv. 
1).  To  this  period,  accordingly,  belongs 
the  new  significance  of  the  title.  It  no 
longer  designates  only  an  officer  of  the 
king's  court,  but  a  class,  students  and  in- 
terpreters of  the  Law,  boasting  of  their 
wisdom  (Jer.  viii.  8).  The  seventy  years 
of  the  Captivity  gave  a  fresh  glory  to  the 
name.  The  exiles  would  be  anxious  above 
all  things  to  preserve  the  sacred  books,  the 
laws,  the  hymns,  the  prophecies  of  the 
past.  Tlie  Scribes'  office  became  more 
and  more  prominent.  They  appear  as  a 
distinct  class,  "  the  families  of  the  Scribes," 
with  a  local  habitation  (1  Chr.  ii.  55).  They 
compile,  as  in  the  two  Books  of  Chronicles, 
excerpta  and  epitomes  of  larger  histories  (1 
Chr.  xxix.  29;  2  Chr.  ix.  29).  II.  Devel- 
optaent  of  Doctrine.  —  Of  the  Scribes  of 
this  period,  with  the  exception  of  Ezra  and 
Zadok  (Neh.  xiii.  13),  we  have  no  record. 
A  later  age  honored  them  collectively  as 
the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue.  Never, 
perhaps,  was  so  important  a  work  done  so 
silently.  Tliey  devoted  themselves  to  the 
careful  study  of  the  text,  and  laid  down 
rules  for  transcribing  it  with  the  most 
scrupulous  precision.  A  saying  is  as- 
cribed to  Simon  the  Just  (b.  c.  300-290), 
the  last  of  the  succession  of  the  men  of  the 
Great  Synagogue,  which  embodies  the  prin- 
ciple on  which  they  acted,  and  enables  us 
to  trace  the  growth  of  their  system.  "  Our 
fathers  have  taught  us,"  he  said,  "  three 
things :  to  be  cautious  in  judging,  to  train 
many  scholars,  and  to  set  a  fence  about  the 
Law."  They  wished  to  make  the  Law  of 
Moses  the  rule  of  life  for  the  whole  nation 
and  for  individual  men.  But  it  lies  in  the 
nature  of  every  such  law,  of  every  informal, 
half-systematic  code,  that  it  raises  ques- 


tions which  it  does  not  solve.  The  result 
showed  that,  in  this  as  in  other  instances, 
the  idolatry  of  the  letter  was  destructive  of 
the  very  reverence  in  which  it  had  origi- 
nated. Step  by  step  the  Scribes  were  led 
to  conclusions  at  which  we  may  believe  the 
earlier  representatives  of  the  order  would 
have  started  back  with  horror.  Decision* 
on  fresh  questions  were  accumulated  into  a 
complex  system  of  casuistry.  The  new  pre- 
cepts, still  transmitted  orally,  came  practi- 
cally to  take  their  place.  The  riglit  rela- 
tion of  moral  and  cerenionial  laws  was  not 
only  forgotten,  but  .absolutely  inverted. 
Here  it  will  be  enough  to  notice  what  way 
the  teaching  of  the  Scribes  in  our  Lord's 
time  was  making  to  that  result.  Their  first 
work  was  to  report  tlie  decisions  of  previous 
Rabbis.  These  were  the  llalachoth  (the 
current  precepts  of  the  schools)  —  precepts 
binding  on  the  conscience.  A  new  code,  a 
second  Corpus  Juris,  the  Mishna,  grew  out 
of  them.  The  anecdotes  of  the  schools  or 
courts  of  law,  the  obiter  dicta  of  Rabbis, 
the  wildest  fables  of  Jewish  superstition 
(Tit.  i.  14),  were  brought  in,  and  the  Ge- 
mara  (completeness)  filled  up  the  measure 
of  the  Institutes  of  Rabbinic  Law.  The 
Mishna  and  the  Gemara  together  were 
known  as  the  Talmud  (instruction).  Side 
by  side  with  this  was  a  development  in  an- 
other direction.  The  sacred  books  were  not 
studied  as  a  code  of  laws  only.  To  search 
into  their  meaning  had  from  the  first  be- 
longed to  the  ideal  office  of  the  Scribe.  But 
here  also  the  book  suggested  thoughts  which 
could  not  logically  be  deduced  from  it.  The 
fruit  of  the  effort  to  find  what  was  not  there 
appears  in  the  Midrashim  (searchings,  in- 
vestigations) on  the  several  books  of  the 
O.  T.  The  process  by  which  the  meaning, 
moral  or  mystical,  was  elicited,  was  known 
as  Hagada  (saying,  opinion).  There  was 
obviously  no  assignable  limit  to  such  a  pro- 
cess. But  there  lay  a  stage  higher  even 
than  the^  Hagada.  The  mystical  school  of 
interpretation  culminated  in  the  Kahbala 
(reception,  the  received  doctrine).  Every 
letter,  every  number,  became  pregnant  with 
mysteries.  The  "  Words  of  the  Scribes," 
now  used  as  a  technical  phrase  for  these 
decisions,  were  honored  above  the  Law. 
It  was  a  greater  crime  to  offend  against 
them  than  agahist  the  Law.  The  first  step 
was  taken  towards  annulling  the  command- 
ments of  God  for  the  sake  of  their  own 
traditions.  The  casuistry  became  at  once 
subtle  and  prurient,  evading  the  plainest 
duties,  tampering  with  conscience  (Matt. 
XV.  1-6;  xxiii.  16-23).  We  can  therefore 
understand  why  they  were  constantly  de- 
nounced by  our  I^ord  along  with  the  l?har- 
isees.  While  the  Scribes  repeated  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  elders,  He  "  spake  as  one 
having  authority,"  "  not  as  the  Scribes  " 
(Matt.  vii.  29).     While  they  confined  their 


SCRIBES 


«18 


SCRIBES 


teaching  to  the  chiss  of  scholars,  He  "had 
compassion  on  the  mullitudes  "  (Matt.  ix. 
36).  While  they  were  to  be  found  only  in 
the  council  or  in  their  schools,  He  jour- 
neyed tluough  tlie  cities  and  villages  (Matt. 
iv.  23,  ix.  35,  &c.,  &c.).  While  they  spoke 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  vaguely,  as  a  thing 
far  off,  He  proclaimed  that  it  had  already 
come  nigh  to  men  (Matt.  iv.  17).  But  in 
most  of  the  points  at  issue  between  the  two 
parties,  He  must  have  appeared  in  direct 
antagonism  to  the  school  of  Shammai,  in 
sympathy  with  that  of  Hillel.  So  far,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  the  temper  of  the  Hillel 
school  was  one  of  mere  adaptation  to  the 
feeling  of  the  people,  cleaving  to  tradi- 
tion, wanting  in  the  intuition  of  a  higher 
life,  the  teaching  of  Christ  must  have 
been  felt  as  unsparingly  condemning  it. 
III.  History.  —  (1.)  The  names  of  the  ear- 
lier scribes  passed  away,  as  has  been  said, 
unrecorded.  Simon  the  Just  (circ.  b.  c. 
300-290)  appears  as  the  last  of  the  men  of 
the  Great  Synagogue,  the  beginner  of  a  new 
period.  The  memorable  names  of  the  times 
that  followed  —  Antigonus  of  Socho,  Zadok, 
Boothos  —  connect  themselves  with  the  rise 
of  the  first  opposition  to  the  traditional  sys- 
tem which  was  growing  up.  The  tenet  of 
tlie  Sadducees,  however,  never  commanded 
the  adhesion  of  more  than  a  small  minority. 
It  tended,  by  maintaining  the  sufficiency  of 
the  letter  of  the  Law,  to  destroy  the  very 
occupation  of  a  Scribe,  and  the  class,  as 
such,  belonged  to  the  party  of  its  oppo- 
nents. The  words  "  Scribes"  and  "Phar- 
isees "  were  bound  together  by  the  closest 
possible  alliance  (Matt,  xxiii.  passtTn, ;  Luke 
V.  30).  To  understand  their  relation  to 
each  other  in  our  Lord's  time,  or  their  con- 
nection with  His  life  and  teaching,  we  must 
look  back  to  what  is  known  of  the  five  pairs 
of  teachers  who  represented  the  scribal  suc- 
cession. (2.)  The  two  names  that  stand 
first  in  order  are  Joses  ben- Joezer,  a  priest, 
and  Joses  ben-Jochanan  (circ.  b.,c.  140- 
130).  The  precepts  ascribed  to  them  indi- 
cate a  tendency  to  a  greater  elaboration  of 
all  rules  connected  with  ceremonial  defile- 
ment. (3.)  Joshua  ben- Perachiah  and  Nith- 
ai  of  Arbcla  were  contemporary  with  John 
Hyreanus  (circ.  B.  c.  135-108),  and  enjoyed 
liis  favor  till  towards  the  close  of  his  reign, 
when  caprice  or  interest  led  him  to  pass 
over  to  the  camp  of  the  Sadducees,  (4.) 
The  secession  of  Hyreanus  involved  the 
Pharisees,  and  therefore  the  Scribes  as  a 
class,  in  difficulties,  and  a  period  of  confu- 
sion followed.  The  meetings  of  the  San- 
hedrim were  suspended  or  became  predom- 
inantly Sadducean.  Under  his  successor, 
Alexander  Jannai,  the  influence  of  Simon 
ben-Shetach  over  the  queen-mother  Salome 
re-established  for  a  time  the  ascendency 
of  the  Scribes.  The  Sanhedrim  once  again 
assembled,  with  none  to  oppose  the  domi- 


nant Pharisaic  party.  Tlie  return  of  Al- 
exander from  his  campaign  against  Gaza 
again  turned  the  tables.  Eiglit  hundred 
Pharisees  took  refu-ge  in  a  fortress,  were 
besieged,  taken,  and  put  to  death.  Joshua 
ben-Perachiah,  the  venerable  head  of  tlie 
order,  was  driven  into  exile.  The  Sad- 
ducees failed,  however,  to  win  the  confi- 
dence of  the  people.  On  the  death  of 
Jannai  the  influence  of  his  widow  Alexan- 
dra was  altogether  on  the  side  of  the 
Scribes,  and  Simon  ben-Shetach  and  Judah 
ben-Tabbai  entered  on  tlieir  work  as  joint 
teachers.  Under  them  the  juristic  side  of 
tiie  Scribes'  functions  became  prominent. 
Their  rules  turn  cliiefly  on  the  laws  of  evi- 
dence. (5.)  The  two  that  followed,  Shem- 
aiah  and  Abtalion,  were  conspicuous  for 
another  reason.  Now,  for  the  first  time, 
the  teachers  who  sat  in  Moses'  seat  were 
not  even  of  the  children  of  Abraham.  Pros- 
elytes themselves,  or  tlie  sons  of  prose- 
lytes, their  pre-eminence  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  Law  raised  them  to  this  office.  The 
lot  of  these  two  also  was  cast  upon  evil 
days.  On  the  death  of  Shemaiah  and  Ab- 
talion there  were  no  qualified  successors 
to  take  their  place.  Two  sons  of  Bethera, 
otherwise  unknown,  for  a  time  occupied  it, 
but  they  were  themselves  conscious  of  their 
incompetence.  (6.)  The  name  of  Hillel 
(born  circ.  b.  c.  112)  has  hardly  received 
the  notice  due  to  it  from  students  of  tlie 
Gospel  history.  The  noblest  and  most 
genial  representative  of  his  order,  we  may 
see  in  him  tlie  best  fruit  which  the  system 
of  the  Scribes  was  capable  of  producing. 
He,  however,  was  tempted  by  the  growing 
power  of  Herod,  and,  with  a  large  number 
of  his  followers,  abandoned  at  once  their 
calling  as  Scribes  and  their  habits  of  de- 
votion. The  place  thus  vacant  was  soon 
filled  by  Shammai.  The  two  were  held  in 
nearly  equal  honor.  Tliey  did  not  teach, 
however,  as  their  predecessors  had  done, 
in  entire  harmony  with  each  other.  Within 
the  party  of  the  Pharisees,  within  the  order 
of  the  Scribes,  there  came  for  the  first  time 
to  be  two  schools  with  distinctly  opposed 
tendencies,  one  vehemently,  rigidly  ortho- 
dox, the  other  ortliodox  also,  but  with  an 
orthodoxy  wliicli,  in  the  language  of  mod- 
ern politics,  might  be  classed  as  Liberal 
Conservative.  (7.)  The  teaching  of  Hillel 
showed  some  capacity  for  wider  thouglits. 
His  personal  character  was  more  lovable 
and  attractive.  The  genial  character  of 
the  man  comes  out  in  some  of  his  sayings, 
wliich  remind  us  of  the  tone  of  Jesus  the 
son  of  Sirach,  and  present  some  faint  ap- 
proximations to  a  higher  teaching.  (8.) 
The  contrast  showed  itself  in  the  conduct 
of  the  followers  not  less  than  in  the  teach- 
ers. The  disciples  of  Sliammai  were  con- 
spicuous for  their  fierceness,  appealed  to 
popular  passions,  and  used  the  sword  to 


SCRIBES 


619 


SCRIPTURE 


decide  their  controversies.  Out  of  that 
school  grew  the  party  of  the  Zealots, 
fierce,  fanatical,  vindictive,  the  Orange- 
men of  Pliarisaism.  Those  of  Hillel  were 
like  tiicir  master  (eonip.  e.  g.  the  advice  of 
Gamaliel,  Acts  v.  34—42),  cautious,  gentle, 
tolerant,  unwilling  to  make  enemies,  con- 
tent to  let  things  take  their  course.  One 
sought  to  impose  upon  the  proselyte  from 
heathenism  the  full  burden  of  the  Law,  the 
other  that  he  should  be  treated  with  some 
8yn.pathy  and  indulgence.  (9.)  Outwardly 
the  teaching  of  our  Lord  must  have  ap- 
peared to  men  different  in  many  ways  from 
both.  But  in  most  of  the  points  at  issue 
between  the  two  parties,  He  must  have  ap- 
peared, in  direct  antagonism  to  the  school 
of  Shammai,  in  sympathy  with  that  of 
Hillel.  So  far,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the 
temper  of  the  Hillel  school  was  one  of 
mere  adaptation  to  the  feeling  of  the  peo- 
ple, cleaving  to  tradition,  wanting  in  the 
intuition  of  a  higher  life,  the  teaching  of 
Christ  must  have  been  felt  as  unsparingly 
condemning  it.  (10.)  It  adds  to  the  inter- 
est of  this  inquiry  to  remember  that  Hillel 
himself  lived,  according  to  the  tradition  of 
the  Rabbis,  to  the  great  age  of  120,  and 
may  therefore  have  been  present  among 
the  doctors  of  Luke  ii.  46,  and  that  Ga- 
maliel, his  gi'andson  and  successor,  was  at 
the  head  of  this  school  during  the  whole  of 
the  ministry  of  Christ,  as  well  as  in  the 
early  portion  of  the  history  of  the  Acts. 
We  are  thus  able  to  explain  the  fact  which 
80  many  passages  in  the  Gospels  lead  us  to 
infer  —  the  existence  all  along  of  a  party 
among  the  Scribes  themselves,  more  or 
less  disposed  to  recognize  Jesus  of  Naz- 
areth as  a  teacher.  IV.  Education  and 
Life.  —  The  special  training  for  a  Scribe's 
office  began,  probably,  about  the  age  of 
thirteen.  The  boy  who  was  destined  by 
his  parents  to  the  calling  of  a  Scribe,  went 
to  Jerusalem,  and  applied  for  admission  in 
the  school  of  some  famous  Rabbi.  If  he 
were  poor,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  synagogue 
of  his  town  or  village  to  provide  for  the 
payment  of  his  fees,  and  in  part  also  for  his 
maintenance.  The  master  and  his  scholars 
met,  the  former  sitting  on  a  high  chair,  the 
elder  pupils  on  a  lower  bench,  the  younger 
on  the  ground,  both  literally  "  at  his  feet." 
The  class-room  might  be  the  chamber  of 
tlie  Temple  set  apart  for  this  purpose,  or 
the  private  school  of  the  Rabbi.  The  edu- 
cation was  chiefly  catechetical,  the  pupil 
submitting  cases  and  asking  questions,  the 
teacher  examining  the  pupil  (Luke  ii.). 
Parables  entered  largely  into  the  method 
of  instruction.  After  a  sufficient  period 
of  training,  probably  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
the  probationer  was  solemnly  admitted  to 
his  office.  After  his  admission  there  was  a 
choice  of  a  variety  of  functions,  the  chances 
of  failure  and  success.   He  might  give  him- 


self to  any  one  of  the  branches  of  study,  at 
combine  two  or  more  of  them.  He  might 
rise  to  high  places,  become  a  doctor  of 
the  law,  an  arbitrator  in  family  litigations 
(Luke  xii.  14),  the  head  of  a  school,  a 
member  of  the  Sanhedrim.  He  might 
have  to  content  himself  with  the  humbler 
work  of  a  transcriber,  copying  the  Law  i»nd 
the  Prophets  for  the  use  of  synagogues,  or 
a  notary,  writing  out  contracts  of  sale,  cov- 
enants of  espousals,  bills  of  repudiation. 
The  position  of  the  more  fortunate  was  of 
course  attractive  enough.  In  our  Lord's 
time  the  passion  for  distinction  was  insati- 
able. The  ascending  scale  of  Rab,  Rabbi, 
Rabban,  presented  so  many  steps  on  the 
ladder  of  ambition.  Other  forms  of  world- 
liness  were  not  far  off.  The  salutations  ia 
the  market-place  (Matt,  xxiii.  7),  the  rev- 
erential kiss  offered  by  the  scholars  to  their 
master,  or  by  Rabbis  to  each  other,  the 
greeting  of  Abba,  father  (Matt,  xxiii.  9), 
the  long  robes  with  the  broad  blue  fringe 
(Matt,  xxiii.  5),  —  all  these  go  to  make  up 
the  picture  of  a  Scribe's  life.  Drawing  to 
themselves,  as  they  did,  nearly  all  the  ener- 
gy and  thought  of  Judaism,  the  close  hered- 
itary caste  of  the  priesthood  was  powerless 
to  compete  with  them.  Unless  the  priest 
became  a  Scribe  also,  he  remained  in  ob- 
scurity. The  order,  as  such,  became  con- 
temptible and  base.  For  the  Scribes  there 
were  the  best  places  at  feasts,  the  chief  seats 
in  synagogues  (Matt,  xxiii.  6 ;  Luke  xiv.  7). 

Scrip.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  trans- 
lated appears  in  1  Sam.  xvii.  40,  as  a 
synonyme  for  the  bag  in  which  the  shep- 
herds of  Palestine  carried  their  food  or 
other  necessaries.  The  scrip  of  the  Gali- 
lean peasants  was  of  leather,  used  especial- 
ly to  carry  their  food  on  a  journey,  and 
slung  over  their  shoulders  (Matt.  x.  10; 
Mark  vi.  8;  Luke  ix.  3,  xxii.  35).  The 
English  word  "  scrip "  is  probably  con- 
nected with  scrape,  scrap,  and  was  used  in 
like  manner  for  articles  of  food. 

ScriptTire.  It  is  not  till  the  return 
from  the  Captivity  that  this  word  meets  us 
with  any  distinctive  force.  In  the  earlier 
books  we  read  of  the  Law,  the  Book  of  the 
Law.  In  Ex.  xxxii.  16,  the  Commandments 
written  on  the  tables  of  testimony  are  said 
to  be  "  the  writing  of  God,"  but  there  is  no 
special  sense  in  the  word  taken  by  itself. 
In  the  passage  from  Dan,  x.  21,  where  tlie 
A.  V.  has  "  tl>e  Scripture  of  Truth,"  the 
words  do  not  probably  mean  more  than  **  a 
true  writing."  The  thought  of  tlie  Scripture 
as  a  whole  is  hardly  to  be  found  in  them. 
This  first  appears  in  2  Chr.  xxx.  5, 18  ("  as 
it  was  written,"  A.  V.).  The  Greek  word, 
as  will  be  seen,  kept  its  ground  in  this 
sense.  A  slight  change  passed  over  that 
of  the  Hebrew,  and  led  to  the  substitution 
of  another.  Another  wo'xi  was  found  in  the 
Mikra  »"lp?a>  Neh.  viii.  8),  cr  "  reading/' 


SCYTHIAN 


620 


SEA,  THE  SALT 


the  thing  read  or  recited,  recitation.  This 
accordingly  we  find  as  the  equivalent  for 
tlie  collective  ytJuifai.  With  this  meaning 
the  word  ■/Q'^'P'i  psissed  into  the  language  of 
tlie  N.  T.  Used  in  the  singular  it  is  ap- 
plied chiefly  to  this  or  that  passage  quoted 
from  the  O.  T.  (Mark  xii.  10;  John  vii.  38, 
xiii.  18,  xix.  37;  Luke  iv.  21;  Rom.  ix.  17; 
Gal  iii.  8,  &c.).  In  two  passages  of  some 
difficulty,  some  have  seen  the  wider,  some 
tlie  narrower  sense.  (1.)  Ilaau  yQuiflj 
6(6jiitvnTu?  (2  Tim.  iii.  16)  has  been  trans- 
lated in  the  A.  V.  "  All  Scripture  is  given 
by  inspiration  of  God."  There  is  a  pre- 
ponderance of  authority  in  favor  of  the  ren- 
dering, "  Every  y()atfi],  being  inspired,  is 
also  profitable.  ..."  The  meaning  of  the 
genitive  in  Ti'ana  Tinoiptjrtiit  yQaipiji  (2  Pet.  i. 
20)  seems  at  first  sight  distinctly  collective. 
"  Every  prophecy  of,  t.  e.  contained  in,  the 
O.  T.  Scripture."  In  the  plural,  as  might 
be  expected,  the  collective  meaning  is 
prominent.  In  2  Pet.  iii.  16,  we  find  an 
extension  of  the  term  to  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul ;  but  it  remains  uncertain  whether 
•'  the  other  Scriptures  "  are  the  Scriptures 
of  the  O.  T.  exclusively,  or  include  other 
writings,  then  extant,  dealing  with  the  same 
topics.  In  one  passage,  xu  ieou  youuuaxa 
(y  Tim.  iii.  15)  answers  to  "  The  Holy 
Scriptures"  of  the  Ai  V.     [Bible.] 

Scyth'ian  occurs  in  Col.  iii.  11  as  a 
grneralized  term  for  rude,  ignorant,  de- 
graded. The  same  view  of  Scythian  b.ar- 
b'lrism  appears  in  2  Mace.  iv.  47,  and  3 
Mace.  vii.  5.  The  Scythians  dwelt  mostly 
on  the  north  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Cas- 
pian, stretching  thence  indefinitely  into 
inner  Asia,  and  were  regarded  by  the  an- 
cients as  standing  extremely  low  in  point 
of  intelligence  and  civilization. 
Scythop'olis.  [Bethshean.] 
Sea.  The  Sea,  yAm,  is  used  in  Scripture 
to  denote  —  1.  "  The  gathering  of  the 
waters  "  (ydmim),  encompassing  the  land, 
or  what  we  call,  in  a  more  or  less  definite 
sense,  "the  Ocean"  (Gen.  i.  2,  10;  Deut. 
XXX.  13,  &c.).  2.  Some  portion  of  this,  as 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  called  the  "  hinder," 
the  "western,"  and  the  "utmost"  sea 
(Deut.  xi.  24,  xxxiv.  2;  Joel  ii.  20)  ;  "sea 
of  the  Philistines"  (Ex.  xxiii.  31);  "the 
great  sea "  (Num.  xxxiv.  6,  7 ;  Josh.  xv. 
47);  "the  sea "  (Gen.  xlix.  13;  Ps.  Ixxx. 
11,  cvii.  23;  1  K.  iv.  20,  &c.).  Also  fre- 
quently of  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  4 ;  Josh, 
xxiv.  6),  or  one  of  its  gulfs  (Num.  xi.  31 ; 
Is.  xi.  15).  [Red  Sea.]  3.  Inland  lakes 
termed  seas,  as  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea.  (See 
the  special  article.)  4.  Any  great  collec- 
tion of  waters,  as  the  river  Nile  (Is.  xix.  5; 
Am.  viii.  8,  A.  V.  "flood;"  Nah.  iii.  8; 
Ez.  xxxii.  2),  and  Euphrates  (Jer.  li.  36). 
It  may  be  remarked  that  almost  all  the  fig- 
ures of  speech  taken  from  the  sea  in  Scrip- 
ture refer  either  to  its  power  or  its  danger. 


Sea,  Molten.  In  the  place  of  the  laver 
of  the  tabernacle,  Solomon  caused  a  laver 
to  be  cast  for  a  similar  purpose,  which  from 
its  size  was  called  a  sea.  It  was  made 
partly  or  wholly  of  the  brass,  or  rather 
copper,  which  had  been  captured  by  David 
from  "  Tibhath  and  Chun,  cities  of  Hada- 
rezer  king  of  Zobah "  (1  K.  vii.  23-26 ;  1 
Chr.  xviii.  8).  It  is  said  to  have  been  ca- 
pable of  containing  2000,  or,  according  to  2 
Chr.  iv.  6,  3000  baths.  Below  the  brim 
there  was  a  double  row  of  "  knops."  These 
were  probably  a  running  border  or  double 
fillet  of  tendrils,  and  fruits,  said  to  be 
gourds,  of  an  oval  shape.  The  brim  itself, 
or  lip,  was  wrought  "  like  the  brim  of  a 
cup,  with  flowers  of  lilies,"  i,  e.  curved 
outwards  like  a  lily  or  lotus  flower.  The 
laver  stood  on  twelve  oxen,  three  towards 
each  quarter  of  the  heavens,  and  all  looking 
outwards.  It  was  mutilated  by  Ahaz,  by 
being  removed  from  its  basis  of  oxen  and 
placed  on  a  stone  base,  and  was  finally 
broken  up  by  the  Assyrians  (2  K.  xvi.  14, 
17,  XXV.  13). 


Hypothetical  R(*toration  of  the  Laver. 

Sea,  The  Salt.  The  usual,  and  perhaps 
the  most  ancient,  name  for  the  remarkable 
lake  which  to  the  Western  world  is  now 
generally  known  as  the  Dead  Sea.  I.  1. 
It  is  found  only,  and  but  rarely,  in  the 
Pentateuch  (Gen.  xiv.  3;  Num.  xxxiv.  3, 
12;  Deut.  iii.  17),  and  in  the  Book  of 
Joshua  (iii.   16,  xii.  3,  xv.  2,   5,  xviii.  19). 

2.  Another,  and  possibly  a  later  name,  is 
the  Sea  of  the  Akabah  (A.  V.  "  sea  of  the 
plain"),  which  is  found  in  Deut.  iv.  49, 
and  2  K.  xiv.  25 ;  and  combined  with  the 
former  —  "the  sea  of  the  Arabah,  the  salt 
sea"  —  in  Deut.  iii.  17;  Josh  iii.  16,  xii. 

3.  3.  In  the  prophets  (Joel  ii.  20 ;  Ezek. 
xlvii.  18;  Zech.  xiv.  8)  it  is  mentioned  by 
the  title  of  the  East  Sf  v.  4.  In  Ez.  xlvii. 
8,  it  is  styled,  without  previous  reference, 
THE  SEA,  and  distinguished  from  "  the 
great  sea"  —  the  Mediterranean  (ver.  10). 

5.  Its  connection  with  Sodom  is  first  sug- 
gested in  the  Bible  in  the  book  of  2  Esdras 
(v.   7)   by  the   name   "  Sodomitish   sea." 

6.  In  the  Talraudical  books  it  is  called  both 
the  "  Sea  of  Salt,"  and  "  Sea  of  Sodom."  7. 
Josephus,  and  before  him  Diodorus  Siculus, 


SEA,  THE  SALT 


621 


SEA,  THE  SALT 


names  it  the  Asphaltic  Lake.  8.  The  name 
"  Dead  Sea "  appears  to  have  been  first 
used  in  Greek  by  Pausanias  and  Galen,  and 
in  Latin  (inare  mortuum)  by  Justin  (xxxvi. 
3,  §  6),  or  rather  by  tlie  older  historian, 
Trogus  Pompeius  (cir.  b.  c.  10),  wliose 
work  he  epitomized.  9.  The  Arabic  name  is 
Bahr  Lut,  the  "  Sea  of  Lot."  II.  The  so- 
called  Dead  Sea  is  the  final  receptacle  of 
the  river  Jordan,  the  lowest  and  largest  of 
the  tliree  lakes  which  interrupt  the  rush  of 
its  downward  course.  It  is  tlie  deepest 
portion  of  that  very  deep  natural  fissure 
which  runs  like  a  furrow  from  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba  to  the  range  of  Lebanon,  and  from 
the  range  of  Lebanon  to  the  extreme  north 
of  Syria.  Viewed  on  the  map,  the  lake  is 
of  an  oblong  form,  of  tolerably  regular  con- 
tour, interrupted  only  by  a  large  and  long 
peninsula  which  projects  from  tlie  eastern 
shore,  near  its  southern  end,  and  virtually 
divides  the  expanse  of  the  water  into  two 
portions,  connected  by  a  long,  narrow,  and 
somewhat  devious,  passage.  Its  water  sur- 
face is  from  N.  to  S.  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble 40  geographical,  or  46  English  miles 
long.  Its  greatest  width  is  about  9  geogr. 
miles,  or  lOJ  Eng.  miles.  Its  area  is  about 
250  square  geographical  miles.  At  its 
northern  end  the  lake  receives  the  stream 
of  the  Jordan;  on  its  eastern  side  the 
Zitrka  Ma'in  (the  ancient  Callirrhoe,  and 
possibly  the  more  ancient  en-Eglaim),  the 
Mojih  (the  Arnon  of  the  Bible),  and  the 
Beni-Hem&d;  on  the  south  the  Kurdhy 
or  d-Ahsy  ;  and  on  the  west  that  of  Ain 
Jidy.  The  depression  of  its  surface,  and 
the  depth  which  it  attains  below  that  sur- 
face, combined  with  the  absence  of  any 
outlet,  render  it  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able spots  on  the  globe.  The  surface  of 
the  lake  in  May,  1848,  was  1316-7  feet  be- 
low the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  at  Jaffa. 
Its  depth,  at  about  one  third  of  its  length 
from  the  north  end,  is  1308  feet.  The 
water  of  the  lake  is  not  less  remarkable 
than  its  other  features.  Its  most  obvious 
peculiarity  is  its  great  weight.  Its  specific 
gravity  has  been  found  to  be  as  much  as 
12-28;  that  is  to  say,  a  gallon  of  it  would 
weigh  over  12i  lbs.,  instead  of  10  lbs.,  the 
weight  of  distilled  water.  Water  so  heavy 
must  not  only  be  extremely  buoyant,  but 
must  possess  great  inertia.  Its  buoyancy 
is  a  common  theme  of  remark  by  the  trav- 
ellers who  have  been  upon  it  or  in  it.  Dr. 
liobinson  "  could  never  swim  before,  either 
in  fresh  or  salt  water,"  yet  here  he  "  could 
sit,  stand,  lie,  or  swim  without  difficulty  " 
(^B.  R.  i.  506).  The  remarkable  weiglit 
of  the  water  is  due  to  the  very  large  quan- 
tity of  mineral  salts  whicli  it  holds  in  solu- 
tion. Each  gallon  of  the  water,  weighing 
izi  lbs.,  contains  nearly  3J  lbs.  of  matter 
in  solution  —  an  immense  quantity  when 
we  recollect  that  sea-water,  weigliing  lOi  ' 


lbs.  per  gallon,  contains  less  than  i  ^  lb. 
Of  this  3i  lbs.  nearly  1  lb.  is  conmion  salt 
(chloride  of  sodium),  about  2  lbs.  chloride 
of  magnesium,  and  less  than  i  a  lb.  chlo- 
ride of  calcium  (or  muriate  of  lime).  The 
most  unusual  ingredient  is  bromide  of 
magnesium,  which  exists  in  truly  extraor- 
dinary quantity.  It  has  been  long  supposed 
that  no  life  whatever  existed  in  the  lake. 
But  recent  facts  show  that  some  inferior 
organizations  do  find  a  home  even  in  these 
salt  and  acrid  waters.  The  statements  of 
ancient  travellers  and  geographers  to  tlie 
effect  that  no  living  crejvture  could  exist  on 
the  shores  of  the  lake,  or  bird  fly  across 
its  surface,  are  amply  disproved  by  later 
travellers.  The  springs  on  tlie  margin  of 
the  lake  harbor  snipe,  partridges,  ducks, 
nightingales,  and  other  birds,  as  well  as 
frogs ;  and  hawks,  doves,  and  hares  are 
found  along  tht  shore.  The  appearance  of 
the  lake  does  not  fulfil  the  idea  conveyed 
by  its  popular  name.  "  The  Dead  Sea," 
says  a  recent  traveller,  "  did  not  strike  me 
with  that  sense  of  desolation  and  dreari- 
ness which  I  suppose  it  ouglit.  I  thought  it 
a  pretty,  smiling  lake  —  a  nice  ripple  on  its 
surface."  The  truth  lies,  as  usual,  some- 
where between  these  two  extremes.  On 
the  one  hand,  the  lake  certainly  is  not  a 
gloomy,  deadly,  smoking  gulf.  In  this  re- 
spect it  does  not  at  all  fulfil  the  promise 
of  its  name.  At  sunrise  and  sunset  the 
scene  must  be  astonishingly  beautiful.  But 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  something  in 
the  prevalent  sterility  and  the  dry,  burnt 
look  of  the  shores,  the  overpowering  heat, 
the  occasional  smell  of  sulphur,  the  dreary 
salt  marsh  at  the  southern  end,  and  the 
fringe  of  dead  driftwood  round  the  margin, 
which  must  go  far  to  excuse  the  title  wliich 
so  many  ages  have  attached  to  the  lake, 
and  which  we  may  be  sure  it  will  never 
lose.  The  connection  between  this  singu- 
lar lake  and  the  Biblical  history  is  very 
slight.  In  the  topographical  records  of  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua,  it  forms 
one  among  the  landmarks  of  the  boundaries 
of  the  whole  country,  as  well  as  of  the  in- 
ferior divisions  of  Judah  and  Benjamin.  As 
a  landmark  it  is  once  named  in  what  ap- 
pears to  be  a  quotation  from  a  lost  work  of 
the  prophet  Jonah  (2  K.  xiv.  25),  itself  ap- 
parently a  reminiscence  of  the  old  Mosaic 
stjitement  (Num.  xxxiv.  8,  12).  Besides 
this  the  name  occurs  once  or  twice  in  the 
imagery  of  the  Prophets.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament there  is  not  even  an  allusion  to  it. 
There  is,  however,  one  passage  in  which 
the  "  Salt  Sea  "  is  mentioned  in  a  manner 
different  from  any  of  those  already  quoted, 
viz.  as  having  been  in  tlie  time  of  Abraham 
the  Vale  of  Siddim  (Gen.  xiv.  3).  In  con- 
sequence of  this  passage  it  has  been  be- 
lieved that  the  present  lake  covered  a  dis- 
trict wlxich  in  historic  times  had  been  per- 


SEAi, 


622 


SEIR 


matiently  habitable  dry  land.  But  it  must 
not  be  overlooked  that  the  passage  in  ques- 
tion is  the  only  one  in  the  whole  Bible  to 
countenance  the  notion  that  the  cities  of 
the  plain  were  submerged ;  a  notion  which 
does  not  date  earlier  than  the  Christian 
era.  [Sodom  ;  Zoar.]  The  belief  which 
prompted  the  statements  just  quoted  from 
Modern  writers,  viz.  that  the  Dead  Sea  was 
formed  by  the  catastrophe  which  overthrew 
the  *'  Cities  of  the  Plain,"  is  a  m«re  as- 
sumption. It  is  not  only  unsupported  by 
Scripture,  but  is  directly  in  the  teeth  of  the 
evidence  of  the  ground  itself.  Of  the  situ- 
ation of  those  cities,  we  only  know  that, 
being  in  the  "  Plain  of  the  tfordan,"  they 
must  have  been  to  the  north  of  the  lake. 
Of  the  catastrophe  which  destroyed  them, 
we  only  know  that  it  is  described  as  a 
shower  of  ignited  sulphur  descending  from 
the  skies.  Its  date  is  uncertain,  but  we 
shall  be  safe  in  placing  it  within  the  limit 
of  2000  years  before  Christ.  Tlie  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  may  have 
been  by  volcanic  action,  but  it  may  be  safely 
asserted  tliat  no  traces  of  it  have  yet  been 
discovered,  and  that,  whatever  it  was,  it 
can  have  had  no  connection  with  that  far 
vaster  and  far  more  ancient  event  which 
opened  the  great  valley  of  the  Jordan  and 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  at  some  subsequent  time 
cut  it  off  from  communication  with  the  Red 
Sea  by  forcing  up  between  them  the  tract 
of  the  Wadj/  Arabah. 

Seal.  The  importance  attached  to  seals 
in  the  East  is  so  great  that  without  one  no 
document  is  regarded  as  authentic.  The 
use  of  some  method  of  sealing  is  obviously, 
therefore,  of  remote  antiquity.  Among  such 
methods  used  in  Egypt  at  a  very  early  period 
were  engraved  stones,  pierced  through  their 
length  and  hung  by  a  string  or  chain  from 
the  arm  or  neck,  or  set  in  rings  for  the  finger. 
The  most  ancient  form  used  for  this  purpose 
was  the  scarabaeus,  formed  of  precious  or 
common  stone,  or  even  of  blue  pottery  or 
porcelain,  on  the  flat  side  of  which  the  in- 
scription or  device  was  engraved.  Cylinders 
of  stone  or  pottery  bearing  devices  were  also 
used  as  signets.  In  many  cases  the  seal 
consisted  of  a  lump  of  clay,  impressed  with 
the  seal  and  attached  to  the  document, 
whether  of  papyrus,  or  other  material,  by 
strings.  The  use  of  clay  in  sealing  is  no- 
ticed in  the  Book  of  Job  (xxxviii.  14),  and 
the  signet-ring  as  an  ordinary  part  of  a 
man's  equipment  in  the  case  of  Judah 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  who  probably,  like  many 
modern  Arabs,  wore  it  suspended  by  a  string 
from  his  neck  or  arm  (Cant.  viii.  6).  The 
ring  or  the  seal  as  an  emblem  of  authority 
both  in  Egypt,  in  Persia,  and  elsewhere,  is 
mentioned  in  the  cases  of  Pharaoh  with 
Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  42),  of  Ahab  (1  K.  xxi. 
8),  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  iii.  10,  12,  viii.  2), 
of  Darius   (Dan.  vi.  17 ;  also  1  Mace.  vi. 


15),  and  as  an  evidence  of  a  covenant  in 
Jer.  xxxii.  10,  54 ;  Neb.  ix.  38,  x.  1 ;  Hag. 
ii.  23.  Its  general  importance  is  denoted 
by  the  metaphorical  use  of  the  word,  Kev. 
V.  1,  ix.  4.  Engraved  signets  were  in  use 
among  the  Hebrews  in  early  times,  as  is 
evident  in  the  description  of  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  11,  36, 
xxxix.  6),  and  the  work  of  the  engraver  as  a 
distinct  occupation  is  mentioned  in  Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  27. 

Se'ba  (pi.  SebAtm:  A.  V,  incorrectly 
rendered  Sabeans)  heads  the  Hst  of  the 
sons  of  Cush.  Besides  the  mention  of  Seba 
in  the  list  of  the  sons  of  Cush  (Gen.  x.  7 ; 
1  Chr.  i.  9),  there  are  but  three  notices  of 
the  nation  (Ps.  Ixxii.  10;  Is.  xliii.  3,  xlv. 
14).  These  passages  seem  to  show  that 
Seba  was  a  nation  of  Africa,  bordering  on 
or  included  in  Cush,  and  in  Solomon's  time 
independent  and  of  political  importance. 
It  may  perhaps  be  identified  with  the  island 
of  Merofi.  Josephus  saj's  that  Saba  was 
the  ancient  name  of  the  Ethiopian  island 
and  city  of  Mero6,  but  he  writes  Seba,  in 
the  notice  of  the  Noachian  settlements, 
Sabas.  The  island  of  Meroe  lay  between 
the  Astaboras,  the  Atbara,  the  most  north- 
ern tributary  of  the  Nile,  and  the  Astapus,^ 
the  Bahr  el-Azrak  or  "  Blue  River,"  the 
eastern  of  its  two  great  confluents. 

Se'bat.     [Month.] 

Sec'acah.  One  of  the  six  cities  of 
Judah  which  were  situated  in  the  Midbar 
("wilderness  "),  that  is,  the  tract  bordering 
on  the  Dead  Sea  (Josh.  xv.  61).  Its  posi- 
tion is  not  known. 

Se'chu,  a  place  mentioned  once  only 
(1  Sam.  xix.  22),  apparently  as  lying  on 
the  route  between  Saul's  residence,  Gibeah, 
and  Ramah  (Ramathaim  Zophim),  that  of 
Samuel.  It  was  notorious  for  "  the  great 
well "  (or  rather  cistern)  which  it  contained. 
Assuming  that  Saul  started  from  Gibeah 
{Tuleil  el-Ful),  and  that  Neby  Samicil  is 
Ramah,  then  Bir  Neballa  (the  well  of  Ne- 
balla),  alleged  by  a  modern  traveller  to 
contain  a  large  pit,  would  be  in  a  suitable 
position  for  the  great  well  of  Secbu. 

Secmi'd.us,  a  Thessalonian  who  went 
with  the  Apostle  Paul  from  Corinth  as 
far  as  Asia,  on  his  return  to  Jerusalem 
from  his  third  missionary  tour  (see  Acts 
XX.  4). 

Seer.     [Prophet.] 

Se'gub.  1.  The  youngest  son  of  Hiel 
the  Bethelite,  who  rebuilt  Jericho  (1  K. 
xvi.  34).  2.  Son  of  Hezron  (1  Chr.  ii. 
21,  22). 

Se'ir  (hairy,  shaggy^.  1.  We  have  both 
"  land  of  Seir  "  (Gen.  xxxii.  3,  xxxvi.  30), 
and  "  Mount  Seir"  (Gen.  xiv.  6).  It  is  the 
original  name  of  the  mountain  ridge  ex- 
tending along  the  east  side  of  the  valley  of 
Arabah,  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Elanitic 
Gulf.     The  name  may  either  liave  been 


5EIEATH 


62S 


SELEXTCFS  IV. 


derived  from  Seir  the  Horite,  who  appears 
to  have  been  the  chief  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20),  or,  what  is 
perhaps  more  probable,  from  the  rough 
a.'  pect  of  the  wliole  country.  The  name 
Gobala,  or  Gebalene,  was  applied  to  this 
province  by  Josephus,  and  also  by  Eusebiiis 
and  Jerome.  The  northern  section  of  Mount 
Seir,  as  far  as  Petra,  is  still  called  JebAl, 
the  Arabic  form  of  Gebal.  The  Mount  Seir 
of  the  Bible  extended  much  farther  south 
than  tlie  modern  province,  as  is  sliown  by 
the  words  of  Deut.  ii.  1-8.  It  had  the  Ara- 
bal)  on  tiie  west  (vers.  1  and  8)  ;  it  extended 
as  far  south  as  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah  (ver.  8)  ;  its  eastern  border  ran 
along  tlie  base  of  the  mountain  range  where 
the  plateau  of  Arabia  begins.  Its  northern 
border  is  not  so  accurately  determined. 
The  land  of  Israel,  as  described  by  Joshua, 
extended  from  "  the  Mount  Halak  that 
goeth  up  to  Seir,  even  unto  Baal  Gad " 
(Josh.  xi.  17).  As  no  part  of  Edom  was 
given  to  Israel,  Mount  Halak  must  have 
been  upon  its  northern  border.  Now  there 
is  a  line  of  "  naked  "  {halak  signified  "  na- 
ked ")  white  hills  or  cliffs  which  runs  across 
the  great  valley  about  eight  miles  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  forming  the  division  between 
the  Arabah  proper  and  the  deep  Ghor  north 
of  it.  The  view  of  these  cliffs,  from  the 
shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  is  very  striking. 
They  appear  as  a  line  of  hills  shutting  in 
the  valley,  and  extending  up  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Seir.  This  is  probably  the  very 
"  Mount  Halak  that  goeth  up  to  Seir."  2. 
An  entirely  different  place  from  the  fore- 
going ;  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the  north 
boundary  of  the  territory  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  10  only).  It  lay  westward  of  Kirjath- 
jearim,  and  between  it  and  Beth-shemesh. 
If  Kuriet  el  Enab  be  the  former,  and  Ain- 
shems  the  latter  of  these  two,  then  Mount 
Seir  cannot  fail  to  be  the  ridge  which  lies 
between  the  Wady  Aly  and  the  Wady 
Ghiirab. 

Se'irath,  the  place  to  which  Ehud  fled 
after  his  murder  of  Eglon  (Judg.  iii.  26, 
27).  It  was  in  "  Mount  Ephraim  "  (27),  a 
continuation,  perhaps,  of  the  same  wooded, 
shaggy  hills  (such  seems  to  be  the  signifi- 
cation of  ^tV  and  Seirath)  which  stretched 
even  so  far  south  as  to  enter  the  territory 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  10). 

Se'la  and  Se'lah,  2  K.  xiv.  7 ;  Is.  x%'i. 
1:  rendered  "the  rock"  in  the  A.  V.,  in 
Judg.  i.  36,  2  Chr.  xxv.  12,  Obad.  3.  Prob- 
ably the  city  later  known  as  Pctra,  the 
ruins  of  which  are  found  about  two  days' 
journey  N.  of  the  top  of  the  gulf  of  Akaba, 
and  three  or  four  S.  from  Jericho.  It  was 
in  the  midst  of  Mount  Seir,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Mount  Hor,  and  therefore  Edomite 
territory,  taken  by  Amaziah,  and  called  Jok- 
THEEL.  In  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
B.  c.  it  appears  as  the  headquarters  of  the 


Nabatheans,  who  successfully  resisted  the 
attacks  of  Antigonus.  Alwut  70  b.  c.  Potra 
appears  as  the  residence  of  the  Arab  princes 
named  Arotas.  It  was  by  Trajan  reduced 
to  subjection  to  the  Roman  empire.  The 
city  Petra  lay,  though  at  a  high  level,  in  a 
hollow  shut  in  by  mountain-cliffs,  and  ap- 
proached only  by  a  narrow  ravine,  through 
which,  and  across  the  city's  site,  the  river 
winds.  There  are  extensive  ruins  at  Pctra 
of  Roman  date,  which  have  been  frequently 
described  by  modern  travellers. 

Se'la-Hammahle'koth  (i.  e.  "  the 
cliff  of  escapes  "  or  "  of  divisions  "),  a  rock 
or  cliff  in  the  wilderness  of  Maon.  the 
scene  of  one  of  those  remarkable  escapes 
which  are  so  frequent  in  the  history  of 
Saul's  pursuit  of  David  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  28). 
No  identification  has  yet  been  suggested. 

Se'lah.  This  word,  which  is  only  found 
in  the  poetical  books  of  the  O.  T.,  occurs 
seventy-one  times  in  the  Psalms,  and  three 
times  in  Habakkuk.  In  sixteen  Psalms  it 
is  found  once,  in  fifteen  twice,  in  seven 
three  times,  and  in  one  four  times  —  al- 
ways at  the  end  of  a  verse,  except  in  Ps. 
Iv.  19  [20],  Ivii.  3  [4],  and  Hab.  iii.  3,  9, 
where  it  is  in  the  middle,  though  at  the  end 
of  a  clause.  It  is  probably  a  term  which 
had  a  meaning  in  the  musical  nomenclature 
of  the  Hebrews,  though  what  that  meaning 
may  have  been  is  now  a  matter  of  pure 
conjecture. 

Se'led.  One  of  the  sons  of  Nadab,  a 
descendant  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chr.  ii.  30). 

Seleu'cia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Oron- 
tes,  was  practically  the  seaport  of  Antioch. 
The  distance  between  the  two  towns  was 
about  16  miles.  We  are  expressly  told  that 
St.  Paul,  in  company  with  Barnabas,  sailed 
from  Seleucia  at  tlie  beginning  of  his  first 
missionary  circuit  (Acts  xiii.  4);  and  it  is 
almost  certain  that  he  landed  there  on  his 
return  from  it  (xiv.  20).  This  strong  for- 
tress and  convenient  seaport  was  construct- 
ed by  the  first  Seleucus,  and  here  he  was 
buried.  It  retained  its  importance  in  Ro- 
man times,  and  in  St.  Paul's  day  it  had  the 
privileges  of  a  free  city.  The  remains  arc 
numerous. 

Seleu'ciXS  IV.  (Philopator),  "  king  of 
Asia  "  (2  Mace.  iii.  3),  that  is,  of  the  prov- 
inces included  in  the  Syrian  monarchy, 
according  to  the  title  claimed  by  tlie  Seleu- 
cidae,  even  when  they  had  lost  their  footing 
in  Asia  Minor,  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  Antiochus  the  Great.  He  took  part  in 
the  disastrous  battle  of  Magnesia  (i«.  c. 
190),  and  three  years  afterwards,  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  ascended  the  throne. 
He  was  murdered,  after  a  reign  of  twelve 
years  (b.  c.  175),  by  Heliodorus,  one  of 
his  own  courtiers  (Dan.  xi.  20).  His  son 
Demetrius  I.  (Soter),  whom  he  had  sent, 
while  still  a  boy,  as  hostage  to  Rome,  after 
a  series  of  romantic  adventures,  gained  the 


SEM 


624 


SENNACHERIB 


crown  in  162  b.  c.  (1  Mace.  vii.  1 ;  2  Mace, 
xiv.  1).  The  general  policy  of  Seleucus 
towards  the  Jews,  lilie  that  of  his  father 
(2  Mace.  iii.  2,  3),  was  conciliatory,  and  he 
undertook  a  large  share  of  the  expenses  of 
the  Temple-service  (2  Mace.  iii.  3,  6).  On 
one  occasion,  by  the  false  representations 
of  Simon,  a  Jewish  officer,  he  was  induced 
to  make  an  attempt  to  carry  away  tlie  treas- 
ures deposited  in  ihe  Temple,  by  means  of 
the  same  Heliodorus  who  murdered  him. 
The  attempt  signally  failed,  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  he  afterwards  showed  any  re- 
sentment against  the  Jews  (2  Mace.  iv. 
5,  6). 

Sem.    Shem  the  patriarch  (Luke  iii.  36). 

Semachi'ah.  One  of  the  sons  of  Shem- 
aiah  9  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  7). 

Sem'ei.  1.  Shimei  14  (l  Esd.  ix.  33). 
2.  SiiiJiEi  16  (Esth.  xi.  2).  3.  The  father 
of  Mattathias  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  26). 

Semitic  Languages.  [Shemitic  Lan- 
guages ;  Hebrew.] 

Sen'aah.  The  "  children  of  Senaah  " 
are  enumerated  amongst  the  "  people  of 
Israel "  who  returned  from  the  Captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  35 ;  Neli.  vii.  38). 
In  Neh.  iii.  3,  the  name  is  given  with  the 
article,  has-Senaah.  The  names  in  these 
lists  are  mostly  those  of  towns ;  but  Senaah 
does  not  occur  elsewhere  in  the  Bible  as 
attached  to  a  town.  The  Magdal-Senna, 
or  "  great  Senna  "  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
seven  miles  N.  of  Jericho  ("  Senna  "),  how- 
ever, is  not  inappropriate  in  position. 

Se'neb.,  the  name  of  one  of  the  two  iso- 
lated rocks  which  stood  in  the  "  passage  of 
Michmash  "  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4).  It  was  the 
southern  one  of  the  two  (ver.  5),  and  the 
nearest  to  Geba.  The  name  in  Hebrew 
means  a  "  thorn,"  or  thorn-bush.  Jose- 
phus  mentions  that  the  last  encampment  of 
Titus'  army  was  at  a  spot  "  which  in  the 
Jews'  tongue  is  called  the  valley,"  or  per- 
haps the  plain  "  of  thorns,  near  to  a  vil- 
lage called  Gabathsaoule,"  i.  e.  Gibeath  of 
Saul. 

Se'nir.  This  name  occurs  twice  in  the 
A.  v.,  viz.  1  Chr.  v.  23,  and  Ez.  xxvii.  5; 
but  it  should  be  found  in  two  other  pas- 
sages, in  each  of  which  tlie  Hebrew  word  is 
exactly  similar  to  the  above,  viz.  Deut.  iii. 
9,  and  Cant.  iv.  8.  In  these  it  appears  in 
the  A.  V.  as  Shenir.  It  is  the  Amorite 
name  for  the  mountain  in  the  north  of 
Palestine  which  the  Hebrews  called  Her- 
MON,  and  the  Phoenicians  Sirion;  or  per- 
haps it  was  rather  the  name  for  a  portion 
of  the  mountain  than  the  whole. 

Sennaclie'rib  was  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Sargon.  [Sargon.]  His  name  in 
the  original  is  read  as  Tsinakki-irib,  which 
is  understood  to  mean,  "  Sin  (or  the  Moon) 
increases  brothers ;  "  an  indication  that  he 
was  not  the  first-born  of  his  father.     Senna- 


j  cherib  mounted  the  throne  b.  c.  702.  His 
efforts  were  directed  to  crushing  the  revolt 
of  Babylonia,  which  he  invaded  with  a 
large  army.  Merodach-Baladan  ventured 
on  a  battle,  but  was  defeated  and  driven 
from  the  country.  In  his  third  year  (b.  c. 
700)  he  turned  his  arras  towards  the  west, 
chastised  Sidon,  took  tribute  from  Tyre, 
Aradus,  and  other  Phoenician  cities,  as  well 
as  from  Edom  and  Ashdod,  besieged  and 
captured  Ascalon,  made  war  on  Egypt, 
which  was  still  dependent  on  Ethiopia,  took 
Libnah  and  Lachish  on  the  Egyptian  fron- 
tier, and,  having  probably  concluded  a  con- 
vention with  his  chief  enemy,  finally  marched 
against  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah.  It  was  at 
this  time  that "  Sennacherib  came  up  against 
all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah,  and  took  them  " 
(2  K.  xviii.  13).  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  record  which  he  has  left  of  his 
campaign  against  "  Hiskiah  "  in  his  third 
year,  is  the  war  with  Hezekiah  so  briefly 
touched  in  the  four  verses  of  this  chapter 
(vers.  13-16).  In  the  following  year  (b.  c. 
699),  Sennacherib  invaded  Babylonia  for 
the  second  time.    It  was  perhaps  in  tliis 


Sennacherib  on  hii  Throne  before  LachUh. 

same  year  that  Sennacherib  made  his  sec- 
ond expedition  into  Palestine.  Hezekiah 
had  again  revolted,  and  claimed  the  pro- 
tection of  Egypt.     Instead,  therefore,  of 


SENUAH 


62D 


SEPTXJAGINT 


besieging  Jerusalem,  the  Assyrian  king 
marched  past  it  to  the  Egyptian  frontier, 
iittacked  once  more  Lachish  and  Libnahbut 
apparently  failed  to  take  them,  sent  mes- 
sengers from  the  former  to  Hezekiah  (2  K. 
xviii.  17),  and  on  their  return  without  his 
submission  wrote  him  a  threatening  letter 
(2  K.  xix.  14).  Tirhakah  was  hastening  to 
the  aid  of  tlie  Egyptians  when  an  event  oc- 
curred which  relieved  both  Egypt  and  Ju- 
daea from  their  danger.  In  one  night  the 
Assyrians  lost,  eitlicr  by  a  pestilence  or  by 
some  more  awful  manifestation  of  divine 
power,  185,000  men !  The  camp  immedi- 
ately broke  up  —  the  king  fled.  Senna- 
cherib reached  his  capital  in  safety,  and 
was  not  deterred,  by  the  terrible  disaster 
which  had  befallen  his  arms,  from  engaging 
in  other  wars,  though  he  seems  thence- 
forward to  have  carefully  avoided  Pales- 
tine. In  his  fifth  year  he  led  an  expedition 
into  Armenia  and  Media ;  after  which,  from 
his  sixth  to  his  eighth  year,  he  was  engaged 
in  wars  with  Susiana  and  Babylonia.  From 
this  point  liis  annals  fail  us.  Sennacherib 
reigned  22  years,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Esarhaddon,  b.  c.  680.  Sennacherib  was 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  of  the  Assyrian 
kings.  He  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who 
fixed  the  seat  of  government  permanently 
at  Nineveh,  which  he  carefully  repaired  and 
adorned  with  splendid  buildings.  His  great- 
est work  is  the  grand  palace  at  Kouyunjik. 
Of  the  death  of  Sennacherib  nothing  is 
known  beyond  the  brief  statement  of  Scrip- 
ture, that  "as  he  was  worshipping  in  the 
house  of  Nisroch  his  god.  Adraramelech  and 
Sharezer  his  sons  smote  him  with  the  sword, 
and  escaped  into  the  land  of  Armenia  "  (2 
K.  xix.  37;  Is.  xxxvii.  38). 

Sen'uah.  Properly  Hassenuah,  with 
the  def.  article.  A  Benjamite,  the  father 
of  Judah,  who  was  second  over  the  city 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi.  9). 

Seo'rim.  The  chief  of  the  fourth  of 
the  twenty-four  courses  of  priests  instituted 
by  David  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  8). 

Se'phar.  It  is  written,  after  the  enu- 
meration of  the  sons  of  Joktan,  "And  their 
dwelling  was  from  Mesha  as  thou  gocstunto 
Sephar,  a  mount  of  the  east"  (Gen.  x.  30). 
The  immigration  of  the  Joktanitcs  was  prob- 
ably from  west  to  east,  and  they  occupied 
the  south-western  portion  of  the  peninsula. 
The  undoubted  identifications  of  Arabian 
places  and  tribes  with  their  Joktanite  origi- 
nals are  included  within  these  limits,  and 
point  to  Sephar  as  the  eastern  boundary. 
There  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  the 
ancient  seaport  town  called  Dhafdri  or 
Zafari,  and  Dhafdr  or  ZafAr,  without  the 
inflectional  termination,  represents  the  Bib- 
lical site  or  district. 

Seph'arad,   a  name  which  occurs   in 
Obad.  ver.  20  only.     Its  situation  has  al- 
ways been  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 
40 


Seph.arva'iin  is  mentioned  by  Sen- 
nacherib in  his  letter  to  Hezekiah  as  a  city 
whose  king  had  been  unable  to  resist  the 
Assyrians  (2  K.  xix.  13;  Is.  xxxvii.  13, 
comp.  2  K.  xviii.  34).  It  is  coupled  with 
Hena  and  Avah,  or  Ivah,  which  were  towns 
on  the  Euphrates  above  Babylon.  Again, 
it  is  mentioned  in  2  K.  xvii.  24,  where  it 
is  again  joined  with  Avah,  and  also  with 
Cutbah  and  Babylon.  These  indications 
are  enough  to  justify  us  in  identifying  the 
place  with  the  famous  town  of  Sippara,  on 
the  Euphrates  above  Babylon,  which  was 
near  the  site  of  the  modern  Mosaih.  The 
dual  form  indicates  that  there  were  two 
Sipparas,  one  on  either  side  of  the  river. 
Berosus  called  Sippara  "  a  city  of  the 
sun  ;  "  and  in  the  inscriptions  it  bears  the 
same  title,  being  called  Tsipar  sha  Shamas, 
or  "  Sippara  of  the  Sun  "  — the  sun  being 
the  chief  object  of  worship  there  (comp.  2 
K.  xvii.  31). 

Sephe'la,  the  Greek  form  of  the  ancient 
word  has- Sheff.lAh,  the  native  name  for  the 
southern  division  of  the  low-lying  flat  dis- 
trict which  intervenes  between  the  central 
highlands  of  the  Holy  Land  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  other  and  northern  portion 
of  which  was  known  as  Sharon.  The 
name  occurs  throughout  the  topographical 
records  of  Joshua,  the  historical  works, 
and  the  topographical  passages  in  the 
Prophets ;  always  with  the  article  prefixed, 
and  always  denoting  the  same  region  (Deut. 
i.  7 ;  Josh.  ix.  1,  x.  40,  xi.  2,  IG  a,  xii.  8,  xv. 
33 ;  Judg.  i.  9 ;  1  K.  x.  27 ;  1  Chr.  xxvii. 
28;  2  Chr.  i.  15,  ix.  27,  xxvi.  10,  xxviii.  18; 
Jer.  xvii.  26,  xxxii.  44,  xxxiii.  13 ;  Obad.  19 ; 
Zech.  vii.  7).  In  each  of  these  passages, 
however,  the  word  is  treated  in  the  A.  V. 
not  as  a  proper  name,  analogous  to  the  Cam- 
pagna,  the  Wolds,  the  Carse,  but  as  a  mere 
appellative,  and  rendered  "the  vale,"  "the 
valley,"  "  the  plain,"  "  the  low  plains,"  and 
"  the  low  country."  The  Shefelah  was, 
and  is,  one  of  the  (aost  productive  regions 
of  the  Holy  Land.  It  was  in  ancient  times 
the  cornfield  of  Syria,  and  as  such  the 
constant  subject  of  warfare  between  Philis- 
tines and  Israelites,  and  the  refuge  of  the 
latter  when  the  harvests  in  the  central 
country  were  ruined  by  drought  (2  K.  viii. 
1-3). 

Septuagint.  The  Septuagint  or  Greek 
version  of  the  Old  Testament  owed  its 
origin  to  the  same  cause  as  the  Targums. 
It  appears  at  the  present  day  in  four  prin- 
cipal editions.  1.  Biblia  Polyglotta  Com- 
plutensis,  a.  d.  1514-1517.  2.  The  Aldine 
Edition,  Venice,  a.  d.  1518.  3.  The  Roman 
Edition,  edited  under  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  a.  d. 
1587.  4,  Fac-simile  Edition  of  the  Codex 
Alexandrinus,  by  H.  H.  Baber,  a.  d.  1816. 
[Targums.]  The  Jews  of  Alexandria  had 
probably  still  less  knowledge  of  Hebrew 
than  their  brethren  in  Palestine ;  their  la- 


SEPTUAGINT 


SEPTUAGINT 


miliar  language  was  Alexandrian  Greek. 
They  had  settled  in  Alexandria  in  large 
numbers  soon  after  the  time  of  Alexander, 
and  under  the  early  Ptolemies.  They  would 
naturally  follow  the  same  practice  as  the 
Jews  in  Palestine ;  and  hence  would  svrise 
in  time  an  entire  Greek  version.  But  the 
numbers  and  names  of  the  translators,  and 
the  times  at  wliich  different  portions  were 
triinslated,  are  all  uncertain.  The  com- 
monly received  story  respecting  its  origin 
is  contained  in  an  extant  letter  ascribed  to 
Aristeas,  who  was  an  officer  at  the  court  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphns.  This  letter,  whicli 
is  addressed  by  Aristeas  to  his  brotlier, 
Philocrates,  gives  a  splendid  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  Scptuagint;  of  the  embassy 
and  presents  sent  b}'  king  Ptolemy  to  the 
high-priest  at  Jerusalem,  by  the  advice  of 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  his  librarian,  50  tal- 
ents of  gold  and  70  talents  of  silver,  &c. ; 
the  Jewisli  slaves  whom  he  set  free,  paying 
their  ransom  himself;  the  letter  of  the  king ; 
the  answer  of  the  high  priest ;  the  choosing 
of  six  interpreters  from  each  of  the  twelve 
tribes,  and  their  names  ;  the  copy  of  the  Law, 
in  letters  of  gold ;  the  feast  prepared  for  the 
eeventy-two,  which  continued  for  seven 
days ;  the  questions  proposed  to  each  of  the 
interpreters  in  turn,  with  the  answers  of 
each ;  their  lodging  bj'  the  sea-shore ;  and 
the  accomplishment  of  their  work  in  seventy- 
two  days,  by  conference  and  comparison. 
Tills  is  the  story,  which  probably  gave  to 
the  Version  the  title  of  the  Septuagint,  and 
which  has  been  repeated  in  various  forms 
by  the  Christian  writers.  But  it  is  now 
generally  admitted  that  the  letter  is  spuri- 
ous, and  is  probably  the  fabrication  of  an 
Alexandrian  Jew  shortly  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  Still  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
there  was  a  basis  of  fact  for  the  fiction ;  on 
three  points  of  the  story  there  is  no  mate- 
rial difference  of  opinion,  and  tliey  are  con- 
firmed by  the  study  of  the  Version  itself: 

1.  The  Version  was  infide  at  Alexandria. 

2.  It  was  begun  in  the  time  of  the  earlier 
Ptolemies,  about  280  b.  c.  3.  The  Law 
(i.  e.  the  Pentateuch)  alone  was  translated 
at  first.  The  Septuagint  version  was  high- 
ly esteemed  by  the  Hellenistic  Jews  before 
the  coming  of  Christ.  The  manner  in  which 
it  is  quoted  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament proves  that  it  had  been. long  in  gen- 
eral use.  "Wherever,  by  the  conquests  of 
Alexander,  or  by  colonization,  the  Greek 
language  prevailed;  wherever  Jews  were 
settled,  and  the  attention  of  the  neighboring 
Gentiles  was  drawn  to  their  wondrous  his- 
tory and  law,  there  was  found  the  Septua- 
gint, which  thus  became,  by  Divine  Prov- 
idence, the  means  of  spreading  widely  the 
knowledge  of  the  One  True  God,  and  His 
promises  of  a  Saviour  to  come,  throughout 
the  nations.  To  the  wide  dispersion  of  this 
version  we  may  ascribe  in  great  measure 


that  general  persuasion  wliich  prevailed 
over  the  whole  East  of  tlie  near  approach 
of  the  Redeemer,  and  led  the  Magi  to  rec- 
ognize the  star  which  proclaimed  the  birth 
of  the  King  of  the  Jews.  Not  less  wide  was 
the  influence  of  the  Septuagint  in  the  spread 
of  the  Gospel.  Many  of  those  Jews  who 
were  assembled,  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  from  Asia  Minor,  from  Africa, 
from  Crete  and  Rome,  used  the  Greek  lan- 
guage ;  the  testimonies  to  Ciirist  from  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets  came  to  them  in  the 
words  of  the  Septuagint;  St.  Stephen  prob- 
ably quoted  from  it  in  his  address  to  the 
Jews ;  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  was  reading 
the  Septuagint  version  of  Isaiah  in  his 
chariot;  they  who  were  scattered  abroad 
went  forth  into  many  lands  speaking  of 
Christ  in  Greek,  and  pointing  to  the  things 
written  of  Him  in  the  Greek  version  of 
Moses  and  the  Prophets ;  from  Antioch  and 
Alexandria  in  the  East,  to  Rome  and  Mas- 
silia  in  the  West,  the  voice  of  the  Gospel 
sounded  forth  in  Greek;  Clemens  of  Rome, 
Ignatius  at  Antioch,  Justin  Martyr  in  Pal- 
estine, Irenaeus  at  Lyons,  and  many  more, 
taught  and  wrote  in  the  words  of  the  Greek 
Scriptures ;  and  a  still  wider  range  was 
given  to  them  by  the  Latin  version  (or 
versions)  made  from  the  LXX.  for  the  use 
of  the  Latin  Churches  in  Italy  and  Africa; 
and  in  later  times  by  the  numerous  other 
versions  into  the  tongues  of  Egypt,  Etliio- 
pia,  Armenia,  Arabia,  and  Georgia.  For  a 
long  period  the  Septuagint  was  the  Old 
Testament  of  the  far  larger  part  of  tlie 
Christian  Church.  Character  of  tub 
Septuagint.  —  A.  Is  the  Septuag mi  faith- 
ful in  substance  f  1.  It  has  been  clearly 
shown  by  Hody,  Erankel,  and  others,  that 
the  several  books  were  translated  by  differ- 
ent persons,  without  any  comprehensive 
revision  to  harmonize  the  several  parts. 
Names  and  words  are  rendered  differently 
in  different  books.  2.  Thus  the  character 
of  the  Version  varies  much  in  the  several 
books  ;  those  of  the  Pentateuch  are  the  best. 
3.  The  poetical  parts  are,  generally  speak- 
ing, inferior  to  the  historical,  the  original 
abounding  with  rarer  words  and  expres- 
sions. 4.  In  the  Major  Prophets  (probably 
translated  nearly  100  years  after  the  Pen- 
tateuch) some  of  the  most  important  proph- 
ecies are  sadly  obscured.  Ezekiel  and  the  ^ 
Minor  Prophets  (generally  speaking)  seem 
to  be  better  rendered.  5.  Supposing  the 
numerous  glosses  and  duplicate  render- 
ings, which  have  evidently  crept  from 
the  margin  into  the  text,  to  be  removed, 
and  forming  a  rough  estimate  of  wliat  the 
Septuagint  was  in  its  earliest  state,  we  may 
perhaps  say  of  it  that  it  is  the  image  of  the 
original  seen  through  a  glass  not  adjusted 
to  the  proper  focus ;  the  larger  features  are 
shown,  but  the  sharpness  of  definition  ia 
lost.    B.  Is  the  Version  minutely  accuratt 


SEPULCHRE 


627 


SERGIUS  PAULUS 


t»  details  *  1.  The  same  word  in  the  same 
chapter  is  often  rendered  by  differing 
words.  2.  Differing  words  by  the  same 
words.  3.  The  divine  names  are  frequent- 
ly interchanged.  4.  Proper  names  are 
Bometimes  translated,  sometimes  not.  5. 
The  translators  are  often  misled  by  the 
similarity  of  Hebrew  words.  In  very  many 
cases  the  error  may  be  thus  traced  to  the 
similarity  of  some  of  the  Hebrew  letters ;  in 
some  it  is  difficult  to  see  any  connection 
between  the  original  and  the  Version.  6. 
There  are  some  passages  which  seem  to 
exhibit  a  studied  variation  in  the  LXX.  from 
the  Hebrew  (e.  g.  Gen.  ii.  2;  Ex.  xii.  40). 
Frequently  the  strong  expressions  of  the 
Hebrew  are  softened  down,  where  human 
parts  are  ascribed  to  God.  The  Version  is 
therefore  not  minutely  accurate  in  details. 
What,  then,  are    the  benefits  to  be 

DERIVED  FROM  THE  STDDY  OF  THE  SeP- 

ruAGiNT?  1.  For  the  Old  Testament. 
The  Septuagint  gives  evidence  of  the  char- 
acter and  condition  of  the  Hebrew  MSS. 
from  which  it  was  made,  with  respect  to 
vowel-points  and  the  mode  of  writing. 
Being  made  from  MSS.  far  older  than  the 
Masoretic  recension,  the  Septuagint  often 
indicates  readings  more  ancient  and  more 
correct  than  those  of  our  present  Hebrew 
MSS.  and  editions,  and  often  speaks  de- 
cisively between  the  conflicting  readings 
of  the  present  MSS.  (e.g.  Ps.  xvi.  10,  xxii. 
17;  Hos.  vi.  5).  In  Gen.  iv.  8,  a  clause 
necessary  to  the  sense  is  omitted  in  the 
Hebrew,  but  preserved  in  the  LXX.  In  all 
these  cases  we  do  not  attribute  any  para- 
mount authority  to  the  Septuagint  on  ac- 
count of  its  superior  antiquity  to  the  extant 
Hebrew  MSS. ;  but  we  take  it  as  an  evi- 
dence of  a  more  ancient  Hebrew  text,  as  an 
eye-witness  of  the  texts,  280  or  180  years 
B.  c.  2.  The  close  connection  between  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  makes  the  study 
of  the  Septuagint  extremely  valuable,  and 
almost  indispensable  to  the  theological  stu- 
dent. It  was  manifestly  the  chief  store- 
house from  which  the  Apostles  drew  their 
proofs  and  precepts. 

Sepulchre.     [Burial.] 

Se'rah,  the  daughter  of  Asher  (Gen. 
xlvi.  17;  1  Chr.  vii.  80),  called  in  Num. 
xxvi.  4(5,  Sarah. 

Serai'ah.  1.  The  king's  scribe  or  sec- 
retary in  the  reign  of  David  (2  Sam.  viii. 
17).  2.  The  high-priest  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah  (2  K.  xxv.  18;  1  Chr.  vi.  14; 
Jer.  Hi.  24).  3.  The  son  of  Tanhumeth 
the  Netophathite  (2  K.  xv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  8). 
4.  The  son  of  Kenaz,  and  brother  of  0th- 
niel  (1  Chr.  iv.  13,  14).  5.  Ancestor  of 
Jehu,  a  Simeonite  chieftain  (1  Chr.  iv.  35). 
6.  One  of  the  children  of  the  province  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  li.  2).  7. 
One  of  the  ancestors  of  Ezra  the  scribe 
(Ezr.  vii.  1),  but  whether  or  not  the  same 


as  Seraiah  the  high-priest  seems  uncertain. 
8.  A  priest,  or  priestly  family,  who  signed 
the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  2), 
0.  A  priest,  the  son  of  Hilkiah  (Neh.  xi. 
11).  10.  The  head  of  a  priestly  house 
which  went  up  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel (Neh.  xii.  1,  12).  11.  The  son  of 
Neriah,  and  brother  of  Baruch  (Jer.  li.  59, 
61).  He  went  with  Zedekiah  to  Babylon 
in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign.  Perhaps 
he  was  an  officer  who  took  charge  of  the 
royal  caravan  on  its  march,  and  fixed  the 
place  where  it  should  halt.  Seraiah  was 
commissioned  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  to 
take  with  him  on  his  journey  the  roll  in 
which  he  had  written  the  doom  of  Babylon, 
and  sink  it  in  the  midst  of  the  Euphrates, 
as  a  token  that  Babylon  should  sink,  never 
to  rise  again  (Jer.  li.  60-G4). 

Ser'apMm,  an  order  of  celestial  beings, 
whom  Isaiah  beheld  in  vision  standing  above 
Jehovah  as  He  sat  upon  His  throne  (Is.  vi. 
2) .  They  are  described  as  having  each  of 
them  three  pairs  of  wings,  with  one  of  which 
they  covered  their  faces  (a  token  of  humil- 
ity) ;  with  the  second  they  covered  their 
feet  (a  token  of  respect) ;  while  with  the 
third  they  flew.  They  seem  to  have  borne 
a  general  resemblance  to  the  human  figure, 
for  they  are  represented  as  having  a  face, 
a  voice,  feet,  and  hands  (ver.  6).  Their 
occupation  was  twofold  —  to  celebrate  the 
praises  of  Jehovah's  holiness  and  power 
(ver.  3),  and  to  act  as  the  medium  of  com- 
munication between  heaven  and  earth  (ver. 
6).  From  their  antiphonal  chant  ("  one 
cried  unto  anotlier  ")  we  may  conceive  them 
to  have  been  ranged  in  opposite  rows  on 
each  side  of  the  throne.  The  idea  of  a 
winged  human  figure  was  not  peculiar  to 
the  Hejjrews  :  among  the  sculptures  found 
at  Mourghaub  in  Persia,  we  meet  with  a 
representation  of  a  man  with  two  pairs  of 
wings,  springing  from  the  shoulders,  and 
extending,  the  one  pair  upwards,  the  other 
downwards,  so  as  to  admit  of  covering  the 
head  and  the  feet.  The  meaning  of  the 
word  "  seraph"  is  doubtful;  it  is  perhaps 
connected  with  an  Arabic  term  signifying 
high  or  exalted  ;  and  this  may  be  regarded 
as  the  generally  received  etymology. 

Se'red,  the  first-born  of  Zebulon  (Gen. 
xlvi.  14;  Num.  xxvi.  2G), 

Ser'giua  Pau'lua  was  the  proconsul  of 
Cyprus  when  the  Apostle  Paul  visited  that 
island  with  Barn.abas  on  his  first  missionary 
tour  (Acts  xiii.  7,  sq.).  He  is  described  as 
an  intelligent  man,  truth-seeking,  eager  for 
information  from  all  sources  within  his 
reach.  It  was  this  trait  of  his  character 
which  led  him  in  the  first  instance  to  admit 
to  his  society  Elymas  the  Magian,  and  after- 
wards to  seek  out  the  missionary  strangers 
and  learn  from  them  the  nature  of  the 
Christian  doctrine.  But  Sergius  was  not 
efi'cctually  or  long  deceived  by  the  arts  of 


SERPENT 


628 


SERPENT 


the  impostor ;  for  on  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  Apostle  he  examined  at  once  the 
claims  of  the  Gospel,  and  yielded  his  mind 
to  the  evidence  of  its  truth. 

Serpent.  l.TheHehrewwoTdN^Achdsh 
is  the  generic  name  of  any  serpent.  The 
following  are  the  principal  Biblical  allu- 
sions to  this  animal :  Its  subtlety  is  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  iii.  1 ;  its  wisdom  is  alluded 
to  by  our  Lord  in  Matt.  x.  16 ;  the  poison- 
ous properties  of  some  species  are  often 
mentioned  (see  Ps.  Iviii.  4;  Prov.  xxiii. 
32)  ;  the  sharp  tongue  of  the  serpent,  which 
it  would  appear  some  of  the  ancient  He- 
brews believed  to  be  the  instrument  of 
poison,  is  mentioned  in  Ps.  cxl.  3,  Job  xx. 
16,  "the  viper's  tongue  shall  slay  him ;  " 
although  in  other  places,  as  in  Prov.  xxiii. 
32,  Eccl.  X.  8,  11,  Num.  xxi.  9,  the  venom 
is  correctly  ascribed  to  the  bite,  while  in 
Job  XX.  14  the  gall  is  said  to  be  the  poison ; 
the  habit  serpents  have  of  lying  concealed 
in  hedges  is  alluded  to  in  Eccl.  x.  8,  and  in 
holes  of  walls,  in  Am.  v.  19 ;  their  dwelling 
in  dry  sandy  places,  in  Deut.  viii.  15 ;  their 
wonderful  mode  of  progression  did  not 
escape  the  observation  of  the  author  of 
Prov.  XXX.,  who  expressly  mentions  it  as 
*'  one  of  the  three  things  which  were  too 
wonderful  for  him"  (19);  the  oviparous 
nature  of  most  of  the  order  is  alluded  to  in 
Is.  lix.  5,  where  the  A.  V.,  however,  has 
the  unfortunate  rendering  of  "  cockatrice." 
The  art  of  taming  and  charming  serpents 
is  of  great  antiquity,  and  is  alluded  to  in 
Ps.  Iviii.  5,  Eccl.  x.  11,  Jer.  viii.  17,  and 
doubtless  intimated  by  St.  James  (iii.  7), 
who  particularizes  serpents  among  all  other 
animals  that  "  have  been  tamed  by  man." 


Serpcnt-cbanninf. 

Serpents  used  for  this  purpose,  both  in 
Africa  and  in  India,  are  the  hooded  snakes 
{Naia  tripvdians,  and  Raia  haje)  and  the 
horned  Cerastes.    That  the  charmers  fre- 


quently and  perhaps  generally,  take  the 
precaution  of  extracting  the  poison-fangs 
before  the  snakes  are  subjected  to  theif 
skill,  there  is  much  probability  for  believ- 
ing ;  but  that  this  operation  is  not  always 
attended  to  is  clear  from  the  testimony  of 
Bruce  and  numerous  other  writers.  Some 
have  supposed  that  the  practice  of  taking 
out  or  breaking  off  the  poison-fangs  is 
alluded  to  in  Ps.  Iviii.  6,  "  Break  their 
teeth,  O  God,  in  their  mouth."  The  ser- 
pent-charmer's usual  instrument  is  a  flute. 
It  was  under  the  form  of  a  serpent  that  the 
devil  seduced  Eve;  hence  in  Scripture 
Satan  is  called  "the  old  serpent"  (Rev. 
xii.  9,  and  comp.  2  Cor.  xi.  3).  It  has  been 
supposed  by  many  commentator*  that  the 
serpent,  prior  to  the  Fall,  moved  along  in 
an  erect  attitude.  It  is  quite  clear  that  an 
erect  mode  of  progression  is  utterly  incom- 
patible with  the  structure  of  a  serpent; 
consequently,  had  the  snakes  before  the 
Fall  moved  in  an  erect  attitude,  they  must 
have  been  formed  on  a  different  plan  alto- 
gether. The  typical  form  of  the  serpent 
and  its  mode  of  progression  were  in  all 
probability  the  same  before  the  Fall  as  after 
it ;  but  subsequent  to  the  Fall  its  form  and 
progression  were  to  be  regarded  with  ha- 
tred and  disgust  by  all  mankind,  and  thus 
the  animal  was  cursed  "above  all  cattle," 
and  a  mark  of  condemnation  was  forever 
stamped  upon  it.  Serpents  are  said  in 
Scripture  to  "  eat  dust"  (See  Gen.  iii.  14; 
Is.  Ixv.  25;  Mic.  vii.  17);  these  animals, 
which  for  the  most  part  take  their  food  on 
the  ground,  do  consequently  swallow  with 
it  large  portions  of  sand  and  dust.  Through- 
out the  East  the  serpent  was  used  as  an 
emblem  of  the  evil  principle,  of  the  spirit 
of  disobedience  and  contumacy.  Much  has 
been  written  on  the  question  of  the  "  fiery 
serpents  "  of  Num.  xxi.  6,  8,  with  which  it 
is  usual  erroneously  to  identify  the  "  fiery 
flying  serpent "  of  Is.  xxx.  6,  and  xiv.  29. 
The  word  "  fiery "  probably  signifies 
"burning,"  in  allusion  to  the  sensation 
produced  by  the  bite.  The  Cerastes,  or  the 
Naia  haje,  or  any  other  venomous  species 
frequenting  Arabia,  may  denote  the  "  ser- 
pent of  the  burning  bite  "  which  destroyed 
the  children  of  Israel.  The  "  fiery  flying 
serpent "  of  Isaiah  (I.  c.)  can  have  no  ex- 
istence in  nature.  Monstrous  forms  of 
snakes  with  birds'  wings  occur  on  the  Egyp- 
tian sculptures.  2.  The  Hebrew  word^/i,'eA 
occurs  in  Job  xx.  16;  Is.  xxx.  6,  and  lix. 
5  (A.  V.  "viper").  There  is  no  Scrip- 
tural allusion  by  means  of  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  determine  the  species  of  serpent 
indicated  by  the  Hebrew  term,  which  is  de- 
rived from  a  root  which  signifies  "  to  hiss." 
The  snake  that  fastened  on  St.  Paul's  hand 
when  he  was  at  Melita  (Acts  xxviii.  3)  waa 
probably  the  common  viper  of  England 
(^Pelias  berus),  or  else  the  Vipera  aspis. 


SERPENT 


629 


SEVEN 


[See  also  Adder;  Asp.] — When  God 
punished  the  murmurs  of  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness  by  sending  among  them  ser- 
pents, whose  fiery  bite  was  fatal,  Moses, 
upon  their  repentance,  was  commanded  to 
make  a  serpent  of  brass,  whose  polished 
surface  shone  like  fire,  and  to  set  it  up  on 
the  banner-pole  in  the  midst  of  the  people ; 
and  whoever  was  bitten  by  a  serpent  had 
but  to  look  up  at  it  and  live  (Num.  xxi.  4- 
9).  But  a  far  deeper  interest  belongs  to 
this  incident  of  the  pilgrimage  of  Israel. 
"  As  Moses  lifted  up  the  serpent  in  the  wil- 
derness, even  so  must  the  Son  of  man  be 
lifted  up ;  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him 
should  not  perish,  but  have  eternal  life " 
(John  iii.  14,  15).  To  present  the  serpent- 
form  as  deprived  of  its  power  to  hurt,  im- 
paled as  the  trophy  of  a  conqueror,  was  to 
assert  that  evil,  physical  and  spiritual,  had 
been  overcome,  and  thus  help  to  strengthen 
the  weak  faith  of  the  Israelites  in  a  victory 
over  both.  To  some  writers  this  has  com- 
mended itself  as  tlie  simplest  and  most  ob- 
vious view.  Others,  again,  have  started 
from  a  different  ground.  They  look  to 
Egypt  as  the  starting-point  for  all  the 
tiioughts  which  the  serpent  could  suggest, 
and  they  find  there  that  it  was  worshipped 
as  an  agathodaemon,  the  symbol  of  health 
and  life.  Contrasted  as  these  views  appear, 
they  have,  it  is  believed,  a  point  of  contact. 
The  idea  primarily  connected  with  the  ser- 
pent in  the  history  of  the  Fall,  as  through- 
cut  the  proverbial  language  of  Scripture,  is 
that  of  wisdom  (Gen.  iii.  1 ;  Matt.  x.  16 ; 
2  Cor.  xi.  3).  Wisdom,  apart  from  obedi- 
ence to  a  divine  order,  allying  itself  to 
man's  lower  nature,  passes  into  cunning. 
Man's  nature  is  envenomed  and  degraded 
by  it.  But  wisdom,  the  selfsame  power  of 
understanding,  yielding  to  the  divine  law, 
is  the  source  of  all  healing  and  restoring 
influences,  and  the  serpent-form  thus  be- 
comes a  symbol  of  deliverance  and  health. 
The  Israelites  were  taught  that  it  would  be 
so  to  them  in  proportion  as  they  ceased  to 
be  sensual  and  rebellious.  Preserved  as  a 
relic,  whether  on  the  spot  of  its  first  erec- 
tion or  elsewhere,  the  Brazen  Serpent, 
called  by  the  name  of  Nehushtan,  became 
an  object  of  idolatrous  veneration,  prob- 
ably in  connection  with  the  Ophite  worship 
that  was  adopted  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  with 
all  the  other  idolatries  of  the  neighboring 
nations ;  and  the  zeal  of  Hezekiah  destroyed 
it  with  the  other  idols  of  his  father  (2  K. 
xviii.  4).  [Nehushtan.]  But  the  passion 
for  relics  is  not  extinguished  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  its  objects.  In  a.  d.  971,  a  Milanese 
envoy  to  Constantinople,  being  asked  to 
select  a  present  from  the  imperial  treas- 
ures, chose  a  brazen  serpent  which  the 
Greeks  assured  him  was  made  of  the  same 
metal  that  Hezekiah  had  broken  up ;  and 
this  serpent,  probably  the  idol  of   some 


i  Ophite  sect,  is  still  shown  in  the  church  of 


St.  Ambrose  at  Milan  as  that  which  was 
lifted  up  by  Moses  in  the  wilderness. 

Se'rug,  son  of  Reu,  and  great-grand- 
father of  Abraham.  His  age  is  given  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  as  230  years  (Gen.  xi.  20- 
23)  ;  30  years  before  he  begat  Nahor,  and 
200  years  afterwards. 

Servant.     [Slave.] 

Seth  (Gen.  iv.  25,  v.  3;  1  Chr.  i.  l),the 
third  son  of  Adam,  and  father  of  Enos. 
The  signification  of  his  name  is  "  appoint- 
ed" or  "  put"  in  the  place  of  the  murdered 
Abel.  Adam  handed  down  to  Seth  and  his 
descendants  the  promise  of  thercy,  faith  in 
which  became  the  distinction  of  God's  chil- 
dren. This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of 
the  statement  that,  in  the  days  and  in  the 
family  of  Seth,  "  men  began  to  call  upon 
the  name  of  Jehovah  "  (Gen.  iv.  26). 

Se'thlir,  The  Asherite  spy,  son  of  Mi- 
chael (Num.  xiii.  13). 

Seven,  the  frequent  recurrence  of  cer- 
tain number*  in  the  sacred  literature  of 
the  Hebrews  is  obvious  to  the  most  super- 
ficial reader;  and  it  is  almost  equally  ob- 
vious that  these  numbers  .  are  associated 
with  certain  ideas,  so  as  in  some  instances 
to  lose  their  numerical  force,  and  to  pass 
over  into  the  province  of  symbolic  signs. 
This  is  more  or  less  true  of  the  numbers 
three,  four,  seven,  twelve,  and  forty;  but 
seven  so  far  surpasses  the  rest,  both  in  the 
frequency  with  which  it  recurs,  and  in  the 
importance  of  the  objects  with  which  it  is 
associated,  that  it  maj-  fairly  be  termed  the 
representative  symbolic  number.  It  has 
hence  attracted  considerable  attention,  and 
may  be  said  to  be  the  keystone  on  which 
the  symbolism  of  numbers  depends.  The 
origin  of  this  symbolism  is  a  question  that 
meets  us  at  the  threshold  of  any  discussion 
as  to  the  number  seven.  The  views  of 
Biblical  critics  may  be  ranged  under  two 
heads,  according  as  the  symbolism  is  at- 
tributed to  theoretical  speculations  as  to  the 
internal  properties  of  the  number  itself,  or 
to  external  associations  of  a  physical  or 
historical  character.  According  to  the  for- 
mer of  these  views,  the  symbolism  of  the 
number  seven  would  be  traced  back  to  the 
symbolism  of  its  component  elements  three 
and  four,  the  first  of  which  =  Divinity,  and 
the  second  =  Humanity,  whence  seven  = 
Divinity  -|-  Humanity,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  union  between  God  and  Man,  as  effected 
by  the  manifestations  of  the  Divinity  in 
creation  and  revelation.  This  theory  is  se- 
ductive from  its  ingenuity,  and  its  appeal 
to  the  imagination,  but  there  appears  to  be 
little  foundation  for  it.  We  turn  to  the 
second  class  of  opinions  which  attribute 
the  symbolism  of  the  number  seven  to  ex- 
ternal associations.  The  influence  of  the 
number  seven  was  not  restricted  to  the  He- 
brews;  it  prevailed  among  the  Persian* 


SEVIIN 


630 


SHADRACH 


(Eslh.  i.  10, 14),  among  the  ancient  Indians, 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  probably  among  all  nations 
where  the  week  of  seven  days  was  estab- 
lished, as  in  China,  Egypt,  Arabia,  &c. 
The  peculiarity  of  the  Hebrew  view  con- 
sists in  the  special  dignity  of  the  seventh, 
and  not  simply  in  that  of  seven.  We  can- 
not trace  back  the  peculiar  associations  of 
the  Hebrews  farther  than  to  the  point  when 
the  seventh  day  was  consecrated  to  the 
purposes  of  religious  rest.  Assuming  tJiis, 
therefore,  as  our  starting-point,  the  first 
idea  associated  with  seven  would  be  that  of 
religious  periodicity.  The  Sabbath,  being 
the  seventh  day,  suggested  the  adoption  of 
seven  as  the  coefficient,  so  to  say,  for  the 
appointment  of  all  sacred  periods ;  and  we 
thus  find  the  7th  month  ushered  in  by  the 
Eeast  of  Trumpets,  and  signalized  by  the 
celebration  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  and 
the  great  Day  of  Atonement ;  7  weeks  as 
the  interval  between  the  Passover  and  the 
Pentecost;  the  7th  year  as  tlie  Sabbatical 
year ;  and  the  year  succeeding  7X7  years 
as  the  Jubilee  year.  From  the  idea  of  pe- 
riodicity, it  passed  by  an  easy  transition  to 
the  duration  or  repetition  of  religious  pro- 
ceedings ;  and  thus  7  days  were  appointed 
as  the  length  of  the  Feasts  of  Passover  and 
Tabernacles ;  7  days  for  the  ceremonies  of 
the  consecration  of  priests,  and  so  on ;  7 
victims  to  be  oifered  on  any  special  occa- 
sion, as  in  Balaam's  sacrifice  (Num.  xxiii. 
1),  and  especially  at  the  ratification  of  a 
treaty,  the  notion  of  seven  being  embodied 
in  the  very  term  signifying  to  swear,  liter- 
ally meaning  to  do  seven  times  (Gen.  xxi. 
28).  The  number  seven,  having  thus  been 
impressed  with  the  seal  of  sanctity  as  the 
symbol  of  all  connected  with  the  Divinity, 
was  adopted  generally  as  a  cyclical  number, 
with  the  subordinate  notions  of  perfection 
or  completeness.  The  foregoing  applica- 
tions of  the  number  seven  become  of  great 
practical  importance  in  connection  with  the 
interpretation  of  some  of  the  prophetical 
portions  of  the  Bible,  and  particularly  of 
the  Apocalypse.  We  have  but  to  run  over 
the  chief  subjects  of  that  book,  in  order  to 
see  the  necessity  of  deciding  whether  the 
number  is  to  be  accepted  in  a  literal  or  a 
metaphorical  sense — in  other  words,  wheth- 
er it  represents  a  number  or  a  quality. 
The  decision  of  this  question  affects  not 
only  the  number  seven,  but  also  the  num- 
ber which  stands  in  a  relation  of  antago- 
nism to  seven,  viz.  the  half  of  seven,  which 
appears  under  the  form  of  forty-two  months, 
=  3i  years  (Rev.  xiii.  5),  twelve  hundred 
and  sixty  days,  also  =  3i  years  (xi.  3,  xii. 
6),  and  again  a  time,  times,  and  half  a  time 
=  3i  years  (xii.  14).  If  the  number  seven 
express  the  notion  of  completeness,  then 
the  number  half-seven  =  incompleteness 
and  the  secondary  ideas  of  suffering  and 


disaster  :  if  the  one  represent  divine  agency, 
the  other  we  may  expect  to  represent  hu- 
man agency. 

Shaarbim  or  Shaalab'bin,  a  town  in 
the  allotment  of  Dan,  named  between  Ir- 
Shemesh  and  Ajalon  (Judg.  i.  35 ;  Josh, 
xix.  42 ;  1  K.  iv.  9).  By  Eusebius  and  Jer- 
ome it  is  mentioned  in  the  Onomasticon  as 
a  large  village  in  the  district  of  Sebaste  (i.  e. 
Samaria),  and  as  then  called  Selaba. 

Shaai'bonite,  The.  EliahbatheShaal- 
bonite  was  one  of  David's  thirty-seven  he- 
roes (2  Sam.  xxiii.  32;  1  Chr.  xi.  33).  He 
was  the  native  of  a  place  named  Shaalbon, 
which  is  unmentioned  elsewhere,  unless  it 
is  identical  witii  Shaalbim  or  Shaalabbin 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan. 

Sha'aph.  1.  The  son  of  Jahdai  (1 
Chr.  ii.  47).  2.  The  son  of  Caleb  the 
brother  of  Jerahmeel  by  his  concubine 
Maachah  (1  Chrl  ii.  49). 

Shaara'im,  a  city  in  the  territory  allot- 
ted to  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  36 ;  in  A.  V.  incor- 
rectly Sharaim ;  1  Sam.  xvii.  52).  Shaara- 
im,  one  of  the  towns  of  Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv. 
31),  must  be  a  different  place. 

Shaasll'gaz,  the  eunuch  in  the  palace 
of  Xerxes  who  had  the  custody  of  thewomea 
in  the  second  house  (Esth.  ii.  14). 

Shabbetha'i.  1.  A  Levite  in  the  time 
of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  15).  It  is  apparently  the 
same  who  with  Jeshua  and  others  instruct- 
ed the  people  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Law 
(Neh.  viii.  7).  2.  One  of  the  chief  of  the 
Levites  after  the  return  from  Babylon 
(Neh.  xi.  16).  Possibly  1.  and  2.  are  iden- 
tical. 

Shachi'a,  properly  "  Shabiah,"  a  son  of 
Shaharaim  by  his  wife  Hodesh  (1  Chr.  viiL 
10). 

Shad'dai,  an  ancient  name  of  God, 
rendered  "  Almighty"  everywhere  in  the  A. 
V.  In  all  passages  of  Genesis,  except  one 
(xlix.  25),  in  Ex.  vi.  3,  and  in  Ez.  x.  5,  it 
is  found  in  connection  with  ^l,  "  God,"  El 
Shaddai  being  there  rendered  "  God  Al- 
mighty," or  "the  Almighty  God."  By  the 
name  or  in  the  character  of  El-Shaddai, 
God  was  known  to  the  patriarchs  (Gen. 
xvii.  1,  xxviii.  3,  xliii.  14,  xlviii.  3,  xlix. 
25),  before  the  name  Jehovah,  in  its  full 
significance,  was  revealed  (Ex.  vi.  3).  The 
prevalent  idea  attaching  to  the  name  in  all 
the  passages  in  which  it  occurs  is  that  of 
strength  and  power,  and  our  translators 
have  probably  given  to  "  Shaddai"  its  true 
meaning  when  they  rendered  it "  Almighty." 
[God.] 

Sha'drach,  the  Hebrew,  or  rather 
Chaldee  name  of  Hananiah,  the  chief  of 
the  "  three  children,"  whose  song,  as  given 
in  the  apocryphal  Daniel,  forms  part  of 
the  service  of  the  Church  of  England,  un- 
der the  name  of  "Benedicite,  omnia  opera." 
The  history  of  Shadrach,  or  Hananiah,  as 
told  in  Dan.  i.-iii.,  is  well  known.    After 


SHAGE 


631 


SHALMANESER 


tlieii  deliverance  from  the  furnace,  we  hear 
no  more  of  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abed- 
nego  in  the  O.  T. ;  neither  are  they  spoken 
of  in  the  N.  T.,  except  in  the  pointed  allu- 
sion to  them  in  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
as  having  "  through  faith  quenched  the  vio- 
lence of  fire  "  (Heb.  xi.  33,  34).  But  there 
are  repeated  allusions  to  them  in  the  later 
apocryphal  books,  and  the  martyrs  of  the 
Maccabaean  period  seem  to  have  been  much 
encouraged  by  their  example.  See  1  Mace, 
ii.  59,  60;  3  Mace.  vi.  6;  4  Mace.  xiii.  9, 
xvi.  3,  21,  xviii.  12. 

Sha'ge.  Father  of  Jonathan  the  Hara- 
rite,  one  of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi.  34). 
[See  Shammah  5.] 

Sliahara'iin.  A  Benjamite  whose  his- 
tory and  descent  are  alike  obscure  in  the 
present  text  (1  Chr.  viii.  8).  It  is  more  in- 
telligible if  we  remove  the  full  stop  from 
the  end  of  ver.  7,  and  read  on  thus :  "  and 
begat  Uzza  and  Ahihud,  and  Shaharaim  he 
begat  in  the  field  of  Moab,"  &c. 

Shahaz'imah.  One  of  the  towns  of 
the  allotment  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  22 
only). 

Shalem,  Gen.  xxxiii.  18.  It  seems 
more  than  probable  that  this  word  should 
Eot  here  be  taken  as  a  proper  name,  but 
that  the  sentence  should  be  rendered,  *'  Ja- 
cob came  safe  to  the  city  of  Shechem." 
It  is  certainly  remarkable  that  there  should 
be  a  modern  village  bearing  the  name  of 
Stdim,  3  miles  east  of  N&hlus  (the  ancient 
Shechem) ;  but  this  appears  to  be  only  a 
fortuitous  coincidence. 

Sha'lim,  The  Land  of,  a  district 
through  which  Saul  passed  on  his  journey 
in  quest  of  his  father's  asses  (1  Sam.  ix.  4, 
onlj).  The  spelling  of  the  name  in  the 
original,  properly  Sha'dlim,  shows  that  it 
had  no  connection  with  Shalem,  or  with 
the  modern  SaJim,  east  of  Ndblus. 

Shal'istia,  The  Land  of,  one  of  the 
districts  traversed  by  Saul  when  in  search 
of  the  asses  of  Kish  (1  Sam.  ix.  4,  only). 
If  the  land  of  Shalisha  contained,  as  it  not 
impossibly  did,  the  place  called  Baal-Sha- 
LisuA  (2  K.  iv.  42),  then  the  whole  disposi- 
tion of  Saul's  route  would  be  changed. 

Shal'lecheth,  The  Gate,  one  of  the 
gates  of  the  "house  of  Jehovah"  (1  Chr. 
xxvi.  16).  It  was  the  gate  *'  to  the  cause- 
way of  the  ascent."  As  the  causeway  is 
actually  in  existence,  the  gate  Shallecheth 
can  hardly  fail  to  be  identical  with  the  Bab 
Silsileh,  or  Sinsleh,  which  enters  the  west 
wall  of  the  Haram  about  600  feet  from  the 
south-west  comer  of  the  Haram  wall. 

Shal'lum.  1.  The  fifteenth  king  of 
Israel,  sou  of  Jabesh,  conspired  against 
Zechariah,  son  of  Jeroboam  II.,  killed  him, 
and  brought  the  dynasty  of  Jehu  to  a  close, 
B.  c.  770.  Shallum,  after  reigning  in  Sa- 
maria for  a  month  only,  was  in  his  turn  de- 
throned and  killed  by  Menahem  (2  K.  x- . 


10-14).  2.  The  husband  of  Huldah  the 
prophetess  (2  K.  xxii.  14;  2  Chr.  xxsiv. 
22)  in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  3.  A  descend- 
ant of  Shesham  (I  Chr.  ii.  40,  41).  4. 
The  third  son  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah, 
known  in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chron- 
icles as  Jehoahaz  (1  Chr.  iii.  15 ;  Jer.  xxii. 
11).  [Jehoahaz.]  5.  Son  of  Shaul  the 
son  of  Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv.  25).  6.  A  high- 
priest,  son  of  Zadok  and  ancestor  of  Ezra 
(1  Chr.  vi.  12,  13;  Ezr.  vii.  2).  7.  A  son 
of  Naphtali  (1  Chr.  vii.  13).  8.  The  chief 
of  a  family  of  porters  or  gate-keepers  of 
tlie  east  gate  of  the  Temple  (1  Chr.  ix.  17). 
9.  Son  of  Kore,  a  Korahite  (1  Chr.  ix.  19, 
31).  With  tills  Shallum  we  may  identify 
Meshelemiah  and  Shelemiah  (1  Chr.  xxvi. 
1,  2,  9,  14),  but  he  seems  to  be  different 
from  the  last-mentioned  Shallum.  10. 
Father  of  Jehizkiah,  an  Ephraimite  (2  Chr. 
xxviii.  12).  11.  One  of  the  porters  of  the 
Temple  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
(Ezr.  X.  24).  12.  One  of  the  sons  of 
Bani  (Ezr.  x.  42).  13.  The  son  of  Halo- 
hesh  and  ruler  of  a  district  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii.  12).  14.  The  uncle  of  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  xxxii.  7) ;  perhaps  the  same  as  2. 
15.  Father  or  ancestor  of  Maaseiah  (Jer. 
XXXV.  4)  ;  perhaps  the  same  as  9. 

Shal'lun.  The  son  of  Col-hozeh,  and 
ruler  of  a  district  of  the  Mizpah  (Neh.  iii. 
15). 

Shalma'i-  The  children  of  Shalmai 
(or  Shamlai,  as  in  the  margin  of  Ezr.  ii. 
46)  were  among  the  Nethinira  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  46;  Neh.  vii.  48). 
In  Nehemiah  the  name  is  properly  Sal- 

MAI. 

Shal'man.  Shalmaneser  king  of  As- 
syria (Hos.  X.  14). 

Shalmane'ser  was  the  Assyrian  king 
who  reigned  immediately  before  Sargon, 
and  probably  immediately  after  Tiglath- 
pileser.  He  can  scarcely  have  ascended 
the  throne  earlier  than  b.  c.  730,  and  may 
possibly  not  have  done  so  till  a  few  years 
later.  It  must  have  been  soon  after  his 
accession  that  he  led  the  forces  of  Assyria 
into  Palestine,  where  Hoshea,  the  last  king 
of  Israel  had  revolted  against  his  authority 
(2  K.  xvii.  3).  No  sooner  was  he  come 
than  Hoshea  submitted,  acknowledged  him- 
self a  "servant"  of  the  Great  King,  and 
consented  to  pay  him  a  fixed  tribute  annu- 
ally. He  soon  after  concluded  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  withheld  his 
tribute  in  consequence.  In  b.  c.  723  Shal- 
maneser invaded  Palestine  for  the  second 
time,  and,  as  Hoshea  refused  to  submit, 
laid  siege  to  Samaria.  The  siege  lasted  to 
the  third  year  (b.  c.  721),  when  the  As- 
syrian arms  prevailed  (2  K.  xvii.  4-6, 
xviii.  9-11).  It  is  uncertain  whether  Shal- 
maneser conducted  the  siege  to  its  close, 
or  whether  he  did  not  lose  his  crown  to 
Sargon  before  the  city  was  taken. 


SHAMA 


6S2 


SHARAR 


Sh.a'ma.  One  of  David's  guard,  son  of 
Hothan  of  Arocr  (1  Clir.  xi.  44). 

Shamari'ah.  Son  of  Rehoboam  (2 
Chr.  xi.  19). 

Sha'med.  Properly  Shamek,  or  She- 
mer;  one  of  the  sons  of  Elpaal  the  Benja- 
mite  (1  Chr.  viii.  12). 

Sha'mer.  1.  A  Merarite  Levite  (1 
Chr.  vi.  40).  2.  Shomer  the  son  of  Heber 
an  Asherite  (1  Chr.  vii.  34). 

Sham'gar,  son  of  Anath,  judge  of  Is- 
rael after  Ehud,  and  before  Barak,  though 
possibly  contemporary  with  the  latter,  since 
he  seems  to  be  spoken  of  in  Judg.  v.  6  as 
a  contemporary  of  Jael.  In  the  days  of 
Shamgar,  Israel  was  in  a  most  depressed 
condition,  and  the  whole  nation  was  cowed. 
At  this  conjuncture  Shamgar  was  raised  up 
to  be  a  deliverer.  With  no  arms  in  his 
hand  but  an  ox-goad  (Judg.  iii.  31 ;  comp. 
1  Sara.  xiii.  21),  he  made  a  desperate  assault 
upon  the  Philistines,  and  slew  600  of  them. 
But  it  was  reserved  for  Deborah  and  Barak 
to  complete  the  deliverance. 

Sham'huth.  The  fitlh  captain  for  the 
fifth  month  in  David's  arrangement  of  his 
army  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  8),  From  a  compari- 
son of  the  lists  in  1  Chr.  xi.,  xxvii.,  it  would 
seem  that  Shamhuth  is  the  same  as  Siiam- 
MOTii  the  Harorite. 

Sh.a'inir.  1.  A  town  in  the  mountain 
district  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  48,  only).  It 
probably  lay  some  eight  or  ten  miles  south 
of  Hebron,  but  it  has  not  been  yet  discov- 
ered. 2.  A  place  in  Mount  Ephraira,  the 
residence  and  burial-place  of  Tola  the 
judge  (Judg.  X.  1,  2).  Perhaps  Samur, 
half  way  between  Samaria  and  Jenin.  3. 
A  Kohathite,  son  of  Micah,  or  Michal,  the 
first-Dorn  of  Uzziel  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  24). 

Sham'raa.  One  of  the  sons  of  Zophar, 
an  Asherite  (1  Chr.  vii.  37). 

Sham'mah.  1.  The  son  of  Reuel  the 
son  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  13,  17;  1  Chr. 
i.  37).  2.  The  third  son  of  Jesse,  and 
brother  of  David  (1  Sam.  xvi.  9,  xvii.  13). 
Called  also  Shimea,  Shimeaii,  and  Shim- 
siA.  3.  One  of  the  tiiree  greatest  of 
David's  mighty  men.  He  was  with  him 
during  his  outlaw  life  in  the  cave  of  Adul- 
1am,  and  signalized  himself  by  defending  a 
piece  of  ground  full  of  lentiles  against  the 
Philistines  on  one  of  their  marauding  in- 
cursions. This  achievement  gave  him  a 
place  among  the  first  three  heroes  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  11-17).  4.  The  Harodite,  one  of 
David's  mighties  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  25).  He 
is  called  "  Siiammoth  the  Harorite "  in 
1  Clir.  xi.  27,  and  in  1  Chr.  xxvii.  8 
"  Shamhuth  the  Izrahite."  Kennicott 
maintained  the  true  reading  in  both  to  be 
"  Shamhoth  the  Harodite."  5.  In  the  list 
of  David's  mighty  men  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
82,  33,  we  find  "Jonathan,  Shammah  the 
Hararite ; "  while  in  the  corresponding 
verse  of  1  Chr.  xi.  34,  it  is  "Jonathan, 


the  son  of  Shage  the  Hararite."  Com- 
bining the  two,  Kennicott  proposes  to  read 
"  Jonathan,  the  son  of  Shamha,  the  Hara- 
rite." 

Sham'mai.  1.  The  son  of  Onam  (1 
Chr.  ii.  28,  32).  2.  Sonof  Rekem  (1  Chr. 
ii.  44,  45).  3.  The  brother  of  Miriam  and 
Ishbah  the  founder  of  Eshtemoa,  in  an  ob- 
scure genealogy  of  the  descendants  of  Ju- 
dah (1  Chr.  iv.  17). 

Shara'moth.    [Shammah.] 

Shammu'a.  1.  The  Reubenite  spy, 
son  of  Zaccur  (Num.  xiii.  4.)  2.  Son  of 
David,  by  his  wife  Bathsheba  (1  Chr.  xiv. 
4).  3.  A  Levite,  the  father  of  Abda  (Neh. 
xi.  17).  The  same  as  Shemaiah  6.  4.  The 
representative  of  the  priestly  family  of 
Bilgah,  or  Bilgai,  in  the  days  of  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  18). 

Shammu'ah.  Son  of  David  (2  Sam. 
V.  14) ;  elsewhere  called  Shammua,  and 
Shimea. 

Shamsheral.  One  of  the  sons  of 
Jeroam,  a  Benjamite  (1  Chr.  viii.  26). 

Sha'pham.  A  Gadite  of  Bashan  (1 
Chr.  v.  12). 

Sha'phan,  the  scribe  or  secretary  of 
king  Josiah.  He  was  the  son  of  Azaliah 
(2  K.  xxii.  3;  2  Chr.  xxxiv.  8),  father 
of  Ahikam  (2  K.  xxii.  12 ;  2  Chr.  xxxiv. 
20)  Elasah  (Jer.  xxix.  3),  and  Gemariah 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  10,  11,  12),  and  grandfather 
of  Gedaliah  (Jer.  xxxix.  14,  xl.  5,  9,  11, 
xli.  2,  xliii.  6),  Michaiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  11), 
and  probably  of  Jaazaniah  (Ez.  viii.  U). 
The  history  of  Shaphan  brings  out  some 
points  with  regard  to  the  office  of  scribe 
which  he  held.  He  appears  on  an  equality 
with  the  governor  of  the  city  and  the  royal 
recorder,  with  whom  he  was  sent  by  the 
king  to  Hilkiah  to  take  an  account  of  the 
money  which  had  been  collected  by  tlie 
Levites  for  the  repair  of  the  Temple  aad  to 
pay  the  workmen  (2  K.  xxii.  4 ;  2  Chr. 
xxxiv.  9;  comp.  2  K.  xii.  10).  It  was  on 
this  occasion  that  Hilkiah  communicated 
his  discovery  of  a  copy  of  the  Law,  which 
he  had  probably  found  while  making  prep- 
arations for  the  repair  of  the  Temple. 

Sha'phat.  1.  The  Simeonite  spy,  son 
of  Hori  (Num.  xiii.  5).  2.  The  father  of 
the  prophet  Elisha  (1  K.  xix.  IG,  19 ;  2  K. 
iii.  11,  vi.  31).  3.  One  of  the  six  sons  of 
Shemaiah  in  the  royal  line  of  Judah  (I 
Chr.  iii.  22).  4.  One  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Gadites  in  Bashan  (1  Chr.  v.  12).  5.  The 
son  of  Adlai,  who  was  over  David's  oxen 
in  the  valleys  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  29). 

Sha'pher,  Mount  (Num.  xxxiii.  23), 
the  name  of  a  desert  station  where  the  Is- 
raelites encamped.  No  site  has  been  sug- 
gested for  it. 

Shar'ai.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani  (Ezr. 
X.  40). 

Shar'aim.    [Shaaraim.] 

Slia'rar.    The    father   of  Ahiam   tha 


SHAREZER 


633 


SHEBA 


Hararite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  33.).  In  1  Chr.  xi. 
35  he  is  called  Sacar,  which  Kennicott 
thinks  the  true  reading. 

Share'zer  was  a  son  of  Sennacherib, 
whom,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
Adrammelech,  he  murdered  (2  K.  xix.  37). 

Sha'ron,  a  district  of  the  Holy  Land 
occasionally  referred  to  in  the  Bible  (1 
Chr.  V.  16,  xxvii.  29 ;  Is.  xxxiii.  9,  xxxv. 
2,  Ixv.  10 ;  Cant.  ii.  J  ;  Acts  ix.  35,  A.  V. 
Sabon).  The  nanie  has  on  each  occur- 
rence, with  one  exception  only,  the  definite 
article  (1  Chr.  v.  16).  It  would  therefore 
appear  that  "  the  Sharon  "  was  some  well- 
defined  region  familiar  to  the  Israelites. 
It  is  that  broad,  rich  tract  of  land  which  lies 
between  the  mountains  of  the  central  part 
of  the  Holy  Land  and  the  Mediterranean  — 
the  northern  continuation  of  the  Shefelah. 
A  general  sketch  of  the  district  is  given 
under  the  head  of  Palestine  (p.  487). 
2.  The  Shakon  of  1  Chr.  v.  16,  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made,  is  distin- 
guished from  the  western  plain  by  not 
having  the  article  attached  to  its  name,  as 
the  other  invariably  has.  It  is  also  ap- 
parent from  the  passage  itself  that  it  was 
some  district  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Gilead  and  Bashan.  The 
name  has  not  been  met  with  in  that  direc- 
tion. 

Sha'ronite,  The.  Shitrai,  who  had 
charge  of  the  royal  herds  pastured  in  Sha- 
ron (1  Chr.  xxvii.  29),  is  the  only  Sharon- 
ite  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

Sh.aru'heil.  A  town  named  in  Josh. 
xix.  6  only,  amongst  those  which  were  al- 
lotted within  Judah  to  Simeon.  Sharuhen 
does  not  appear  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
cities  of  Judah ;  but  instead  of  it,  and  oc- 
cupying the  same  position  with  regard  to 
the  other  names,  we  find  Shilhim  (xv.  32). 
In  the  list  of  1  Chr.,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
same  position  is  occupied  by  Shaabaim  (iv. 
81).  Wliether  these  are  difierent  places, 
or  different  names  of  the  same  place,  or 
mere  variations  of  careless  copyists,  and, 
in  the  last  case,  which  is  the  original  form, 
it  is  perhaps  impossible  now  to  determine. 

Shash'ai.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani  in 
the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  40). 

Sha'shak.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  the 
Bons  of  Beriah  (1  Chr.  viii.  14,  25). 

Sha'ul.  1.  The  son  of  Simeon  by  a 
Canaanitish  woman  (Gen.  xlvi.  10 ;  Ex.  vi. 
16;  Num.  xxvi.  13;  1  Chr.  iv.  24),  and 
founder  of  the  family  of  the  Shaulites. 
2.  One  of  the  kings  of  Edom  (1  Chr.  i.  48, 
49).  In  the  A.  V.  of  Gen.  xxxvi.  37  he  is 
less  accurately  called  Saul. 

Sha'veh,  The  Valley  of,  described  a« 
"  the  Valley  of  the  King"  (Gen.  xiv.  17). 
The  "  Valley  of  the  King "  is  mentioned 
again  in  2  Sara,  xviii.  18,  as  the  site  of  a 
pillar  set  up  by  Absalom ;  but  neither  pas- 
sage conveys  any  indication  of  its  position ; 


and  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  two 
passages  refer  to  the  same  spot. 

Sha'veh  Kiriatha'im,  mentioned 
(Gen.  xiv.  5)  as  the  residence  of  the  Emim 
at  tlie  time  of  Chedorlaomer's  incursion. 
Kiriathaim  is  named  in  the  later  history, 
though  it  has  not  been  identified ;  and  Sha- 
veh  Kiriathaim  was  probably  the  valley  in 
or  by  which  the  town  lay. 

Shav'sha.  The  royal  secretary  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xviii.  16).  He  is 
apparently  the  same  with  Seraiah  (2  Sam. 
viii.  17).  In  2  Sam.  xx.  25  he  is  called 
Sheva,  and  in  1  K.  iv.  3,  Shisha. 

Shawm.  In  the  Prayer-book  version 
of  Ps.  xcviii.  7,  "with  trumpets  also  and 
shawms  "  is  the  rendering  of  what  stands 
in  the  A.  V.  "  with  trumpets  and  sound 
of  cornet."  The  Hebrew  word  translated 
"  cornet  "  is  treated  under  that  head.  The 
'*  shawm  "  was  a  musical  instrument  resem- 
bling the  clarionet. 

She'al.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  29). 

Sheal'tiel.  Father  of  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
iii.  2,  8,  V.  2 ;  N eh.  xii.  1 ;  Hagg.  i.  1,  12, 
14,  ii.  2,  23). 

Sheari'ah.  One  of  the  six  sons  of 
Azel,  a  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  38, 
ix.  44). 

Shearing-house,  The,  a  place  on  the 
road  between  Jezreel  and  Samaria,  at  which 
Jehu,  on  his  way  to  the  latter,  encountered 
forty-two  members  of  the  royal  family  of 
Judah,  whom  he  slaughtered  at  the  well  or 
pit  attached  to  the  place  (2  K.  x.  12,  14). 
Eusebius  mentions  it  as  a  village  of  Samaria 
"  in  the  great  plain  [of  Esdraelon],  15  milea 
from  Legeon."  , 

She'ar-ja'shub  (lit.  "  a  remnant  shall 
return "),  the  son  of  Isaiah  the  prophet 
(Is.  vii.  3).  The  name,  like  that  of  Maher- 
shalal-hash-baz,  had  a  mystical  significance 
(comp.  Is.  X.  20-22). 

She'ba,  the  son  of  Bichri,  a  Benjamite 
from  the  mountains  of  Ephraim  (2  Sam. 
XX.  1-22),  the  last  chief  of  the  Absalom 
insurrection.  He  is  described  as  a  "man 
of  Belial."  But  he  must  have  been  a  per- 
son of  some  consequence,  from  the  immense 
effect  produced  by  his  appearance.  It  was 
in  fact  all  but  an  anticipation  of  the  revolt 
of  Jeroboam.  The  occasion  seized  by  Sheba 
was  the  emulation,  as  if  from  loyalty,  be- 
tween the  northern  and  southern  tribes  on 
David's  return  (2  Sam.  xx.  1,  2).  The  king 
might  well  say,  "  Sheba  the  son  of  Bichri 
shall  do  us  more  harm  than  did  Absalom." 
Sheba  traversed  the  whole  of  Palestine, 
apparently  rousing  the  population,  Joab 
following  in  full  pursuit.  It  seems  to  have 
been  his  intention  to  establish  himself  in 
the  fortress  of  Abel-Beth-miiachah,  famou* 
for  the  prudence  of  its  inhabitanfcs  (2  Sam. 
XX.  18).  That  prudence  was  put  to  the  test 
on  the  present  occasion.   Joab's  terms  wmto 


SHEBA 


634 


SHECHEM 


the  head  of  the  insurgent  chief.  A  woman 
of  the  place  undertook  the  mission  to  her 
city,  and  proposed  the  execution  to  her 
fellow-citizens.  The  head  of  Sheba  was 
thrown  over  the  wall,  and  the  insurrection 
ended. 

Slie'ba.  1.  A  son  of  Raamah,  son  of 
Cush  (Gen.  x.  7;  1  Chr.  i.  9).  2.  A  son 
of  Joktan  (Gen.  x.  28;  1  Chr.  i.  22).  3.  A 
son  of  Jokshan,  son  of  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv. 
3;  1  Chr.  i.  32).  We  shall  consider,  first, 
the  history  of  the  Joktanite  Sheba;  and, 
secondly,  the  Cushite  Sheba  and  the  Ketu- 
rahite  Sheba  together.  I.  The  Joktanites 
were  among  the  early  colonists  of  Soutliern 
Arabia,  and  the  kingdom  which  they  there 
founded  was,  for  many  centuries,  called  the 
kingdom  of  Sheba,  after  one  of  the  sons  of 
Joktan.  The  inhabitants  are  the  "  Sabaei" 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  the  Bible, 
the  Joktanite  Sheba,  mentioned  genealogi- 
cally in  Gen.  x.  28,  recurs,  as  a  kingdom, 
in  the  account  of  the  visit  of  the  queen  of 
Sheba  to  king  Solomon  (1  K.  x.  1).  That 
the  queen  was  of  Sheba  in  Arabia,  and  not 
of  Seba  the  Cushite  kingdom  of  Ethiopia, 
is  unquestionable.  The  other  passages  in 
the  Bible  which  seem  to  refer  to  the 
Joktanite  Sheba  occur  in  Is.  Ix.  6;  and 
again  in  Jer.  vi.  20.  In  Ps.  Ixxii.  10,  the 
Joktanite  Sheba  is  undoubtedly  meant.  The 
kingdom  of  Sheba  embraced  the  greater 
part  of  the  Yemen,  or  Arabia  Felix.  Its 
chief  cities,  and  probjibly  successive  capi- 
tals, were  Seba,  San'a  (Uzal),  and  Zafiir 
(Sephar).  Seba  was  probably  the  name 
of  the  city,  and  generally  of  the  country 
and  nation.  II.  Sheba,  son  of  Raamah 
son  of»  Cush,  settled  somewhere  on  the 
shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  was  this 
Sheba  that  carried  on  the  great  Indian 
traffic  with  Palestine,  in  conjunction  with, 
as  we  hold,  the  other  Sheba,  son  of  Jok- 
shan son  of  Keturah,  who,  like  Dedak, 
appears  to  have  formed,  with  the  Cushite 
of  the  same  name,  one  tribe. 

She'ba,  one  of  the  towns  of  the  allot- 
ment of  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  2),  probably 
the  same  as  Sheraa  (xv.  26). 

Slxe'bah,  the  famous  well  which  gave 
its  name  to  the  city  of  Beersheba  (Gen. 
xxvi.  33).     [Beersheba.] 

Sh.e'bam,  one  of  the  towns  in  the  pas- 
toral district  on  tlie  east  of  Jordan  —  de- 
manded by  and  finally  ceded  to  the  tribes 
of  Reuben  and  Gad  (Num.  xxiii.  3).  It  is 
probably  the  same  which  appears  in  the 
altered  forms  of  Shibmah  (Num.  xxxii.  38) 
and  SiBMAH  (Josh.  xiii.  19;  Is.xvi.  8,  9; 
Jer.  xlviii.  32). 

Shebani'ah.  1.  A  Levite  in  the  time 
of  Ezra  (Neh.  ix.  4,  5).  He  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  10).  2. 
A  priest  or  priestly  family,  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  4,  xii. 
14).    Called  Shechakiah  in  Neh.  xii.  8. 


3.  Another  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  12).  4.  One  of 
the  priests  appointed  by  David  to  blow  with 
the  trumpets  before  the  ark  of  God  (1 
Chr.  XV.  24). 

Sheb'arim,  a  place  named  in  Josh.  vii. 
5,  only,  as  one  of  the  points  in  the  flight 
from  Ai. 

She'ber.  Son  of  Caleb  bcn-Hezron  by 
his  concubine  Maachah  (1  Chr.  ii.  48). 

Sheb'na,  a  person  of  high  position  in 
Hezekiah's  court,  holding  at  one  time  the 
ofiice  of  prefect  of  the  palace  (Is.  xxii.  15), 
but  subsequently  the  subordinate  office  of 
secretary  (Is.  xxxvi.  3;  2  K.  xix.  2). 

Sheb'uel.  1.  A  descendant  of  Ger- 
shom  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  IG,  xxvi.  24),  who  was 
ruler  of  the  treasures  of  the  house  of  God ; 
called  also  Shubael  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  20).  He 
is  the  last  descendant  of  Moses  of  whom 
there  is  any  trace.  2.  One  of  the  fourteen 
sons  of  Heman  the  minstrel  (1  Chr.  xxt. 
4)  ;  called  also  Shubael  (1  Clir.  xxv.  20). 

Shecard'ah.  1.  Tlie  tenth  in  order  of 
the  priests  who  were  appointed  by  lot  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  11).  2.  A 
priest  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr. 
xxxi.  15). 

Sheehani'ah.  1.  A  descendant  of  Ze- 
rubbabel  (1  Chr.  iii.  21,  22).  2.  Some  de- 
scendants of  Shechaniah  returned  with  Ezra 
(Ezr.  viii.  3).  3.  The  sons  of  Shechaniah 
were  another  family  who  returned  with 
Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  5).  In  this  verse  some 
name  appears  to  have  been  omitted.  Per- 
haps the  reading  should  be,  "  of  the  sons 
of  Zattu,  Shechaniali,  tlie  son  of  Jahaziel." 

4.  The  son  of  Jeliiel  of  the  sons  of  Elam 
(Ezr.  X.  2).  5.  The  father  of  Shemaiah  2 
(Neh.  iii.  29).  6.  The  son  of  Arab  (Neh. 
vi.  18).  7.  The  head  of  a  priestly  family 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  3). 

She'chem  (hack  or  shoulder).  1.  An 
important  city  in  Central  Palestine.  The 
etymology  of  the  Hebrew  word  indicates 
that  the  place  was  situated  on  some  moun- 
tain or  hill-side ;  and  that  presumption 
agrees  with  Josh.  xx.  7,  wliich  places  it  in 
Mount  Ephraim  (comp.  1  K.  xii.  25),  and 
with  Judg.  ix.  9,  which  represents  it  as 
under  the  summit  of  Gerizim,  which  be- 
longed to  the  Ephraim  range.  Its  present 
name,  Ndbulus,  is  a  corruption  of  Neapolis ; 
which  succeeded  the  more  ancient  Shechem, 
and  received  its  new  name  from  Vespasian. 
On  coins  still  extant  it  is  called  Flavia 
Neapolis.  The  situation  of  the  town  is 
one  of  surpassing  beauty.  It  lies  in  a  shel- 
tered valley,  protected  by  Gerizim  on  the 
south,  and  Ebal  on  the  north.  The  feet  of 
these  mountains,  where  they  rise  from  the 
town,  are  not  more  than  five  hundred  yards 
apart.  The  bottom  of  the  valley  is  about 
1800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
the  top  of  Gerizim  800  feet  higher  still. 
The  site  of  the  present  city,  which  was  also 


SHECHEM 


635 


SHECHEM 


that  of  tlie  Hebrew  city,  occurs  exactly  on 
the  water-summit ;  and  streams  issuing  from 
the  numerous  springs  there,  flow  down  the 
Opposite  slopes  of  the  valley,  spreading 
verdure  and  fertility  in  every  direction. 
Travellers  vie  with  each  other  in  the  lan- 
guage which  they  employ  to  describe  the 
scene  that  bursts  here  so  suddenly  upon 
them  on  arriving  in  spring  or  early  sunmier 
at  this  paradise  of  the  Holy  Land.  "  The 
whole  valley,"  says  Dr.  Kobinson,  "  was 
filled  with  gardens  of  vegetables,  and  or- 
chards of  all  kinds  of  fruits,  watered  by 
fountains,  which  burst  forth  in  various  parts 
and  flow  westwards  in  refreshing  streams. 
It  came  upon  us  suddenly  like  a  scene  of 
fairy  enchantment.  We  saw  nothing  to 
compare  witli  it  in  all  Palestine.  Here, 
beneath  the  shadow  of  an  immense  mul- 
berry-tree, by  the  side  of  a  purling  rill,  we 
pitched  our  tent  for  the  remainder  of  the 
day  and  the  night.  .  .  .  We  rose  early, 
awakened  by  the  songs  of  nightingales  and 
other  birds,  of  which  the  gardens  around 
us  were  full."  —  The  allusions  to  Shechem 
in  the  Bible  are  numerous,  and  show  how 
important  the  place  was  in  Jewish  history. 
Abraham,  on  his  first  migration  to  the  Land 
of  Promise,  pitched  his  tent  and  built  an 
altar  under  the  Oak  (or  Terebinth)  of 
Moreli  at  Shechem.  "  The  Canaanite  was 
then  in  the  land ;  "  and  it  is  evident  that 
the  region,  if  not  the  city,  was  already  in 
possession  of  the  aboriginal  race  (see  Gen. 
xii.  6).  At  the  time  of  Jacob's  arrival 
here,  after  his  sojourn  in  Mesopotamia 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  18,  xxxiv.),  Shechem  was  a 
Hivite  city,  of  which  Hamor,  the  father  of 
Shechem,  was  the  headman.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  the  patriarch  purchased  from  that 
chieftain  "  the  parcel  of  the  field,"  which  he 
subsequently  bequeathed,  as  a  special  patri- 
mony, to  his  son  Joseph  (Gen.  xliii.  22; 
Josh.  xxiv.  32 ;  John  iv.  5).  The  field  lay  un- 
doubtedly on  the  rich  plain  of  the  Mukhna, 
and  its  value  was  the  greater  on  account  of 
the  well  which  Jacob  had  dug  there,  so  as 
not  to  be  dependent  on  his  neighbors  for  a 
supply  of  water.  The  defilement  of  Dinah, 
Jacob's  daughter,  and  the  capture  of  She- 
chem and  massacre  of  all  the  male  inhabit- 
ants by  Simeon  and  Levi,  are  events  that 
belong  to  this  period  (Gen.  xxxiv.  1,  sq.  The 
oak  under  which  Abraham  had  worshipped 
survived  to  Jacob's  time  (Gen.  xxxv.  1-4). 
The  "  oak  of  the  monument "  (Judg.  ix.  6), 
where  the  Shechemites  made  Abimelech 
king,  marked,  perhaps,  the  veneration  with 
which  the  Hebrews  looked  back  to  these 
earliest  footsteps  of  the  patriarchs  in  the 
Holy  Land.  In  the  distribution  of  the 
land  after  its  conquest  by  the  Hebrews, 
Shechem  fell  to  the  lot  of  Ephraim  (Josh. 
XX.  7),  but  was  assigned  to  the  Levites, 
and  became  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  xxi. 
20,  21).     It  acquired  new  importance  as 


the  scene  of  the  renewed  promulgation 
of  the  Law,  when  its  blessings  were  lieard 
from  Gerizim  and  its  curses  from  Ebal,  and 
the  people  bowed  their  heads  and  acknowl- 
edged Jehovah  as  their  king  and  ruler  (Deut. 
xxvii.  11,  and  Josh.  ix.  33-35).  It  was  here 
Joshua  assembled  the  people,  shortly  before 
his  death,  and  delivered  to  them  his  last 
counsels  (Josh.  xxiv.  1,  25).  After  the  death 
of  Gideon,  Abimelech,  his  bastard  son,  in- 
duced the  Shechemites  to  revolt  from  the 
Hebrew  commonwealtli  and  elect  him  as  king 
(Judg.  ix.).  In  revenge  for  his  expulsion, 
after  a  reign  of  three  years,  Abimelech  de- 
stroyed the  city,  and  as  an  emblem  of  the 
fate  to  which  he  would  consign  it,  sowed 
the  ground  with  salt  (Judg.  ix.  34-45),  It 
was  soon  restored,  however,  for  we  are 
told  in  1  K.  xii.  that  all  Israel  a.ssembled  at 
Shechem,  and  Rehoboam,  Solomon's  suc- 
cessor, went  thither  to  be  inaugurated  aa 
king.  Here,  at  this  same  place,  the  ten 
tribes  renounced  the  house  of  David,  and 
transferred  their  allegiance  to  Jeroboam  (1 
K.  xii.  16),  under  whom  Shechem  became 
for  a  time  the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  From 
the  time  of  the  origin  of  the  Samaritans, 
the  history  of  Shechem  blends,  itself  with 
that  of  this  people  and  of  their  sacred 
mount,  Gerizim.  [Samakia;  Samaritax 
Pent.]  —  Shechem  reappears  in  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  the  Stchar  of  John  iv. 
5,  near  which  the  Saviour  conversed  with 
the  Samaritan  woman  at  Jacob's  Well.  In 
Acts  vii.  16,  Stephen  reminds  his  hearers 
that  certain  of  the  patriarchs  (meaning 
Joseph,  as  we  see  in  Josh.  xxiv.  32,  and 
following,  perhaps,  some  tradition  as  to 
Jacob's  other  sons)  were  buried  at  Sychem. 
—  The  population  of  Ndbulus  consists  of 
about  5000,  among  whom  are  500  Greek 
Christians,  150  Samaritans,  and  a  few  Jews. 
The  enmity  between  the  Samaritans  and 
Jews  is  as  inveterate  still,  as  it  was  in  the 
days  of  Christ.  The  Mohammedans,  of 
course,  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  population. 
The  Well  of  Jacob  and  the  Tomb  of 
Joseph  are  still  shown  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  town.  The  Well  of  Jacob  lies  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  east  of  the  city,  close  to 
the  lower  road,  and  just  beyond  the  wretch- 
ed hamlet  of  Bal&ta.  The  Christiana 
sometimes  call  it  Bir  es-Samariyeh  — 
"the  well  of  the  Samaritan  woman."  The 
well  is  deep  —  75  ft.  when  last  measured  — 
and  there  was  probably  a  considerable  ac- 
cumulation of  rubbish  at  the  bottom.  Some- 
times it  contains  a  few  feet  of  water,  but  at 
others  it  is  quite  dry.  It  is  entirely  exca- 
vated in  the  sohd  rock,  perfectly  round,  9 
ft.  in  diameter,  with  the  sides  hewn  smooth 
and  regular.  Of  all  the  special  localities 
of  our  Lord's  life,  this  is  almost  the  only 
one  absolutely  undisputed.  The  Tomb  of 
Joseph  lies  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  north 
of  the  well,  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the 


SHECHEMITES 


636 


SHEEP 


opening  of  the  valley  between  Gerizim  and 
Ebal.  It  is  a  small,  square  enclosure  of 
high  whitewashed  walls,  surrounding  a 
tomb  of  the  ordinary  kind,  but  with  the 
peculiarity  that  it  is  placed  diagonally  to 
the  walls,  instead  of  parallel,  as  usual.  A 
rough  pillar  used  as  an  altar,  and  black 
with  the  traces  of  fire,  is  at  the  head,  and 
another  at  the  foot  of  the  Tomb.  In  the 
walls  are  two  slabs  with  Hebrew  inscrip- 
tions, and  the  interior  is  almost  covered 
with  the  names  of  pilgrims  in  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  and  Samaritan.  Beyond  this  there 
is  nothing  to  remark  in  the  structure  itself. 
The  local  tradition  of  the  Tomb,  like  that 
of  the  well,  is  as  old  as  the  beginning  of 
the  4th  century.  2.  The  son  of  Hamor  the 
chieftain  of  the  Hivite  settlement  of  She- 
chem  at  the  time  of  Jacob's  arrival  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  19,  xxxiv.  2-26;  Josh.  xxiv.  32; 
Judg.  ix.  28).  3.  A  man  of  Manasseh,  of 
the  clan  of  Gilead  (Num.  xxvi.  31).  4.  A 
GUeadite,  son  of  Shemida,  the  younger 
brother  of  the  foregoing  (I  Chr.  vii.  19). 

She'chemites,  The.  The  family  of 
Shechem,  son  of  Gilead  (Num.  xxvi.  31 ; 
comp.  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Sh6Clli'liall.  This  term  is  not  found 
in  the  Bible.  It  was  used  by  the  later 
Jews,  and  borrowed  by  Christians  from 
them,  to  express  the  visible  majesty  of  the 
Divine  Presence,  especially  when  resting, 
or  dwelling,  between  the  Cherubim  on  the 
mercy-seat  in  the  Tabernacle,  and  in  the 
temple  of  Solomon ;  but  not  in  Zerubba- 
bel's  temple,  for  it  was  one  of  the  five  par- 
ticulars which  the  Jews  reckon  to  have 
been  wanting  in  the  second  temple.  The 
use  of  the  term  is  first  found  in  the  Tar- 
gums,  where  it  forms  a  frequent  periphrasis 
for  God,  considered  as  dwelling  amongst 
the  children  of  Israel,  and  is  thus  used, 
especially  by  Onkelos,  to  avoid  ascribing 
corporeity  to  God  Himself.  In  Ex.  xxv.  8, 
where  the  Hebrew  has',  "  Let  them  make 
me  a  sanctuary,  that  I  may  dwell  among 
them,"  Onkelos  has,  "  I  will  make  my  She- 
chinah  to  dwell  among  them."  In  xxix. 
45,  46,  for  the  Hebrew,  "  I  will  dwell  among 
the  children  of  Israel,"  Onkelos  has,  "  I 
will  make  my  Shechinah  to  dwell,"  &c. 
As  regards  the  visible  manifestation  of  the 
Divine  Presence  dwelling  amongst  the  Isra- 
elites, to  which  the  term  Shechinah  has 
attached  itself,  tlie  idea  which  the  different 
accounts  in  Scripture  convey  is  that  of  a 
most  brilliant  and  glorious  light,  enveloped 
in  a  cloud,  and  usually  concealed  by  the 
cloud,  so  that  the  cloud  itself  was  for  the 
most  part  alone  visible ;  but  on  particular 
occasions  the  glory  appeared.  The  allu- 
Bions  in  the  N.  T.  to  the  Shecliinah  are  not 
unfrequent.  Thus  in  the  account  of  the 
Nativity,  the  words,  "Lo,  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  came  upon  them,  and  the  glory  of  th<» 
Lord  shone  round  about  them  "  (Luke  u. 


9),  followed  by  the  apparition  of  "  the 
multitude  of  the  heavenly  host,"  recall  the 
appearance  of  the  Divine  glory  on  Sinai, 
when  "  He  shined  forth  from  Paran,  ancf 
came  with  ten  thousands  of  saints  "  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  2,  comp.  Ps.  Ixviii.  17 ;  Acts  vii.  53 ; 
Heb.  ii.  2;  Ezek.  xliii.  2).  The  "  God  of 
glory"  (Acts  vii.  2,  55),  "the  cherubima 
of  glory  "  (Heb.  ix.  5),  "  the  glory  "  (Rom. 
ix.  4),  and  other  like  passages,  are  distinct 
references  to  the  manifestations  of  the  glory 
in  the  O.  T.  When  we  read  in  John  i.  14, 
that  "  the  Word  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt 
among  us,  and  we  beheld  his  glory ;  "  or  in 
2  Cor.  xii.  9,  "  that  the  power  of  Christ  may 
rest  upon  me ; "  or  in  Rev.  xxi.  3,  "  Behold, 
the  tabernacle  of  God  is  with  men,  and  He 
will  dwell  with  them,"  we  have  not  only  ref-* 
erences  to  the  Shechinah,  but  are  distinctly 
taught  to  connect  it  with  the  incarnation 
and  future  coming  of  Messiah,  as  type  with 
antitype. 

Shed'etir.  The  father  of  Elizur,  chief 
of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  at  the  time  of  the 
Exodus  (Num.  i.  5,  ii.  10,  vii.  30,  35,  x. 
18). 

Sheep.  Sheep  were  an  important  part 
of  the  possessions  of  the  ancient  Hebrews- 
and  of  Eastern  nations  generally.  The 
first  mention  of  sheep  occurs  in  Gen.  iv.  2. 
They  were  used  in  the  sacrificial  offerings, 
both  the  adult  animal  (Ex.  xx.  24 ;  IK. 
viii.  63 ;  2  Chr.  xxix.  33)  and  the  lamb,  i.  e. 
"  a  male  from  one  to  three  years  old,"  but 
young  lambs  of  the  first  year  were  more 
generally  used  in  the  offerings  (see  Ex.  ■> 
xxix.  38;  Lev.  ix.  3,  xii.  6;  Num.  xxviii. 
9,  &c.).  Sheep  and  lambs  formed  an  im- 
portant article  of  food  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18;  1 
K.  i.  19,  iv.  23;  Ps.  xliv.  11,  &c.).  The 
wool  was  used  as  clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  47; 
Deut.  xxii.  11;  Prov.  xxxi.  13;  Job  xxxi. 
20,  &c.).  "Rams'  skins  dyed  red  "were 
used  as  a  covering  for  the  tabernacle  (Ex. 
xxv.  6).  Sheep  and  lambs  were  sometimes 
paid  as  tribute  (2  K.  iii.  4).  It  is  very 
striking  to  notice  the  immense  numbers  of 
sheep  that  were  reared  in  Palestine  in 
Biblical  times.  Sheep-shearing  is  alluded 
to  Gen.  xxxi.  19,  xxxviii.  13 ;  Deut.  xv.  19 ; 
1  Sam.  xxv.  4;  Is.  liii.  7,  &c.  Sheep  dogs 
were  employed  in  Biblical  times,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  Job  XXX.  1,  "the  dogs  of  my 
flock."  Shepherds  in  Palestine  and  the 
East  generally  go  before  their  flocks,  which 
they  induce  to  follow  by  calling  to  them 
(comp.  John  x.  4;  Ps.  Ixxvii.  20,  Ixxx.  1), 
though  they  also  drove  them  (Gen.  xxxiii. 
13).  The  following  quotation  from  Hart- 
ley's Researches  in  Greece  and  the  Levant, 
p.  321,  is  strikingly  illustrative  of  the  al- 
lusions in  John  x.  1-16 :  "  Having  had 
my  attention  dire;ted  last  night  to  the 
words  in  John  x.  3,  I  asked  my  man  if 
it  was  usual  in  Greece  to  give  names  to 
the  sheep.    He  informed  me  that  it  was. 


SHEEP-GATE 


637 


SHELOMITH 


and  that  the  sheep  obeyed  the  sheplierd 
when  he  called  them  by  their  names. 
This  morning  I  had  an  opportunity  of  veri- 
fying the  truth  of  this  remark.  Passing  by 
a  flock  of  sheep,  I  asked  the  shepherd  the 
same  question  which  I  had  put  to  the  ser- 
vant, and  he  gave  me  the  same  answer.  I 
then  bade  him  call  one  of  his  sheep.  He 
did  so,  and  it  instantly  left  its  pasturage 
and  its  companions  and  ran  up  to  the  hands 
of  the  shepherd  with  signs  of  pleasure  and 
with  a  prompt  obedience  which  I  had  never 
before  observed  in  any  other  animal.  It  is 
also  true  in  this  country  that  '  a  stranger 
will  they  not  follow,  but  will  flee  from  him.' 
The  shepherd  told  me  that  many  of  his 
sheep  were  still  wild,  that  they  had  not  yet 
learned  their  names,  but  that  by  teaching 
them  they  would  all  learn  them."  The 
common  sheep  of  Syria  and  Palestine  are 
the  broad-tailed.  As  the  sheep  is  an  em- 
blem of  meekness,  patience,  and  submis- 
sion, it  is  expressly  mentioned  as  typifying 
these  qualities  in  the  person  of  our  Blessed 
Lord  (Is.  liii.  7;  Acts  viii.  32,  &c.;:  The 
relation  that  exists  between  Christ,  "the 
chief  Shepherd,"  and  His  members  is  beau- 
tifully compared  to  that  which  in  tfie  East 
is  80  strikingly  exhibited  by  the  shepherds 
to  their  flocks.     [Shepherd.] 

Sheep-gate,  The,  one  of  the  gates  of 
Jerusalem  as  rebuilt  by  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
iii.  1,  32,  xii.  39).  It  stood  between  the 
tower  of  Meah  and  the  chamber  of  the 
corner  (iii.  32,  1)  or  gate  of  the  guard- 
house (xii.  39,  A.  V.  "  prison-gate  ").  The 
latter  seems  to  have  been  at  the  angle 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  wall  of  the 
city  of  David  with  that  of  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem proper,  having  the  sheep-gate  on  the 
north  of  it.  The  position  of  the  sheep-gate 
may  therefore  have  been  on  or  near  that 
of  the  Bab  el-Kattdnin. 

Sheep-market,  The  (John  v.  2). 
The  word  "  market  "  is  an  interpolation  of 
our  translators.  We  ought  probably  to 
supply  the  word  '*  gate  "  (not  "  market"  ), 
meaning  the  gate  mentioned  in  the  preced- 
ing article. 

Shehari'ah,  a  Benjamite,  son  of  Je- 
horam  (1  Chr.  viii.  26). 

Shekel.  In  a  former  article  [Monet] 
some  account  has  been  given  of  the  coins 
called  shekels.  The  present  article  will 
only  contain  a  few  particulars  relating 
to  the  Jewish  coinage  which  did  not  fall 
within  the  plan  of  the  former.  Although 
some  shekels  are  found  with  Hebrew  letters 
instead  of  Samaritan,  these  are  undoubt- 
edly all  forgeries.  Ramban,  i.  e.  Eabbi- 
Moses-Bar-Nachvian,  who  lived  about  the 
coramencement  of  the  13th  century,  de- 
scribes a  shekel  which  he  had  seen,  and  of 
which  the  Cuthaeans  read  the  inscription 
with  ease.  The  explanation  which  they 
gave  of  the  inscription  was,  on  one  side, 


SheJcel  ha-SheJcalim,  "the  shekel  of  shek- 
els," and  on  the  other,  "  Jerusalem  the 
Holy."  But  the  most  important  passage 
of  all  is  that  in  which  R.  Azarias  de  Rossi 
quotes  the  description  of  a  shekel  seen  by 
Ramban  at  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  a.  d.  1210.  He 
gives  the  inscriptions  as  above,  "  the  Shekel 
of  Shekels,"  and  "Jerusalem  the  Holy;" 
but  he  also  determines  the  weight,  which 
he  makes  about  half  an  ounce.  We  find, 
therefore,  that  in  early  times  shekels  were 
known  to  the  Jewish  Rabbis  with  Samari- 
tan inscriptions,  corresponding  with  those 
now  found  (except  in  one  point,  which  is 
probably  an  error),  and  corresponding  with 
them  in  weight.  We  believe  that  W.  Pos- 
tell  is  the  first  Christian  writer  who  saw 
and  described  a  shekel.  He  was  a  Parisian 
traveller,  who  visited  Jerusalem  early  in  the 
16th  century.  Postell  gives  a  very  bad 
wood-cut  of  one  of  these  shekels,  but  the 
inscription  is  correct.  The  correspondence 
of  the  newly-found  coins  with  the  earlier 
description  is  almost  demonstrative.  But 
they  bear  such  undoubted  marks  of  genu- 
ineness, that  no  judge  of  ancient  coins 
could  doubt  them  for  a  moment.  On  the 
contrary,  to  a  practised  eye,  those  with 
Hebrew  inscriptions  bear  undoubted  marks 
of  spuriousness.     [Monet.] 

She'lah.  1.  The  youngest  son  of  Judah 
by  the  daughter  of  Shuah  (Gen.  xxxviii.  5, 
11,  14,  26,  xlvi.  12;  Num.  xxvi.  20;  1  Chr. 
ii.  3,  iv.  21).  2.  The  proper  form  of  the 
name  of  Salah  the  son  of  Arphaxad  (1 
Chr.  i.  18,  2-i). 

Shelanites,  The.  The  descendants 
of  Shelah  1  (Num.  xxvi.  20). 

Shelemi'ah.  1.  One  of  the  sons  of 
Bani  in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  39).  2. 
The  father  of  Hananiah  (Neh.  iii.  30).  3. 
A  priest  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
xiii.  13).  4.  The  father  of  Jehucal,  or 
Jucal,  in  the  time  of  Zedekiali  (Jer.  xxxvii. 
3).  5.  The  father  of  Irijah,  the  captain 
of  the  ward  who  arrested  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
xxxvii.  13).  6,  The  same  as  Meshele- 
MiAH  and  Shalluh  8  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  14).  7. 
Another  of  the  sons  of  Bani  in  the  time  of 
Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  41).  8-  Ancestor  of  Jehudi 
in  the  time  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14). 
9.  Son  of  Ab.deel ;  one  of  those  who  re- 
ceived the  orders  of  Jehoiakim  to  take 
Baruch  and  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26). 

She'leph,  the  second  in  order  of  the 
sons  of  Joktan  (Gen.  x.  26;  1  Chr.  i.  20). 
The  tribe  which  sprang  from  him  has  been 
satisfactorily  identified,  both  in  modern 
and  classical  times.  The  district  of  the 
Yemen  named  after  him  is  that  of  Sndaf. 

She'lesh,  son  of  Helem  (1  Chr.  vii.  35). 

Sheromi,  an  Asherite,  father  of  Ahi- 
hud  (Num.  xxxiv.  27). 

Shel'omith.  1.  The  daughter  of  Dibri 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Lev.  xxiv.  11).  2. 
The  daughter  of  Z«rubbabel  (1  Chr.  iiL 


SHELOMOTH 


638 


SHEMAKIAH 


19).  3.  Chief  of  the  Izharites  (1  Chr. 
xxiii.  18).  4.  A  descendant  of  Eliezer 
the  son  of  Moses,  in  the  reign  of  David 
(1  Chr.  xxvi.  25,  26,  28).  5.  A  Ger- 
shonite,  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  9). 
"  Shimei  "  is  probably  a  mistake.  6.  Ac- 
cording to  the  present  text,  the  sons  of 
Shelomith,  with  the  son  of  Josiphiah  at 
their  head,  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  10).  There  appears,  how- 
ever, to  be  an  omission,  and  the  true  read- 
ing is  probably,  "  Of  the  sons  of  Bani, 
Shelomith  the  son  of  Josiphiah." 

Shel'omotli,  the  same  as  Shelomith 
3  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  22). 

Shelu'miel,  the  son  of  Zurishaddai, 
and  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  6,  ii.  12,  vii. 
8^,  41,  x.  19). 
4  Shem,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  born 
(Gen.  V.  32)  when  his  father  had  attained 
the  age  of  500  years.  He  was  98  years  old, 
married,  and  childless,  at  the  time  of  the 
Flood.  After  it,  he,  with  his  father,  broth- 
ers, sisters-in-law,  and  wife,  received  the 
blessing  of  God  (ix.  1),  and  entered  into 
the  covenant.  Two  years  afterwards  he 
became  the  father  of  Arphaxad  (xi.  10), 
and  other  children  were  born  to  him  subse- 
quently. With  the  help  of  his  brother  Ja- 
pheth,  he  covered  the  nakedness  of  their 
father,  whioh  Canaan  and  Ham  did  not  care 
to  hide.  In  the  prophecy  of  Noah  which 
is  connected  with  this  incident  (ix.  25-27), 
the  first  blessing  falls  on  Shem.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  600  years.  The  portion  of 
the  earth  occupied  by  the  descendants  of 
Shem  (x.  21-31)  intersects  the  portions  of 
JapLeth  and  Ham,  and  stretches  in  an  un- 
interrupted line  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Beginning  at  its 
north-western  extremity  with  Lydia,  it  in- 
cludes Syria  (Aram),  Chaldaea  (Arphax- 
ad), parts  of  Assyria  (Asshur),  of  Persia 
(Elam),  and  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula 
(Joktan).  Modern  scholars  have  given  the 
name  of  Shemitic  or  Semitic  to  the  lan- 
guages spoken  by  his  real  or  supposed  de- 
scendants.    [Hebrew.] 

She'raa.  1.  A  Reubenite,  ancestor  of 
Bela  (1  Chr.  v.  8).  2.  Son  of  Elpaal  (1 
Chr.  viii.  13).  Probably  the  same  as 
Shimhi.  3.  One  of  those  who  stood  at 
Ezra's  right  hand  when  he  read  the  law  to 
the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4).  4.  (Josh,  xv. 
26).     [Sheba.] 

Shem'aah,  a  Benjamite  of  Gibeah, 
and  father  of  Ahiezer  and  Joash  (1  Chr. 
xii.  3). 

Shemai'ah.  1.  A  prophet  in  the  reign 
of  Rehoboam.  When  the  king  had  assem- 
bled 180,000  men  of  Benjamin  and  Judah  to 
reconquer  the  northern  kingdom  after  its  re- 
volt, Shemaiah  was  commissioned  to  charge 
them  to  return  to  their  homes,  and  not  to 
war  against  their  brethren  (1  K.  xii.  22; 


2  Chr.  xi.  2).  His  second  and  last  appear- 
ance upon  the  stage  was  upon  the  occasion 
of  the  invasion  of  Judah  and  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Shishak  king  of  Egypt  (2  Chr. 
xii.  5,  7).  He  wrote  a  chronicle  contain- 
ing the  events  of  Rehoboam's  reign  (2  Chr. 
xii.  15).  2.  The  son  of  Shechaniah, 
among  the  descendants  of  Zerubbabel  (1 
Chr.  iii.  22).  He  was  keeper  of  the  east 
gate  of  the  city,  and  assisted  Nehemiali  in 
restoring  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  29).  3.  An- 
cestor of  Ziza,  a  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon  (1  Chr.  iv.  37).  Perhaps  the  same 
as  Shimei  6.  4.  Son  of  Joel,  a  Reubenite; 
perhaps  the  same  as  Shema  (1  Chr.  v.  4). 
5.  Son  of  Hasshub,  a  Merarite  Levite  (1 
Chr.  ix.  14;  Neh.  xi.  15).  6.  Father  of 
Obadiah,  or  Abda,  a  Levite  (1  Chr.  ix. 
16).  7.  Son  of  Elizaphan,  and  chief  of 
his  house  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xv. 
8, 11).  8.  A  Levite,  son  of  Nethaneel,  and 
also  a  scribe  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chr. 
xxiv.  6).  9.  The  eldest  son  of  Obed-edora 
the  Gittite  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  4,  6,  7).  10.  A 
descendant  of  Jeduthun  the  singer,  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr. 
xxix.  14).  11.  One  of  the  sons  of  Adoni- 
kam  who  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii. 

13.  12.  One  of  the  "heads"  whom  Ezra 
sent  for  to  his  camp  by  the  river  of  Ahava, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  Levites  and 
ministers  for  the  Temple  from  "the  place 
Casiphia"  (Ezr.  viii.  16).  13.  A  priest 
of  the  family  of  Harim,  who  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  at  Ezra's  bidding  (Ezr.  x.  21). 

14.  A  layman  of  Israel,  son  of  another 
Harim,  who  had  also  married  a  foreigner 
(Ezr.  x.  31.)  15.  Son  of  Delaiah  the  son  of 
Mehetabeel,  a  prophet  in  the  time  of  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  vi.  10).  16.  The  head  of  a 
priestly  house  who  signed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  8).  His  family 
went  up  with  Zerubbabel,  and  were  repre- 
sented in  the  time  of  Joiakim  by  Jehonathan 
(Neh.  xii.  6,  18).  Probably  the  same  who 
is  mentioned  again  in  Neh.  xii.  35.  17. 
One  of  the  princes  of  Judah  at  the  time  of 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  34).  18.  One  of  the  choir  on 
the  same  occasion  (Neh.  xii.  36).  19.  A 
priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  on  the  same 
occasion  (Neh.  xii.  42).  20.  Shemaiah  the 
Nehelamite,  a  false  prophet  in  the  time  of 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxix.  24-32).  21.  A  Le- 
vite in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr. 
xvii.  8) .  22.  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Hez- 
ekiah (2  Chr.  xxxi.  15).  23.  A  Levite  in 
the  reign  of  Josiah,  who  assisted  at  the 
solemn  passover  (2  Chr.  xxxv.  9).  24. 
The  father  of  Urijah  of  Kirjath-jearira 
rjer.  xxvi.  20).  25.  The  father  of  Delaiah 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  12). 

Slieniari'ah..  1.  One  of  the  Benja- 
mite warriors  who  came  to  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chr.  xii.  5).  2.  One  of  the  family  of 
Harim,  a  layman  of  Israel,  who  put  away 


SHEMEBER 


639 


SHEMITIC  LANGUAGES 


his  foreign  wifo  in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezr. 
X.  32).  3.  One  of  tlie  family  of  Bani, 
under  tiie  same  circumstances  as  the  pre- 
ceding (Ezr.  X.  41). 

Sheme'ber,  king  of  Zeboim,  and  ally  of 
the  king  of  Sodom  when  he  was  attacked 
by  the  north-eastern  invaders  under  Che- 
dorlaomcr  (Gen.  xiv.  2). 

She'paer,  the  owner  of  the  hill  on  which 
the  city  of  Samaria  was  built  (1  K.  xvi. 
24).     [Samaria.] 

Shemi'da,  a  son  of  Gilead  (Num.  xxvi. 
32 ;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Shemi'dah,  Shemida  the  son  of  Gilead 
(1  Chr.  vii.  19). 

Shemida'ites,  The,  the  descendants 
of  Shemida  the  son  of  Gilead  (Num.  xxvi. 
32).  They  obtained  their  lot  among  the 
male  children  of  Manasseh. 

Shem'inith.  The  title  of  Ps.  vi.  is: 
"  To  the  chief  Musician  on  Neginoth  upon 
Sheminith,"  or  "  the  eighth,"  as  the  mar- 
gin of  the  A.  V.  has  it.  A  similar  direc- 
tion is  found  in  the  title  of  Ps.  xii.  (comp. 
1  Chr.  XV.  21).  It  seems  most  probable 
that  Sheminith  denotes  a  certain  air  known 
as  the  eighth,  or  a  certain  key  in  which  the 
Psalm  was  to  be  sung. 

Shemir'amoth.  1.  A  Levite  of  the  sec- 
ond degree,  in  the  choir  formed  by  David 
(1  Chr.  XV.  18,  20,  xvi.  5).  2.  A  Levite  in 
\hc  reign  of  Jelioshapliat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  8). 

Shemitie  Languages.  1.  The  expres- 
sions, "  Sliemitic  family,"  and  "Shemitie 
languages,"  are  based,  as  is  well  known, 
on  a  rclercnce  to  Gen.  x.  21,  seqq.  Subse- 
quently, the  obvious  inaccuracy  of  the  ex- 
pression has  led  to  an  attempt  to  substitute 
others,  such  as  Western  Asiatic,  or  Syro- 
Arabic  —  this  last  a  happily  chosen  desig- 
nation, as  bringing  at  once  before  us  the 
two  geographical  extremes  of  this  family 
of  languages.  2.  It  is  impossible  to  lay 
down  with  accuracy  the  boundaries  of  the 
area  occupied  by  the  tribes  employing  so- 
called  Sliemitic  dialects.  For  general  pur- 
poses, the  highlands  of  Armenia  may  be 
taken  as  the  Northern  boundary  —  the  river 
Tigris  and  the  ranges  beyond  it  as  the  East- 
ern —  and  the  Red  Sea,  the  Levant,  and 
certain  portions  of  Asia  Minor  as  the  West- 
ern. 3.  Varieties  of  the  great  Shemitie 
language-family  are  to  be  found  in  use  in 
the  following  localities  within  the  area 
named.  Along  the  Mediterranean  seaboard, 
and  among  the  tribes  settled  in  Canaan, 
must  be  placed  the  home  of  the  language 
of  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, among  which  were  interspersed  some 
relics  of  that  of  the  Phoenicians.  In  the 
south,  amid  the  seclusion  of  Arabia,  was 
preserved  the  dialect  destined  at  a  subse- 
quent period  so  widely  to  surpass  its  sisters 
in  the  extent  of  territory  over  which  it  is 
epoken.  4.  The  peculiar  elements  of  the 
ahemitic  character  will  be  found  to  have 


exercised  considerable  influence  on  their 
literature.  Like  other  languages,  this  one 
is  mainly  resolvable  into  monosyllabic  prim- 
itives. Another  leading  peculiarity  of  this 
branch  of  languages  is  the  absence  (save 
in  the  case  of  proper  names)  of  compound 
words  —  to  which  tlie  sister  family  is  in- 
debted for  80  much  life  and  variety. 

Hebrew  Language.  —  Period  op 
Growth.  —  5.  The  Hebrew  language  is  a 
branch  of  the  so-called  Shemitie  family, 
extending  over  a  large  portion  of  South- 
western Asia.  In  the  north  (or  Aram, 
under  which  designation  are  comprehended 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia),  and  under 
a  climate  partially  cold  and  ungenial  —  in 
the  close  proximity  of  tribes  of  a  different 
origin,  not  unfrequently  masters  by  con- 
quest —  the  Shemitie  dialect  became  "in 
places  harsher,  and  its  general  character 
less  pure  and  distinct.  Towards  the  south, 
opposite  causes  contributed  to  maintain  the 
language  in  its  purity.  Originally,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Hebrews  presented  more  aflSn- 
ities  with  the  Aramaic,  in  accordance  with 
their  own  family  accounts,  which  bring  the 
patriarchs  from  the  N.  E.,  —  more  directly 
from  Northern  Mesopotamia.  6.  Two  ques- 
tions, in  direct  connection  with  the  early 
movements  of  the  ancestors  of  the  subse- 
quent Hebrew  nation,  have  been  discussed 
with  great  earnestness  by  many  writers  — 
the  first  bearing  on  the  causes  which  set 
the  Terachite  family  in  motion  towards  the 
south  and  west;  tlie  second,  on  the  origin 
and  language  of  the  tribes  in  possession  of 
Canaan  at  the  arrival  of  Abraham.  Scrip- 
ture only  tells  us  that,  led  in  a  way  which 
they  knew  not,  chosen  Shemitie  wanderers 
of  the  lineage  of  Arphaxad  set  forth  on  the 
journey  fraught  with  such  enduring  con- 
sequences to  the  history  of  the  world,  as 
recorded  in  Scripture,  in  its  second  stage 
of  progress.  There  is  nothing  unreasonable 
in  the  thought,  that  the  movement  of  Terah 
from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  was  caused  by 
Divine  suggestion,  acting  on  a  mind  ill  at 
ease  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cushite  thought 
and  habits.  Scripture  is  distinct  upon  the 
fact,  that  the  new  comers  and  the  early 
settlers  in  Canaan  found  no  difficulty  in 
conversing.  Of  the  origin  of  its  earliest 
occupants,  history  records  nothing  certain. 
Some  claim  for  the  early  inhabitants  of  Asia 
Minor  a  Japhetian  origin.  Otliers  affirm  the 
descent  of  these  early  tribes  from  Lud,  the 
fourth  son  of  Shem.  7.  Another  view  is 
that  put  forward  by  Rawlinson,  and  shared 
by  other  scholars.  "  Either  from  ancient 
monuments,  or  from  tradition,  or  from  the 
dialects  now  spoken  by  their  descendants, 
we  are  authorized  to  infer  that  at  some 
very  remote  period,  before  the  rise  of  the 
Shemitie  or  Arian  nations,  a  great  Scythic" 
(=  Hamitic)  "  population  must  have  over- 
spread Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  speaking 


SHEMITIC  LANGUAGES 


640 


SHEMITIC  LANGUAGES 


languages  all  more  or  less  dissimilar  in 
their  vocabulary,  but  possessing  in  common 
certain  organic  characteristics  of  grammar 
and  construction."  And  this  statement 
would  appear,  in  its  leading  features,  to  be 
historically  sound.  Looking  to  the  authori- 
tative records  (Gen.  ix.  18,  x.  6,  15-20) 
there  would  seem  to  be  no  reason  for  doubt 
as  to  the  Hamitic  origin  of  these  tribes. 
Nor  can  the  singular  accordances  discernible 
between  the  language  of  these  Canaanitish 
(=  Hamitic)  occupants  and  the  Shemitic 
family  be  justly  pleaded  in  bar  of  this  view 
of  the  origin  of  the  former.  "If  we  ex- 
amine the  invaluable  ethnography  of  the 
Book  of  Genesis,  we  shall  find  that,  while 
Ham  is  the  brother  of  Shem,  and  therefore 
a  relationship  between  his  descendants  and 
th«  Shemitic  nations  fully  recognized,  tlie 
Hamites  are  described  as  those  who  previ- 
ously occupied  the  different  countries  into 
which  the  Aramaean  race  afterwards  forced 
their  way.  Thus  Scripture  (Gen.  x.  seqq.) 
attributes  to  the  race  of  Ham  not  only  the 
aboriginal  population  of  Canaan,  with  its 
wealthy  and  civilized  communities  on  the 
coast,  but  also  tlie  mighty  empires  of  Baby- 
lon and  Nineveh,  the  rich  kingdoms  of  Sheba 
and  Havilah  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  the  won- 
derful realm  of  Egypt.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  —  indeed  in  some  cases 
the  proof  amounts  to  demonstration  —  that 
all  these  Hamitic  nations  spoke  languages 
which  differed  only  dialcctically  from  those 
of  the  Syro- Arabic  family."  8.  Connected 
with  this  subject  is  the  question.  Did  the 
Terachite  branch  of  the  Shemitic  stock 
acquire  the  art  of  writing  from  the  Phoe- 
nicians, or  Egyptians,  or  Assyrians  —  or 
was  it  evolved  from  given  elements  among 
themselves?  [Writing.]  9.  Between  the 
dialects  of  Aram  and  Arabia,  that  of  the 
Terachites  occupied  a  middle  place.  The 
dialect  which  we  are  now  considering  has 
been  ordinarily  designated  as  that  of  the 
Hebrews,  rather  than  of  the  Israelites. 
Probably  the  term  "  Hebrews  "  should  be 
regarded  as  designating  all  the  Shemitic- 
speaking  tribes  which  had  migrated  to  the 
south  from  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  in  that  case  might  have  been  applied 
by  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  Canaan.  10. 
Many  causes,  all  obvious  and  intelligible, 
combine  to  make  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
any  formal  or  detached  account  of  the 
Hebrew  language,  anterior  to  its  assuming 
a  written  shape.  The  general  style  of 
Hebrew  prose  literature  is  plain  and  simple, 
but  lively  and  pictorial,  and  rising  with  the 
subject,  at  times,  to  considerable  elevation. 
But  the  requisite  elevation  of  poetical  com- 
position led  to  the  introduction  of  many 
expressions  which  we  do  not  commonly  find 
in  Hebrew  prose  literature.  For  the  origin 
and  existence  of  these  we  must  look  espe- 
cially to  the  Aramaic.  But  from  the  earliest 


period  of  the  existence  of  a  literature  among 
the  Hebrew  people  to  b.  c.  600,  the  Hebrew 
language  continued  singularly  exempt  from 
change.  From  that  period  the  Hebrew  dia- 
lect will  be  found  to  give  way  before  the 
Aramaic. 

Aramaic  Langttaoe.  —  Scholastic  Pe- 
riod. 11.  The  language  ordinarily  called 
Aramaic  is  a  dialect  of  the  great  Shemitic 
family,  deriving  its  name  from  the  district 
over  which  it  was  spoken,  Aram  =  the  high 
or  hill  country  (as  Canaan  =  the  low 
country).  In  general  practice  Aram  was 
divided  into  Eastern  and  Western.  The 
dialects  of  these  two  districts  were  severally 
called  Chaldaic  and  Syriac.  The  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Shemitic  languages  is  ob- 
scure ;  but  this  much  may  be  safely  as- 
sumed, that  this  family  had  its  earliest  set- 
tlement on  the  upper  basin  of  the  Tigris, 
from  which  extensions  were  doubtless  made 
to  the  south.  12.  The  earliest  extant  frag- 
ments are  the  well-known  ones  to  be  found 
at  Dan.  ii.  4-vii.  28;  Ezr.  iv.  8-vi.  18,  viL 
12-26;  Jer.  x.  11.  The  Christian  or  eccle- 
siastical Aramaic  is  that  ordinarily  known 
as  Syriac  —  the  language  of  early  Christian- 
ity, as  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  respectively,  of 
the  Jewish  religion  and  Mohammedanism. 
13.  Perhaps  few  lines  of  demarcation  are 
traced  with  greater  difficulty  than  those  by 
which  one  age  of  a  language  is  separated 
from  another.  This  is  remarkably  the  case 
in  respect  of  the  cessation  of  the  Hebrew, 
and  the  ascendency  of  the  Aramaic.  14. 
Of  the  other  main  division  of  the  Aramaic 
language  —  the  Western  or  Syriac  dialect  — 
the  earliest  existing  document  is  the  Peshito 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  not  im- 
probably belongs  to  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  The  Syrian  dialect  is  thickly 
studded  with  foreign  words  —  Arabic,  Per- 
sian, Greek,  and  Latin,  especially  with  the 
third.  15.  The  Chaldaic  paraphrases  of 
Scripture  are  exceedingly  valual)le  for  the 
light  which  they  throw  on  Jewish  manners 
and  customs,  and  the  meaning  of  passages 
otherwise  obscure,  as  likewise  for  many 
happy  renderings  of  the  original  text.  But 
they  are  valuable  also  on  higher  reasons  — 
the  Christian  interpretation  put  by  their 
authors  on  controverted  passages.  A  com- 
parative estimate  is  not  yet  attainable,  as  to 
what  in  Targumic  literature  is  the  pure  ex- 
pression and  development  of  the  Jewish 
mind,  and  what  is  of  foreign  growth.  But, 
as  has  been  said,  the  Targums  and  kindred 
writings  are  of  considerable  dogmatical  and 
exegetical  value;  and  a  similar  good  work 
has  been  effected  by  means  of  the  cognate 
dialect,  Western  Aramaic  or  Syriac.  From 
the  3d  to  the  9th  century,  Syriac  was,  to  a 
great  part  of  Asia,  what  in  their  spheres 
Hellenic  Greek  and  mediaeval  Latin  have 
respectively  been  —  the  one  ecclesiastical 
language  of  the  district  named. 


SHEMITIC  LANGUAGES 


641 


SHEPHERD 


Arabic  Language.  —  Period  op  1?eti- 
VXL.  16.  \Vc  find  Arabia  occupied  by  a 
confluence  of  tribes,  the  leading  one  of  un- 
doubted Ishmaelitish  descent  —  the  others 
of  the  seed  or  lineage  of  Abraham,  and 
blended  by  alliance,  language,  neighbor- 
hood, and  habits.  Before  these  any  abori- 
ginal inhabitants  must  have  disappeared. 
We  have  seen  that  the  peninsula  of  Arabia 
lay  in  the  track  of  Cushite  civilization,  in 
its  supposed  return-course  towards  the 
north-east.  17.  Internal  evidence  demon- 
strates that  the  Arabic  language,  at  the 
time  when  it  first  appears  on  the  field  of 
history,  was  being  gradually  developed  in 
its  remote  and  barren  peninsular  home. 
That  the  Arabs  possessed  a  literature  an- 
terior to  the  birth  of  Mohammed,  and  ex- 
pressed in  a  language  marked  with  many 
grammatical  peculiai'ities,  is  beyond  doubt. 
The  earliest  reliable  relics  of  Arabic  litera- 
ture are  only  fragments,  to  be  found  in 
what  has  come  down  to  us  of  pre-Islamite 
compositions.  18.  With  regard  to  the  value 
of  Arabic  in  illustration,  two  different  judg- 
ments obtain.  According  to  one,  all  the 
lexical  riches  and  grammatical  varieties  of 
the  Shcmitic  family  are  to  be  found  com- 
bined in  the  Arabic.  19.  Another  school 
maintains  very  diflFerent  opinions.  The 
comparatively  recent  date  (in  their  present 
form  at  least)  and  limited  amount  of  Arabic 
remains  are  pleaded  against  its  claims  as  a 
standard  of  reference  in  respect  of  the  He- 
brew. Its  verbal  copiousness,  elaborate 
mechanism,  subtilty  of  thought,  wide  and 
diversified  fields  of  literature,  cannot  be 
called  in  question.  But  it  is  urged  (and 
colorably)  that  its  riches  are  not  all  pure 
metal,  and  that  no  great  attention  to  ety- 
mology has  been  evinced  by  native  writers 
on  the  language.  20.  We  now  approach  a 
question  of  great  interest.  Was  the  art  of 
writing  invented  by  Moses  and  his  contem- 
poraries, or  from  what  source  did  the  He- 
brew nation  acquire  it?  It  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  the  art  of  writing  was  known 
to  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of  Moses. 
Great  difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  as 
to  which  of  the  Shemitic  peoples  may  justly 
claim  the  invention  of  letters.  [Writing.] 
The  history  of  the  Arabic  language  has  a 
peculiar  feature.  Until  a  comparatively 
sliort  time  before  the  days  of  Mohammed, 
the  art  of  writing  appears  to  have  been 
practically  unknown.  For  the  Himyarites 
guarded  with  jealous  care  their  own  peculiar 
character  —  the  "  musnad,"  or  elevated;  in 
itself  unfitted  for  general  use.  Possibly 
different  tribes  might  have  possessed  ap- 
proaches to  written  characters ;  but  about 
the  beginning  of  the  7th  century,  the  heavy 
cumbrous  Cufic  character  (so  called  from 
Cufa,  the  city  whence  it  was  most  early  used) 
appears  to  have  been  generally  adopted. 
It  was  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Mura- 
41 


mar-Ibn  Murrat,  a  native  of  Babylonian 
Irak.  21.  A  comparison  of  the  Shemitic 
languages,  as  known  to  us,  presents  them 
as  very  unevenly  developed.  In  their  pres- 
ent form  the  Arabic  is  undoubtedly  the 
richest :  but  it  would  have  been  rivalled  by 
the  Hebrew  had  a  career  been  vouchsafed 
equally  long  and  favorable  to  this  latter. 

Shemu'el.  1.  Son  of  Ammihud,  ap- 
pointed from  the  tribe  of  Simeon  to  divide 
the  land  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv.  20).  2. 
Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Chr.  vi.  33).  3. 
Son  of  Tola,  and  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
tribe  of  Issachar  (1  Chr.  vii.  2). 

Shen.  A  place  mentioned  only  in  1 
Sam.  vii.  12.     Nothing  is  known  of  it. 

Shena'zar.  Son  of  Salathiel,  or  Sheal- 
tiel  (1  Chr.  iii.  18). 

She'nir.    [Sekir.] 

She'pliaTil,  a  place  mentioned  only  in 
the  specification  by  Moses  of  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Promised  Land  (Num. 
xxxiv.  10,  11).  The  ancient  interpreters 
render  the  name  by  Apamea;  but  it  seems 
uncertain  whether  by  this  they  intend  the 
Greek  city  of  that  name  on  the  Qrontes,  50 
miles  below  Antioch,  or  whether  they  use 
it  as  a  synonyme  of  Banias  or  Dan. 

Shephathi'ah.  A  Benjamite,  father 
of  Meshullam  6  (1  Chr.  ix.  8).  The  name 
is  properly  Shephatiah,  as  in  the  ed.  of 
1611. 

Shephati'ah.  1.  The  fifth  son  of  Da- 
vid by  his  wife  Abital  (2  Sam.  iii.  4 ;  1  Chr. 
iii.  3).  2.  The  family  of  Shephatiah,  372 
in  number,  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr. 
ii.  4;  Neh.  vii.  9).  A  second,  detachment 
of  eighty,  with  Zebadiah  at  their  head, 
came  up  with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  8).  3.  The 
family  of  anotiier  Shephatiah  were  among 
the  children  of  Solomon's  servants,  who 
came  up  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  57 ;  Neh. 
vii.  59).  4.  A  descendant  of  Perez,  or 
Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah,  and  ancestor  of 
Athaiah  (Neh.  xi.  4).  5.  The  son  of  Mat- 
tan;  one  of  the  princes  of  Judali  who 
counselled  Zedekiah  to  put  Jeremiah  in  the 
dungeon  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1).  6.  The  Har- 
uphite,  or  Hariphite,  one  of  the  Benjamite 
warriors  who  joined  David  in  his  retreat  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  5),  7.  Son  of  Maachah, 
and  chief  of  the  Simeonites  in  the  reign 
of  David  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  16).  8.  Son  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xxi.  2). 

Shepherd.  In  a  nomadic  state  of -so- 
ciety every  man,  from  the  sheikh  down  to 
the  slave,  is  more  or  less  a  shepherd.  The 
progenitors  of  the  Jews  in  the  patriarchal 
age  were  nomads,  and  their  history  is  rich 
in  scenes  of  pastoral  life.  The  occupation 
of  tending  the  flocks  was  undertaken,  not 
only  by  tlie  sons  of  wealthy  chiefs  (Gen. 
xxx.  29,  ff.,  xxxvii.  12,  ff.),  but  even  by  their 
daughters  (Gen.  xxix.  6,  ff. ;  Ex.  ii.  19). 
The  Egyptian  captivity  did  much  to  im- 
plant a  love  of  settled  abode,  and  conse* 


SHEPHERD 


642 


SHESHAI 


quently  we  find  the  tribes  which  still  re- 
tained a  taste  for  shepherd  life  selecting 
their  own  quarters  apart  from  their  brethren 
in  the  trans-Jordanic  district  (Num.  xxxii.  1, 
ff.).  Henceforward  in  Palestine  Proper 
the  sheplierd  held  a  subordinate  position. 
The  oflBce  of  the  Eastern  shepherd,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  Bible,  was  attended  with 
much  hardship,  and  even  danger.  He  was 
exposed  to  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
(Gen.  xxxi.  40) ;  his  food  frequently  con- 
sisted of  the  precarious  supplies  afforded 
by  nature,  such  as  the  fruit  of  the  "syca- 
more" or  Egyptian  fig  (Am.  vii.  14),  the 
"husks"  of  the  carob-tree  (Luke  xv.  16), 
and  perchance  the  locusts  and  wild  honey 
which  supported  tlie  Baptist  (Matt.  iii.  4)  ; 
be  had  to  encounter  the  attacks  of  wild 
beasts,  occasionally  of  the  larger  species, 
such  as  lions,  wolves,  panthers,  and  bears 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  34;  Is.  xxxi.  4;  Jer.  v.  6; 
Am.  iii.  12)  ;  nor  was  he  free  from  the  risk 
of  robbers  or  predatory  hordes  (Gen.  xxxi. 
39).  To  meet  these  various  foes  the  shep- 
herd's equipment  consisted  of  the  follow- 
ing articles :  a  mantle,  made  probably  of 
sheepskin  with  the  fleece  on,  which  he 
turned  inside  out  in  cold  weather,  as  im- 
plied in  the  comparison  in  Jer.  xliii.  12  (cf. 
Juv.  xiv.  187) ;  a  scrip  or  wallet,  contain- 
ing a  small  amount  of  food  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
■  40) ;  a  sling,  which  is  still  the  favorite 
weapon  of  the  Bedouin  shepherd  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  40)  ;  and,  lastly,  a  staff,  which  served 
the  double  purpose  of  a  weapon  against 
foes,  and  a  crook  for  the  management  of 
the  flock  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40;  Ps.  xxiii.  4; 
Zech.  xi.  7).  If  the  shepherd  was  at  a  dis- 
tance from  his  home,  he  was  provided  with 
a  light  tent  (Cant.  i.  8;  Jer.  xxxv.  7),  the 
removal  of  which  was  easily  effected  (Is. 
xxxviii.  12).  In  certain  localities,  more- 
over, towers  were  erected  for  the  double 
purpose  of  spying  an  enemy  at  a  distance, 
and  protecting  the  flock  :  such  towers  were 
erected  by  Uzziah  and  Jotham  (2  Chr.  xxvi. 
10,  xxvii.  4),  while  their  existence  in  earlier 
times  is  testified  by  the  name  Migdal-Eder 
(Gen.  xxxv.  21,  A.  V.  "  tower  of  Edar;  " 
Mic.  iv.  8,  A.  V.  "tower  of  the  flock"). 
The  routine  of  the  shepherd's  duties  ap- 
pears to  have  been  as  follows :  In  the 
morning  he  led  forth  his  flock  from  the 
fold  (John  X.  4),  which  he  did  by  going  be- 
fore them  and  calling  to  them,  as  is  still 
usual  in  the  East ;  arrived  at  the  pasturage, 
he  watched  the  flock  with  the  assistance  of 
dogs  (Job  XXX.  1,),  and,  should  any  sheep 
stray,  he  had  to  search  for  it  until  he  found 
it  (Ez.  xxxiv.  12;  Luke  xv.  4);  he  sup- 
plied them  with  water,  either  at  a  running 
stream  or  at  troughs  attached  to  wells 
(Gen.  xxix.  7,  xxx.  38;  Ex.  ii.  16;  Ps. 
xxiii.  2)  ;  at  evening  he  brought  them  back 
to  the  fold,  and  reckoned  them,  to  see  that 
none  were  missing,  by  passing  them  "  un- 


der the  rod  "  as  they  entered  the  door  of 
the  enclosure  (Lev.  xxvii.  32;  Ez.  xx.  37), 
checking  each  sheep,  as  it  passed,  by  a  mo- 
tion of  the  hand  (Jer.  xxxiii.  13) ;  and, 
finally,  he  watched  the  entrance  of  the  fold 
throughout  the  night,  acting  as  porter  (John 
x.  3).  The  shepherd's  office  thus  required 
great  watchfulness,  particularly  by  night 
(Luke  ii.  8;  cf.  Nah.  iii.  18).  It  also  re- 
quired tenderness  towards  the  young  and 
feeble  (Is.  xl.  11),  particularly  in  driving 
them  to  and  from  the  pasturage  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  13).  In  large  establislmients  there 
were  various  grades  of  shepherds,  the  high- 
est being  styled  "  rulers  "  (Gen.  xlvii.  6), 
or  "  chief  shepherds"  (1  Pet.  v.  4)  :  in  a 
royal  household  the  title  oiabbir,  "  mighty," 
was  bestowed  on  the  person  who  held  the 
post  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7).  [Sheep.]  The  ha- 
tred of  the  Egyptians  towards  shepherds 
(Gen.  xlvi.  34)  may  have  been  mainly  due 
to  their  contempt  for  the  sheep  itself,  which 
appears  to  have  been  valued  neither  for 
food  nor  generally  for  sacrifice,  tlie  only 
district  wliere  they  were  offered  being 
about  the  natron  lakes.  It  may  have  been 
increased  by  the  memory  of  the  Shepherd 
invasion. 

She'phi.  Son  of  Shobal,  of  the  sons  of 
Seir  (1  Chr.  i.  40).  Called  also  Shepho 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  23). 

She'pho  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23).      [Sitephi.] 

Shephu'phan.  One  of  the  sons  of 
Bela  the  first-born  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  viii. 
5).  His  name  is  also  written  Shephcpham 
(A.  V.  "  Shupham,"  Num.  xxvi.  39),  Shup- 
piM  (1  Chr.  vii.  12,  15),  and  Muppim  (Gen. 
xlvi.  21).     [Muppim.] 

She'rah.  Daughter  of  Ephraim  (1  Chr. 
vii.  24),  and  foundress  of  the  two  Beth- 
horons,  and  of  Uzzen-Sherah. 

Sherebi'ah.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of 
Ezra,  of  the  family  of  Mahli  the  son  of 
Merari  (Ezr.  viii.  18,  24).  Wlien  Ezra 
read  the  Law  to  the  people,  Sherebiah  was 
among  the  Levites  who  assisted  him  (Neh. 
viii.  7).  He  took  part  in  the  psalm  of  con- 
fession and  thanksgiving  which  was  sung  at 
the  solemn  fast  after  the  Feast  of  Taber-  i 
nacles  (Neh.  ix.  4,  5),  and  signed  the  cov- 
enant with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  12). 

She'resh.  Son  of  Machir  tlie  son  of 
Manasseh  by  his  wife  Maachah  (1  Chr.  vii. 
16). 

Shere'zer.  Properly  "  Sharezer ; "  one 
of  the  messengers  sent  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Darius  by  the  people  who  had  returned 
from  the  Captivity  to  inquire  concerning 
fasting  in  the  fifth  month  (Zech.  vii.  2). 
[Regemmelech.] 

She'sliach.  is  a  term  which  occurs  only 
in  Jeremiah  (xxr.  26,  Ii.  41),  who  evident- 
ly uses  it  as  a  synonyme  either  for  Babylon 
or  for  Babylonia. 

She'shai,  one  of  the  three  sons  of  Anak 
who  dwelt  in  Hebron  (Num.  xiii.  22)  and 


SHESHAN 


643 


SHIBBOLETH 


were  driven  thence  and  slain  by  Caleb  at 
the  head  of  the  children  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XT.  1-t;  Judg.  i.  10). 

She'shan.  A  descendant  of  Jerahmeel 
the  son  of  Hezron  (1  Chr.  ii.  31,  34,  35). 

Sh.esh.baz'zar,  the  Chaldean  or  Per- 
sian name  given  to  Zerubbabel,  in  Ezr.  i. 
8,  11,  V.  14,  16;  1  Esdr.  ii.  12,   15.     [Ze- 

KCBBABEL.] 

Sheth.  1.  The  patriarch  Seth  (1  Chr. 
i.  1).  2.  In  the  A.  V.  of  Num.  xxiv.  17, 
the  Ileb.  S/ieth  is  rendered  as  a  proper 
name,  but  there  is  reason  to  regard  it  as  an 
appellative,  and  to  translate,  instead  of 
"  the  sons  of  Sheth,"  "  the  sons  of  tumult," 
the  wild  warriors  of  Moab  (comp.  Jer. 
xlviii.  45). 

She'thar  (Pers.  "  a  star  "),  one  of  the 
eeven  princes  of  Persia  and  Media,  who 
had  access  to  the  king's  presence  (Esth.  1. 
14). 

She'thar-boz'nai  (Pers.  "  star  of 
splendor"),  a  Persian  officer  of  rank  in 
the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis  (Ezr.  v.  3, 
6,  vi.  6,  13).  He  joined  with  Tatnai  and 
the  Apharsachites  in  trying  to  obstruct 
the  progress  of  the  Temple  in  the  time  of 
Zerubbabel,  and  in  writing  a  letter  to  Dari- 
us, of  which  a  copy  is  preserved  in  Ezr.  v. 

She'va.  1.  The  scribe  or  royal  secretary 
of  David  (2  Sam.  xx.  25).  He  is  called  else- 
where Seraiah  (2  Sam.  viii.  17),  Shisha 
(1  K.  iv.  3),  and  Shavsha  (1  Chr.  xvi.  18). 
2.  Son  of  Caleb  ben-Hezron  by  his  con- 
cubine Maachah  (1  Chr.  ii.  49). 

Shew-bread  (Ex.  xxv.  30,  xxxv.  13, 
xxxix.  36,  &c.),  literally  "  bread  of  the  face  " 
or  "  faces."  Within  the  Ark  it  was  directed 
that  there  should  be  a  table  of  shittim  wood, 
i.  e.  acacia,  two  cubits  in  length,  a  cubit  in 
breadth,  and  a  cubit  and  a  half  in  height, 
overlaid  with  pure  gold,  and  "  having  a  gold- 
en crown  to  the  border  thereof  roundabout," 
i.  e.  a  border  or  list,  in  order,  as  we  may 
suppose,  to  hinder  that  which  was  placed 
on  it  from,  by  any  accident,  falling  off. 
The  further  description  of  this  table  will 


Table  of  Shew-bread.    (From  the  Arch  of  Titoi.) 

be  found  in  Ex.  xxv.  23-30,  and  a  repre- 
sentation of  it  as  it  existed  in  the  Herodian 
Temple  forms  an  interesting  feature  in  the 
ba83-relie&  witliin  the  Arch  of  Titus.    It 


exhibits  one  striking  correspondence  with 
the  prescriptions  in  Exodus.  We  there 
find  the  following  words  :  "  And  thou  shalt 
make  unto  it  a  border  of  a  hand-breadth 
round  about."  In  the  sculpture  of  the 
Arch  tlie  hand  of  one  of  the  slaves  who  is 
carrying  the  Table,  and  the  border,  are  of 
about  equal  breadth.  The  table  of  the  sec- 
ond Temple  was  carried  away  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (1  Mace.  i.  22),  and  a  new  one 
made  at  the  refurnishing  of  the  sanctuary 
under  Judas  Maccabaeus  (1  Mace.  iv.  49). 
Afterwards  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  presented 
a  magnificent  table.  The  Table  stood  in 
the  sanctuary  together  with  the  seven- 
branched  candlestick  and  the  altar  of  in- 
cense. Every  Sabbath  twelve  newly-baked 
loaves  were  put  on  it  in  two  rows,  six  in 
each,  and  sprinkled  with  incense,  where  they 
remained  till  the  followmg  Sabbath.  Then 
they  were  replaced  by  twelve  new  ones,  the 
incense  was  burned,  and  they  were  eaten 
by  the  priests  in  the  Holy  Place,  out  of 
which  they  might  not  be  removed.  Besides 
these  the  Shew-bread  Table  was  adorned 
with  dishes,  spoons,  bowls,  &c.,  which  were 
of  pure  gold  (Ex.  xxv.  29).  The  number 
of  loaves  (twelve)  plainly  answers  to  the 
twelve  tribes  (compare  Rev.  xxii.  2).  But, 
taking  this  for  granted,  we  have  still  to  as- 
certain the  meaning  of  the  rite,  and  there 
is  none  which  is  left  in  Scripture  so  wholly 
unexplained.  But,  although  unexplained, 
it  is  referred  to  as  one  of  the  leading  and 
most  solemn  appointments  of  the  sanctuary 
(comp.  2  Chr.  xiii.  10,  11).  Its  name 
"Bread  of  the  Face"  seems  to  indicate 
that  bread  through  which  God  is  seen,  that 
is,  with  the  participation  of  which  the  see- 
ing of  God  is  bound  up,  or  through  the 
participation  of  which  man  attains  the  sight 
of  God.  Whence  it  follows  that  we  have 
not  to  think  of  bread  merely  as  such,  as  the 
means  of  nourishing  the  bodily  life,  but  as 
spiritual  food,  as  a  means  of  appropriating 
and  retaining  that  life  which  consists  in 
seeing  the  face  of  God. 

SMb'boleth  (Judg.  xii.  6)  is  the  He- 
brew word  which  the  Gileadites  under  Jeph- 
thah  made  use  of  at  the  passage  of  the  Jor- 
dan, after  a  victory  over  the  Ephraimites, 
to  test  the  pronunciation  of  the  sound  sh 
by  those  who  wished  to  cross  over  the 
river.  The  Ephraimites,  it  would  appear, 
in  their  dialect  substituted  for  sh  the  sim- 
ple sound  s  /  and  the  Gileadites,  regarding 
every  one  who  failed  to  pronounce  sh  as 
an  Ephraimite,  and  therefore  an  enemy, 
put  him  to  death  accordingly.  The  word 
"  Shibboleth,"  which  has  now  a  second  life 
in  the  English  language  in  a  new  significa- 
tion, has  two  meanings  in  Hebrew  :  1st,  an 
ear  of  corn ;  2dly,  a  stream  or  flood  (Ps. 
Ixix.  2,  15)  :  and  it  was,  perhaps,  in  the 
latter  sense  that  this  particular  word  sug- 
gested itself  to  the  Gileadites,  the  Jordan 


SHIBMAH 


644 


SH^.OH 


being  a  rapid  river.  There  is  no  mystery 
in  this  particular  word.  Any  word  begin- 
ning with  the  sound  sh  would  have  an- 
swered equally  well  as  a  test. 

Shib'mah  (properly  Sibmah).  [She- 
bam.] 

Shi'cron,  one  of  the  landmarks  at  the 
western  end  of  tlie  north  boundary  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  11,  only).  It  lay  between  Ekron 
(^Akir)  and  Jabneel  (^Yebna),  the  port  at 
which  the  boundary  ran  to  the  sea. 

Shield.  The  ordinary  shield  consisted 
of  a  framework  of  wood  covered  with 
leather;  it  thus  admitted  of  being  burnt 
(Ez.  xxxix.  9).  It  was  frequently  cased 
with  metal,  either  brass  or  copper ;  its  ap- 
pearance in  this  case  resembled  gold,  when 
the  sun  shone  on  it  (1  Mace.  vi.  39),  and  to 
this,  rather  than  to  the  practice  of  smear- 
ing blood  on  the  shield,  we  may  refer  the 
redness  noticed  by  Nahum  (ii.  3).  The 
surface  of  the  shield  was  kept  bright  by  the 
application  of  oil,  as  implied  in  Is.  xxi.  6. 
The  shield  was  worn  on  the  left  arm,  to 
which  it  was  attached  by  a  strap.  Shields 
of  state  were  covered  with  beaten  gold. 
Shields  were  suspended  about  public  build- 
ings for  ornamental  purposes  (1  K.  x.  17). 
In  the  metaphorical  language  of  the  Bible 
the  shield  generally  represents  the  protec- 
tion of  God  (e.  g.  Ps.  iii.  3,  xxviii.  7) ;  but 
in  Ps.  xlvii.  9  it  is  applied  to  earthly  rulers, 
and  in  Eph.  vi.  16,  to  fiiith.     [Arms.] 

Shigga'ion  (Ps.  vii.  l),  a  particular 
kind  of  Psalm,  the  specific  character  of 
which  is  now  not  known. 

Shi'hon,  a  town  of  Issachar,  named  only 
in  Josh.  xix.  19.  Eusebius  mentions  it  as 
then  existing  "  near  Mount  Tabor." 

Shi'horofEg3rpt.    [Sihor.] 

Shi'hor-lib'nath,  named  only  in  Josh, 
xix.  26  as  one  of  the  landmarks  of  the 
boundary  of  Asher.   Nothing  is  known  of  it. 

Shil'hi.  The  father  of  Azubah,  Je- 
hoshaphat's  mother  (1  K,  xxii.  42 ;  2  Chr. 
XX.  31). 

Shil'llim.  One  of  the  cities  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
Its  place  in  the  list  is  between  Lebaoth  and 
Ain,  or  Ain-Rimmon  (Josh.  xv.  32),  and  it 
is  not  elsewhere  mentioned.  No  trace  of 
it  has  yet  been  discovered. 

Shil'lem.  Son  of  Naphtali,  and  an- 
cestor of  the  family  of  the  Shillemites 
(Gen.  xlvi.  2i;  Num.  xxvi.  49). 

Shillemites,  The.    [Shillem.] 

Shilo'ah,  The  Waters  of,  a  certain 
soft-flowing  stream  mentioned  by  the  proph- 
et Isaiah  (viii.  6),  better  known  under  the 
later  name  of  Siloam  —  the  only  perennial 
spring  of  Jerusalem. 

Shi'loh.  In  the  A.  V.  of  the  Bible, 
Sliiloh  is  once  used  as  the  name  of  a  per- 
son, in  a  very  difficult  passage,  in  Gen. 
xlix.  10,  "The  sceptre  shall  not  depart 
from  Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  between 


his  feet,  xmtil  Shiloh  come ;  and  unto  him 
shall  the  gathering  of  the  people  be."  Sup- 
posing that  the  translation  is  correct,  the 
meaning  of  the  word  is  Peaceable  or  Pa- 
cific, and  the  allusion  is  either  to  Solomon, 
whose  name  has  a  similar  signification,  or 
to  the  expected  Messiah,  who  in  Is.  ix.  6 
is  expressly  called  the  Prince  of  Peace. 
[Messiah,  p.  405,  b.]  Other  interpreta- 
tions, however,  of  the  passage  are  given, 
one  of  which  makes  it  refer  to  the  city  of 
this  name.  (See  the  following  article.)  It 
might  be  translated,  "The  sceptre  shall  not 
depart  from  Judah,  nor  the  ruler's  staff 
from  between  his  feet,  till  he  shall  go  to 
Shiloh."  In  this  case  the  allusion  would 
be  to  the  primacy  of  Judah  in  war  ( Judg.  i. 
1,  2,  XX.  18;  Num.  ii.  3,  x.  14),  which  was 
to  continue  until  the  Promised  Land  was 
conquered,  and  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant 
was  solemnly  deposited  at  Shiloh.  The 
next  best  translation  of  Shiloh  is  perhaps 
that  of  "Rest."  The  passage  would  then 
run  thus :  "  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart 
from  Judah  .  .  .  till  rest  come,  and  the  na- 
tions obey  him ;  "  and  the  reference  would 
be  to  the  Messiah,  who  was  to  spring  from 
the  tribe  of  Judah.  This  translation  de- 
serves respectful  consideration,  as  having 
been  ultimately  adopted  by  Gesenius.  A 
third  explanation  of  Shiloh,  on  the  assump- 
tion that  it  is  not  the  name  of  a  person,  is  a 
translation  by  various  learned  Jews,  appar- 
ently countenanced  by  the  Targura  of  Jona- 
than, that  Shiloh  merely  means  "his  son," 
1.  e.  the  son  of  Judah  (in  the  sense  of  the 
Messiah),  from  a  supposed  word  Shfl,  "a 
son."  There  is,  however,  no  such  word  in 
known  Hebrew.  The  translation,  then,  of 
Shiloh  as  the  name  of  a  city  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  soundest,  if  the  present  He- 
brew text  is  correct.  But  the  fact  that 
there  were  different  readings,  in  former 
times,  of  this  very  difficult  passage,  neces- 
sarily tends  to  suggest  the  possibility  that 
the  correct  reading  may  have  been  lost. 
Whatever  interpretation  of  the  present 
reading  may  be  adopted,  the  one  which 
must  be  pronounced  entitled  to  the  least, 
consideration  is  that  which  supposes  the 
prophecy  relates  to  the  birth  of  Christ  as 
occurring  in  the  reign  of  Herod  just  before 
Judaea  became  a  Roman  province. 

Shiloh,  a  city  of  Ephraim.  In  Judg. 
xxi.  19  it  is  said  that  Shiloh  is  "on  the 
north  side  of  Bethel,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
highway  that  goeth  up  from  Bethel  to  She- 
chem,  and  on  the  south  of  Lebonah."  In 
agreement  with  this  the  traveller  at  the 
present  day,  going  north  from  Jerusalem, 
lodges  the  first  night  at  Beiiln,  the  ancient 
Bethel ;  the  next  day,  at  the  distance  of  a 
few  hours,  turns  aside  to  the  right,  in  or- 
der to  visit  SeilAn,  the  Arabic  for  Shiloh ; 
and  then  passing  through  the  narrow  Wady, 
wliich  brings  him  to  the  main  road,  leaves 


SHILONI 


645 


SHIMITES 


eb-Lehbdn,  the  Lebonah  of  Scripture,  on 
the  left,  as  he  pursues  "  the  highway  "  to 
It'dbliis,  the  ancient  Siiechem.  [Shechem.] 
Shiloh  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
Bacred  of  the  Hebrew  sanctuaries.  The 
ark  of  the  covenant,  which  had  been  kept 
at  Gilgal  during  the  progress  of  the  Con- 
quest (Josh,  xviii.  1,  sq.),  was  removed 
thence  on  the  subjugation  of  the  country, 
and  kept  at  Shiloh  from  the  last  days  of 
Joshua  to  the  time  of  Samuel  (Josh,  xviii. 
10;  Judg.  xviii.  31 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  3).  It  was 
here  the  Hebrew  conqueror  divided  among 
the  tribes  the  portion  of  the  west  Jordan- 
region,  which  had  not  been  already  allotted 
(Josh,  xviii.  10,  xix.  51).  In  this  distribu- 
tion, or  an  earlier  one,  Shiloh  fell  within 
the  limits  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvi.  5).  The 
ungodly  conduct  of  the  sons  of  Eli  occa- 
sioned the  loss  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
which  had  been  carried  into  battle  against 
the  Philistines,  and  Shiloh  from  that  time 
sank  into  insignificance.  It  stands  forth  in 
the  Jewish  history  as  a  striking  example  of 
the  Divine  indignation  (Jer.  vii.  12). 

Shilo'ni.  This  word  occurs  in  the  A. 
V.  only  in  Neh.  xi.  5,  where  it  should  be 
rendered  —  as  it  is  in  other  cases  —  "the 
Shilonite,"  that  is,  the  descendant  of  Shelah 
the  youngest  son  of  Judixli. 

Shilo'nite,  The,  that  is,  the  native  or 
resident  of  Shiloh;  a  title  ascribed  only  to 
Ahijah  (1  K.  xi.  29,  xii.  15,  xv.  29 ;  2  €hr. 
ix.  29,  x.  15). 

Shilo'nites,  The,  are  mentioned  among 
the  descendants  of  Judali  dwelling  in  Jeru- 
salem at  a  date  diflScult  to  fix  (1  Chr.  ix. 
6).  They  are  doubtless  the  members  of 
the  house  of  Shelah,  who  in  the  Penta- 
teuch are  more  accurately  designated  She- 

LANITES. 

Shil'shah.  Son  of  Zophah  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher  (1  Chr.  vii.  37). 

Shim'ea.  1.  Son  of  David  by  Bath- 
sheba  (1  Chr.  iii.  5).  2.  A  Merarite  Levite 
(1  Chr.  vi.  30  [15]).  3.  A  Gershonite  Le- 
vite, ancestor  of  Asaph  the  minstrel  (1  Chr. 
vi.  39  [24]).  4.  The  brother  of  David  (1 
Chr.  XX.  7),  elsewhere  called  Shammaii, 
Shimjia,  and  Shimeah. 

Shini'eah.  1.  Brother  of  David,  and 
father  of  Jonathan  and  Jonadab  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  21)  ;  called  also  Shammah,  Shimea, 
and  Shimma.  2.  A  descendant  of  Jehicl, 
the  father  or  founder  of  Gibeon  (1  Chr.  viii. 
82). 

Shim'eam.  A  descendant  of  Jehiel, 
the  founder  or  prince  of  Gibeon  (1  Chr.  ix. 
38).     Called  Shimeah  in  1  Chr.  viii.  32. 

Shini'eath.  An  Aramonitess,  mother 
)i  Jozachar,  or  Zabad,  one  of  the  murder- 
ers of  king  Joash  (2  K.  xii.  21  [221 ;  2  Chr. 
xxiv.  26). 

Shim'ei.  1.  Son  of  Gershon  the  son 
of  Levi  (Xum.  iii.  18 ;  1  Chr.  vi.  17,  29, 
jcxiii.  7, 9,  10 ;  Zech.  xii.  13)  ;  called  Sami 


in  Ex.  vi.  17.  2.  Shimei  the  son  of  Gera, 
a  Benjamite  of  the  house  of  Saul,  who  lived 
at  Bahurim.  When  David  and  his  suite 
were  seen  descending  the  long  defile,  on 
ills  flight  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvi.  5-13), 
the  whole  feeling  of  the  clan  of  Benjamin 
burst  forth  without  restraint  in  the  person 
of  Shimei.  He  ran  along  the  ridge,  curs- 
ing, and  throwing  stones  at  the  king  and 
his  companions.  The  next  meeting  was 
very  different.  The  king  was  now  return- 
ing from  his  successful  campaign.  Just  as 
he  was  crossing  the  Jordan  (2  Sam.  xix. 
18),  the  first  person  to  welcome  him  was 
Shimei,  who  threw  himself  at  David's  feet 
in  abject  penitence.  But  the  king's  sus- 
picions were  not  set  at  rest  by  this  submis- 
sion ;  and  on  his  death-bed  he  recalls  the 
whole  scene  to  the  recollection  of  his  son 
Solomon.  Solomon  gave  Shimei  notice  that 
from  henceforth  he  must  consider  himself 
confined  to  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  on  pain 
of  death  (1  K.  ii.  36,  37).  For  three  years 
the  engagement  was  kept.  At  the  end  of 
that  time,  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  two 
slaves  who  had  escaped  to  Gath,  he  went 
out  on  his  ass,  and  made  his  journey  suc- 
cessfully (ib.  ii.  40).  On  his  return,  the 
king  took  him  at  his  word,  and  he  was  slain 
by  Benaiah  (ib.  ii.  41-46).  3.  One  of  the 
adherents  of  Solomon  at  the  time  of  Adoni- 
jah's  usurpation  (1  K.  i.  8).  4.  Solomon's 
commissariat  officer  in  Benjamin  (1  K.  iv. 
18).  5.  Son  of  Pedaiah,  and  brother  of 
Zerubbabel  (1  Chr.  iii.  19).  6.  A  Simeon- 
ite,  son  of  Zacchur  (1  Chr.  iv.  26,  27).  7. 
Son  of  Gog,  a  Reubenite  (1  Chr.  v.  4).  8. 
A  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of  Jahath  (1  Chr. 
vi.  42).  9.  Son  of  Jeduthun,  and  chief  of 
the  tenth  division  of  the  singers  (1  Chr. 
XXV.  17).  10.  The  Ramathite  who  was 
over  David's  vineyards  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  27). 
11.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Heman,  who 
took  part  in  tlie  purification  of  the  Temple 
under  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  14).  12. 
The  brother  of  Cononiah  the  Levite  in  the 
reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  12,  13). 
Perhaps  the  same  as  the  preceding.  13. 
A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Ezra  who  had  mar- 
ried a  foreign  wife  (Ezr.  x.  23).  14.  One 
of  the  family  of  Hashum,  who  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  at  Ezra's  command  (Ezr.  x. 
33).  15.  A  son  of  Bani,  who  had  also 
married  a  foreign  wife,  and  put  her  away 
(Ezr.  X.  38).  16.  Son  of  Kish  a  Benja^ 
mite,  and  ancestor  of  Mordecai  (Esth.  ii.  5). 

Shim'eon.  A  layman  of  Israel,  of  the 
family  of  Harim,  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife  and  divorced  her  in  the  time  of  Ezra 
(Ezr.  X.  31). 

Shim'hi.  A  Benjamite,  apparently  tho 
same  as  Sheha  the  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chr. 
viii.  21). 

Shi'mi  =  Shimei  1,  Ex.  vi.  17. 

Shim'ites,  The.  The  descendants  of 
Shimei  the  son  of  Gershom  (Num.  iii.  2Li. 


SHIMMA 


646 


SHIP 


Shim'ma.  The  third  son  of  Jesse,  and 
brother  of  David  (1  Chr.  ii.  13). 

Shi'mon.  The  four  sons  of  Shimon  are 
enumerated  in  an  obscure  genealogy  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

Shim'rath.  A  Benjamite,  of  the  sons 
of  Sliimhi  (1  Chr.  viii.  21). 

Shiin'ri.  1.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Shem- 
aiah  (1  Chr.  iv.  37).  2.  Tlie  father  of 
Jediael  one  of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xi. 
45).  3.  A  Ivohathite  Levite  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  13). 

Shira'rith..  A  Moabitess,  mother  of 
Jehozabad,  one  of  the  assassins  of  king 
Joash  (2  Chr.  xxiv.  26).  In  2  K.  xii.  21, 
she  is  called  Shomer. 

Shim'rom  (1  Chr.  vii.  1.)    [Shimron.] 

Shtm'ron.  1.  A  city  of  Zebulun  (Josh. 
xi.  1,  xix.  15).  Its  full  appellation  was  per- 
haps Shimron-meron.  2.  The  fourth  son 
of  Issachar  according  to  the  lists  of  Genesis 
(xlvi.  13)  and  Numbers  (xxvi.  24),  and  the 
head  of  the  family  of  the  Shimronites. 

Shim'ronites,  The.    [Shoiron.] 

Shim'ron-me'ron.  The  king  of  Shim- 
ron-meron  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  thirty- 
one  kings  vanquished  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii. 
20).  It  is  probably  the  complete  name  of 
the  place  elsewhere  called  Shimron,  a  city 
of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xi.  1,  xix.  15). 

Shim'shai.  The  scribe  or  secretary  of 
Rehum,  who  was  a  kind  of  satrap  of  the 
conquered  province  of  Judaea,  and  of  the 
colony  of  Samaria,  supported  by  the  Per- 
sian court  (Ezr.  iv.  8,  9,  17,  23).  He  was 
apparently  an  Aramaean,  for  the  letter 
which  he  wrote  to  Artaxerxes  was  in  Syri- 
ac  (Ezr.  iv.  7). 

Shi'nab.  The  king  of  Admah  in  the 
time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv.  2). 

Shi'nar.  The  ancient  name  of  the  great 
alluvial  tract  through  which  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  pass  before  reaching  the  sea  — 
the  tract  known  in  later  times  as  Chaldaea 
or  Babylonia.  It  was  a  plain  country  where 
brick  had  to  be  used  for  stone,  and  slime 
for  mortar  (Gen.  xi.  3).  Among  the  cities 
were  Babel  (Babylon),  Erech  or  Orech 
(Orchoe),  Calneh  or  Calno  (probably  Nif- 
fer),  and  Accad,  the  site  of  which  is  un- 
known. It  may  be  suspected  that  Shinar 
was  the  name  by  which  the  Hebrews  origi- 
nally knew  the  lower  Mesopotamian  coun- 
try, where  they  so  long  dwelt,  and  which 
Abraham  brought  with  him  from  *'Ur  of 
the  Chaldees." 

Ship.  No  one  writer  in  the  whole  range 
of  Greek  and  Roman  literature  has  supplied 
us  with  so  much  information  concerning 
the  merchant-ships  of  the  ancients  as  St. 
Luke  in  the  narrative  of  St.  Paul's  voyage 
to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii.,  xxviii.).  It  is  im- 
portant to  remember  that  he  accomplished 
it  in  three  ships :  first  the  Adramyttian 
vessel  which  took  him  from  Caesarea  to 
Myra,  and  which  was  probably  a  coasting 


vessel  of  no  great  size  (xxvii.  1-G)  ;  sec- 
ondly, the  large  Alexandrian  corn-sliip,  in 
which  he  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Malta  (xxvii.  6-xxviii.  1) ;  and  thirdly, 
another  large  Alexandrian  corn-ship,  in 
which  he  sailed  from  Malta  by  Syracuse 
and  Rhegium  to  Puteoli  (xxviii.  11-13). 
(1.)  Size  of  Ancient  Ships.  —  The  narra- 
tive which  we  take  as  our  chief  guide  af- 
fords a  good  standard  for  estimating  this. 
The  ship  in  which  St.  Paul  was  wrecked 
had  276  persons  on  board  (Acts  xxvii.  37), 
besides  a  cargo  of  wheat  (ib.  10,  38)  ;  and 
all  these  passengers  seem  to  have  been 
taken  on  to  Puteoli  in  another  ship  (xxviii. 
11),  which  had  its  own  crew  and  its  own 
cargo.  Now,  in  English  transport-ships, 
prepared  for  carrying  troops,  it  is  a  com- 
mon estimate  to  allow  a  ton  and  a  half  per 
man.  On  the  whole,  if  we  say  that  an 
ancient  merchant-ship  might  range  from 
500  to  1000  tons,  we  are  clearly  within  the 
mark.  (2.)  Steering  Apparatus.  —  Some 
commentators  have  fallen  into  strange  per- 
plexities from  observing  that  in  Acts  xxvii. 
40  ("  the  fastenings  of  the  rudders  ")  St. 
Luke  uses  the  plural.  Ancient  ships  were 
in  truth  not  steered  at  all  by  rudders  fas- 
tened or  hinged  to  the  stern,  but  by  meana 
of  two  paddle-rudders,  one  on  each  quar- 
ter, acting  in  a  rowlock  or  through  a  port- 
hole, as  the  vessel  might  be  small  or  large. 
(3.)  'Build  and  Ornaments  of  the  Hull.  — 
It  is  probable  that  there  was  no  very 
marked  difference  between  the  bow  and 
the  stern.  The  "hold"  (Jonah  i.  5)  would 
present  no  special  peculiarities.  That  per- 
sonification of  ships,  which  seems  to  be  in- 
stinctive, led  the  ancients  tft  paint  an  eye 
on  each  side  of  the  bow  (comp.  Acts  xxvii. 
15).  An  ornament  of  that  which  took  Paul 
on  from  Malta  to  Pozzuoli  is  more  explicit- 
ly referred  to.  The  "sign"  of  that  ship 
(Acts  xxviii.  11)  was  Castor  and  Pollux; 
and  the  symbols  of  these  heroes  were  doubt- 
less painted  or  sculptured  on  each  side  of 
the  bow.  (4.)  Under-girders. — The  im- 
perfection of  the  build,  and  still  more  (see 
below,  6)  the  peculiarity  of  the  rig,  in 
ancient  ships,  resulted  in  a  greater  ten- 
dency than  in  our  times  to  the  starting  of 
the  planks,  and  consequently  to  leaking 
and  foundering.  Hence  it  was  customary 
to  take  on  board  peculiar  contrivances, 
suitably  called  "helps"  (Acts  xxvii.  17), 
as  precautions  against  such  dangers.  These 
were  simply  cables  or  chains,  which  in  case 
of  necessity  could  be  passed  round  the 
frame  of  the  ship,  at  right  angles  to  its 
length,  and  made  tight.  (5.)  Anchors.  — 
Ancient  anchors  were  similar  in  form  to 
those  which  we  use  now,  except  that  they 
were  without  flukes.  Two  allusions  to 
anchoring  are  found  in  the  N.  T.,  one  in  a 
very  impressive  metaphor  concerning  Chris- 
tian hope  (Heb.  vi.  19).    The  other  pas- 


SHIP 


647 


SHIP 


sage  is  part  of  the  literal  narrative  of  St. 
Paul's  voyage  at  its  most  critical  point. 
The  ship  in  which  he  was  sailing  had  four 
anchors  on  board,  and  these  were  all  em- 
ployed in  the  night,  when  the  danger  of 
falling  on  breakers  was  imminent.  The 
sailors  on  this  occasion  anchored  by  the 
stern  (Acts  xxvii.  29).  (G.)  Masts,  Sails, 
Mopes,  and  Yards.  —  The  rig  of  an  ancient 
ship  was  more  simple  and  clumsy  than 
that  employed  in  modern  times.  Its  great 
feature  was  one  large  mast,  with  one  large 
square  sail  fastened  to  a  yard  of  great 
length.     Hence  the  strain  upon  the  hull. 


Ancient  Ship.    (From  a  painting  at  Pompeii.) 

and  the  danger  of  starting  the  planks,  were 
greater  than  under  the  present  system, 
which  distributes  tlie  mechanical  pressure 
more  evenly  over  the  whole  ship.  Not 
that  there  were  never  more  masts  than 
one,  or  more  sails  than  one  on  the  same 
mast,  in  an  ancient  merchantman.  But 
these  were  repetitions,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
same  general  unit  of  rig.  In  the  O.  T. 
the  mast  is  mentioned  (Is.  xxxiii.  23)  ;  and 
from  anotiier  prophet  (Ez.  xxvii.  5)  we 
learn  that  cedar-wood  from  Lebanon  was 
sometimes  used  for  this  part  of  sliips. 
There  is  a  third  passage  (Prov.  xxiii. 
34),  where  the  top  of  a  ship's  mast  is 
probably  intended.  In  Ez.  xxvii.  29,  oars 
are  distinctly  mentioned ;  and  it  seems  that 
oak-wood  from  Bashan  was  used  in  making 
them.  Another  feature  of  the  ancient,  as  of 
the  modern  ship,  is  tlie  flag  at  the  top  of  the 
mast  (Is.  Z.  c,  and  xxx.  17).  (7.)  Eate  of 
Sailing.  —  St.  Paul's  voyages  furnish  ex- 
cellent data  for  approximately  estimating 
this ;  and  they  are  quite  in  harmony  with 
what  we  learn  from  other  sources.  We 
must  notice  here,  however  (what  commen- 
tators sometimes  cjiriously  forget),  tliat 
winds  are  variable.  Tims  the  voyage  be- 
tween Troas  and  Philippi,  accomplished 
on  one  ocfasion  (Acts  xvi.  11,  12)  in  two 
days,  occupied  on  another  occasion  (Acts 
XX.  G)  five  days.  With  a  fair  wind  an 
ancient  sliip  would  sail  fully  seven  knots 
an  hour.  (8.)  Sailing  before  the  wind, 
and  near  the  wind.  —  The  rig  which  has 


been  described  is,  like  the  rig  of  Chinese 
junks,  peculiarly  favorable  to  a  quick  run 
before  the  wind  (Acts  xvi.  11,  xxvii.  16). 
It  would,  however,  be  a  great  mistake  to 
suppose  that  ancient  ships  could  not  work 
to  windward.  The  superior  rig  and  build, 
liowever,  of  modern  ships  enable  them  to 
sail  nearer  to  the  wind  than  was  the  case 
in  classical  times.  A  modern  ship,  if  the 
weather  is  not  very  boisterous,  will  sail 
within  six  points  of  the  wind.  To  an 
ancient  vessel,  of  which  the  hull  was 
more  clumsy,  and  the  yards  could  not  be 
braced  so  tight,  it  would  be  safe  to  assign 
seven  points  as  the  limit.  (9.)  Lying-io, 
—  A  ship  that  could  make  progress  on  her 
proper  course,  in  moderate  weather,  when 
sailing  within  seven  points  of  the  wind, 
would  lie-to  in  a  gale,  with  her  length 
making  about  the  same  angle  with  the 
direction  of  the  wind.  This  is  done  when 
tlie  object  is,  not  to  make  progress  at  all 
hazards,  but  to  ride  out  a  gale  in  safety ; 
and  this  is  what  was  done  in  St.  Paul's 
ship  when  she  was  undergirded  and  the 
boat  taken  on  board  (Acts  xxvii.  14-17) 
under  the  lee  of  Clauda.  (10.)  Ship's 
Boat.  —  This  appears  prominently  in  Acts 
xxvii.  16,  32.  Every  large  merchant-ship 
must  have  had  one  or  more  boats.  It  ia 
evident  that  the  Alexandrian  corn-ship  in 
which  St.  Paul  was  sailing  from  Fair 
Havens,  and  in  which  the  sailors,  appre- 
hending no  danger,  hoped  to  reach  Phe- 
NiCE,  had  her  boat  towing  behind.  (11.) 
Officers  and  Crew.  —  In  Acts  xxvii.  1 1  we 
have  both  xv^tQnlrtjg  and  varxXt;nn?,  The 
latter  is  the  owner  (in  part  or  in  whole)  of 
the  ship  or  the  cargo,  receiving  also  (pos- 
sibly) the  fares  of  the  passengers.  The 
former  has  the  charge  of  the  steering. 
The  word  for  "  shipmen  "  (Acts  xxvii.  27, 
30)  and  "sailors"  (Rev.  xviii.  17)  is  sim- 
ply the  usual  term  ravrut.  (12.)  Storms 
and  Shipwrecks.  —  The  first  century  of 
the  Christian  era  was  a  time  of  immense 
traffic  in  the  Mediterranean;  and  there 
must  have  been  many  vessels  lost  there 
every  year  by  shipwreck,  and  (perhaps) 
as  many  by  foundering.  This  last  danger 
would  be  much  increased  by  the  form  of 
rig  described  above.  Besides  this,  we  must 
remember  that  the  ancients  had  no  com- 
pass, and  very  imperfect  charts  and  instru- 
ments, if  any  at  all.  Certain  coasts  were 
much  dreaded,  especially  the  African  Syr- 
tis  (Acts  xvii.  17).  The  danger  indicated 
by  breakers  (ib.  29),  and  the  fear  of  falling 
on  rocks,  are  matters  of  course.  St.  Paul's 
experience  seems  to  have  been  full  of  illus- 
trations of  all  these  perils.  (13.)  Boats  on 
the  Sea  of  Galilee.  —  In  the  narratives  of 
the  call  of  the  disciples  to  be  "  fishers  of 
men"  (Matt.  iv.  18-22;  Mark  i.  16-20; 
Luke  V.  1-11),  there  is  no  special  informa- 
tion concerning  the  characteristics  of  these 


SHIPIII 


648 


SHOBACH 


boats.  In  the  account  of  the  storm  and 
the  miracle  on  the  lake  (Matt.  viii.  23-27 ; 
Mark  iv.  35-41 ;  Luke  viii.  22-25),  it  is  for 
every  reason  instructive  to  compare  the 
three  narratives ;  and  we  should  observe 
that  Luke  is  more  technical  in  his  language 
tlian  Matthew,  and  Mark  than  Luke.  With 
the  large  population  round  the  Lake  of 
Tiberias,  there  must  have  been  a  vast  num- 
ber both  of  fishing-boats  and  pleasure-boats, 
and  boat-building  must  have  been  an  ac- 
tive trade  on  its  shores.  (14.)  Merchant- 
ships  in  the  Old  Testament.  —  The  earliest 
passages  where  seafaring  is  alluded  to  in 
the  O.  T.  are  the  following  in  order :  Gen. 
xlix.  13,  in  the  prophecj  of  Jacob  concern- 
ing Zcbulun ;  Num.  xxiv.  24,  in  Balaam's 
prophecy ;  Deut.  xxviii.  68,  in  one  of  the 
warnings  of  Moses ;  Judg.  v.  17,  in  Deb- 
orah's Song.  Next  after  these  it  is  natural 
to  mention  the  illustrations  and  descriptions 
connected  with  this  subject  in  Job  (ix.  2G)  ; 
and  in  the  Psalms  (xlvii.  [xlviii.]  7,  ciii. 
[civ.]  26,  cvi.  23).  Prov.  xxiii.  34  has  al- 
ready been  quoted.  To  this  add  xxx.  19, 
xxxi.  14.  Solomon's  own  ships,  which 
may  have  suggested  some  of  these  illus- 
trations (1  K.  ix.  26;  2  Chr.  viii.  18,  ix. 
21),  have  previously  been  mentioned.  We 
must  notice  the  disastrous  expedition  of 
Jehoshaphat's  ships  from  the  same  port  of 
Ezion-geber  (1  K.  xxii.  48,  49 ;  2  Chr.  xx. 
36,  37).  The  passages  wliich  remain  are 
in  the  prophets  (Is.  ii.  16,  xxiii.  1,  14,  Ix. 
9;  Ez.  xxvii. ;  Jon.  i.  3-16). 

Shi'phi,  a  Simeonite,  father  of  Ziza, 
a  prince  of  the  tribe  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah 
(1  Chr.  iv.  37). 

Shiph'mite,  The,  probably,  though 
not  certainly,  the  native  of  Shepham  (1 
Chr.  xxvii.  27). 

Shiph'rah  (Ex.  i.  15),  the  name  of 
one  of  the  two  midwives  of  the  Hebrews 
who  disobeyed  the  command  of  Pharaoh  to 
kill  the  male  children  (vers.  15-21). 

Shlph'tan,  fiither  of  Kemuel,  a  prince 
of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (Num.  xxxiv.  24). 

SM'sha,  father  of  Elihoreph  and  Ahiah, 
the  royal  secretaries  in  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon (1  K.  iv.  3).  He  is  apparently  the 
same  as  Shavsha,  who  held  the  same  po- 
sition under  David. 

Shi'shak,  king  of  Egypt,  the  Sheshenk 
I.  of  the  monuments,  first  sovereign  of  the 
Bubastite  xxiid  dynasty.  His  reign  offers 
the  first  determined  synchronisms  of  Egyp- 
tian and  Hebrew  history.  The  first  year 
of  Shishak  would  about  correspond  to  the 
26th  of  Solomon,  and  the  20th  of  Shishak 
to  the  5th  of  llehoboam.  Shishak  at  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  received  the  fugitive 
Jeroboam  (1  K.  xi.  40)  ;  and  it  was  proba- 
bly at  the  instigation  of  Jeroboam  that  he 
attacked  llehoboam.  "  He  took  the  fenced 
cities  which  [pertained]  to  Judah,  and  came 
to  Jerusalem."    He  exacted  all  the  treas- 


ures of  his  city  from  Rehoboam,  and  ap- 
parently made  him  tributary  (IK.  xiv.  25, 
26;  2  Chr.  xii.  2-9).  Shishak  has  left  a 
record  of  this  expedition,  sculptured  on  the 
wall  of  the  great  temple  of  El-Karnak.  It 
is  a  list  of  the  countries,  cities,  and  tribes, 
conquered  or  ruled  by  him,  or  tributary  to 
him. 

Shittali-tree,  Shittim  (Heb.  shUtdh), 
is  without  doubt  correctly  referred  to  some 
species  of  Acacia,  of  which  three  or  four 
kands  occur  in  the  Bible  lands.  The  wood 
of  this  tree  —  perhaps  the  Acacia  Seyal  is 
more  definitely  signified  —  was  extensively 
employed  in  the  construction  of  the  taber- 
nacle (see  Ex.  xxv.,  xxvi.,  xxxvi.,  xxxvii., 
xxxviii.).  The  A.  Seyal  is  very  common 
in  some  parts  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai. 
It  yields  the  well-known  substance  called 
gum  arabic  which  is  obtained  by  incisions 
in  the  bark,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say 
whether  the  ancient  Jews  were  acquainted 
with  its  use.  From  the  tangled  thickets 
into  which  the  stem  of  this  tree  expands, 
Stanley  well  remarks  that  hence  is  to  bo 
traced  the  use  of  the  plural  form  of  the 
Heb.  noun  Shittim,  the  sing,  number  oc- 
curring but  once  only  in  the  Bible.  This 
acacia  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
tree  (^Robinia  pseudo-acacia)  popularly 
known  by  this  name  in  England,  which 
is  a  North  American  plant,  and  belongs 
to  a  different  genus  and  sub-order.  The 
true  acacias  belong  to  the  order  Legwmi- 
nosae,  sub-order  Mimoseae. 

Shit'tim,  the  place  of  Israel's  encamp- 
ment between  the  conquest  of  the  trans- 
Jordanic  highlands  and  the  passage  of  the 
Jordan  (Num.  xxxiii.  49,  xxv.  1 ;  Josh.  ii. 
1,  iii.  1 ;  Mic.  vi.  5).  Its  full  name  appears 
to  be  given  in  the  first  of  these  passages  — 
Abel  has-Shittim  —  "  the  meadow,  or  moist 
place,  of  the  acacias."  It  was  "in  the 
Arboth-Moab,  by  Jordan-Jericho"  (Num. 
xxii.  1,  xxvi.  3,  xxxi.  12,  xxxiii.  48,  49). 
That  is  to  say,  it  was  in  the  Arabah  or  Jor- 
dan Valley,  opposite  Jericho.  The  "Valley 
of  Shittim,"  of  Joel  (iii.  18),  can  hardly  be 
the  same  spot  as  that  described  above, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  give  a  clew  to  its 
position. 

Shi'za,  a  Eeubemtes  father  of  Adina  (1 
Chr.  xi.  42). 

Sho'a,  a  proper  name  wliich  occurs  only 
in  Ez.  xxiii.  23,  in  connection  with  Pekod 
and  Koa.  The  three  apparently  designate 
districts  of  Assyria  with  which  the  southern 
kingdom  of  Judah  had  been  intimately  con- 
nected, and  which  were  to  be  arrayed  against 
it  for  punishment.  ' 

Sho'bab.  1.  SonofDavidbyBathsheba 
(2  Sam.  V.  14 ;  1  Chr.  iii.  5,  xlv.  4).  2. 
Apparently  the  son  of  Caleb  the  son  of 
Hezron  by  his  wife  Azubah  (1  Chr.  ii.  18).'^ 

Sho'bacll,  tlie  general  of  Hardarezer 
king  of  the  Svriaos  of  Zoba.  who  was  do* 


SHOBAI 


649 


SHUPHAMITES 


ffeated  by  David  (2  Sam.  x.  15-18).  In  1 
Chr.  xix.  IG,  18,  he  is  called  Shophach. 

Sho'bai.  The  chil<l-en  of  Shobai  were 
a  family  of  the  door-keepers  of  the  Temple, 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  42 ; 
Neh.  vii.  45). 

Sho'bai.  1.  Second  son  of  Seir  the 
Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20:  I  Chr.  i.  38),  and 
one  of  the  "  dukes  "  of  the  Horites  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  29).  2.  Son  of  Caleb  the  son  of 
Hur,  and  founder  or  prince  of  Kirjath-jearira 
a  Chr.  ii.  50,  52).  3.  In  1  Chr.  iv.  1,  2, 
Shobai  appears  with  Hur  among  the  sons 
of  Judah.  He  is  possibly  the  same  as  the 
preceding. 

Sho'bek,  one  of  the  heads  of  the  peo- 
ple who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  X.  24). 

Sho'bi,  son  of  Nahash  of  Kabbah  of 
the  children  of  Amnion  (2  Sara.  xvii.  27). 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  meet  David  at 
Mahanaim  on  his  flight  from  Absalom. 

Sho'co,  2  Chr.  xi.  7.  A  variation  in 
the  A.  V.  of  the  name  Socoh. 

Sho'cho,  2  Chr.  xxviii.  18.  One  of  the 
four  varieties  of  the  name  Socoh. 

Sho'choh,  1  Sam.  xvii.  1.  Same  as 
Socoh. 

Shoe.     [Sandal.] 

Sho'ham,  a  Merarite  Levite,  son  of 
Jaaziah  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  27). 

Sho'mer.  I.  An  Asherite  (1  Chr.  vii. 
82) ;  also  called  Shamer  (ver.  34).  2.  The 
father  (mother?)  of  Jehozabad,  who  slew 
king  Joash  (2  K.  xii.  21)  ;  in  the  parallel 
passage  in  2  Chr.  xxiv.  26,  the  name  is 
converted  into  the  feminine  form  Shimrith, 
who  is  further  described  as  a  Moabitess. 
[Shimrith.] 

Sho'phach,  Shobach,  the  general  of 
Hadarezer  (1  Chr.  xix.  16,  18). 

Sho'phan,  one  of  the  fortified  towns 
on  the  east  of  Jordan  which  were  taken 
possession  of  and  rebuilt  by  the  tribe  of 
Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  35). 

Shoshan'nim.  "  To  the  chief  musi- 
cian upon  Shoshannira  "  is  a  musical  direc- 
tion to  the  leader  of  the  Temple-choir  which 
occurs  in  Ps.  xlv.,  Ixix.,  and  most  probably 
indicates  the  melody  *'  after  "  or  "  in  the 
manner  of"  (A.  V.  "  upon ")  which  the 
Psalms  were  to  be  sung.  Shoshannim- 
Eduth  occurs  in  tlie  same  way  in  the  title 
of  Ps.  Ixxx.  As  the  words  now  stand  they 
signify  "lilies,  a  testimony,"  and  the  two 
are  separated  by  a  large  distinctive  accent. 
In  themselves  they  have  no  meaning  in  the 
present  text,  and  must  therefore  be  regard- 
ed as  probably  a  fragment  of  the  beginning 
of  an  older  Psalm  with  which  the  choir 
were  familiar. 

Shu'ah.  1.  Son  of  Abraham  by  Ketu- 
rah  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1  Chr.  i.  32).  2.  Prop- 
erly "  Shuchah,"  brother  of  Chelub  (1 
Chr,  iv.  11).     3.  The  father  of  Judah's 


wife  (Gen.  xxxviii.  2,  12) ;  also  called 
Shca  in  the  A.  V. 

Shu'al,  son  of  Zophah,  an  Asherite  (I 
Chr.  vii.  36). 

Shu'al,  The  Land  of,  a  district  named 
only  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  17.  It  is  pretty  cer- 
tain from  tJ'.e  passage  that  it  lay  north  of 
Michmash.  If  therefore  it  be  identical  with 
the  "  land  of  Slialim"  (1  Sam.  ix.  4), — as 
is  not  impossible,  —  we  obtain  the  first  and 
only  clew  yet  obtained  to  Saul's  journey  in 
quest  of  the  asses.  The  name  Shucd  has 
not  yet  been  identified. 

Shu'bael.  1.  Shebuel  the  son  of 
Gershom  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  20).  2.  Shebuei. 
the  son  of  Heman  the  minstrel  (1  Chr.  xxv. 
20). 

Shu'ham,  son  of  Dan,  and  ancestor  of 
the  Shuhamites  (Num.  xxvi.  42). 

Shu'hamites,  The.    [Shcham.] 

Shu'hite.  This  ethnic  appellative 
"  Shuliite  "  is  frequent  in  the  Book  of  Job, 
but  only  as  the  epithet  of  one  person,  Bil- 
dad.  The  local  indications  of  the  Book  of 
Job  point  to  a  region  on  the  western  side 
of  Chaldaea,  bordering  on  Arabia ;  and  ex- 
actly in  this  locality,  above  Hit  and  on  both 
sides  of  the  Euphrates,  are  found,  in  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions,  the  Tsukhi,  a  power- 
ful people.  It  is  probable  that  these  were 
the  Shuhites. 

Shu'lamite,  The,  one  of  the  person- 
ages in  the  poem  of  Solomon's  Song  (vi. 
13).  The  name  denotes  a  woman  belong- 
ing to  a  place  called  Shulem,  which  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  Shunem.  [Shcnem.]  If, 
then,  Shulamite  and  Shunammite  are  equiv- 
alent, we  may  conjecture  that  the  Shunam- 
mite who  was  the  object  of  Solomon's  pas- 
sion was  Abishag. 

Shu'mathites,  The,  one  of  the  four 
families  who  sprang  from  lOrjath-jearim 
(1  Chr.  ii.  53). 

Shu'nammite,  The,  t.  e.  the  native 
of  Shunem,  is  applied  to  two  persons  :  Abi- 
shag, the  nurse  of  king  David  (1  K.  i.  3, 
15,  ii.  17,  21,  22),  and  the  nameless  hostess 
of  Elisha  (2  K.  iv.  12,  25,  36). 

Shu'riem,  one  of  the  cities  allotted  to 
the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  18).  It  is 
mentioned  on  two  occasions  (1  Sam.  xxviii. 
4;  2  E.  iv.  8).  It  was  besides  the  native 
place  of  Abishag  (1  K.  i.  3).  It  is  men- 
tioned by  Eusebius  as  5  miles  south  of 
Mount  Tabor,  and  then  known  as  Sulem. 
This  agrees  with  the  position  of  the  present 
Solum,  a  village  3  mUes  N.  of  Jezreel,  and 
5  from  Gilboa. 

Shu'ni,  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  the 
family  of  the  Shunites  (Gen.  xlvi.  16; 
Num.  xxvi.  15). 

Shu'nites,  The,  the  descendants  of 
Shuui. 

Shu'pham.     [Shuppim.] 

Shu'phauiices,  The,  me  descendants 


SHUPPIM 


650 


SIDE 


of  Shupham,   or    Shephupham,   the  Ben- 
jamite  (Nura,  xxvi.  39). 

Shup'pim.  In  the  genealogy  of  Ben- 
jamin "  yimppim  and  Iluppim,  the  children 
of  Ir,"  are  reckoned  in  1  Chr.  vii.  12.  Ir 
is  the  same  as  Iri  the  son  of  Bela,  the  son 
of  Benjamin,  so  that  Shuppim  was  tlie 
great-grandson  of  Benjamin. 

Shtir,  a  place  just  without  the  eastern 
border  of  Egypt.  Shur  is  first  mentioned 
in  the  narrative  of  Hagar's  flight  from 
Sarah  (Gen.  xvi.  7).  Abraham  afterwards 
"  dwelled  between  Kadesh  and  Shur,  and 
sojourned  in  Gerar"  (xx.  1).  The  first 
clear  indication  of  its  position  occurs  in  the 
account  of  Ishmael's  posterity.  "  And  tliey 
dwelt  from  Havilah  unto  Shur,  that  [isj 
before  Egypt,  as  thou  goest  towards  As- 
syria "  (xxv.  18 ;  comp.  1  Sam.  xv.  7 ;  xxvii. 
8).  The  wilderness  of  Shur  was  entered 
by  the  Israelites  after  they  had  crossed 
the  lied  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  22,  23).  It  was  also 
called  the  Wilderness  of  Etham  (Num. 
xxxiii.  8).  Shur  may  have  been  a  fortified 
town  east  of  the  ancient  head  of  the  Red 
Sea;  and  from  its  being  spoken  of  as  a  limit, 
it  was  probably  the  last  Arabian  town  be- 
fore entering  Egypt. 

Shu'shan,  or  Su'sa,  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  abundance  of  the 
lily  {Shushan,  or  Shushanah)  in  its  neigh- 
borhood. It  was  originally  the  capital  of 
the  country  called  in  Scripture  Elam,  and 
by  the  classical  writers  Susis  or  Susiana. 
In  the  time  of  Daniel  Susa  was  in  the  pos- 
8e.ssion  of  the  Babylonians,  to  whom  Elam 
had  probably  passed  at  the  division  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  made  by  Cyaxares  and 
Nabopolassar  (Dan.  viii.  2).  The  conquest 
of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  transferred  Susa  to  the 
Persian  dominion ;  and  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore the  Achaemenian  princes  determined 
to  make  it  the  capital  of  their  whole  empire, 
and  the  chief  place  of  their  own  residence. 
According  to  some  writers  the  change  was 
made  by  Cyrus ;  according  to  others,  it  had 
at  any  rate  taken  place  before  the  death  of 
Cambyses ;  but,  according  to  the  evidence 
of  the  place  itself  and  of  the  other  Achae- 
menian monuments,  it  would  seem  most 
probable  that  the  transfer  was  really  the 
work  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  Nehemiah  re- 
sided here  (Neh.  i.  1).  Shushan  was  situ- 
ated on  the  Ulai  or  Choaspes.  It  is  identi- 
fied with  the  modern  Sus  or  Shush,  and  its 
ruins  are  about  3  miles  in  circumference. 

Shu'shan- e'duth  (Ps.  Ix.)  is  prob- 
ably an  abbreviation  of  "  Shoshannim- 
eduth"  (Ps.  Ixxx.).     [Shoshannim.] 

Shu'thalhites,  The.    [Shutiielah.] 

Shu'thelah,  head  of  an  Ephraimite 
family,  called  after  him  Shuthalhites  (Num. 
xxvi.  35),  and  lineal  ancestor  of  Joshua, 
the  son  of  Nun  (1  Chr.  vii.  20-27). 

Si'a.  "The  children  of  Sia"  were  a 
family  of  Nethinim  who  returned-with  Ze- 


rubbabel  (Neh.  vii.  47).  The  name  is  writ- 
ten SiAHA  in  Ezr.  ii.  44,  and  Sud  in  1  Esu. 
V.  29). 

Si'aha  =  Sia  (Ezr.  ii.  44). 

Sib'becai  =  Sibbechai  the  Husha- 
thite. 

Sib'bechai,  one  of  David's  guard,  and 
eighth  captain  for  the  eighth  month  of 
24,000  men  of  the  king's  army  (1  Chr.  xi. 
29,  xxvii.  11).  He  belonged  to  one  of  the 
principal  famiUes  of  Judali,  the  Zarliites,  or 
descendants  of  Zerah,  and  is  called  "  the 
Hushathite,"  probably  from  the  place  of 
his  birth.  Sibbechai's  great  exploit,  which 
gave  him  a  place  among  the  mighty  men 
of  David's  army,  was  his  single  combat  with 
Saph,  or  Sippai,  the  Philistine  giant,  in  the 
battle  at  Gezer,  or  Gob  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18;  1 
Chr.  XX.  4). 

Sib'boleth,  the  Ephraimite  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  word  Shibboleth  (Judg.  xii.  6). 
[Shibboleth.] 

Sib'mah.    [Shebam.] 

Sibra'im,  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  Holy  Land  as 
stated  by  Ezekiel  (xlvii.  16.)  It  has  not 
been  identified. 

Si'chem  (Gen.  xii.  6).     [Siiechem.] 

Sic'yon  (1  Mace.  xv.  23),  a  celebrated 
Greek  city  in  Peloponnesus  upon  the  Co- 
rinthian gulf. 

Sid' dim,  The  Vale  of,  a  place  named 
only  in  one  passage  of  Genesis  (xiv.  3,  8, 
10).  It  was  one  of  that  class  of  valleys 
which  the  Hebrews  designated  by  the  word 
Emek.  This  term  appears  to  have  been 
assigned  to  abroad,  flattish  tract,  sometimes 
of  considerable  width,  enclosed  on  each 
side  by  a  definite  range  of  hills.  It  was  so 
far  a  suitable  spot  for  the  combat  between 
the  four  and  five  kings  (ver.  8)  ;  but  it  con- 
tained a  multitude  of  bitumen-pits  sufficient 
materially  to  affect  the  issue  of  the  battle. 
In  this  valley  the  kings  of  the  five  allied 
cities  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Ze- 
boim,  and  Bela,  seem  to  have  awaited  the 
approach  of  the  invaders.  It  is  therefore 
probable  that  it  was  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  "plain,  or  circle,  of  Jordan"  in 
which  those  cities  stood.  If  we  could  ven- 
ture, as  some  have  done,  to  interpret  the 
latter  clause  of  ver.  3,  "which  is  near,"  or 
"  which  is  at,  or  by,  the  Salt  Sea,"  then  we 
might  agree  with  Dr.  Robinson  and  others 
in  identifying  the  Valley  of  Siddim  with  the 
enclosed  plain  which  intervenes  between 
the  south  end  of  the  lake  and  the  range  of 
heights  which  terminate  the  Gh6r  and  com- 
mence the  Wady  Arabah.  But  the  original 
of  the  passage  seems  to  imply  that  the  Salt 
Sea  covers  the  actual  space  formerly  occu- 
pied by  the  Vale  of  Siddim.  [Sea,  thb 
Salt,  p.  620.] 

Si'de,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia* 
10  or  12  miles  to  the  east  of  the  river  Eu>- 
rymedon.  It  is  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  xv.  23, 


o 


smoN 


651 


SrLOAM 


among  the  list  of  places  to  which  the  Boman 
senate  sent  letters  in  favor  of  the  Jews.  It 
was  a  colony  of  Cumaeans. 

Si'don,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian name  Zidon.     [Zidon.] 

Sido'nians,  the  Greek  form  of  the 
word  ZiDOxiANS,  usually  so  exhibited  in 
the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the  O.  T.  It  occurs 
Deut.  iii.  9;  Josh.  xiii.  4,  6;  Judg.  iii.  3;  1 
K.  V.  6.     [Zidon.] 

Si'hon,  king  of  the  Amorites  when  Israel 
arrived  on  the  borders  of  the  Promised  Land 
(Num.  xxi.  21).  Shortly  before  the  time 
of  Israel's  arrival  he  had  dispossessed  the 
Moabites  of  a  splendid  territory,  driving 
them  south  of  the  natural  bulwark  of  the 
Arnon  (xxi.  26-29).  When  the  Israelite 
host  appears,  he  does  not  hesitate  or  tem- 
porize like  Balak,  but  at  once  gathers  his 
people  together  and  attacks  them.  But  the 
battle  was  his  last.  He  and  all  his  host 
were  destroyed,  and  their  district  from 
Arnon  to  Jabbok  became  at  once  the  pos- 
session of  tlie  conqueror. 

Si'hor,  accurately  Shi'hor,  once  The 
Shihor  or  Shihor  of  Egypt,  when  un- 
qualified a  name  of  the  Nile.  It  is  held  to 
signify  "the  black"  or  "turbid."  There 
are  but  three  occurrences  of  Shihor  in  the 
Bible,  and  but  one  of  Shihor  of  Egypt,  or 
Shihor-Mizraim.  It  is  spoken  of  as  one  of 
the  limits  of  territory  which  was  still  un- 
conquered  when  Joshua  was  old  (Josh.  xiii. 
2,  3).  With  this  passage  must  be  compared 
that  in  which  Shihor-Mizraim  occurs.  Da- 
vid is  related  to  have  "  gathered  all  Israel 
together  from  Shihor  of  Egypt  even  unto 
the  entering  of  Hamath"  (1  Chr.  xiii.  5). 
There  is  no  other  evidence  that  the  Israel- 
ites ever  spread  westward  beyond  Gaza. 
The  stream  may  therefore  be  that  of  the 
Wddi-V  Areesh.  That  the  stream  intended 
by  Shihor  unqualified  was  a  navigable  riv- 
er is  evident  from  a  passage  in  Isaiah, 
where  it  is  said  of  Tyre,  "  And  by  great 
waters,  the  sowing  of  Shihor,  the  harvest 
of  the  river  [is]  her  revenue"  (xxiii.  3). 
Here  Shilior  is  either  the  same  as,  or  com- 
pared with,  Yedr,  generally  thought  to  be 
the  Nile,  but  perhaps  the  extension  of  the 
Red  Sea.  In  Jeremiah  the  identity  of 
Shihor  with  the  Nile  seems  distinctly  stated 
(ii.  18). 

Silas,  an  eminent  member  of  the  early 
Christian  Church,  described  under  that  name 
in  the  Acts,  but  as  Silvanus  in  St.  Paul's 
Epistles.  He  first  appears  as  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
XV.  22),  holding  the  office  of  an  inspired 
teacher  (xv.  32).  His  name,  derived  from 
the  Latin  siZfa,  "wood,"  betokens  him  a 
Hellenistic  Jew,  and  he  appears  to  have 
been  a  Roman  citizen  (Acts  xvi.  37).  He 
was  appointed  as  a  delegate  to  accompany 
Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  return  to  An- 
tioch  with  the  decree  of  the  Council  of 


^Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  22,  32).  Having  ac- 
complished this  mission,  he  returned  to 
Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  33).  He  must,  how- 
ever, have  immediately  revisited  Antioch, 
for  we  find  him  selected  by  St.  Paul  as  the 
companion  of  his  second  missionary  jour- 
ney (Acts  XV.  40-xvii.  40).  At  Beroea  he 
was  left  beliind  with  Timothy  while  St. 
Paul  proceeded  to  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  14), 
and  we  hear  nothing  more  of  his  movements 
until  he  rejoined  the  Apostle  at  Corinth 
(Acts  xviii.  5).  His  presence  at  Corinth  ia 
several  times  noticed  (2  Cor.  i.  19 ;  1  Thess. 
i.  1 ;  2  Thess.  i.  1).  Whether  he  was  the  Sil- 
vanus who  conveyed  St.  Peter's  First  Epis- 
tle to  Asia  Minor  (1  Pet.  v.  12)  is  doubt- 
ful; the  probabilities  are  in  favor  of  the 
identity.  A  tradition  of  very  slight  author- 
ity represents  Silas  to  have  become  bishop 
of  Corinth. 

Silk.  The  only  undoubted  notice  of 
silk  in  the  Bible  occurs  in  Rev.  xviii.  12, 
where  it  is  mentioned  among  the  treasures 
of  the  typical  Babylon.  It  is,  however,  in 
the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  texture 
was  known  to  the  Hebrews  from  the  time 
that  their  commercial  relations  were  ex- 
tended by  Solomon.  The  well-known  clas- 
sical name  of  the  substance  does  not  occur 
in  the  Hebrew  language.  The  Hebrew 
terms  which  have  been  supposed  to  refer 
to  silk  are  meshi  and  demeshek.  The  for- 
mer occurs  only  in  Ez.  xvi.  10,  13  (A.  "V  . 
"  silk  ").  The  other  term  demeshek  occurs 
in  Am.  iii.  12  (A.  V.  "  Damascus  "),  and 
has  been  supposed  to  refer  to  silk  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  word  to  our  "damask." 
It  appears,  however,  that  "damask "is  a 
corruption  of  dimakso,  a  term  applied  by 
the  Arabs  to  the  raw  material  alone.  We 
must,  therefore,  consider  the  reference  to 
silk  as  extremely  dubious.  The  value  set 
upon  silk  by  the  Romans,  as  implied  in 
Rev.  xviii.  12,  is  noticed  by  Joseplms  as 
well  as  by  classical  writers. 

Sil'la.  "The  house  of  Millo  which 
goeth  down  to  Silla,"  was  the  scene  of  the 
murder  of  king  Joash  (2  K.  xii.  20).  What 
or  where  Silla  was  is  entirely  matter  of 
conjecture.  Some  have  suggested  the  Pool 
of  Siloam. 

Sil'oah,  The  Pool  of,  properly  "  the 
Pool  of  Shelach"  (Neh.  iii.  15).  [Sil- 
oam.] 

^ii'OBXSX  {Shiloach,  Is.  viii.  6;  Shelach, 
Neh.  iii.  15;  Siloam,  John  ix.  7,  11).  Sil- 
oam is  one  of  the  few  undisputed  locali- 
ties in  the  topography  of  Jerusalem ;  still 
retaining  its  old  name  (with  Arabic  modi- 
fication, Silwdn),  while  every  other  pool 
has  lost  its  Bible-designation.  This  is  the 
more  remarkable  as  it  is  a  mere  suburban 
tank  of  no  great  size,  and  for  many  an  age 
not  particularly  good  or  plentiful  in  ita 
waters,  though  Josephus  tells  us  that  in  his 
day  they  were  both  "  sweet  and  abundanU** 


SILOAM 


652 


SIMEON 


A  little  way  below  the  Jewish  burying- 
ground,  but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  val- 
ley, where  tiie  Kedron  turns  slightly  west- 
ward, and  widens  itself  considerably,  is  the 
fountain  of  the  Virgin  or  Um-ed-Deraj, 
near  the  beginning  of  that  saddle-shaped 
projection  of  the  Temple-hill  supposed 
to  be  the  Ophel  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
Ophlas  of  Josephus.  At  the  back  part  of 
this  fountain  a  subterraneous  passage  be- 
gins, through  which  the  water  flows,  and 
through  which  a  man  may  make  his  way, 
Bometimes  walking  erect,  sometimes  stoop- 
ing, sometimes  kneeling,  and  sometimes 
crawling,  to  Siloam.  This  conduit  has 
had  tributaries  which  have  formerly  sent 
their  waters  down  from  the  city  pools  or 
Temple-walls  to  swell  Siloam.  It  enters 
Siloam  at  the  north-west  angle ;  or  rather 
enters  a  small  rock-cut  chamber  which 
forms  tlie  vestibule  of  Siloam,  about  five 
or  six  feet  broad.  To  this  you  descend  by 
a  few  rude  steps,  under  which  the  water 
pours  itself  into  the  main  pool.  This  pool  is 
oblong ;  about  18  feet  broad,  and  19  feet  deep ; 
but  it  is  never  filled,  the  water  either  passing 
directly  through,  or  being  maintained  at  a 
depth  of  three  or  four  feet.  The  present 
pool  is  a  ruin,  with  no  moss  or  ivy  to  make 
it  romantic ;  its  sides  falling  in ;  its  pillars 
broken;  its  stair  a  fragment;  its  walls 
giving  way ;  the  edge  of  every  stone  worn 
round  or  sharp  by  time;  in  some  parts 
mere  dibris ;  though  around  its  edges,  wild 
flowers,  and,  among  other  plants,  the  caper- 
tree,  grow  luxuriantly.  The  gray  crum- 
bling limestone  of  the  stone  (as  well  as  of 
the  surrounding  rocks,  which  are  almost 
verdureless)  gives  a  poor  and  worn-out 
aspect  to  this  venerable  relic.  The  present 
pool  is  not  the  original  building ;  it  may  be 
the  work  of  crusaders,  perhaps  even  im- 
proved by  Saladin,  whose  aflection  for 
wells  and  pools  led  him  to  care  for  all  these 
things.  Yet  the  spot  is  the  same.  This 
pool,  which  we  may  call  the  second,  seems 
anciently  to  have  poured  its  waters  into 
a  third,  before  it  proceeded  to  water  the 
royal  gardens.  This  third  is  perhaps  that 
which  Josepims  calls  "  Solomon's  pool," 
and  which  Nehemiah  calls  the  "King's 
pool"  (ii.  14).  The  expression  in  Isaiah 
(viii.  6),  "  waters  of  Shiloah  that  go  soft- 
ly," seems  to  point  to  the  slender  rivulet, 
flowing  gently,  though  once  very  profusely, 
out  of  Siloam  into  the  lower  breadth  of 
level,  where  the  king's  gardens,  or  royal 
paradise,  stood,  and  which  is  still  the 
greenest  spot  about  the  Holy  City.  Siloam 
is  a  sacred  spot,  even  to  the  Moslem; 
much  more  to  the  Jew.  It  was  to  Siloam. 
that  the  Levite  was  sent  witii  the  golden 
pitcher  on  the  "  last  and  great  day  of  the 
feast"  of  Tabernacles ;  it  was  from  Siloam 
that  he  brought  the  water  which  was  then 
P<^jred  over  the  sacrifice,  in  memory  of 


^he  water  from  the  rock  of  Rephidim ;  and 
it  was  to  this  Siloam  water  that  the  Lord 
pointed  when  He  stood  in  the  Temple  on 
that  day  and  cried,  "If  any  man  thirst,  let 
him  come  unto  me  and  drink."  The  Lord 
sent  the  blind  man  to  wash,  not  in,  as  our 
version  has  it,  but  at  {tig),  the  pool  of 
Siloam;  for  it  was  the  clay  from  his  eyes 
that  was  to  be  washed  off;  and  the  Evan- 
gelist is  careful  to  throw  in  a  remark,  not 
for  the  purpose  of  telling  us  that  Siloam 
meant  an  "  aqueduct,"  as  some  think,'  but 
to  give  higher  significance  to  the  miracle. 
"Go  wash  at  Siloam,"  was  the  command; 
the  Evangelist  adds,  "  which  is,  by  inter- 
pretation, sent"  (John  ix.  7).  That 
"  Sent "  is  the  natural  interpretation  is 
evident,  not  simply  from  the  word  itself, 
but  from  other  passages  where  the  Hebrew 
word  is  used  in  connection  with  water,  as 
Job  iii.  10,  "  He  sendeth  waters  upon  the 
fields;"  and  Ezek.  xxxi.  4,  "  She  senf  out 
her  little  rivers  unto  all  the  trees  of  tlie 
field." 

Sil'oam,  Tower  in  (Luke  xiii.  4).  Of 
this  we  know  nothing  definitely  beyond 
these  words  of  the  Lord.  In  connection 
with  Ophel,  tliere  is  mention  made  of  "  a 
tower  that  lieth  out "  (Neh.  iii.  26) ;  and 
there  is  no  unlikelihood  in  connecting  this 
projecting  tower  with  the  tower  in  Siloam, 
while  one  may  be  almost  excused  for  the 
conjecture  that  its  projection  was  the  cause 
of  its  ultimate /aZZ. 

Silva'nus.     [Silas.] 

Silver.  In  very  early  times,  silver  was 
used  for  ornaments  (Gen.  xxiv.  53)  and 
for  vessels  of  various  kinds.  Images  for 
idolatrous  worship  were  made  of  silver  or 
overlaid  with  it  (Ex.  xx.  23 ;  Hos.  xiii.  2 ; 
Hab.  ii.  19;  Bar.  vi.  39),  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  silver  shrines  for  Diana  was  a  trade 
in  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  24).  But  its  chief 
use  was  as  a  medium  of  exchange,  and 
throughout  the  O.  T.  we  find  "  silver " 
used  for  money,  like  the  Fr.  argent.  Sil- 
ver was  brought  to  Solomon  from  Arabia 
(2  Chr.  ix.  14)  and  from  Tarshish  (2  Chr. 
ix.  21),  which  supplied  the  markets  of 
Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii.  12).  From  Tarshish  it 
came  in  the  form  of  plates  (Jer.  x.  9),  like 
those  on  which  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Singhalese  are  written  to  this  day.  Spain 
appears  to  have  been  the  chief  source 
whence  silver  was  obtained  by  the  ancients. 
Possibly  the  hills  of  Palestine  may  have 
aflbrded  some  supply  of  this  metal.  Silver 
mixed  with  alloy  is  referred  to  in  Jer.  vi. 
30,  and  a  finer  kind,  either  purer  in  itself, 
or  more  thoroughly  purified,  is  mentioned 
in  Prov.  viii.  19. 

Sil'verUngs,  a  word  used  once  only  in 
the  A.  V.  (Is.  vii.  23),  as  a  translation  of 
the  Hebrew  word  elsewhere  rendered  "  sil- 
ver "  or  "money." 

Sim! eon  (Jieard).  1.  The  second  of  Ja- 


SIMEON" 


653 


SIMON 


cob's  sons  by  Leah.  His  birth  is  recorded  in 
Gen.  xxix.  SS.  The  first  group  of  Jacob's 
children  consists,  besides  Simeon,  of  the 
three  other  sons  of  Leah  —  Reuben,  Levi, 
Judah.  With  each  of  these  Simeon  is 
mentioned  in  some  connection.  "  As  Reu- 
ben and  Simeon  are  mine,"  says  Jacob, 
'•  so  shall  Joseph's  sons,  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh,  be  mine"  (Gen.  xlviii,  5).  With 
Levi,  Simeon  was  associated  in  the  massa- 
cre of  the  Shechemites  (xxxiv.  25).  With 
Judah  the  connection  was  drawn  still  closer. 
He  and  Simeon  not  only  "  went  up  "  to- 
gether, side  by  side,  in  the  fore-front  of 
the  nation,  to  the  conquest  of  the  south  of 
the  Holy  Land  (Judg.  i.  3,  17),  but  their 
allotments  lay  together  in  a  more  special 
manner  than  those  of  the  other  tribes. 
Besides  the  massacre  of  Shechem,  the  only 
personal  incident  related  of  Simeon  is  the 
fact  of  his  being  selected  by  Joseph  as  the 
hostage  for  the  appearance  of  Benjamin 
(Gen.  xlii.  19,  24,  36;  xliii.  23).  The 
chief  families  of  the  tribe  are  mentioned 
in  the  lists  of  Gen.  xlvi.  (10),  in  which 
one  of  them,  bearing  the  name  of  Shaul 
(Saul),  is  specified  as  "the  son  of  the  Ca- 
naanitess  "  —  Num.  xxvi.  (12-14),  and  1 
Chr.  iv.  (24-43).  At  tlie  census  at  Sinai 
Simeon  numbered  59,300  figiiting  men 
(Num.  i.  23).  When  the  second  census 
was  taken,  at  Shittim,  the  numbers  had 
fallen  to  22,200,  and  it  was  the  weakest 
of  all  the  tribes.  This  was  no  donbt  partly 
due  to  the  recent  mortality  following  the 
idolatry  of  Peor,  but  there  must  have  been 
other  causes  which  have  escaped  mention. 
The  connection  between  Simeon  and  Levi 
implied  in  the  blessing  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
xlix.  5-7)  has  been  already  adverted  to. 
The  connection  between  Judah  and  Simeon 
already  mentioned  seems  to  have  begun 
with  the  Conquest.  Judah  and  the  two 
Joseph-brethren  were  first  served  with  the 
lion's  share  of  the  land;  and  then,  the 
Canaanites  having  been  sufficiently  sub- 
dued to  allow  the  Sacred  Tent  to  be  es- 
tablished without  risk  in  the  heart  of  the 
country,  the  work  of  dividing  the  remain- 
der amongst  the  seven  inferior  tribes  was 
I>roceeded  with  (Josh.  viii.  1-6).  Benja- 
min had  the  first  turn,  then  Simeon  (xix.  1). 
By  this  time  Judah  had  discovered  that  the 
tract  allotted  to  him  was  too  large  (xix.  9), 
and  also  too  much  exposed  on  the  west  and 
south  for  even  his  great  powers.  To  Sim- 
con  accordingly  was  allotted  a  district  out 
of  the  territory  of  his  kinsman,  on  its  south- 
ern frontier,  which  contained  eighteen  or 
nineteen  cities,  with  their  villages,  spread 
round  the  venerable  well  of  Beersheba 
(Josh.  xix.  1-8;  1  Chr.  iv.  28-33).  Of 
these  places,  with  the  help  of  Judah,  the 
Simeonitcs  possessed  themselves  (Judg.  i. 
3,  17) ;  and  here  they  were  found,  doubt- 
less by  Joab,  residing  in  the  reign  of  David 


(1  Chr.  iv.  31).  What  part  Simeon  took 
at  the  time  of  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
we  are  not  told.  The  only  thing  which  can 
be  inteqjreted  into  a  trace  of  its  having 
taken  any  part  with  the  northern  kingdom 
are  the  two  casual  notices  of  2  Chr.  xv.  9 
and  xxxiv.  6,  which  appear  to  imply  the 
presence  of  Siraeonites  tliere  in  the  reigns 
of  Asa  and  Josiah.  On  tlie  other  hand  the 
definite  statement  of  1  Chr.  iv.  41-43  proves 
that  at  that  time  there  were  still  some  of 
them  remaining  in  the  original  seat  of  the 
tribe,  and  actuated  by  all  the  warlike  law- 
less spirit  of  their  progenitor.  Simeon  is 
named  by  Ezekiel  (xlviii.  25),  and  the  au- 
thor of  the  Book  of  the  Revelation  (vii.  7) 
in  their  catalogues  of  the  restoration  of  Is- 
rael. 2.  A  devout  Jew,  inspired  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  who  met  the  parents  of  our 
Lord  in  the  Temple,  took  Him  in  his  arms, 
and  gave  thanks  for  what  he  saw  and  knew 
of  Jesus  (Luke  ii.  25-35).  There  was  a 
Simeon  who  succeeded  his  father  Hillel  as 
president  of  the  Sanhedrim  about  a.  d.  13, 
and  whose  son  Gamaliel  was  the  Pharisee 
at  whose  feet  St.  Paul  was  brought  up 
(Acts  xxii.  3).  It  has  been  conjectured 
that  he  may  be  the  Simeon  of  St.  Luke. 
Sim'eon  Ni'ger(Actsxiii.  i).  [Nigek.] 
Si'mon.  1.  Son  of  Mattathias.  [Mac- 
cabees.] 2.  Son  of  Onias  the  high-priest, 
whose  eulogy  closes  the."  praise  of  famous 
men "  in  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus  (cl'i. 
iv.).  3.  "A  governor  of  the  Temple"  in 
the  time  of  Seleucus  Philopator,  whose  in- 
formation as  to  the  treasures  of  the  Temple 
led  to  the  sacrilegious  attack  of  Heliodorus 
(2  Mace.  iii.  4,  &c.).  4.  Simon  the  Bkoth- 
ER  OF  Jesus.  —  The  only  undoubted  notice 
of  this  Simon  occurs  in  5latt.  xiii.  55,  Mark 
vi.  3.  He  has  been  identified  by  some  writers 
with  Simon  the  Canaanite,  and  still  more 
generally  with  Symeon  who  became  bishop 
of  Jerusalem  after  the  death  of  James,  a.  d. 
62.  The  former  of  these  opinions  rests  on 
no  evidence  whatever,  nor  is  the  latter  with- 
out its  difficulties.  5.  SisioN  THE  Canaan- 
ite, one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (Matt.  x. 
4.;  Mark  iii.  18),  otherwise  described  as 
Simon  Zelotes  (Luke  vi.  15;  Actsi.  13). — 
The  latter  term,  which  is  peculiar  to  Luke, 
is  the  Greek  equivalent  for  the  Chaldee 
term  preserved  by  Matthew  and  Mark. 
[Canaanite.]  Each  of  these  equally  points 
out  Simon  as  belonging  to  the  faction  of  the 
Zealots,  who  were  conspicuous  for  their 
fierce  advocacy  of  the  Mosaic  ritual.  6. 
Simon  of  Ctrene.  —  A  Hellenistic  Jew, 
born  at  Cyrene  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa, 
who  was  present  at  Jerusalem  at  the  time 
of  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus,  either  as  an  at- 
tendant at  the  feast  (Acts  ii.  10),  or  as  one 
of  the  numerous  settlers  at  Jerusalem  from 
that  place  (Acts  vi.  9).  Meeting  the  pro- 
cession that  conducted  Jesus  to  Golgotha, 
as  he  waa  returning  from  the  country,  be 


SIMON 


654 


SnT-OFFERING 


was  pressed  into  the  service  to  bear  the 
cross  (Matt,  xxvii.  32;  Mark  xv.  21 ;  Luke 
xxiii.  2G),  when  Jesus  himself  was  unable 
to  bear  it  any  longer  (corap.  John  xix.  17). 
Mark  describes  him  as  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander and  Kufus,  perhaps  because  this  was 
the  Rufus  known  to  the  Roman  Christians 
(Rom.  xvi.  13),  for  whom  he  more  especial- 
ly wrote.  7.  Simon  the  Leper.  —  A  res- 
ident at  Bethany,  distinguished  as  "  the 
leper."  It  is  not  improbable  that  he  had 
been  miraculously  cured  by  Jesus.  In  his 
house  Mary  anointed  Jesus  preparatory  to 
His  death  and  burial  (Matt.  xxvi.  6,  &c. ; 
Mark  xiv.  3,  &c. ;  John  xii.  1,  &c.).  8.  Si- 
mon Magus.  —  A  Samaritan  living  in  the 
Apostolic  age,  distinguished  as  a  sorcerer 
or  "  magician,"  from  his  practice  of  magi- 
cal arts  (Acts  viii.  9).  According  to  eccle- 
Biastical  writers  he  was  born  at  Gitton,  a 
village  of  Samaria,  and  was  probably  edu- 
cated at  Alexandria  in  the  tenets  of  the 
Gnostic  school.  He  is  first  introduced  to 
us  as  practising  magical  arts  in  a  city  of  Sa- 
maria, perhaps  Sychar  (Acts  viii.  5 ;  comp. 
John  iv.  5),  and  with  such  success,  that  he 
■was  pronounced  to  be  "the  power  of  God 
■which  is  called  great"  (Acts  viii.  10).  The 
preaching  and  miracles  of  Philip  having  ex- 
cited his  observation,  he  became  one  of  his 
disciples,  and  received  baptism  at  his  hands. 
Subsequently  he  witnessed  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  imposition  of  hands,  as  prac- 
tised by  the  Apostles  Peter  and  John,  and, 
Ijcing  desirous  of  acquiring  a  similar  power 
for  himself,  he  offered  a  sum  of  money  for 
it.  His  object  evidently  was  to  apply  the 
power  to  the  prosecution  of  magical  arts. 
The  mollve  and  the  means  were  equally  to 
be  reprobated ;  and  his  proposition  met  with 
a  severe  denunciation  from  Peter,  followed 
by  a  petition  on  the  part  of  Simon,  the  tenor 
of  which  bespeaks  terror,  but  not  penitence 
(Acts  viii.  9-24).  The  memory  of  his  pe- 
culiar guilt  has  been  perpetuated  in  the  word 
simony,  as  applied  to  all  traffic  in  spiritual 
offices.  Simon's  history,  subsequently  to 
his  meeting  with  Peter,  is  involved  in  diffi- 
culties. Early  Church  historians  depict  him 
as  the  pertinacious  foe  of  the  Apostle  Peter, 
whose  movements  he  followed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeking  encounters,  in  which  he  was 
signally  defeated.  He  is  said  to  have  fol- 
lowed the  Apostle  to  Rome.  His  death  is 
associated  with  tliis  meeting ;  according  to 
Hippolytus,  the  earliest  authority  on  the 
subject,  Simon  was  buried  alive  at  his  own 
request,  in  the  confident  assurance  that  he 
would  rise  again  on  the  third  day.  Accord- 
ing to  another  account,  he  attempted  to  fly, 
in  proof  of  his  supernatural  power ;  in  an- 
swer to  the  prayers  of  Peter,  he  fell,  and 
sustained  a  fracture  of  his  thigh  and  ankle- 
bones;  overcome  with  vexation,  he  commit- 
ted suicide.  9.  Simon  Petek.  [Peter.] 
10.  Simon,  a  Pharisee,  in  whose  house  a 


penitent  woman  anointed  the  head  and  feet 
of  Jesus  (Luke  vii.  40).  11.  Simon  tub 
Tanner.  —  A  Christian  convert  living  at 
Joppa,  at  whose  house  Peter  lodged  (Acta 
ix.  43).  The  house  was  near  the  sea-side 
(Acts  X.  6,  32),  for  the  convenience  of  the 
water.  12.  Simon,  the  father  of  Judas 
Iscariot  (John  vi.  71,  xiii.  2,  26). 

Sim'ri,  properly  "  Shimri,"  son  of 
Hosah,  a  Merarite  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
David  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  10). 

Sin,  a  city  of  Egypt,  mentioned  only  by 
Ezekiel  (xxx.  15,  IG).  The  name  is  He- 
brew, or,  at  least,  Semitic,  perhaps  signify- 
ing "  clay."  It  is  identified  in  the  Vulg. 
with  Pelusium,  "the  clayey  or  muddy" 
town.  Its  antiquity  may  perhaps  be  in- 
ferred from  the  mention  of  "  the  wilderness 
of  Sin  "  in  the  journeys  of  the  Israelites 
(Ex.  xvi.  1 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  11).  Ezekiel 
speaks  of  Sin  as  "  Sin  the  stronghold  of 
Egypt"  (xxx.  15).  This  place  it  held  from 
that  time  until  the  period  of  the  Romans. 
Herodotus  relates  that  Sennacherib  ad- 
vanced against  Pelusium,  and  that  near 
Pelusium  Cambyses  defeated  Psammenitus. 
In  like  manner  the  decisive  battle  in  which 
Ochus  defeated  the  last  native  king,  Nec- 
tanebos,  was  fought  near  this  city. 

Sin,  Wilderness  of,  a  tract  of  the 
wilderness  which  the  Israelites  reached  after 
leaving  the  encampment  by  the  Rod  Sea. 
(Num.  xxxiii.  11,  12).  Their  next  halting- 
place  (Ex.  xvi.  1,  xvii.  1)  was  Rephidim, 
probably  the  Wady  Feirdn  [Rephidim]  ; 
on  which  supposition  it  would  follow  that 
Sin  must  lie  between  that  wady  and  the 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  and  of  course 
west  of  Sinai.  In  the  wilderness  of  Sin  the 
manna  was  first  gathered,  and  those  who 
adopt  the  supposition  that  this  was  merely 
the  natural  product  of  the  tarfa  bush,  find 
from  the  abundance  of  that  shrub  in  llaJy 
es  Sheikh,  S.  E.  of  W.  GhHrundel  a  proof 
of  local  identity. 

Sin-offering.  The  sin-offering  among 
the  Jews  was  the  sacrifice,  in  which  the 
ideas  of  propitiation  and  of  atonement  for 
sin  were  most  distinctly  marked.  The  cer- 
emonial of  the  sin-offering  is  described  in 
Lev.  iv.  and  vi.  The  Trespass-offeeino 
is  closely  connected  with  the  sin-offering  in 
Leviticus,  but  at  the  same  time  clearly  dis- 
tinguished from  it,  being  in  some  cases 
offered  with  it  as  a  distinct  part  of  the  same 
sacrifice ;  as,  for  example,  in  the  cleansing 
of  tlie  leper  (Lev.  xiv.).  The  distinction 
of  ceremonial  clearly  indicates  a  difference 
in  the  idea  of  the  two  sacrifices.  The  na- 
ture of  that  difference  is  still  a  subject  of 
great  controversy.  We  find  that  the  sin- 
offerings  were  —  (A.)  Regular.  (1.)  For 
the  whole  people,  at  the  New  Moon,  Pass- 
over, Pentecost,  Feast  of  Trumpets,  and 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Num.  xxviii.  15- 
xxix.  38) ;  besides  the  solemn  offering  of 


sm-OFFERmG  655  SINAI 

the  two  goats  on  the  Great  Day  of  Atone-  l  tuously  "  (Ileb.  with  a  higli  Jiand)  "  shall 
ment   (Lev.   xvi.).     (2.)   For  the  Priests]  he  cut  off  from  among  his  people."  .  •  . 


(^Lcv.  iv., 
«<cs.«»(L«»v. 


>.ut 


iix. 


calene  trian^'io.     Tho.se 

divided   into  tTc  Treat 

"->et 

dn 


of 


WAii>  (iout)tk«i  exC'. 


SLAVE 


657 


SLAVE 


brew,  with  a  view  botli  to  obtain  mainte- 
nance, and  perchance  a  surplus  sufficient  to 
redeem  his   property  (Lev.  xxv.  25,  39). 

(2)  The  commission  of  theft  rendered  a 
person  liable  to  servitude,  whenever  resti- 
tution could  not  be  made  on  the  scale  pre- 
scribed by  the  Law  (Ex.  xxii.  1,  3).  The 
thief  was  bound  to  work  out  the  value  of 
his  restitution  money  in  the  service  of  hira 
on  whom   the  theft  had  been  committed. 

(3)  The  exercise  of  paternal  authority  was 
limited  to  the  sale  of  a  daughter  of  tender 
age  to  be  a  maid-servant,  with  the  ulterior 
view  of  her  becoming  the  concubine  of  the 
purchaser  (Ex.  xxi.  7).  2.  The  servitude 
of  a  Hebrew  miglit  be  terminated  in  three 
ways:  (1)  by  the  satisfaction  or  the  re- 
mission of  all  claims  against  hira ;  (2)  by 
the  recurrence  of  the  year  of  Jubilee  (Lev. 
xxv.  40) ;  and  (3)  the  expiration  of  six 
years  from  the  time  that  his  servitude  com- 
menced (Ex.  xxi.  2;  Deut.  xv.  12).  (4) 
To  the  above  modes  of  obtaining  liberty 
the  Rabbinists  added,  as  a  fourth,  the  death 
of  the  master  without  leaving  a  son,  there 
being  no  power  of  claiming  the  slave  on 
the  part  of  any  heir  except  a  son.  If  a 
servant  did  not  desire  to  avail  himself  of 
the  opportunity  of  leaving  his  service,  he 
was  to  signify  his  intention  in  a  formal 
manner  before  the  judges  (or  more  exactly 
at  the  place  of  judgment),  and  then  the 
master  was  to  take  him  to  the  door-post, 
and  to  bore  his  ear  through  with  an  awl  (Ex. 
xxi.  6),  driving  the  awl  into  or  "unto  the 
door,"  as  stated  in  Deut.  xv.  17,  and  thus 
fixing  the  servant  to  it.  A  servant  who 
had  submitted  to  this  operation  remained, 
according  to  the  words  of  the  Law,  a  ser- 
vant "  forever  "  (Ex.  xxi.  6).  These  words 
are,  however,  interpreted  by  Josephus  and 
by  the  Rabbinists  as  meaning  until  the 
year  of  Jubilee.  3.  The  condition  of  a 
Hebrew  servant  was  by  no  means  intoler- 
able. His  master  was  admonished  to  treat 
him,  not  "  as  a  bond-servant,  but  as  an  hired 
servant  and  as  a  sojourner,"  and,  again, 
"  not  to  rule  over  him  with  rigor  "  (Lev. 
xxv.  39,  40,  43).  At  the  termination  of  his 
servitude  the  master  was  enjoined  not  to 
"  let  him  go  away  empty,"  but  to  remuner- 
ate him  liberally  out  of  his  flock,  his  floor, 
and  his  wine-press  (Deut.  xv.  13,  14).  In 
the  event  of  a  Hebrew  becoming  the  ser- 
vant of  a  "stranger,"  meaning  a  non-He- 
brew, the  servitude  could  be  terminated 
only  in  two  ways,  viz.  by  the  arrival  of  the 
year  of  Jubilee,  or  by  the  repayment  to  the 
master  of  the  purcliase-moncy  paid  for  the 
servant,  after  deducting  a  sum  for  the 
value  of  his  services  proportioned  tO  the 
length  of  his  servitude  (Lev.  xxv.  47-55). 
A  llebrcw  woman  might  enter  into  volun- 
tary servitude  on  the  score  of  poverty,  and 
in  this  case  she  was  entitled  to  her  freedom 
after  six  years'  service,  together  with  her 

42 


usual  gratuity  at  leaving,  just  as  in  the 
case  of  a  man  (Deut.  xv.  12,  13).  Thus 
far  we  have  seen  little  that  is  objectionable 
in  the  condition  of  Hebrew  servants.  In 
respect  to  marriage  there  were  some  pecu- 
liarities which,  to  our  ideas,  would  be  re- 
garded as  hardships.  A  master  might,  for 
instance,  give  a  wife  to  a  Hebrew  servant 
for  the  time  of  his  servitude,  the  wife  being 
in  this  case,  it  must  be  remarked,  not  only 
a  slave,  but  a  non-Hebr^.  Should  he 
leave  when  his  term  had  expired,  his  wife 
and  children  would  remain  the  absolute 
property  of  the  master  (Ex.  xxi.  4,  5). 
Again,  a  father  might  sell  his  young  daugh- 
ter to  a  Hebrew,  with  a  view  either  of 
marrying  her  himself,  or  of  giving  her  to 
his  son  (Ex.  xxi.  7-9).  It  diminishes  the 
apparent  harshness  of  this  proceeding  if 
we  look  on  the  purchase-money  as  in  the 
light  of  a  dowry  given,  as  was  not  un- 
usual, to  the  parents  of  the  bride ;  still 
more,  if  we  accept  the  Rabbinical  view 
that  the  consent  of  the  maid  was  required 
before  the  marriage  could  take  place.  The 
position  of  a  maiden  thus  sold  by  her 
father  was  subject  to  the  following  regula- 
tions :  (1)  She  could  not  "  go  out  as  the 
men-servants  do,"  i.  e.  she  could  not  leave 
at  the  terminatiou  of  six  years,  or  in  the 
year  of  Jubilee,  if  her  master  was  willing 
to  fulfil  the  object  for  which  he  had  pur- 
chased her.  (2)  Should  he  not  wish  to 
marry  her,  he  should  call  upon  her  friends 
to  procure  her  release  by  the  repayment 
of  the  purchase-money.  (3)  If  he  be- 
trothed her  to  his  son,  he  was  bound  to 
make  such  provision  for  her  as  he  would 
for  one  of  his  own  daughters.  (4)  If  either 
he  or  his  son,  having  married  her,  took  a 
second  wife,  it  should  not  be  to  the  pre- 
judice of  the  first.  (5)  If  neither  of  the 
three  first  specified  alternatives  took  place, 
the  maid  was  entitled  to  immediate  andi 
gratuitous  liberty  (Ex.  xxi.  7-11).  The- 
custom  of  reducing  Hebrews  to  servitude' 
appears  to  have  fallen  into  disuse  subse-^ 
quently  to  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Vasfe 
numbers  of  Hebrews  were  reduced  to  sla-^ 
very  as  war-captives  at  diffferent  periods  by 
the  Phoenicians  (Joel  iii.  6),  the  Pliilistines 
(Joel  iii.  6 ;  Am.  i.  6),  the  Syrians  (1  Mace, 
iii.  41;  2  Mace.  viii.  11),  the  Egyptians: 
(Joseph.  Ant,  xii.  2,  §  3),  and,  above  alL 
by  the  Romans  (Joseph.  B.  J.  vi.  9,  §  3).. 
II.  Non-Hebrew  Slaves.  1.  The  majority 
of  non-Hebrew  slaves  were  war-captives, 
either  of  the  Canaanites  who  had  survived' 
the  general  extermination  of  their  race- 
under  Joshua,  or  such  as  were  conquered 
from  the  other  surrounding  nations  (Num. 
xxxi.  26,  ff".)  Besides  these,  many  were 
obtained  by  purchase  from  foreign  slave- 
dealers  (Lev.  xxv.  44,  45)  ;  and  otiiers  may 
have  been  resident  foreigners  who  were 
reduced  to  this  state  either  by  poverty  or 


SLIME 


658 


SO 


crime.  The  children  of  slaves  remained 
slaves,  being  the  class  described  as  "  born 
in  the  house  "  (Gen.  xiv.  14,  xvii.  12 ;  Eccl. 
ii.  7),  and  hence  the  number  was  likely  to 
increase  as  time  went  on.  The  average 
value  of  a  slave  appears  to  have  been  thirty 
shekels  (Ex.  xxi.  32.)  2.  That  the  slave 
might  be  manumitted,  appears  from  Ex. 
xxi.  26,  27 ;  Lev.  xix.  20.  3.  The  slave  is 
described  as  the  "  possession  "  of  his  mas- 
ter, apparently  with  a  special  reference  to 
tlie  power  which  the  latter  had  of  disposing 
of  him  to  his  heirs  as  he  would  any  other 
article  of  personal  property  (Lev.  xxv.  45, 
46) ;  the  slave  is  also  described  as  his  mas- 
ter's "  money  "  (Ex.  xxi.  21),  i.  e.  as  rep- 
resenting a  certain  money  value.  Such 
expressions  show  that  he  was  regarded 
very  much  in  the  light  of  a  chattel.  But 
on  the  other  hand,  provision  was  made  for 
the  protection  of  his  person  (Lev.  xxiv.  17, 
22;  Ex.  xxi.  20).  A  minor  personal  in- 
jury, such  as  the  loss  of  an  eye  or  a  tooth, 
was  to  be  recompensed  by  giving  the  ser- 
vant his  liberty  (Ex.  xxi.  2io,  27).  The 
position  of  the  slave  in  regard  to  religious 
privileges  was  favorable.  He  was  to  be 
circumcised  (Gen.  xvii.  12),  and  hence  was 
entitled  to  partake  of  the  Paschal  sacrifice 
(Ex.  xii.  44),  as  well  as  of  the  other  re- 
ligious festivals  (Deut.  xii.  12,  18,  xvi.  11, 
14).  The  occupations  of  slaves  were  of  a 
menial  character,  as  implied  in  Lev.  xxv. 
89,  consisting  partly  in"  the  work  of  the 
house,  and  partly  in  personal  attendance  on 
the  master. 

Slime,  translated  bitumen  in  the  Vul- 
gate. The  three  instances  in  which  it  is 
mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  are  illustrated  by 
travellers  and  historians.  It  is  first  spoken 
of  as  used  for  cement  by  the  builders  in  the 
plain  of  Shinar,  or  Babylonia  (Gen.  xi.  3). 
The  bitumen  pits  in  the  vale  of  Siddim 
are  mentioned  in  the  ancient  fragment  of 
Canaanitish  history  (Gen.  xiv.  10) ;  and 
tlie  ark  of  papyrus  in  which  Moses  was 
placed  was  made  impervious  to  water  by  a 
coating  of  bitumen  and  pitch  (Ex.  ii.  3). 
Herodotus  (i.  179)  tells  us  of  the  bitumen 
found  at  Is,  a  town  of  Babylonia,  eight 
days'  journey  from  Babylon.  The  town 
of  Is,  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  is  the  mod- 
ern Hit  or  Ileet,  on  the  west  or  right  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  four  days'  journey 
from  Bagdad.  The  principal  bitumen  pit 
at  Heet  has  two  sources,  and  is  divided  by 
a  wall  in  the  centre,  on  one  side  of  which 
bitumen  bubbles  up,  and  on  the  other  the 
oil  of  naphtha. 

Sling.     [Arms,  p.  52.] 

Smith.     [Handicraft.] 

Smyr'na,  the  city  to  which  allusion  is 
made  in  Revelation  ii.  8-11,  was  founded 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was  situated 
twenty  stades  from  the  city  of  the  same 
name,  wliich  aft^r  a  long  series  of  wars 


with  the  Lydians  had  been  finally  taken 
and  sacked  by  Halyattes.  It  seems  not 
impossible,  that  just  as  St.  Paul's  illustra- 
tions in  the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  are 
derived  from  the  Isthmian  games,  so  tho 
message  to  the  Church  in  Smyrna  contains 
allusions  to  the  ritual  of  tlie  pagan  mys- 
teries which  prevailed  in  tliat  city.  In  the 
time  of  Strabo  the  ruins  of  the  Old  Smyrna 
still  existed,  and  were  partially  inhabited, 
but  the  new  city  was  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful in  all  Asia.  The  streets  were  laid  out 
as  near  as  miglit  be  at  right  angles.  There 
was  a  large  public  library  tliere,  and  also  a 
handsome  building  surrounded  with  porti- 
cos which  served  as  a  museum.  It  was 
consecrated  as  a  heroum  to  Homer,  whom 
the  Smyrnaeans  claimed  as  a  countryman. 
Olympian  games  were  celebrated  here,  and 
excited  great  interest. 

Snail.  1.  The  Hebrew  word  shabUl 
occurs  only  in  Ps.  Iviii.  8.  The  rendering 
of  the  A.  V.  is  probably  correct.  The 
term  would  denote  either  a  Limax  or  a 
Helix,  which  are  particularly  noticeable 
for  the  slimy  track  they  leave  behind  them. 
2.  The  Hebrew  word  chdmet  occurs  only 
as  the  name  of  some  unclean  animal  in 
Lev.  xi.  30.  Perhaps  some  kind  of  lizard 
may  be  intended. 

Snow.  The  historical  books  of  the 
Bible  contain  only  two  notices  of  snow 
actually  falling  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20 ;  1  Mace, 
xiii.  22) ;  but  the  allusions  in  the  poetical 
books  are  so  numerous  that  there  can  be 
no  doubt  as  to  its  being  an  ordinary  occur- 
rence in  the  winter  months  (Ps.  cxlvii.  16, 
cxlviii.  8).  The  snow  lies  deep  in  the 
ravines  of  the  highest  ridge  of  Lebanon 
until  the  summer  is  far  advanced,  and  in- 
deed never  wholly  disappears ;  the  summit 
of  Hermon  also  perpetually  glistens  with 
frozen  snow.  From  these  sources  proba- 
bly the  Jews  obtained  their  supplies  of  ice 
for  the  purpose  of  cooling  their  beverages 
in  summer  (Pro v.  xxv.  13).  The  liability 
to  snow  must  of  course  vary  considerably 
in  a  country  of  such  varying  altitude  as 
Palestine.  At  Jerusalem  snow  often  falls 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more  in  January 
and  February,  but  it  seldom  lies.  At 
Nazareth  it  falls  more  frequently  and  deep- 
ly, and  it  has  been  observed  to  fall  even 
in  the  maritime  plain  of  Joppa  and  about 
Carmel. 

So.  "  So,  king  of  Egypt "  is  once  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible.  Hoshea,  the  last  king 
of  Israel,  evidently  intending  to  become 
the  vassal  of  Egypt,  sent  messengers  to 
him,  and  made  no  present,  as  had  been  the 
yearly  custom,  to  the  king  of  Assyria  (2 
K.  xvii.  4).  So  has  been  identified  by 
different  writers  with  the  first  and  second 
kings  of  the  Ethiopian  xxvth  dynasty, 
called,  by  Manetho,  Sabakon  (Shebek), 
and  Sebichos  (Shebetek). 


SOAP 


659 


SODOM 


Soap  The  Hebrew  term  IdritJi  is  a 
general  term  for  any  substance  of  cleansing 
qualities.  As,  however,  it  appears  in  Jer. 
ii.  22,  in  contradistinction  to  nether,  which 
undoubtedly  means  "  natron,"  or  mineral 
alkali,  it  is  fair  to  infer  that  bfirith  refers 
to  vegetable  alkali,  or  some  kind  of  potash, 
which  forms  one  of  the  usual  ingredients 
in  our  soap.  Numerous  plants,  capable 
of  yielding  alkalies,  exist  in  Palestine  and 
the  surrounding  countries ;  we  may  notice 
one  named  Hubeibeh  (the  salsola  kali  of 
botanists)  found  near  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
ashes  of  whicli  are  called  el-Kuli  from 
their  strong  alkaline  properties. 

So'cho,  1  Chr.  iv.  18.  Probably  the 
town  of  Socoh  in  Judah,  though  which  of 
the  two  cannot  be  ascertained. 

So'choh,  another  form  of  the  name 
which  is  more  correctly  given  in  the  A.  V. 
as  Socoh.  The  present  one  occurs  in  1  K. 
iv.  10,  and  is  therefore  probably,  though 
not  certainly,  Socoh  1. 

So'coh,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  1.  In  the  district  of  the 
Shefelah  (Josh.  xv.  85;  1  Sam.  xvii.  1; 
2  Chr.  xi.  7,  xxviii.  18).  In  the  time  of 
Eusebius  it  bore  the  name  of  Socchoth,  and 
lay  between  8  and  9  Roman  miles  from 
Eleutheropolis,  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem. 
It  may  be  identified  with  esh-Shuweikeh, 
in  the  western  part  of  the  mountains  of 
Judah.  From  this  village  probably  came 
"  Antigonus  of  Soco,"  who  lived  about  the 
commencement  of  the  3d  century  B.  c. 
2.  Also  a  town  of  Judah,  but  in  the  moun- 
tain district  (Josh.  xv.  48).  It  has  been 
discovered  about  10  miles  S.  W.  of  He- 
bron; bearing,  like  the  other  Socoh,  the 
name  of  esh-Shuweikeh. 

So'di,  the  father  of  Gaddiel,  the  spy 
selected  from  the  tribe  of  Zebulan  (Num. 
xiii.  10). 

Sod'om,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
3f  Syria.  It  is  commonly  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Gomorrah,  but  also  with 
Admah  and  Zeboim,  and  on  one  occasion 
(Gen.  xiv.)  with  Bela  or  Zoar.  Sodom 
was  evidently  the  chief  town  in  the  settle- 
ment. The  four  are  first  named  in  the 
ethnological  records  of  Gen.  x.  19,  as  be- 
longing to  the  Cauaanites.  The  next  men- 
tion of  the  name  of  Sodom  (Gen,  xiii.  10- 
13)  gives  more  certain  indication  of  the 
position  of  the  city.  Abram  and  Lot  are 
standing  together  between  Bethel  and  Ai 
(ver.  S),  taking  a  survey  of  the  land 
around  and  below  them.  Eastward  of 
them,  and  absolutely  at  their  feet,  lay  the 
*'  circle  of  Jordan."  The  whole  circle  was 
one  great  oasis  —  "a  garden  of  Jehovah " 
(ver.  10).  In  the  midst  of  the  garden  the 
four  cities  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah, 
and  Zeboim  appear  to  have  been  situated. 
It  is  necessary  to  notice  how  absolutely 
the  cities  are  identified  with  the  district. 


In  the  subsequent  account  of  their  destruc- 
tion (Gen.  xLx.),  the  topographical  terms 
are  employed  with  all  the  precision  which 
is  characteristic  of  such  early  times.  The 
mention  of  the  Jordan  is  conclusive  as  to 
the  situation  of  the  district,  for  the  Jordan 
ceases  where  it  enters  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
can  have  no  existence  south  of  that  point. 
The  catastrophe  by  which  they  were  de- 
stroyed is  described  in  Gen.  xix.  as  a 
shower  of  brimstone  and  fire  from  Jehovah. 
However  we  may  interpret  the  words  of 
the  earliest  narrative,  one  thing  is  certain 

—  that  the  lake  was  not  one  of  the  agents  in 
the  catastrophe.  Nor  is  it  implied  in  any 
of  the  later  passages  in  which  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  cities  is  referred  to  throughout 
the  Scriptures.  Quite  the  contrary.  Those 
passages  always  speak  of  the  district  on 
which  the  cities  once  stood,  not  as  sub- 
merged, but  as  still  visible,  though  deso- 
late and  uninhabitable.  In  agreement  with 
this  is  the  statement  of  Josephus,  and  the 
accounts  of  heathen  writers,  as  Strabo  and 
Tacitus ;  who,  however  vague  their  state- 
ments, are  evidently  under  tlie  belief  that 
the  district  was  not  under  water,  and  that 
the  remains  of  the  towns  were  still  to  be 
seen.  Erom  all  these  passages,  though 
much  is  obscure,  two  things  seem  clear : 
1.  That  Sodom  and  the  rest  of  the  cities 
of  the  plain  of  Jordan  stood  on  the  north 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  2.  That  neither  the 
cities  nor  the  district  were  submerged  by 
the  lake,  but  that  the  cities  were  over- 
thrown and  the  land  spoiled,  and  that  it 
may  still  be  seen  in  its  desolate  condition. 
When,  however,  we  turn  to  more  modern 
views,  we  discover  a  remarkable  variance 
from  these  conclusions.  1.  The  opinion 
long  iturrent,  that  the  five  cities  were  sub- 
merged in  the  lake,  and  that  their  remains 

—  walls,  columns,  and  capitals  —  might  be 
still  discerned  below  the  water,  hardly 
needs  refutation  after  the  distinct  state- 
ment and  the  constant  implication  of  Scrip- 
ture. But — 2.  A  more  serious  departure 
from  the  terms  of  the  ancient  history  is 
exhibited  in  the  prevalent  opinion  that  the 
citieji  stood  at  the  south  end  of  the  lake. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  belief  of 
Josephus  and  Jerome.  It  seems  to  have 
been  universally  held  by  the  mediaeval 
historians  and  pilgrims,  and  it  is  adopted 
by  modern  topographers,  probably  without 
exception.  There  are  several  grounds  for 
this  belief;  but  the  main  point  on  which 
Dr.  Robinson  rests  his  argument  is  the  sit- 
uation of  Zoar.  (a.)  "  Lot,"  says  he,  "  fled 
to  Zoar,  which  was  near  to  Sodom ;  and 
Zoar  lay  almost  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
present  sea,  probab'  y  in  the  mouth  of  Wady 
Kerak."  (6.)  Another  consideration  in 
favor  of  placing  the  cities  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  lake  is  the  existence  of  similar 
names  in  that  direction,    (c.)  A  third  argu- 


SODOMA 


SOLOMON 


went,  and  perhaps  the  weightiest  of  the 
three,  is  the  existence  of  the  salt  moun- 
tain at  the  south  of  the  lake,  and  its  ten- 
dency to  split  off  in  columnar  masses,  pre- 
senting a  rude  resemblance  to  the  human 
form.  But  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that 
salt  does  not  exist  at  other  spots  round  the 
lake.  It  thus  appears  that  on  the  situation 
of  Sodom  no  satisfactory  conclusion  can  at 
present  be  come  to.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
narrative  of  Genesis  seems  to  state  posi- 
tively that  it  lay  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  On  the  other  hand,  the  long- 
continued  tradition  and  the  names  of  exist- 
ing spots  seem  to  pronounce  with  almost 
equal  positiveness  that  it  was  at  its  southern 
end.  —  Of  the  catastrophe  which  destroyed 
the  city  and  the  district  of  Sodom  we  can 
hardly  hope  ever  to  form  a  satisfactory  con- 
ception. Some  catastrophe  there  undoubt- 
edly was.  But  what  secondary  agencies, 
besides  fire,  were  employed  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  punishment  cannot  be  safe- 
ly determined  in  the  almost  total  absence  of 
exact  scientific  description  of  the  natural 
features  of  the  ground  round  the  lake.  It 
was  formerly  supposed  that  the  overthrow 
of  Sodom  was  caused  by  the  convulsion 
which  formed  the  Dead  Sea.  But  the 
changes  which  occurred  when  the  limestone 
strata  of  Syria  were  split  by  that  vast 
fissure  which  forms  the  Jordan  Valley  and 
the  basin  of  the  Salt  Lake,  must  not  only 
have  taken  place  at  a  time  long  anterior  to 
the  period  of  Abraham,  but  must  have 
been  of  such  a  nature  and  on  such  a  scale 
as  to  destroy  all  animal  life  far  and  near. 
But  in  fact  the  narrative  of  Gen.  xix. 
neither  states  nor  implies  that  any  convul- 
sion of  the  earth  occurred.  If  it  were  pos- 
sible to  speculate  on  materials  at  once  so 
slender  and  so  obscure  as  are  furnished  by 
that  narrative,  it  would  be  more  consistent 
to  suppose  that  the  actual  agent  in  the  igni- 
tion and  destruction  of  the  cities  had  been 
of  the  nature  of  a  tremendous  thunder- 
storm accompanied  by  a  discharge  of 
meteoric  stones.  The  name  Sodom  has 
been  interpreted  to  mean  "  burning."  The 
miserable  fate  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  is 
held  up  as  a  warning  in  numerous  passages 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (2  Pet.  ii. 
6;  Jude4-7;  Mark  vi.  11). 

Sod'oma.  Eom.  ix.  29.  In  this  place 
alone  the  Authorized  Version  has  followed 
the  Greek  and  Vulgate  form  of  the  well- 
known  name  Sodom. 

Sod'omites.  This  word  does  not  de- 
note the  inhabitants  of  Sodom;  but  it  is 
employed  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment for  those  who  practised  as  a  religious 
rite  the  abominable  and  unnatural  vice 
from  which  the  inhabitants  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  have  derived  their  lasting  infamy. 
It  occurs  in  Dout.  xxiii.  17 ;  1  K.  xiv.  24, 
zv.  12,  sdi.  16;  2  E   xxiii.  7;  and  Job 


xxxvi.  14  (margin).  The  Hebrew  word 
Kadesh  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a  root 
kadash,  which  (strange  as  it  may  appear) 
means  " pure,"  and  thence  "holy."  This 
dreadful  "  consecration,"  or  rather  des- 
ecration, was  spread  in  differei  ,t  forms  over 
Phoenicia,  Syria,  Phrygia,  Assyria,  Baby- 
lonia. 

Sol'Oinon.  I.  Early  Life  and  Acces- 
sion. —  He  was  the  child  of  David's  old 
age,  the  last-born  of  all  his  sons  (1  Chr.  iii. 
5).  The  feelings  of  the  king  and  of  his 
prophet-guide  expressed  themselves  in  the 
names  with  which  they  welcomed  his  l)irth. 
The  yearnings  of  the  "  man  of  war  "  now 
led  him  to  give  to  the  new-born  infant  the 
name  of  Solomon  {SMlomoh  =  the  peace- 
ful  one).  Nathan,  with  a  marked  reference 
to  the  meaning  of  the  king's  own  name 
(David  =  the  darling,  the  beloved  o»c),  calls 
the  infant  Jedidiah  (Jedid-yah),  that  is,  the 
"darling  of  the  Lord"  (2  Sara.  xii.  24, 
25).  He  was  placed  under  the  care  of 
Nathan  from  his  earliest  infancy.  At  first, 
apparently,  there  was  no  distinct  pur- 
pose to  make  him  his  heir.  Absalom  is 
still  the  king's  favorite  son  (2  Sam.  xiii. 
37,  xviii.  33)  —  is  looked  on  by  the  people 
as  the  destined  successor  (2  Sam.  xiv.  13, 
XV.  1-6).  The  death  of  Absalom,  when 
Solomon  was  about  ten  years  old,  left  the 
place  vacant,  and  David  pledged  his  word 
in  secret  to  Bathsheba  that  he,  and  no 
other,  should  be  the  heir  (1  K.  i.  13).  The 
words  which  were  spoken  somewhat  later, 
express,  doubtless,  the  purpose  which 
guided  him  throughout  (1  Chr.  xxviii.  9, 
20).  His  son's  life  should  not  be  as  his 
own  had  been,  one  of  hardships  and  wars, 
dark  crimes  and  passionate  repentance,  but, 
from  first  to  last,  be  pure,  blameless,  peace- 
ful, fulfilling  the  ideal  of  glory  and  of 
righteousness,  after  which  he  himself  had 
vainly  striven.  The  glorious  visions  of 
Ps.  Ixxii.  maybe  looked  on  as  the  prophetic 
expansion  of  those  hopes  of  liis  old  age. 
So  far,  all  was  well.  But  we  may  not 
ignore  the  fact,  that  the  later  years  of 
David's  life  presented  a  change  for  the 
worse,  as  well  as  for  the  better.  We  can- 
not rest  in  the  belief  that  his  influence  over 
his  son's  character  was  one  exclusively  for 
good.  Nothing  that  we  know  of  Bathsheba 
leads  us  to  think  of  her  as  Ukely  to  mould 
her  son's  mind  and  heart  to  the  higher 
forms  of  goodness.  Under  these  influences 
the  boy  grew  up.  At  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven 
he  must  have  passed  through  the  revolt  of 
Absalom,  and  shared  his  father's  exile  (2 
Sam.  XV.  16).  He  would  be  taught  all 
that  priests,  or  Levites,  or  prophets  had  to 
teach.  Admirable,  however,  as  all  this 
was,  a  shepherd-life,  like  his  father's,  fur- 
nished, we  may  believe,  a  better  education 
for  the  kingly  calling  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  70,  71). 
The  feebleness  of  David's  old  age  led  to  an 


SOLOMON 


661 


SOLOMON 


attempt  which  might  liave  deprived  Solomon 
of  the  throne  his  father  destined  for  him. 
Adonijah,  next  in  order  of  birth  to  Absa- 
lom, like  Absalom  "  was  a  goodly  man  "  (1 
K.  i.  6),  in  full  maturity  of  years,  backed 
by  the  oldest  of  the  king's  friends  and 
counsellors.  Following  in  tlie  steps  of  Ab- 
salom, he  assumed  the  kingly  state  of  a 
chariot  and  a  bodyguard.  At  last  a  time 
was  chosen  for  openly  proclaiming  him  as 
king.  A  solemn  feast  at  En-rogel  was  to 
inaugurate  the  new  reign.  It  was  necessary 
for  those  whose  interests  were  endangered 
to  take  prompt  measures,  Bathsheba  and 
Nathan  took  counsel  together.  The  king 
was  reminded  of  his  oath.  Solomon  went 
down  to  GiHON,  and  was  proclaimed  and 
anointed  king.  The  shouts  of  his  followers 
fell  on  the  startled  ears  of  the  guests  at 
Adonijah's  banquet.  One  by  one  they  rose 
and  departed.  The  plot  had  failed.  A  few 
months  more,  and  Solomon  found  himself, 
by  his  father's  death,  the  sole  occupant  of 
the  throne.  The  position  to  which  he  suc- 
ceeded was  unique.  Never  before,  and  never 
after,  did  the  kingdom  of  Israel  take  its 
place  among  the  great  monarchies  of  the 
East.  Large  treasures  accumulated  through 
many  years  were  at  his  disposal.  —  Of  Solo- 
mon's personal  appearance  we  have  no  di- 
rect description,  as  we  have  of  the  earlier 
kings.  There  are,  however,  materials  for 
filling  up  the  gap.  Whatever  higher  mystic 
meaning  may  be  latent  in  Ps.  xlv.,  or  the 
Song  of  Songs,  we  are  all  but  compelled  to 
think  of  them  as  having  had,  at  least,  an  his- 
torical starting-point.  They  tell  us  of  one 
who  was,  in  the  eyes  of  the  men  of  his  own 
time,  "  fsiirer  than  the  children  of  men,"  the 
face  *'  bright  and  ruddy "  as  his  father's 
(Cant.  V.  10;  1  Sam.  xvii.  42),  bushy  locks, 
dark  as  the  raven's  wing,  yet  not  without  a 
golden  glow,  the  eyes  soft  as  "  the  eyes  of 
doves,"  the  "  countenance  as  Lebanon,  ex- 
cellent as  the  cedars,"  "  the  chiefest  among 
ten  thousand,  the  altogether  lovely"  (Cant. 
V.  9-16).  Add  to  this  all  gifts  of  a  noble, 
far-reaching  intellect,  large  and  ready  sym- 
pathies, a  playful  and  genial  humor,  the 
lips  "  full  of  grace,"  the  soul  "  anointed  " 
as  "  with  the  oil  of  gladness  "  (Ps.  xlv.), 
and  we  may  form  some  notion  of  what  the 
king  was  like  in  that  dawn  of  his  golden 
prime.  —  The  narrative  of  the  earliest  facts 
in  the  history  of  the  new  reign,  as  told  in 
1  K.  ii.,  is  not  a  little  perplexing.  Bath- 
sheba, who  had  before  stirred  up  David 
against  Adonijah,  now  appears  as  interced- 
ing for  him,  begging  that  Abishag  the  Shu- 
nammite,  the  virgin  concubine  of  David, 
might  be  given  him  as  a  wife.  Solomon, 
who  till  then  had  professed  the  profoundest 
reverence  for  his  mother,  suddenly  flashes 
>  into  fiercest  wrath  at  this.  The  petition  is 
treated  as  part  of  a  conspiracy  in  which 
Joab  and  Abiathar  are  sharers.    Adonijah 


is  put  to  death  at  once.  Joab  is  slain  even 
within  the  precincts  of  the  Tabernacle,  to 
which  he  had  fled  as  an  asylum.  Abiathar 
is  deposed,  and  exiled,  sent  to  a  life  of  pov- 
erty and  shame  (1  K.  ii.  31-36),  and  the 
high-priesthood  transferred  to  another  fam- 
ily. [Zadoic]  II.  Reign.  —  All  the  data 
for  a  continuous  history  that  we  have  of 
Solomon's  reign  are  —  (a.)  The  duration 
of  the  reign,  40  years  (1  K.  xi.  42)  b.  c. 
1015-975.  (6.)  The  commencement  of  the 
Temple  in  the  4th,  its  completion  in  tlie 
11th  year  of  his  reign  (1  K.  vi.  1,  37,  38). 
(c.)  The  commencement  of  his  own  palace 
in  the  7th,  its  completion  in  the  20th  year 
(1  K.  vii.  U  2  Chr.  viii.  1).  (d.)  The  con- 
quest of  Hamath-Zobah,  and  the  conse- 
quent foundation  of  cities  in  the  region 
north  of  Palestine  after  the  20th  year  (2 
Chr.  viii.  1-6).  With  materials  so  scanty 
as  these,  it  will  be  better  to  group  the  chief 
facts  in  an  order  which  will  best  enable  us 
to  appreciate  their  significance.  III.  For- 
eign Policy.  —  1.  Egypt.  The  first  act  of  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  new  reign  must  have 
been  to  most  Israelites  a  very  startling  one 
He  made  aflinity  with  Pharaoh,  king  of 
Egypt,  by  marrying  his  daughter  (IK.  iii. 
I).  The  immediate  results  were  probably 
favorable  enough.  The  new  queen  brought 
with  her  as  a  dowry  the  frontier-city  of 
Gezer,  against  which,  as  threatening  the 
tranquillity  of  Israel,  and  as  still  possessed 
by  a  remnant  of  the  old  Canaanites,  Pha- 
raoh had  led  his  armies.  She  was  received 
with  all  honor.  A  separate  and  stately  pal- 
ace was  built  for  her,  before  long,  outside 
the  city  of  David  (2  Chr.  viii.  11).  The 
ultimate  issue  of  the  alliance  showed  that 
it  was  hollow  and  impolitic.  There  may 
have  been  a  revolution  in  Egypt.  There 
was,  at  any  rate,  a  change  of  policy.  There 
was  planned  the  scheme  which  first  led  to 
the  rebellion  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  then 
to  the  attack  of  Shishak  on  the  weakened 
and  dismantled  kingdom  of  the  son  of 
Solomon.  2.  Tyre.  The  alliance  with  the 
Phoenician  king  rested  on  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent footing.  It  had  been  part  of  David's 
policy  from  •  the  beginning  of  his  reign. 
Hiram  had  been  "  ever  a  lover  of  David." 
As  soon  as  he  heard  of  Solomon's  accession 
he  sent  ambassadors  to  salute  him.  A  cor- 
respondence passed  between  the  two  kings, 
which  ended  in  a  treaty  of  commerce.  The 
opening  of  Joppa  as  a  port  created  a  new 
coasting-trade,  and  the  materials  from  Tyre 
were  conveyed  to  it  on  floats,  and  thence  to 
Jerusalem  (2  Chr.  ii.  16).  In  return  for  these 
exports,  the  Phoenicians  were  only  too  glad 
to  receive  the  corn  and  oil  of  Solomon's  ter- 
ritory. The  results  of  the  alliance  did  not  end 
here.  Now,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
Israel,  they  entered  on  a  career  as  a  commer- 
cial people.  They  joined  the  Phoenicians  in 
their  Mediterranean  voyages  to  the  coasta  of 


SOLOMON 


662 


SOLOMON 


Spuiu.  iiol  ;mon's  possession  of  the  Edom- 
ite  roast  enabled  him  to  open  to  his  ally  a 
new  world  of  commerce.  The  ports  of  Elath 
and  Ezion-geber  were  filled  with  ships  of 
Tarshish,  merchant-ships,  manned  chiefly 
by  Phoenicians,  but  built  at  Solomon's  ex- 
pense, which  sailed  down  the  Aelanitic 
Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  on  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  to  lands  which  had  before  been 
hardly  known  even  by  name.  According 
to  the  statement  of  the  Phoenician  writers 
quoted  by  Josephus  (^Ani.  viii.  5,  §  3),  the 
intercourse  of  the  two  kings  had  in  it  also 
something  of  the  sportiveness  and  freedom 
of  friends.  They  delighted  to  perplex  each 
other  with  hard  questions,  and  iaid  wagers 
as  to  their  power  of  answering  them.  The 
singular  fragment  of  history  inserted  in  1 
K.  ix.  11-14,  recording  the  cession  by  Sol- 
omon of  sixteen  cities,  and  Hiram's  dis- 
satisfaction with  them,  is  perhaps  connect- 
ed with  these  imperial  wagers.  3.  These 
were  the  two  most  important  alliances. 
The  absence  of  any  reference  to  Babylon 
and  Assyria,  and  the  fact  that  the  Euphrates 
was  recognized  as  the  boundary  of  Solo- 
mon's kingdom  (2  Chr.  ix.  26),  suggest  the 
inference  that  the  Mesopotamian  monar- 
chies were  at  this  time  comparatively  feeble. 
Other  neighboring  nations  were  content  to 
pay  annual  tribute  in  the  form  of  gifts  (2 
Chr.  ix.  42).  4.  The  survey  of  the  influ- 
ence exercised  by  Solomon  on  surrounding 
nations  would  be  incomplete  if  we  were  to 
pass  over  that  which  was  more  directly 
personal  —  the  fame  of  his  glory  and  his 
wisdom.  Wherever  the  ships  of  Tarshish 
went,  they  carried  with  them  the  report, 
losing  nothing  in  its  passage,  of  what  their 
crews  had  seen  and  heard.  The  journey 
of  the  queen  of  Sheba,  though  from  its  cir- 
cumstances the  most  conspicuous,  did  not 
stand  alone.  She  had  heard  of  the  wisdom 
of  Solomon,  and  connected  with  it  "  the 
name  of  Jehovah  "  (1  K.  x.  1).  She  came 
with  hard  questions  to  test  that  wisdom, 
and  the  words  just  quoted  may  throw  light 
upon  their  nature.  The  historians  of  Israel 
delighted  to  dwell  on  her  confession  that 
the  reality  surpassed  the  fame,  "  the  one 
half  of  the  greatness  of  thy  wisdom  was  not 
told  me"  (2  Chr.  ix.  6).  IV.  Internal 
History.  —  1.  The  first  prominent  scene 
in  Solomon's  reign  is  one  which  presents 
his  character  in  its  noblest  aspect.  There 
were  two  holy  places  which  divided  the 
reverence  of  the  people,  the  ark  and  its 
provisional  tabernacle  at  Jerusalem,  and 
the  original  Tabernacle  of  the  congrega- 
tion, which,  after  many  wanderings,  was 
now  pitched  at  Gibeon.  It  was  thought 
right  that  the  new  king  should  oflTer  solemn 
sacrifices  at  both.  After  those  at  Gibeon, 
there  came  that  vision  of  the  night,  in 
which  Solomon  prayed,  not  for  riches,  or 
long  life,  or  yictory  over  enemies,  but  for 


a  "  wise  and  understanding  heart,"  that  ha 
might  judge  the  people.  The  *'  speech 
pleased  the  Lord."  The  wisdom  asked 
for  was  given  in  large  measure,  and  took 
a  varied  range.  The  wide  world  of  nature, 
animate  and  inanimate,  the  lives  and  char- 
acters of  men,  lay  before  him,  and  he  took 
cognizance  of  all.  But  the  highest  wisdom 
was  that  wanted  for  the  highest  work,  for 
governing  and  guiding,  and  the  historian 
hastens  to  give  an  illustration  of  it.  The 
pattern-instance  is,  in  all  its  circumstances, 
thoroughly  Oriental  (1  K.  iii.  16-28).  2. 
In  reference  to  the  king's  finances,  the  first 
impression  of  the  facts  given  us  is  that  of 
abounding  plenty.  Large  quantities  of  the 
precious  metals  were  imported  from  Ophir 
and  Tarshish  (1  K.  ix.  28).  All  the  kings 
and  princes  of  the  subject  provinces  paid 
tribute  in  the  form  of  gifts,  in  money  and 
in  kind,  "  at  a  fixed  rate  year  by  year  "  (1 
K.  X.  25).  Monopolies  of  trade  contributed 
to  the  king's  treasury  (1  K.  x.  28,  29). 
The  king's  domain-lands  were  apparently 
let  out,  at  a  fixed  annual  rental  (Cant, 
viii.  11).  All  the  provinces  of  his  own 
kingdom  were  bound  each  in  turn  to  sup- 
ply the  king's  enormous  household  with 
provisions  (1  K.  iv.  21-23).  The  total 
amount  thus  brought  into  the  treasury  in 
gold,  exclusive  of  all  payments  in  kind, 
amounted  to  666  talents  (1  K.  x.  14).  3. 
It  was  hardly  possible,  however,  that  any 
financial  system  could  bear  the  strain  of 
the  king's  passion  for  magnificence.  The 
cost  of  the  Temple  was,  it  is  true,  provided 
for  by  David's  savings  and  the  offerings  of 
the  people ;  but  even  while  that  was  build- 
ing, yet  more  when  it  was  finished,  one 
structure  followed  on  another  with  ruinous 
rapidity.  All  the  equipment  of  his  court, 
the  "  apparel "  of  his  servants,  was  on  the 
same  scale.  A  bodyguard  attended  him, 
"  threescore  valiant  men,"  tallest  and  hand- 
somest of  the  sons  of  Israel.  Forty  thou- 
sand stalls  of  horses  for  his  chariots,  and 
twelve  thousand  horsemen,  made  up  the 
measure  of  his  magnificence  (1  K.  iv.  26). 
As  the  treasury  became  empty,  taxes  mul- 
tiplied and  monopolies  became  more  irk- 
some. The  people  complained,  not  of  the 
king's  idolatry,  but  of  their  burdens,  of  his 
"grievous  yoke"  (1  K.  xii.  4).  Their 
hatred  fell  heaviest  on  Adoniram,  who  was 
over  the  tribute.  4.  A  description  of  the 
Temple  erected  by  Solomon  is  given  else- 
where. After  seven  years  and  a  half  the 
work  was  completed,  and  the  day  came  to 
which  all  Israelites  looked  back  as  the  cul- 
minating glory  of  their  nation.  The  ark 
from  Zion,  the  tabernacle  from  Gibeon, 
were  both  removed  (2  Chr.  v.  5),  and 
brought  to  the  new  Temple.  In  the  sol- 
emn dedication  of  the  building  the  person 
of  the  king  is  the  one  central  object,  com- 
pared with  whom  even  priests  and  prophets 


SOLOMON 


663 


SOLOMON'S  SEllVANTS 


are  for  the  time  subordinate.  From  him 
came  the  lofty  prayer,  the  noblest  utter- 
ance of  the  creed  of  Israel,  setting  forth 
tlie  distance  and  the  nearness  of  the  Eter- 
nal God,  One,  Incomprehensible,  dwelling 
not  in  temples  made  with  hands,  yet  ruling 
men,  hearing  their  prayers,  giving  them 
all  good  things,  wisdom,  peace,  righteous- 
ness. 5.  We  cannot  ignore  the  fact  that 
even  now  there  were  some  darker  shades  in 
the  picture.  He  reduced  the  "  strangers  " 
in  the  land,  the  remnant  of  the  Canaanite 
races,  to  the  state  of  helots,  and  made  their 
life  "  bitter  with  all  hard  bondage."  One 
hundred  and  fifty-three  thousand,  with  wives 
and  children  in  proportion,  were  torn  from 
their  homes  and  sent  oflfto  the  quarries  and 
the  forests  of  Lebanon  (1  K.  v.  15;  2  Chr. 
ii.  17,  18).  And  the  king  soon  fell  from  the 
loftiest  height  of  his  religious  life  to  the 
lowest  depth.  Before  long  the  priests  and 
prophets  had  to  grieve  over  rival  temples  to 
Moloch,  Chemosh,  Ashtaroth,  forms  of  ritual 
not  idolatrous  only,  but  cruel,  dark,  impure. 
This  evil  came  as  the  penalty  of  another 
(1  K.  xi.  1-8).  He  gave  himself  to  "strange 
women."  He  found  himself  involved  in  a 
fascination  w  hich  led  to  the  worship  of 
strange  gods.  Something  there  wjis  per- 
haps in  his  very  "  largeness  of  heart,"  so 
far  in  advance  of  the  traditional  knowledge 
of  his  age,  rising  to  higher  and  wider 
thoughts  of  God,  which  predisposed  hira  to 
it.  In  recognizing  what  was  true  in  other 
forms  of  faith,  he  might  lose  his  horror  at 
what  was  false.  With  this  there  may  have 
mingled  political  motives.  He  may  have 
hoped,  by  a  policy  of  toleration,  to  concili- 
ate neighboring  princes,  to  attract  a  larger 
traffic.  But  probably  also  there  was  another 
influence  less  commonly  taken  into  account. 
The  wide-spread  belief  of  the  East  in  the 
magic  arts  of  Solomon  is  not,  it  is  believed, 
without  its  foundation  of  truth.  Disasters 
followed  before  long  as  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  what  was  politically  a  blunder  as 
well  as  religiously  a  sin.  The  strength  of 
the  nation  rested  on  its  unity,  and  its  unity 
depended  on  its  faith.  Whatever  attrac- 
tions the  sensuous  ritual  which  he  intro- 
duced may  have  had  for  the  great  body  of 
the  people,  the  priests  and  Levites  must 
have  looked  on  the  rival  worship  with  en- 
tire disfavor.  The  zeal  of  the  prophetic  or- 
der was  now  kindled  into  active  opposition 
(1  K.  xi.  28-39).  The  king  in  vain  tried 
to  check  the  current  that  was  setting  strong 
against  him.  The  old  tribal  jealousies 
gave  signs  of  renewed  vitality.  Ephraim 
was  prepared  once  more  to  dispute  the 
supremacy  of  Judah,  needing  special  con- 
trol (1  K.  xi.  28).  And  with  this  weakness 
within  there  came  attacks  from  without. 
The  king,  prematurely  old,  must  have  fore- 
seen the  rapid  breaking  up  of  the  great 
monarchy  to  which  he  had  succeeded.    Of 


the  inner  changes  of  mind  and  heart  wliich 
ran  parallel  with  this  history  Scripture  ic 
comparatively  silent.  Something  may  be 
learnt  from  the  books  that  bear  his  name ; 
something  also  from  the  fact  that  so  little 
remains  out  of  so  much,  out  of  the  songs, 
proverbs,  treatises  of  which  the  historian 
speaks  (1  K.  iv.  32,  33).  Excerpta  only  are 
given  from  the  3000  Proverbs.  Of  the 
thousand  and  five  Songs  we  know  absolute- 
ly nothing.  They  represent  the  three  stages 
of  his  life.  The  Song  of  Songs  brings  be- 
fore us  the  brightness  of  his  youth.  Then 
comes  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  the  stage 
of  practical,  prudential  thought.  The  poet 
has  become  the  philosopher,  the  mystic  has 
passed  into  the  moralist.  But  the  man 
passed  through  both  stages  without  being  per- 
manently the  better  for  either.  They  were 
to  him  but  phases  of  his  life  which  he  had 
known  and  exhausted  (Eccl.  i.,  ii.).  And 
therefore  there  came,  as  in  the  Confessions 
of  the  Preacher,  the  great  retribution.  V. 
Legends.  —  Round  the  facts  of  the  history, 
as  a  nucleus,  there  gathers  a  whole  world 
of  fantastic  fables,  Jewish,  Christian,  and 
Mohammedan.  Even  in  the  Targum  of 
Ecclesiastes  we  find  strange  stories  of  his 
character.  He  left  behind  him  spells  and 
charms  to  cure  diseases  and  cast  out  evil 
spirits.  His  wisdom  enabled  him  to  inter- 
pret the  speech  of  beasts  and  birds.  He 
knew  the  secret  virtues  of  gems  and  herbs. 
Arabic  imagination  took  a  yet  wilder  flight. 
After  a  strong  struggle  with  the  rebellious 
Afreets  and  Jinns,  Solomon  conquered  them 
and  cast  them  into  the  sea.  To  him  be- 
longed the  magic  ring  which  revealed  to 
him  the  past,  the  present,  and  the  future. 
The  visit  of  the  queen  of  Slieba  furnished 
some  three  or  four  romances.  —  We  pass 
from  this  wild  farrago  of  Jewish  and  other 
fables,  to  that  which  presents  the  most  en- 
tire contrast  to  them.  The  teaching  of  the 
N.  T.  adds  nothing  to  the  materials  for  a 
life  of  Solomon.  It  enables  us  to  take  the 
truest  measure  of  it.  The  teaching  of  the 
Son  of  Man  passes  sentence  on  all  that 
kingly  pomp  (Matt.  vi.  29).  It  was  re- 
served for  the  true,  the  later  Son  of  David 
to  fulfil  the  prophetic  yearnings  which  had 
gathered  round  the  birth  of  the  earlier.  He 
was  the  true  Shfilomoh,  the  Prince  of  Peace, 
the  true  Jedid-jah,  the  well-beloved  of  the 
Father. 

Solomon's  Porch.  [Palace;  Tem- 
ple.] 

Solomon's  Servants  (Childrotw  of). 

(Ezr.  ii.  56,  68;  Neh.  vii.  57,  60).  The 
persons  thus  named  appear  in  the  lists  of 
the  exiles  who  returned  from  the  Captivity. 
They  were  the  descendants  of  the  Canaan- 
ites,  who  wero  reduced  by  Solomon  to  the 
helot  state,  and  compelled  to  labor  in  the 
king's  stone-quarries,  and  in  building  hia 
palaces  and  cities  (1  K.  v.  13,  14,  ix.  20, 


SOLOMON'S  SONG 


6G4 


SPARROW 


21 ;  2  Chr.  viii.  7,  8).  They  appear  to  have 
formed  a  distinct  order,  inheriting  probably 
tlie  same  functions  and  the  same  skill  as 
their  ancestors. 

Solomon's  Song.     [Canticles.] 

Solomon,  Wisdom  of.  [AVisdom, 
Book  of.] 

Son.  The  term  "  son  "  is  used  in  Scrip- 
ture language  to  imply  almost  any  kind  of 
descent  or  succession,  as  ben  shdndh,  "  son 
of  a  year,"  i.  e.  a  year  old,  ben  kesheth, 
"  son  of  a  bow,"  i.  e.  an  arrow.  The  word 
bar  is  often  found  in  the  N.  T.  in  composi- 
tion, as  Bar-tiniaeus. 

Soothsayer.     [Divination.] 

Sop'ater,  sonof  Pyrrhus  of  Beroea,  was 
one  of  the  companions  of  St.  Paul  on  his  re- 
turn from  Greece  into  Asia  (Acts  xx.  4). 

Soph'ereth.  "  The  children  of  Soph- 
ereth "  were  a  family  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  among  the  de- 
scendants of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezr.  ii. 
55;  Neh.  vii.  57). 

Sorcerer.     [Divination.] 

So'rek,  The  Valley  of,  a  wady  in 
which  lay  the  residence  of  Delilah  (Judg. 
xvi.  4).  It  was  possibly  nearer  Gaza  than 
any  other  of  the  chief  Philistine  cities,  since 
thither  Samson  was  taken  after  his  capture 
at  Delilah's  house. 

Sosip'ater,  kinsman  or  fellow-tribes- 
man of  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi.  21),  is  proba- 
bly the  same  person  as  Sopater  of  Beroea. 

Sos'thenes  was  a  Jew  at  Corinth,  who 
was  seized  and  beaten  in  the  presence  of 
Galiio  (see  Acts  xviii.  12-17).  Paul  wrote 
th?  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  jointlj' 
in  his  own  name  and  that  of  a  certain  Sos- 
thenes  whom  he  terms  "  the  brother"  (1  Cor. 
i.  1).  Some  have  held  that  he  was  identi- 
cal with  the  Sosthenes  mentioned  in  the 
Acts.  If  this  be  so,  he  must  have  been 
converted  at  a  later  period,  and  have  been 
at  Ephesus,  and  not  at  Corinth,  when  Paul 
wrote  to  the  Corinthians.  The  name  was 
a  common  one,  and  but  little  stress  can  be 
laid  on  that  coincidence. 

So'tai.  Tlie  children  of  Sotal  were  a 
family  of  the  descendants  of  Solomon's 
servants  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezr.  ii,  55 ;  Neh.  vii.  57). 

South  Ba'moth.  [Ramath  of  the 
South.] 

Bow.     [Swine,] 

Sower,  Sowing.  The  operation  of 
sowing  with  the  hand  is  one  of  so  simple  a 
character  as  to  need  little  description.  The 
Egyptian  paintings  furnish  many  illustra- 
tions of  the  mode  in  which  it  was  conduct- 
ed. The  sower  held  the  vessel  or  basket 
containing  the  seed,  in  his  left  hand,  while 
with  his  right  he  scattered  the  seed  broad- 
cast. The  "drawing  out"  of  the  seed  is 
noticed,  as  the  most  characteristic  action  of 
tlie  sower,  in  Ps,  cxxvi.  6  (A.  V.  "  precious  ") 
and  Am.  ix.  13     In  wet  soils  the  seed  was 


trodden  in  by  the  feet  of  animals  (Is.  xxxii 
20).  The  sowing  season  commenced  in  Oc- 
tober and  continued  to  the  end  of  Eebruary, 
wheat  being  put  in  before,  and  barley  after, 
the  beginning  of  January.  The  Mosaic  law 
prohibited  the  sowing  of  mixed  seed  (Ix-v. 
xix.  19;  Deut.  xxii.  9). 

Spain  (1  Mace.  viii.  3;  Rom.  xv.  2i, 
28).  The  local  designation,  Tarshish,  rep- 
resenting the  Tartessus  of  the  Greeks, 
probably  prevailed  until  the  fame  of  the 
Roman  wars  in  that  country  reached  the 
East,  when  it  was  superseded  by  its  classi- 
cal name.  The  mere  intention  of  St.  Paul 
to  visit  Spain  implies  two  interesting  facts, 
viz.  the  establishment  of  a  Christian  com- 
munity in  that  country,  and  this  by  means 
of  Hellenistic  Jews  resident  there.  The 
early  introduction  of  Christianity  into  that 
country  is  attested  by  Irenaeus  and  Ter- 
tuUian. 

Sparrow.  (Heb.  izippSr).  This  Heb. 
word  occurs  upwards  of  forty  times  in  the 
O.  T.  In  all  passages  excepting  two  it  is 
rendered  by  A.  V.  indifferently  "  bird  "  or 
"  fowl."  In  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3,  and  Ps.  cii.  7,  it 
is  rendered  "  sparrow."  The  Greek  Sroov 
6iuv  ("  sparrow,"  A.  V.)  occurs  twice  in 
N.  T.,  Matt.  X.  29,  Luke  xii.  6,  7.  Tztp- 
por,  from  a  root  signifying  to  "  chirp"  or 
"  twitter,"  appears  to  be  a  phonetic  repre- 
sentation of  the  call-note  of  any  passerine 
bird.  Although  the  common  sparrow  of 
England  (Passer  domesticus,  L.)  does  not 
occur  in  the  Holy  Land,  its  place  is  abun- 
dantly supplied  by  two  very  closely  allied 
Southern  species  {Passer  salicicola,  Vieill., 
and  Passer  cisalpina,  Tem.).  Our  Eng- 
lish tree  sparrow  (^Passer  montanus,  L.)  is 
also  very  common,  and  may  be  seen  in 
numbers  on  Mount  Olivet,  and  also  about 
the  sacred  enclosure  of  the  mosque  of 
Omar.  This  is  perhaps  the  exact  species 
referred  to  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3.  Most  of  our 
commoner  small  birds  are  found  in  Pales- 
tine. The  starling,  chaffinch,  greenfinch, 
linnet,  goldfinch,  corn-bunting,  pipits, 
blackbird,  song-thrush,  and  the  various 
species  of  wagtail  abound.  The  rock  spar- 
row {Petronia  stulta,  Strickl.)  is  a  common 
bird  in  the  barer  portions  of  Palestine,  es- 
chewing woods,  and  generally  to  be  seen 
perched  alone  on  the  top  of  a  rock  or  on 
any  large  stone.  From  this  habit  it  has 
been  conjectured  to  be  the  bird  alluded  to 
in  Ps.  cii.  7,  as  "the  sparrow  that  sittcth 
alone  upon  the  house-top ;  "  but  as  the  rock 
sparrow,  though  found  among  ruins,  never 
resorts  to  inhabited  buildings,  it  seems 
more  probable  that  the  bird  to  which  the 
psalmist  alludes  is  the  blue  thrush  (^Petro- 
cossyphus  cyaneus^.  It  is  a  solitary  bird, 
eschewing  the  society  of  its  own  species, 
and  rarely  more  than  a  pair  are  seen  to- 
gether. There  are  but  two  allusions  to  the 
singing  of  birds  in  the  Scriptures,  Eccles. 


SPARTA 


665 


SPIKEI^ARD 


xii.  4  and  Ps.  civ.  12.  As  the  psalmist  is 
here  speaking  of  the  sides  of  streams  and 
rivers,  he  probably  had  in  his  mind  the 
bulbul  of  the  country,  or  Palestine  nightin- 
gale (Ixos  xanthopygius,  Hempr.),  a  bird 
not  very  far  removed  from  the  thrush  tribe, 
and  a  closely  allied  species  of  which  is  the 
true  bulbul  of  Persia  and  India.  Small 
birds  were  probably  as  ordinary  an  article 
of  consumption  among  the  Israelites  as 
they  still  are  in  the  markets  both  of  the 
Continent  and  of  the  East  (Luke  xii.  6 ; 
Matt.  X.  29).  There  are  four  or  five  sim- 
ple methods  of  fowling  practised  at  this 
day  in  Palestine  whicli  are  probably  iden- 
tical with  those  alluded  to  in  the  O.  T. 
The  simplest,  but  by  no  means  the  least 
successful,  among  the  dexterous  Bedouins, 
is  fowling  with  the  throw-stick.  The  only 
weapon  used  is  a  short  stick,  about  18 
inches  long  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 
When  the  game  has  been  discovered,  the 
stick  is  hurled  with  a  revolving  motion  so 
as  to  strike  the  legs  of  the  bird  as  it  runs, 
or  sometimes  at  a  rather  higher  elevation, 
so  that  when  the  victim,  alarmed  by  the 
approach  of  the  weapon,  begins  to  rise,  its 
wings  are  struck,  and  it  is  slightly  disabled. 
The  fleet  pursuers  soon  come  up,  and,  using 
their  burnouses,  as  a  sort  of  net,  catch  and 
at  once  cut  the  throat  of  the  game.  A 
more  scientific  method  of  fowling  is  that 
alluded  to  in  Ecclus.  xi.  30,  by  the  use  of 
decoy-birds.  Whether  falconry  was  ever 
employed  as  a  mode  of  fowling  or  not  is  by 
no  means  so  clear.  At  the  present  day  it 
is  practised  with  much  care  and  skill  by  the 
Arab  inhabitants  of  Syria,  though  not  in 
Judaea  proper. 

Spar'ta  (l  Mace.  xiv.  16 ;  2  Mace.  v.  9 : 
A.  V.  "Lacedaemonians  ").  In  the  history 
of  the  Maccabees  mention  is  made  of  a  re- 
markable correspondence  between  the  Jews 
and  the  Spartans,  which  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  discussion.  The  alleged  facts 
are  briefly  these  :  When  Jonathan  endeav- 
ored to  strengthen  his  government  by  for- 
eign alliances  (b.  c.  144),  he  sent  to  Sparta 
to  renew  a  friendly  intercourse  which  had 
beeta  begun  at  an  earlier  time  between  Are- 
us  and  Onias,  on  the  ground  of  their  com- 
mon descent  from  Abraham  (1  Mace.  xii. 
6-23).  The  embassy  was  favorably  re- 
ceived, and  after  the  death  of  Jonathan 
"  the  friendsliip  and  league  "  was  renewed 
with  Simon  (1  Mace.  xiv.  16-23).  Several 
questions  arise  out  of  these  statements.  1. 
The  whole  context  of  the  passage,  as  well  as 
the  independent  reference  to  the  connection 
of  the  "Lacedaemonians"  and  Jews  in  2 
Mace.  V.  9,  seems  to  prove  clearly  that  the 
reference  is  to  the  Spartans,  properly  so 
called.  2.  The  actual  relationship  of  the 
Jews  and  Spartans  (2  Mace.  v.  9)  is  an  eth- 
nological error,  which  it  is  difficult  to  trace 
to  its  origin.    It  is  certain,  from  an  inde- 


pendent pai'sage,  that  a  Jewish  colony  ex- 
isted at  Sparta  at  an  early  time  (1  Mace. 
XV.  23).  3.  The  difficulty  of  fixing  tho 
date  of  the  first  correspondence  is  increas*.  d 
by  the  recurrence  of  the  names  involved. 
Two  kings  bore  the  name  Areus,  one  of 
whom  reigned  b.  c.  309-265,  and  the  other, 
his  grandson,  died  b.  c.  257,  being  only 
eight  years  old.  The  same  name  was  also 
borne  by  an  adventurer,  who  occupied  a 
prominent  position  at  Sparta,  b.  c.  184.  In 
Judaea,  again,  three  high-priests  bore  the 
name  Onias,  the  first  of  whom  held  office 
B.  c.  330-309  (or  300)  ;  the  second  b.  c.  240- 
226;  and  the  third  b.  c.  198-171.  Jose- 
phus  is  probably  correct  in  fixing  the  event 
in  the  time  of  Onias  III. 

Spear.     [Arms.] 

Spearmen.  The  word  thus  rendered  in 
the  A.  V.  of  Acts  xxiii.  23  is  of  very  rare 
occurrence,  and  its  meaning  is  extremely 
obscure.  They  were  probably  troops  so 
lightly  armed  as  to  be  able  to  keep  pace  ou 
the  march  with  mounted  soldiers. 

Spice,  Spices,  l.  Hebrew  Bdsaniy 
besem,  or  bdsem.  In  Cant.  v.  1,  "I  have 
gathered  my  myrrh  with  my  spice,"  the 
word  points  apparently  to  some  definite 
substance.  In  the  other  places,  with  the 
exception  perhaps  of  Cant.  1.  13,  vi.  2,  the 
words  refer  more  generally  to  sweet  aro- 
matic odors,  the  principal  of  which  was 
that  of  the  balsam  or  balm  of  Gilead ;  the 
tree  which  yields  this  substance  is  now 
generally  admitted  to  be  the  Balsamoden- 
dron  opobalsamum.  The  balm  of  Gilead 
tree  grows  in  some  parts  of  Arabia  and 
Africa,  and  is  seldom  more  than  fifteen  feet 
high,  with  straggling  branches  and  scanty 
foliage.  The  balsam  is  chiefly  obtained 
from  incisions  in  the  bark,  but  the  sub- 
stance is  procured  also  from  the  green  and 
ripe  berries.  2.  N<ic6th  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25, 
xliii.  11).  The  most  probable  explanation 
is  that  which  refers  the  word  to  the  Arabic 
naka'at,  i.  e.  "  the  gum  obtained  from  the 
tragacanth"  (^Astragalus).  3.  Sammivi. 
A  general  terra  to  denote  those  aromatic 
substances  which  were  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  anointing  oil,  the  incense  offer- 
ings, &c.  The  spices  mentioned  as  being 
used  by  Nicodemus  for  the  preparation  of 
our  Lord's  body  (John  xix.  39,  40)  are 
"  myrrh  and  aloes,"  by  which  latter  word 
must  be  understood  not  \  le  aloes  of  medi- 
cine (^Aloe),  but  the  hignly-scented  wood 
of  the  Aqmlaria  agallochum. 

Spider.  The  Hebrew  word  'accdbtsh 
in  Job  viii.  14,  Is.  lix.  5,  is  correctly  ren- 
dered "  spider."  But  SimAmtth  is  wrongly 
translated  "spider"  in  Prov.  xxx.  28;  it 
refers  probably  to  some  kind  of  lizard. 

Spikenard  (Heb,  n6rd)  is  mentioned 
twice  in  the  O.  T.,  viz.  in  Cant.  i.  12,  iv. 
13,  14.  The  ointment  with  which  our  Lord 
was  anointed  as  He  sat  at  meat  in  Simon's 


SPINNING 


666 


STEPHEN 


house  at  Bethany  consisted  of  this  precious 
substance,  the  costHness  of  which  may  be 
inferred  from  the  indignant  surprise  mani- 
fested by  some  of  the  witnesses  of  the 
transaction  (see  Mark  xiv.  3-5  ;  John  xii.  3, 
6).  There  is  no  doubt  that  sunbul  is  by 
Arabian  authors  used  as  the  representative 
of  the  Greek  nardos.  Dr.  Koyle,  having 
ascertained  that  the  jatamansee,  one  of  the 
Hindu  synonymes  for  the  sunbul,  was  annu- 
ally brought  from  the  mountains  overhang- 
ing the  Ganges  and  Jumna  rivers  down  to 
the  plains,  purchased  some  of  these  fresh 
raots,  and  planted  them  in  the  botanic  gar- 
dens at  Saharunpore.  This  plant  has  been 
called  Nardostachys  jatamansi  by  De  Can- 
dolle. 


Spikenard. 

Spinning.  The  notices  of  spinning  in 
the  Bible  are  confined  to  Ex.  xxxv.  25,  2& ; 
Matt.  vi.  28;  and  Prov.  xxxi.  19.  The 
latter  passage  implies  (according  to  the  A. 
V.)  the  use  of  the  same  instruments  which 
have  been  in  vogue  for  hand-spinning  down 
to  the  present  day,  viz.  the  distaff  and 
spindle.  The  distaff,  however,  appears  to 
have  been  dispensed  with,  and  the  term  so 
rendered  means  the  spindle  itself,  while  that 
rendered  "  spindle  "  represents  the  whirl 
of  the  spindle,  a  button  of  circular  rim 
which  was  affixed  to  it,  and  gave  steadiness 
to  its  circular  motion.  The  "  whirl "  of  the 
Syrian  women  was  made  of  amber  in  the 
time  of  Pliny.  The  spindle  was  held  per- 
pendicularly in  the  one  hand,  while  the 
other  was  employed  in  drawing  out  the 
thread. 

Sponge  is  mentioned  only  in  *he  N.  T. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  48 ;  Mark  xv.  36 ;  John  xix. 
29).  The  commercial  value  of  the  sponge 
■was  known  from  very  early  times ;  and  al- 
though there  appears  to  be  no  notice  of  it 


in  the  O.  'i  ,  yet  it  is  probable  that  it  waa 
used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews,  wlio  could 
readily  have  obtained  it  good  from  the  Med- 
iterranean. 

Sta'chys,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  saluted 
by  St.  Paul  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans 
(xvi.  9). 

Spouse.     [Marriage.] 

Stacte  (Heb.  ndtdf),  the  name  of  one 
of  the  sweet  spices  which  composed  the 
holy  incense  (see  Ex.  xxx.  34).  The  He- 
brew word  occurs  once  again  (Job  xxxvi. 
27).  Some  identify  the  ndtdf  with  the  gum 
of  the  storax  tree  {Styrax  officinale),  but 
all  that  is  positively  known  is  that  it  signi- 
fies an  odorous  distillation  from  some  plant* 

Standards.     [Ensigns.] 

Star  of  the  Wise  Men.    [Magi.] 

Stater.     [Money,  p.  424.] 

Steel.  In  all  cases  where  the  word 
*'  steel "  occurs  in  the  A.  V.  the  true  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  is  "  copper."  Whether 
the  ancient  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with 
steel  is  not  perfectly  certain.  It  has  been 
inferred  from  a  passage  in  Jeremiah  (xv. 
12),  that  the  "iron  from  the  north"  there 
spoken  of  denoted  a  superior  kind  of  metal, 
hardened  in  an  unusual  manner,  like  the 
steel  obtained  from  the  Chalybes  of  the 
Pontus,  the  ironsmiths  of  the  ancient 
world.  The  hardening  of  iron  for  cutting- 
instruments  was  practised  in  Pontus,  Lydia, 
and  Laconia.  There  is,  however,  a  word 
in  Hebrew,  palddh,  which  occurs  only  in 
Nah.  ii.  3  [4],  and  is  there  rendered 
"  torches,"  but  which  most  probably  de- 
notes steel  or  hardened  iron,  and  refers  to 
the  flashing  scythes  of  the  Assyrian  chari- 
ots. Steel  appears  to  have  been  known  to 
the  Egyptians.  The  steel  weapons  in  the 
tomb  of  Rameses  III.,  says  Wilkinson,  are 
painted  blue,  the  bronze  red. 

Steph'anas,  a  Christian  convert  of 
Corinth  whose  household  Paul  baptized  aj 
the  "first  fruits  of  Achaia"  (1  Cor.  i.  16, 
xvi.  15). 

Ste'phen,  the  First  Christian  Martyr, 
was  the  chief  of  the  Seven  (commonly 
called  Deacons)  appointed  to  rectify  the 
complaints  in  the  early  Church  of  Jerusa- 
lem, made  by  the  Hellenistic  against  the 
Hebrew  Christians.  His  Greek  name  in- 
dicates his  own  Hellenistic  origin.  His 
importance  is  stamped  on  the  narrative  by 
a  reiteration  of  emphatic  almost  superla- 
tive phrases :  "  full  of  faith  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost "  (Acts  vi.  5)  ;  "  full  of  grace 
and  power"  (ib.  8)  ;  irresistible  "  spirit  and 
wisdom"  (ib.  10);  "full  of  the  Holy 
Ghost"  (vii.  55).  He  shot  far  ahead  of 
his  six  companions,  and  far  above  his  par- 
ticular office.  First,  he  arrests  attention 
by  the  "  great  wonders  and  miracles  that 
he  did."  Then  begins  a  series  of  disputa- 
tions with  the  Hellenistic  Jews  of  North 
Africa,  Alexandria,  and  Asia  Minor,  hia 


STEPHEN 


667 


STOICS 


companions  in  race  and  birth^  Jace.  The 
subject  of  these  disputations  is  not  ex- 
pressly mentioned ;  but  from  what  follows, 
it  is  obvious  that  he  struck  into  a  new  yein 
of  teaching,  which  evidently  caused  His  mar- 
tyrdom. Down  to  this  time  the  Apostles  and 
the  early  Christian  community  had  clung  in 
their  worship,  not  merely  to  the  Holy  Land 
and  the  Holy  City,  but  to  the  Holy  Place 
of  the  Temple.  This  local  worship,  with 
the  Jewish  customs  belonging  to  it,  he 
now  denounced.  So  we  must  infer  from 
the  accusations  brought  against  him,  con- 
firmed as  they  are  by  the  tenor  of  his 
defence.  He  was  arrested  at  the  instigation 
of  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  and  brought  before 
the  Sanhedrin.  His  speech  in  his  defence, 
and  his  execution  by  stoning  outside  the 
gates  of  Jerusalem,  are  related  at  length  in 
the  Acts  (vii.).  The  framework  in  which 
his  defence  is  cast  is  a  summary  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jewish  Church.  In  the  facts 
which  he  selects  from  this  history,  he  is 
guided  by  two  principles.  The  first  is  the 
endeavor  to  prove  that,  even  in  the  pre- 
vious Jewish  history,  the  presence  and  favor 
of  God  had  not  been  confined  to  the  Holy 
Land  or  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem.  This 
he  illustrates  with  a  copiousness  of  detail 
which  makes  his  speech  a  summary  almost 
as  much  of  sacred  geography  as  of  sacred 
history.  The  second  principle  of  selection 
is  based  on  the  attempt  to  show  that  there 
was  a  tendency  from  the  earliest  times  to- 
wards the  same  ungrateful  and  narrow  spirit 
that  had  appeared  in  this  last  stage  of  their 
political  existence.  It  would  seem  that, 
just  at  the  close  of  his  argument,  Stephen 
saw  a  change  in  the  aspect  of  his  judges,  as 
if  for  the  first  time  they  had  caught  the  drift 
of  his  meaning.  He  broke  off  from  his  calm 
address,  and  turned  suddenly  upon  them  in 
an  impassioned  attack,  which  shows  that  he 
saw  what  was  in  store  for  him.  As  he  spoke 
they  showed  by  their  faces  that  their  hearts 
"  were  being  sawn  asunder,"  and  they  kept 
gnashing  their  set  teeth  against  him;  but 
still,  though  with  difficulty,  restraining 
themselves.  He,  in  this  last  crisis  of  his 
fate,  turned  his  face  upwards  to  the  open 
sky,  and  as  he  gazed  the  vault  of  heaven 
seemed  to  him  to  part  asunder;  and  the 
Divine  Glory  appeared  through  the  rending 
of  the  earthly  veil  —  the  Divine  Presence, 
seated  on  a  throne,  and  on  the  right  hand 
the  human  form  of  "  Jesus."  Stephen  spoke 
as  if  to  himself,  describing  the  glorious 
vision ;  and,  in  so  doing,  alone  of  all  the 
speakers  and  writers  in  the  N.  T.,  except 
only  Christ  Himself,  uses  the  expressive 
phrase,  "  the  Son  of  Man."  As  his  judges 
heard  the  words,  they  could  hear  no  longer. 
They  broke  into  a  loud  yell ;  they  clapped 
their  hands  to  their  ears ;  they  flew  as  with 
one  impulse  upon  him,  and  dragged  him 
out  of  the  city  to  the  place  of  execution. 


Those  who  took  the  lead  in  the  execution 
were  the  persons  who  had  taken  upon  them- 
selves the  responsibility  of  denouncing  him 
(Deut.  xvii.  7 ;  comp.  John  viii.  7).  In  this 
instance,  they  were  the  witnesses  who  had 
reported,  or  mis-reported,  the  words  of  Ste- 
phen. They,  according  to  the  custom, 
stripped  themselves ;  and  one  of  the  prom- 
inent leaders  in  the  transaction  was  deputed 
by  custom  to  signify  his  assent  to  the  act 
by  taking  the  clothes  into  his  custody,  and 
standing  over  them  whilst  the  bloody  work 
went  on.  The  person  who  officiated  on  this 
occasion  was  a  young  man  from  Tarsus  — 
the  future  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  [Path..] 
As  the  first  volley  of  stones  burst  upon  him, 
Stephen  called  upon  the  Master  whose  hu- 
man form  he  had  just  seen  in  the  heavens, 
and  repeated  almost  the  words  with  which  He 
himself  had  given  up  His  life  on  the  cross, 
"  O  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit."  An- 
other crash  of  stones  brought  him  on  his 
knees.  One  loud,  piercing  cry,  answering 
to  the  loud  shriek  or  yell  with  which  his 
enemies  had  flown  upon  him,  escaped  his 
dying  lips.  Again  clinging  to  the  spirit  of 
his  Master's  words,  he  cried,  "  Lord,  lay 
not  this  sin  to  their  charge,"  and  instantly 
sank  upon  the  ground,  and,  in  the  touching 
language  of  the  narrator,  who  then  uses  for 
the  first  time  the  word,  afterwards  applied 
to  the  departure  of  all  Christians,  but  here 
the  more  remarkable  from  the  bloody  scenes 
in  the  midst  of  which  the  death  took  place 
—  "/cZZ  asleep."  His  mangled  body  was 
buried  by  the  class  of  Hellenists  and  prose- 
lytes to  which  he  belonged.  The  impor- 
tance of  Stephen's  career  may  be  briefly 
summed  up  under  three  heads  :  I.  He  was 
the  first  great  Christian  ecclesiastic,  "  the 
Archdeacon,"  as  he  is  called  in  the  Eastern 
Church.  II.  He  is- the  first  martyr  —  the 
proto-martyr.  To  him  the  name  "  martyr  " 
is  first  applied  (Acts  xxii.  20).  III.  He 
is  the  forerunner  of  St.  Paul.  He  was  the 
anticipator,  as,  had  he  lived,  he  would  have 
been  the  propagator,  of  the  new  phase  of 
Christianity,  of  which  St.  Paul  became  the 
main  support. 

Stocks.  The  term  "  stocks  "  is  applied 
in  the  A.  V.  to  two  different  articles,  one 
of  which  answers  rather  to  our  pillory ; 
while  the  other  answers  to  our  "  stocks," 
the  feet  alone  being  confined  in  it.  The 
prophet  Jeremiah  was  confined  in  the  first 
sort  (Jer.  xx.  2),  which  appears  to  have 
been  a  common  mode  of  punishment  in  his 
day  (Jer.  xxix.  26),  as  the  prisons  contained 
a  chamber  for  the  special  purpose,  termed 
"  the  house  of  the  pillory  "  (2  Chr.  xvi.  10; 
A.  V.  "  prison-house  "').  The  stocks,  prop- 
erly so  called,  are  noticed  in  Job  xiii.  27, 
xxxiii.  11,  and  Acts  xvi.  24.  The  term  used 
in  Prov.  vii.  22  (A.  V.  "stocks")  more 
properly  means  a  fetter. 

Stoics.     The  Stoics  and  Epiciireans, 


STOMACHER 


STORK 


»rho  are  mentioned  together  in  Acts  xvii. 
18,  represent  the  two  opposite  schools  of 
practical  philosophy  whicli  survived  the  fall 
of  higher  speculation  in  Greece.  The  Stoic 
Bchool  was  founded  by  Zeno  of  Citium  (cir. 
B.  c.  280),  and  derived  its  name  from  the 
painted  "  portico  "  («tou)  in  wliich  he  taught. 
Zeno  was  followed  by  Cleanthes  (cir.  b.  c. 
260),  Cleanthes  by  Chrysippus  (cir.  b.  c. 
240),  who  was  regarded  as  the  intellectual 
founder  of  the  Stoic  system.  The  ethical 
system  of  the  Stoics  has  been  commonly 
supposed  to  have  a  close  connection  with 
Christian  morality.  But  the  morality  of 
stoicism  is  essentially  based  on  pride,  that 
of  Christianity  on  humility;  the  one  up- 
holds individual  independence,  the  other 
absolute  faith  in  another ;  the  one  looks  for 
consolation  in  the  issue  of  fate,  the  other  in 
Providence ;  the  one  is  limited  by  periods 
of  cosmical  ruin,  the  other  is  consummated 
in  a  personal  resurrection  (Acts  xvii.  18). 
But  in  spite  of  the  fundamental  error  of 
stoicism,  Avhich  lies  in  a  supreme  egotism, 
the  teaching  of  this  school  gave  a  wide 
currency  to  the  noble  doctrines  of  the 
Fatherhood  of  God,  the  common  bonds  of 
mankind,  the  sovereignty  of  the  soul. 

Stomacher.  The  Hebrew  word,  so 
translated,  describes  some  article  of  female 
attire  (Is.  iii.  24),  the  character  of  which  is 
a  mere  matter  of  conjecture. 

Stones.  Besides  the  ordinary  uses  to 
which  stones  were  applied,  we  may  mention 
that  large  stones  were  set  up  to  commemo- 
rate any  remarkable  events  (Gen.  xxviii.  18, 
XXXV.  14,  xxxi.  45  ;  Josh.  iv.  9 ;  1  Sam.  vii. 
12).  Such  stones  were  occasionally  conse- 
crated by  anointing  (Gen.  xxviii.  18).  A 
similar  practice  existed  in  heathen  coun- 
tries, and  by  a  singular  coincidence  these 
stones  were  described  in  Phoenicia  by  a 
name  very  similar  to  Bethel,  viz.  baetylia. 
The  only  point  of  resemblance  between  the 
two  consists  in  the  custom  of  anointing. 
That  the  worship  of  stones  prevailed  among 
the  heathen  nations  surrounding  Palestine, 
and  was  borrowed  from  them  by  apostate 
Israelites,  appears  from  Is.  Ivii.  6,  accord- 
ing to  the  ordinary  rendering  of  the  pas- 
sage. Heaps  of  stones  were  piled  up  on 
various  occasions,  as  in  token  of  a  treaty 
(Gen.  xxxi.  46)  ;  or  over  the  grave  of  some 
notorious  offender  (Josh.  vii.  26,  viii.  29 ; 
2  Sam.  xviii.  17).  The  "white  stone" 
noticed  in  liev.  ii.  17  has  been  variously 
regarded  as  referring  to  the  pebble  of  ac- 
quittal used  in  the  Greek  courts ;  to  the  lot 
cast  in  elections  in  Greece ;  to  both  these 
combined ;  to  the  stones  in  the  high-priest's 
breastplate ;  to  the  tickets  presented  to  the 
victors  at  the  public  games ;  or,  lastly,  to 
the  custom  of  writing  on  stones.  The  no- 
tice in  Zech.  xii.  3  of  the  "  burdensome 
stone  "  is  referred  by  Jerome  to  the  custom 
of  lifting  stones  as  an  exercise  of  strength 


(conip.  Ecclus.  vi.  21)  ;  but  it  may  equally 
well  be  explained  of  a  large  corner-stone  aa 
a  symbol  of  strength  (Is.  xxviii.  16).  Stones 
are  used  metaphorically  to  denote  hardness 
or  insensibility  (1  Sam.  xxv.  37;  Ez.  xi.  19, 
xxxvi.  26),  as  well  as  firmness  or  strength 
(Gen.  xlLx.  24).  The  members  of  the 
Church  are  called  "  living  stones,"  as  con- 
tributing to  rear  that  living  temple  in  which 
Christ,  himself  "a  living  stone,"  is  the  chief 
or  head  of  the  corner  (Eph.  ii.  20-22;  1 
Pet.  ii.  4-8). 

Stones,  Precious.  Precious  stones 
are  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures; they  were  known  and  very  highly 
valued  in  the  earliest  times.  The  Tyrians 
traded  in  precious  stones  supplied  by  Syria 
(Ez.  xxvii.  16).  The  merchants  of  Sheba 
and  Raamah  in  South  Arabia,  and  doubtless 
India  and  Ceylon,  supplied  the  markets  of 
Tyre  with  various  precious  stones.  The  art 
of  engraving  on  precious  stones  was  known 
from  the  very  earliest  times  (Gen.  xxxviii, 
18).  The  twelve  stones  of  the  breastplate 
were  engraved  each  one  with  the  name  of 
one  of  the  tribes  (Ex.  xxviii.  17-21).  It  is 
an  undecided  question  whether  the  diamond 
was  known  to  the  early  nations  of  antiquity. 
Th^jA.  V.  gives  it  as  the  rendering  of  the 
Heb.  Yahdldm,  but  it  is  probable  that  the 
jasper  is  intended.  Precious  stones  are 
used  in  Scripture  in  a  figurative  sense,  to 
signify  value,  beauty,  durability,  &c.,  in 
those  objects  with  which  they  are  compared 
(see  Cant.  v.  14;  Is.  liv.  11,  12;  Lam.  iv. 
7;  Rev.  iv.  3,  xxi.  10,  21). 

Stoning.     [Punishments.] 

Stork  (Heb.  chasid&h).  The  White 
Stork  {Ciconia  alba,  L.)  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  conspicuous  of  land  birds,  standing 
nearly  four  feet  high,  the  jet  black  of  its 
wings  and  its  bright  red  beak  and  legs  con- 
trasting finely  with  the  pure  white  of  its 
plumage  (Zech.  v.  9).  In  the  neighborhood 
of  man  it  devours  readily  all  kinds  of  offal 
and  garbage.  For  this  reason,  doubtless,  it 
is  placed  in  the  list  of  unclean  birds  by  the 
Mosaic  Law  (Lev.  xi.  19;  Deut.  xiv.  18). 
The  range  of  the  white  stork  extends  over 
the  whole  of  Europe,  except  the  British 
Isles,  where  it  is  now  only  a  rare  visitant, 
and  over  Northern  Africa  and  Asia  as  far  at 
least  as  Birmah.  The  Black  Stork  (Cico- 
nia  nigra,  L.),  though  less  abundant  in 
places,  is  scarcely  less  widely  distributed, 
but  has  a  more  easterly  range  than  its  con- 
gener. Both  species  are  very  nvmierous  in 
Palestine.  While  the  black  stork  is  never 
found  about  buildings,  but  prefers  marshy 
places  in  forests,  and  breeds  on  the  tops  of 
the  loftiest  trees,  the  white  stork  attaches 
itself  to  man,  and  for  the  service  which  it 
renders  in  the  destruction  of  reptiles  and 
the  removal  of  offal  has  been  repaid  from 
the  earliest  times  by  protection  and  rever- 
ence.   The  derivation  of  chasid&h  (fron 


STEAIN 


669 


SIBAW 


(^esed,  "  kindness")  points  to  the  pateraal 
and  filial  attachment  of  which  the  stork 
seems  to  have  been  a  type  among  the  He- 
brews no  less  than  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
It  was  believed  that  the  young  repaid  the 
care  of  their  parents  by  attaching  them- 
selves to  them  for  life,  and  tending  them  in 
old  age.  That  the  parental  attachment  of 
the  stork  is  very  strong,  has  been  proved 
on  many  occasions.  Few  migratory  birds 
are  more  punctual  to  the  time  of  their 
reappearance  than  the  white  stork.  The 
stork  has  no  note,  and  the  only  sound  it 
emits  is  that  caused  by  the  sudden  snapping 
of  its  long  mandibles. 

Strain  at.  The  A.  V.  of  1611  renders 
Matt,  xxiii.  24,  "  Ye  blind  guides !  which 
strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a  camel." 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  obscure 
phrase  is  due  to  a  printer's  error,  and  that 
the  true  reading  is  "strain  out."  Arch- 
bishop Trench  gives  an  interesting  illus- 
tration of  the  passage  from  the  letter  of  a 
traveller  in  North  Africa,  who  says,  "In 
a  ride  from  Tangier  to  Tetuan,  I  observed 
that  a  Moorish  soldier  who  accompanied 
me,  when  he  drank,  always  unfolded  the 
end  of  his  turban  and  placed  it  over  the 
mouth  of  his  bota,  drinking  through  the 
muslin,  to  strain  out  the  gnats,  whose  larvae 
swarm  in  tlie  water  of  that  country." 

Stranger.  A  "  stranger  "  in  the  tech- 
nical sense  of  the  term  may  be  defined  to 
be  a  person  of  foreign,  i.  e.  non-Israelitish, 
extraction  resident  within  the  limits  of  the 
promised  land.  He  was  distinct  from  the 
proper  "  foreigner,"  inasmuch  as  the  latter 
still  belonged  to  another  country,  and 
would  only  visit  Palestine  as  a  traveller :  he 
was  still  more  distinct  from  the  "  nations," 
or  non-Israelite  peoples.  The  term  may 
be  compared  with  our  expression  "natural- 
ised foreigner."  The  terms  applied  to  the 
"  stranger  "  have  special  reference  to  the 
foot  of  his  residing  in  the  land.  The  ex- 
istence of  such  a  class  of  persons  among 
the  Israelites  is  easily  accounted  for :  the 


"  mixed  multitude  "  that  accompanied  them 
out  of  Egypt  (Ex.  xii.  38)  formed  one  ele- 
ment; the  Canaanitish  population,  which 
was  never  wholly  extirpated  from  their 
native  soil,  formed  another  and  a  still  more 
important  one;  captives  taken  in  war 
formed  a  third;  fugitives,  hired  servants, 
merchants,  &c.,  formed  a  fourth.  The  en- 
actments of  the  Mosaic  Law,  which  regu- 
lated the  political  and  social  position  of 
resident  strangers,  were  conceived  in  a 
spirit  of  great  liberality.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites  (Deut. 
xxiii.  3),  all  nations  were  admissible  to  the 
rights  of  citizenship  under  certain  condi- 
tions. The  stranger  appears  to  have  been 
eligible  to  all  civil  offices,  —  that  of  king' 
excepted  (Deut.  xvii.  15).  In  regard  to 
religion,  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  stranger  should  not  infringe'  any  of  the 
fundamental  laws  of  the  Israelitish  state. 
If  he  was  a  bondsman,  he  was  obliged  to 
submit  to  circumcision  (Ex.  xii.  44)  ;  if  he 
was  independent,  it  was  optional  with  him ; 
but  if  he  remained  uncircumcised,  he  was 
prohibited  from  partaking  of  the  Passover 
(Ex.  xii.  48),  and  could  not  be  regarded  aa 
a  full  citizen.  Liberty  was  also  given  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  prohibited  food  to  an 
uncircumcised  stranger.  Assuming,  how- 
ever, that  the  stranger  was  circumcised,  no 
distinction  existed  in  regard  to  legal  rights 
between  the  stranger  and  the  Israelites. 
The  Israelite  is  enjoined  to  treat  him  as  a 
brother  (Lev.  xix.  34 ;  Deut.  x.  19).  It  also 
appears  that  the  "stranger"  formed  the 
class  whence  the  hirelings  were  drawn ;  the 
terms  being  coupled  together  in  Ex.  xii. 
45 ;  Lev.  xxii.  10,  xxv.  6,  40.  The  liberal 
spirit  of  the  Mosaic  regulations  respecting 
strangers  presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
rigid  exclusiveness  of  the  Jews  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era.  The 
growth  of  this  spirit  dates  from  the  time  of 
the  Babylonish  captivity. 

Straw.     Both  wheat  and  barley  straw 
were  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  clucfly 


Foreign  CaptiTe*  eniployed  ia  making  Bricki  at  Thebea.    CWllklnioii.) 


STREAM  OF  EGYPT 


670 


SUN 


as  fodder  for  the  horses,  cattle,  and  camels 
(Gen.  xxiv.  25 ;  1  K.  iv.  28 ;  Is.  xi.  7,  Ixv. 
25).  There  is  no  intimation  that  straw  was 
used  for  litter.  It  was  employed  by  the 
Egyptians  for  making  bricks  (Ex.  v.  7,  IG), 
being  chopped  up  and  mixed  with  the  clay 
to  make  them  more  compact,  and  to  prevent 
their  cracking.  [See  Brick,  p.  92.]  The 
ancient  Egyptians  reaped  their  corn  close 
to  the  ear,  and  afterwards  cut  the  straw 
close  to  the  ground,  and  laid  it  by.  This 
was  the  straw  that  Pharaoh  refused  to  give 
to  the  Israeliets,  who  were  therefore  com- 
pelled to  gather  *'  stubble  "  instead  —  a  mat- 
ter of  considerable  difficulty,  seeing  that 
the  straw  itself  had  been  cut  oflf  near  to  the 
ground.  [Brick.] 

Stream  of  Egjrpt  occurs  once  in  the 
N.  T.  (Is.  xxvii.  12).     [River  op  Egypt.] 

Street.  The  streets  of  a  modern  Orien- 
tal town  presented  a  great  contrast  to  those 
with  which  we  are  familiar,  being  generally 
narrow,  tortuous,  and  gloomy,  even  in  the 
best  towns.  Their  character  is  mainly  fixed 
by  th&  climate  and  the  style  of  architec- 
ture, the  narrowness  being  due  to  the  ex- 
treme heat,  and  the  gloominess  to  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  windows  looking  for  the 
most  part  into  the  inner  court.  The  street 
called  "  Straight,"  in  Damascus  (Acts  ix. 
11),  was  an  exception  to  the  rule  of  nar- 
rowness :  it  was  a  noble  thoroughfare,  100 
feet  wide,  divided  in  the  Roman  age  by  col- 
onnades into  three  avenues,  the  central  one 
for  foot  passengers,  the  side  passages  for 
Tehicles  and  horsemen  going  in  different 
directions.  The  shops  and  warehouses  were 
probably  collected  together  into  bazaars  in 
ancient  as  in  modern  times  (Jer.  xxxvii. 
21),  and  perhaps  the  agreement  between 
Benhadad  and  Ahab  that  the  latter  should 
"make  streets  in  Damascus"  (1  K.  xx. 
84),  was  in  reference  rather  to  bazaars, 
and  thus  amounted  to  the  establishment  of 
a  jus  commercii.  That  streets  occasionally 
had  names  appears  from  Jer.  xxxvii.  21; 
Acts  ix.  11.  That  they  were  generally  un- 
paved  may  be  inferred  from  the  notices  of 
the  pavement  laid  by  Herod  the  Great  at 
Antioch,  and  by  Herod  Agrippa  II.  at  Jeru- 
salem. Hence  pavement  forms  one  of  the 
peculiar  features  of  the  ideal  Jerusalem 
(Tob.  xiii.  17;  Rev.  xxi.  21).  Each  street 
and  bazaar  in  a  modern  town  is  locked  up 
at  night ;  the  same  custom  appears  to  have 
prevailed  in  ancient  times  (Cant.  iii.  3). 

Stripes.     [Punishments.] 

Su'ah.,  son  of  Zophah,  an  Asherite  (1 
Chr.  vii.  36). 

Suc'coth.  1.  An  ancient  town,  first 
heard  of  in  the  account  of  the  homeward 
journey  of  Jacob  from  Padan-aram  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  17).  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  fact  of  Jacob's  having  there  put  up 
"booths"  (Succdth)  for  his  cattle,  as  well 
as  a  house  for  liimself.    From  the  itinerary 


of  Jacob's  return  it  seems  that  Succoth  lay 
between  Peniel,  near  the  ford  of  the  tor- 
rent Jabbok,  and  Shechem  (comp.  xxxii. 
30,  and  xxxiii.  18).  In  accordance  with  this 
is  the  mention  of  Succoth  in  the  narrative 
of  Gideon's  pursuit  of  Zebah  and  Zalmun- 
na  (Judg.  viii.  5-17).  It  would  appear 
from  this  passage  that  it  lay  east  of  the 
Jordan,  which  is  corroborated  by  the  fact 
that  it  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(Josh.  xiii.  27).  Succoth  is  n.imed  once 
again  after  this  —  in  IK.  vii.  4(5 ;  2  Chr. 
iv.  17  —  as  marking  the  spot  at  which  the 
brass  founderies  were  placed  for  casting 
the  metal  work  of  the  Temple.  It  appears 
to  have  been  known  in  the  time  of  Jerome, 
who  says  that  there  was  then  a  town  named 
Sochoth  beyond  the  Jordan,  in  the  district 
of  Scythopolis.  2.  The  first  camping 
place  of  the  Israelites  when  they  left  Egypt 
(Ex.  xii.  87,  xiii.  20;  Num.  xxxiii.  5,  6). 
This  place  was  apparently  reached  at  the 
close  of  the  first  day's  march.  Ramescs, 
the  starting-place,  was  probably  near  the 
western  end  of  the  Wddi-t-Tumeyldt.  The 
distance  traversed  in  each  day's  journey 
was  about  fifteen  miles. 

Sue'COth-be'noth,  occurs  only  in  2  K. 
xvii.  30.  It  has  generally  been  supposed 
that  this  term  is  pure  Hebrew,  and  signifies 
the  "  tents  of  daughters ;  "  which  some  ex- 
plain as  "  the  booths  in  which  the  daughters 
of  the  Babylonians  prostituted  themselves 
in  honor  of  their  idol,"  others  as  "small 
tabernacles  in  which  were  contained  im- 
ages of  female  deities."  Sir  H.  Rawlinsou 
thinks  that  Succoth-benoth  represents  the 
Chaldaean  goddess  Zerbanit,  the  wife,  of 
Merodach,  who  was  especially  worshipped 
at  Babylon. 

Su'ehathites,  one  of  the  families  of 
scribes  at  Jabez  (1  Chr.  ii.  65). 

Suk'kiims,  a  nation  mentioned  (2  Chr. 
xii.  3)  with  the  Lubim  and  Cushim  as  sup- 
plying part  of  the  army  wliich  came  with 
Shishak  out  of  Egypt  when  he  invaded  Judah. 
The  Sukkiims  may  correspond  to  some 
one  of  the  shepherd  or  wandering  races 
mentioned  on  the  Egyptian  monuments. 

S\in.  In  the  history  of  the  creation  the 
sun  is  described  as  the  "greater  light,"  in 
contradistinction  to  the  moon,  or  "lesser 
light,"  in  conjunction  with  which  it  was  to 
serve  "for  signs,  and  for  seasons,  and  for 
days,  and  for  years,"  while  its  special 
office  was  "to  rule  the  day"  (Gon.  i.  14- 
16).  The  "  signs  "  referred  to  were  prob- 
ably such  extraordinary  phenomena  as 
eclipses,  which  were  regarded  as  conveying 
premonitions  of  coming  events  (Jer.  x.  2 ; 
Matt.  xxiv.  29,  with  Luke  xxi.  25).  The 
joint  influence  assigned  to  the  sun  and 
moon  in  deciding  the  "  seasons,"  both  for 
agricultural  operations  and  for  religious 
festivals,  and  also  in  regulating  the  length 
and  subdivisions  of  the  "  years,"  correctly 


SUN 


671 


SWEAT,  BLOODY 


describes  the  combination  of  the  Innar  and 
so}ar  year,  which  prevailed  at  all  events 
•ubsequently  to  the  Mosaic  period.  Sun- 
rise and  sunset  are  the  only  defined  points 
of  time  in  the-  absence  of  artificial  con- 
trivances for  telling  the  hour  of  the  day. 
Between  these  two  points  the  Jews  rec- 
ognized three  periods,  viz.  when  the  sun 
became  hot,  about  9  a.  m.  (1  Sam.  xi. 
9 ;  Neh.  vii.  3)  ;  the  double  light,  or  noon 
(Gen.  xliii.  16;  2  Sam^iv.  5);  and  "the 
cool  of  the  day,"  shortly  before  sunset 
(Gen.  iii.  8).  The  sun  also  served  to 
fix  the  quarters  of  the  hemisphere,  east, 
west,  north,  and  south,  which  were  repre- 
sented respectively  by  the  rising  sun,  the 
setting  sun  (Is.  xlv.  6;  Ps.  1.  1),  the  dark 
quarter  (Gen.  xiii.  14;  Joel  ii.  20),  and  the 
brilliant  quarter  (Deut.  xxxiii.  23 ;  Job 
xxxvii.  17;  Ez.  xl.  24);  or  otherwise  by 
their  position  relative  to  a  person  facing 
the  rising  sun  —  before,  behind,  on  the  left 
hand,  and  on  the  right  hand  (Job  xxiii.  8, 
9).  The  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  is 
frequently  referred  to  (Josh.  x.  13;  2  K. 
XX.  11;  Ps.  xix.  6;  Eccl.  i.  5;  Hab.  iii.  11). 
—  The  worship  of  the  sun,  as  the  most 
prominent  and  powerful  agent  in  the  king- 
dom of  nature,  was  widely  diffused  through- 
out the  countries  adjacent  to  Pafestine. 
The  Arabians  appear  to  have  paid  direct 
worship  to  it  without  the  intervention  of 
any  statue  or  symbol  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27), 
and  this  simple  style  of  worship  was  prob- 
ably familiar  to  the  ancestors  of  the  Jews 
in  Chaldaea  and  Mesopotamia.  The  He- 
brews must  have  been  well  acquainted  with 
the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  sun  during 
tlie  captivity  in  Egypt,  both  from  the  con- 
tiguity of  On,  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship 
of  the  sun  as  implied  in  the  name  itself 
(On  =  the  Hebrew  Bethshemesh,  "house 
of  the  sun,"  Jer.  xliii.  13),  and  also  from 
the  connection  between  Joseph  and  Poti- 
pherah  ("  he  who  belongs  to  Ra"),  the  priest 
of  On  (Gen.  xli.  45).  After  their  removal 
to  Canaan,  the  Hebrews  came  in  contact 
with  various  forms  of  idolatry,  which  origi- 
nated in  the  worship  of  the  sun ;  such  as 
the  Baal  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  Molech 
or  Milcom  of  the  Ammonites,  and  the 
HaJad  of  the  Syrians.  The  importance 
attached  to  the  worship  of  the  sun  by  the 
Jewish  kings  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  the  horses  sacred  to  the  sun  were 
stalled  within  the  precincts  of  the  Temple 
(2  K.  xxiii.  11).  —  In  the  metaphorical 
language  of  Scripture  the  sun  is  emblem- 
atic of  the  law  of  God  (Ps.  xix.  7),  of  the 
cheering  presence  of  God  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  11), 
of  the  person  of  the  Saviour  (John  i.  9; 
Mai.  iv.  2),  and  of  the  glory  and  purity  of 
heavenly  beings  (Rev.  i.  16,  x.  1,  xii.  1). 

Suretyship.  In  the  entire  absence  of 
commerce  the  law  laid  down  no  rules  on 
the  subject  of  suretyship ;  but  it  is  evident 


that  in  the  time  of  Solomon  commercial 
dealings  had  become  so  multiplied  that 
suretyship  in  the  commercial  sense  was 
common  (Prov.  vi.  1,  xi.  15,  xvii.  18,  xx. 
16,  xxii.  26,  xxvii.  13).  But  in  older  times 
the  notion  of  one  man  becoming  a  surety 
for  a  service  to  be  discharged  by  another 
was  in  full  force  (see  Gen.  xliv.  32).  The 
surety  of  course  became  li,ible  for  his 
client's  debts  in  case  of  his  failure. 

Su'sa  (Esth.  xi.  3,  xvi.  18).  [Shushan.] 

Su'sanchites  is  found  once  only  —  in 
Ezr.  iv.  9.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
designates  either  the  inhabitants  of  the  city 
Susa,  or  those  of  the  country  —  Susis  or 
Susiana.  Perhaps  the  former  explanation 
is  preferable. 

Susan'na.  1.  The  heroine  of  the  story 
of  the  Judgment  of  Daniel  (see  p.  132).  2. 
One  of  the  women  who  ministered  to  the 
Lord  (Luke  viii.  3). 

Su'si,  the  fatlier  of  Gaddi  the  Manas- 
site  spy  (Num.  xiii.  11). 

Swallow  (Heb.  dirSr,  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv. 
3;  Prov.  xxvi.  2;  Heb.  'dgAr,  in  Is. 
xxxviii.  14;  Jer.  viii.  7,  but  "  crane  "  ia 
more  probably  the  true  signification  of 
'dgur  [Crane]).  The  rendering  of  A.  V. 
for  d&rdr  seems  correct.  The  characters 
ascribed  in  the  passages  where  the  names 
occur,  are  strictly  applicable  to  the  swal- 
low, viz.  its  swiftness  of  flight,  its  nesting 
in  the  buildings  of  the  Temple,  its  mourn- 
ful, garrulous  note,  and  its  regular  migra- 
tion, shared  indeed  in  common  with  several 
others.  Many  species  of  swallow  occur  in 
Palestine.  All  those  common  in  England 
are  found. 

Swan  (Heb.  UnshemeiK) ,  thus  rendered 
by  A.  V.  in  Lev.  xi.  18 ;  Deut.  xiv.  16, 
where  it  occurs  in  the  list  of  unclean  birds. 
But  the  renderings  of  the  LXX.,  "por- 
phyrio"  (purple  water-hen)  and  "ibis,"  are 
either  of  them  more  probable.  Neither  of 
these  birds  occurs  elsewhere  in  the  cata- 
logue ;  both  would  be  familiar  to  residents 
in  Egypt,  and  the  original  seems  to  point  to 
some  water-fowl.  The  purple  water-hen 
is  allied  to  our  corn-crake  and  water-hen 
and  is  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
family  Rallidae.  It  frequents  marshes  and 
the  sedge  by  the  banks  of  rivers  in  all  tlie 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  abundant  in  Lower  Egypt. 

Swearing.    [Oath.] 

Sweat,  Bloody.  One  of  the  physical 
phenomena  attending  our  Lord's  agony  in 
the  Garden  of  Gethsemane  is  described  by 
St.  Luke  (xxii.  44)  :  "  His  sweat  was  as  it 
were  great  drops  (lit.  clots)  of  blood  falling 
down  to  the  ground."  Of  tliis  malady, 
known  in  medical  science  by  the  term 
diapedesis,  there  have  been  examples  re- 
corded both  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 
The  cause  assigned  is  generally  violent 
mental  emotion.    Dir.  Millingen  {Curiosi- 


bWDfE 


672 


SYCHAR 


ties  of  Medical  Experience,  p.  489,  2d  ed.) 
gives  the  following  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomenon :  "  It  is  probable  that  this  strange 
disorder  arises  from  a  violent  commotion 
of  the  nervous  system,  turning  the  streams 
of  blood  out  of  their  natural  course,  and 
forcing  the  red  particles  into  the  cutaneous 
excretories,  A  mere  relaxation  of  the 
fibres  could  not  produce  so  powerful  a  re- 
vulsion. It  may  also  arise  in  cases  of  ex- 
treme debility,  in  connection  with  a  thin- 
ner condition  of  the  blood." 

Swine  (Heb.  c^ia^fr).  (1.)  The  flesh 
of  swine  was  forbidden  as  food  by  the 
Levitical  law  (Lev.  xi.  7 ;  Deut.  xiv.  8) ; 
the  abhorrence  which  the  Jews  as  a  nation 
had  of  it  may  be  inferred  from  Is.  Ixv.  4, 
and  2  Mace.  vi.  18,  19.  No  other  reason 
for  the  command  to  abstain  from  swine's 
flesh  is  given  in  the  law  of  Moses  beyond 
the  general  one  which  forbade  any  of  the 
mammalia  as  food  which  did  not  literally 
fulfil  the  terms  of  the  definition  of  a  *'  clean 
animal,"  viz.  that  it  was  to  be  a  cloven- 
footed  ruminant.  It  is,  however,  probable 
that  dietetical  considerations  may  have  in- 
fluenced Moses  in  his  prohibition  of  swine's 
flesh ;  it  is  generally  believed  that  its  use 
in  hot  countries  ie  liable  to  induce  cu- 
taneous disorders ;  hence  in  a  people  lia- 
ble to  leprosy  the  necessity  for  the  ob- 
servance of  a  strict  rule.  Although  the 
Jews  did  not  breed  swine,  during  the  great- 
er period  of  their  existence  as  a  nation, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  heathen 
nations  of  Palestine  used  the  flesh  as  food. 
At  the  time  of  our  Lord's  ministry  it  would 
appear  that  the  Jews  occasionally  violated 
the  law  of  Moses  with  regard  to  swine's 
flesh.  Whether  "  the  herd  of  swine  "  into 
which  the  devils  were  allowed  to  enter 
(Matt.  viii.  32;  Mark  v.  13)  were  the 
property  of  the  Jewish  or  Gentile  inhabit- 
ants of  Gadara  does  not  appear  from  the 
sacred  narrative.  (2.)  The  wild  boar  of 
the  wood  (Ps.  Ixxx.  13)  is  the  common 
Sus  scrofa,  which  is  frequently  met  with  in 
the  woody  parts  of  Palestine,  especially  in 
Mount  Tabor. 

Sword.     [Arms.] 

Syeamine-tree  is  mentioned  only  in 
Luke  xvii.  6.  Tliere  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  the  sycamine  is  distinct  from  the  syca- 
more of  the  same  evangelist  (xix.  4).  The 
sycamine  is  the  mulberry-tree  (^Morus). 
Both  black  and  white  mulberry-trees  are 
common  in  Syria  and  Palestine. 

Sycamore  (Ile^.  shikmdh).  The  He- 
brew word  occurs  in  the  O.  T.  only  in  the 
plural  form  masc.  and  once  fem..  Is. 
Ixxviii.  47.  Tlie  two  Greek  words  occur 
only  once  each  in  the  N.  T.  (Luke  xvii.  6, 
xix.  4).  Although  it  may  be  admitted  that 
the  Sycamine  is  properly,  and  in  Luke 
xvii.  6,  the  Mulberry,  and  the  Sycamore  the 
Fig-mulberry,  or  Sycamore-fig  (^Ficus  Syc- 


omorus),  yet  the  latter  is  the  tree  gen- 
erally referred  to  in  the  O.  T.,  ar.d  called 
by  the  Sept.  sycamine,  as  1  K.  x.  27;  1 
Chr.  xxvii.  28;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  47;  Am.  viL 
14.  The  Sycamore,  or  Fig-mulberry,  is 
in  Egypt  and  Palestine  a  tree  of  great  im- 
portance and  very  extensive  use.  It  attains 
the  size  of  a  walnut-tree,  has  wide-spread- 
ing branches,  and  affords  a  delightful  shade. 
On  this  account  it  is  frequently  planted  by 
the  waysides.  Its  leaves  are  heart-shaped, 
downy  on  the  under  side,  and  fragrant. 
The  fruit  grows  directly  from  the  trunk 
itself  on  little  sprigs,  and  in  clusters  like 
the  grape.  To  make  it  eatable,  each  fruit, 
three  or  four  days  before  gathering,  must, 
it  is  said,  be  punctured  with  a  sharp  instru- 
ment or  the  finger-nail.  This  was  the 
original  employment  of  the  prophet  Amos, 
as  he  says,  vii.  14.  So  great  was  the  value 
of  these  trees,  that  David  appointed  for 
them  in  his  kingdom  a  special  overseer,  as 
he  did  for  the  olives  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  28); 
and  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  heaviest 
of  Egypt's  calamities,  that  her  sycamores 
were  destroyed  by  hailstones  (Ps.  IxxviiL 
47). 


/Ecu*  Sveomonu, 

Sy'Cliar,  a  place  named  only  in  John 
iv.  5.  Sycliar  was  either  a  name  applied 
to  the  town  of  Shechem,  or  it  was  an  ia- 


SYCHEM 


673 


SYNAGOGUE 


depeiident  place.  The  first  of  these  alter- 
natives is  now  almost  universally  accept- 
ed.    [Shechem.] 

Sy'ehem,  the  Greek  form  of  the  word 
Sliechem.  It  occurs  in  Acts  vii.  16  only. 
[Shf.chem.] 

Sye'ne,  properly  Seveneh,  a  town  of 
Egypt,  on  the  frontier  of  Gush  or  Ethiopia. 
The  prophet  Ezekiel  speaks  of  the  desola- 
tion of  Egypt  "  from  Migdol  to  Seveneh, 
even  unto  the  border  of  Gush  "  (xxix.  10), 
and  of  its  people  being  slain  "  from  Mig- 
dol to  Seveneh"  (xxx.  6).  Migdol  was  on 
the  eastern  border,  and  Seveneh  is  thus 
rightly  identified  with  the  town  of  Syene, 
which  was  always  the  last  town  of  Egypt 
on  the  south,  though  at  one  time  included 
in  the  nome  Nubia. 

Synagogue.  I.  ITistory.  —  The  word 
Synagogue  (aurayoyfi'i),  which  means  a 
"  congregation,"  is  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  signify  a  recognized  place  of  wor- 
ship. A  knowledge  of  the  history  and  wor- 
ship of  the  synagogues  is  of  great  importance, 
since  they  are  the  characteristic  institution 
of  the  later  phase  of  Judaism.  We  cannot 
separate  them  from  the  most  intimate  con- 
nection with  our  Lord's  life  and  ministry.  In 
them  he  worshipped  in  His  youth  and  in  His 
manhood.  They  were  the  scenes,  too,  of 
no  small  portion  of  His  work.  AVe  know 
too  little  of  the  life  of  Israel,  both  before 
and  under  the  monarchy,  to  be  able  to  say 
with  certainty  whether  there  was  anything 
at  all  corresponding  to  the  synagogues  of 
later  date.  They  appear  to  have  arisen 
during  the  exile,  in  the  abeyance  of  the 
Temple-worship,  and  to  have  received  their 
full  development  on  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  Gaptivity.  The  whole  history  of  Ezra 
presupposes  the  habit  of  solemn,  probably 
of  periodic  meetings  (Ezr.  viii.  15 ;  Neh. 
viii.  2,  ix.  1;  Zech.  vii.  5).  The  "ancient 
days  "  of  which  St.  James  speaks  (Acts 
XV.  21)  may,  at  least,  go  back  so  far.  After 
the  Maccabaean  struggle  for  independence, 
we  find  almost  every  town  or  village  had 
its  one  or  more  synagogues.  Wliere  the 
Jews  were  not  in  sufficient  numbers  to  be 
able  to  erect  and  fill  a  building,  there  was  the 
Proseucha  {.looatvjfij),  or  place  of  prayer, 
sometimes  opened,  sometimes  covered  in, 
commonly  by  a  running  stream  or  on  the 
sea-shore,  in  which  devout  Jews  and  pros- 
elytes met  to  worsiiip,  and,  perhaps,  to 
read  (Acts  xvi.  13;  Juven.  Sat.  iii.  296). 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  overestimate  the  in- 
fluence of  the  system  thus  developed.  To 
it  we  may  ascribe  the  tenacity  with  which, 
after  the  Maccabaean  struggle,  the  Jews 
adhered  to  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  and 
never  again  relapsed  into  idolatry.  The 
people  were  now  in  no  danger  of  forgetting 
the  Law,  and  the  external  ordinances  that 
hedged  it  round.  Here,  as  in  the  cognate 
order  of  the  Scribes,  there  was  an  influence 


tending  to  diminish,  and  ultimately  almost 
to  destroy,  the  authority  of  the  hereditary 
priesthood.  The  way  was  silently  pre- 
pared for  a  new  and  higher  order,  which 
should  rise  in  "  the  fulness  of  time "  out 
of  the  decay  and  abolition  of  both  the 
priesthood  and  the  Temple.      II.  Structure. 

—  The  size  of  a  synagogue  varied  with  the 
population.  Its  position  was,  however,  de- 
terminate. It  stood,  if  possible,  on  the 
highest  ground,  in  or  near  the  city  to  which 
it  belonged.  And  its  direction  too  was 
fixed.  Jerusalem  was  the  Kibleh  of  Jew- 
ish devotion.  The  synagogue  was  so  con- 
structed, that  the  worshippers  as  they  en 
tered,  and  as  they  prayed,  looked  towards  it. 
The  building  was  commonly  erected  at  the 
cost  of  the  district.  Sometimes  it  was  built 
by  a  rich  Jew,  or  even,  as  in  Luke  vii.  5,  by 
a  friendly  proselyte.  In  the  internal  ar- 
rangement of  the  synagogue  we  trace  an 
obvious  analogy  to  the  type  of  the  Taber- 
nacle. At  the  upper  or  Jerusalem  end 
stood  the  Ark,  the  chest  which,,  like  the 
older  and  more  sacred  Ark,  contained 
the  Book  of  the  Law.  It  gave  to  that  end 
the  name  and  character  of  a  sanctuary. 
This  part  of  the  synagogue  was  natu- 
rally the  place  of  honor.  Here  were  the 
"  chief  seats,"  after  which  Pharisees  and 
Scribes  strove  so  eagerly  (Matt,  xxiii.  6), 
to  which  the  wealthy  and  honored  worship- 
per was  invited  (James  ii.  2,  3).  Here 
too,  in  front  of  the  Ark,  still  reprodu- 
cing the  type  of  the  Tabernacle,  was  the 
eight-branched  lamp,  lighted  only  on  the 
greater  festivals.  Besides  this,  there  was 
one  lamp  kept  burning  perpetually.  A 
little  farther  towards  the  middle  of  the 
building  was  a  raised  platform,  on  which 
several  persons  could  stand  at  once,  and  in 
the  middle  of  tliis  rose  a  pulpit,  in  which 
the  Header  stood  to  read  the  lesson  or  sat, 
down  to  teach.  The  congregation  were- 
divided,  men  on  one  side,  women  on  the- 
other,  a  low  partition,  five  or  six  feet  high, 
running  between  them.  The  arrangements- 
of  modern  synagogues,  for  many  centuries,, 
have  made  the  separation  more  complete- 
by  placing  the  women  in  low  side-galleries,, 
screened  ofi"  by  lattice-work.    III.  Officers^ 

—  In  smaller  towns  there  was  often  but 
one  Rabbi.  Where  a  fuller  organization, 
was  possible,  there  was  a  college  of  Elders 
(Luke  vii.  3),  presided  over  by  one  who  was 
"  the  chief  of  the  synagogue  "  (Luke  viii. 
4:1,  49,  xiii.  14;  Acts  xviii.  8,  17).  The 
most  prominent  functionary  in  a  large  syn- 
agogue was  known  as  the  Shlliadi  (=  le- 
gatus),  the  officiating  minister  who  acted 
as  the  delegate  of  the  congregation,  and 
was  therefore  the  chief  reader  of  prayers, 
&c.,  in  their  name.  The  Cliazzdn  or 
"minister"  of  the  synagogue  (Luke  iv. 
20)  had  duties  of  a  lower  kind,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  Ghristian  deacon  or  sub- 


SYNAGOGUE 


674 


SYRACUSE 


deacon.  He  was  to  open  the  doors,  to 
get  tlie  building  ready  for  service.  Besides 
these  there  were  ten  men  attached  to  every 
synagogue,  known  as  the  Batlanim,  (==  Oti- 
osi).  They  were  supposed  to  be  men 
of  leisure,  not  obliged  to  labor  for  their 
livelihood,  able  therefore  to  attend  the 
week-day  as  well  as  the  Sabbath  services. 
It  will  be  seen  at  once  how  closely  the 
organization  of  the  synagogue  was  repro- 
duced in  that  of  the  Ecclesia.  Here  also 
there  was  the  single  presbyter-bishop  in 
small  towns,  a  council  of  presbyters  under 
one  head  in  large  cities.  The  legatus  of 
the  synagogues  appears  in  the  Angel  (Rev. 
i.  20,  ii.  1),  perhaps  also  in  the  Apostle  of 
the  Christian  Church.  IV.  Worship. — It 
will  be  enough,  in  this  place,  to  notice  in 
what  way  the  ritual,  no  less  than  the  organi- 
zation, was  connected  with  the  facts  of  the 
N.  T.  history,  and  with  the  life  and  order 
of  the  Christian  Church.  From  the  syna- 
gogue came  the  use  of  fixed  forms  of  prayer. 
To  that  the  first  disciples  had  been  accus- 
tomed from  their  youth.  They  had  asked 
their  Master  to  give  them  a  distinctive  one, 
and  he  had  complied  with  their  request 
(Luke  xi.  1),  as  the  Baptist  had  done  be- 
fore for  his  disciples,  as  every  Rabbi  did 
for  his.  The  forms  might  be,  and  were, 
abused.  The  large  admixture  of  a  didactic 
element  in  Christian  worship,  that  by  which 
it  was  distinguished  from  all  Gentile  forms 
of  adoration,  was  derived  from  the  older 
order.  *'  Moses  "  was  "  read  in  tlie  syna- 
gogues every  Sabbath-day"  (Acts  xv.  21), 
the  wliole  Law  being  read  consecutively,  so 
as  to  be  completed,  according  to  one  cycle, 
in  three  years.  The  writings  of  the  Proph- 
ets were  read  as  second  lessons  in  a  cor- 
responding order.  They  were  followed  by 
the  Derash  (Acts  xiii.  15),  the  exposition, 
the  sermon  of  the  synagogue.  The  con- 
formity extends  also  to  the  times  of  prayer. 
In  tlie  hours  of  service  this  was  obviously 
the  case.  The  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours 
were  in  the  times  of  the  N.  T.  (Acts  iii.  1, 
X.  3,9),  and  had  been  probably  for  some 
time  before  (Ps.  Iv.  17 ;  Dan.  vi.  10),  the 
fixed  times  of  devotion.  The  same  hours, 
it  is  well  known,  were  recognized  in  the 
Church  of  the  second,  probably  in  that  of 
the  first  century  also.  The  solemn  days  of 
the  synagogue  were  the  second,  the  fifth, 
and  the  seventh,  the  last  or  Sabbath  being 
tlie  conclusion  of  the  whole.  The  transfer 
of  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath  to  the  Lord's 
Day  involved  a  corresponding  change  in 
the  order  of  the  week,  and  the  first,  the 
fourth,  and  the  sixth  became  to  the  Chris- 
tian society  what  the  other  days  had  been 
to  the  Jewish.  From  the  synagogue,  lastly, 
come  many  less  conspicuous  practices, 
which  meet  us  in  the  liturgical  life  of  the 
first  three  centuries  :  Ablution,  entire  or 
partial,  before  entering  the  place  of  meeting 


(Hcb.  X.  22;  John  xiii.  1-15);  standing, 
and  not  kneeling,  as  the  attitude  of  prayer 
(Luke  xviii.  11);  the  arms  stretched  out; 
the  face  turned  towards  the  Kibleh  of  the 
East;  the  responsive  Amen  of  the  congre- 
gation to  the  prayers  and  benedictions  of  tlie 
elders  (1  Cor.  xiv.  16).  V.  Judicial  FunC' 
tions.  —  The  language  of  the  N.  T.  shows 
that  the  ofllcers  of  tlie  synagogue  exercised 
in  certain  cases  a  judicial  power.  It  is  not 
quite  so  easy,  however,  to  define  the  nature 
of  the  tribunal,  and  the  precise  limits  of 
its  jurisdiction.  In  two  of  the  jiassages 
referred  to  (Matt.  x.  17 ;  Mark  xiii.  9)  they 
are  carefully  distinguished  from  the  coun- 
cils. It  seems  probable  that  the  council 
was  the  larger  tribunal  of  23,  which  sat 
in  every  city,  and  that  under  the  term 
synagogue  we  are  to  understand  a  smaller 
court,  probably  that  of  the  Ten  judges 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud.  Here  also  wo 
trace  the  outline  of  a  Christian  institution. 
The  Church,  either  by  itself  or  by  appointed 
delegates,  was  to  act  as  a  Court  of  Arbi- 
tration in  all  disputes  among  its  members. 
The  elders  of  the  church  were  not,  how- 
ever, to  descend  to  the  trivial  disputes  of 
daily  life.  For  the  elders,  as  for  those  of 
the  synagogue,  were  reserved  the  graver 
offences  against  religion  and  morals. 

Synagogue,  The  Great.  On  the  re 
turn  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon,  a  great 
council  was  appointed,  according  to  Rab- 
binic tradition,  to  re-organize  the  religious 
life  of  the  people.  It  consisted  of  120 
members,  and  these  were  known  as  the 
men  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  prophets,  themselves,  in 
their  turn,  succeeded  by  scribes  promi- 
nent, individually,  as  teachers.  Ezra  was 
recognized  as  president.  Their  aim  was 
to  restore  again  the  crown,  or  glory,  of 
Israel.  To  this  end  they  collected  all  the 
sacred  writings  of  former  ages  and  their 
own,  and  so  completed  the  canon  of  the 
O.  T.  They  instituted  the  feast  of  Purim, 
organized  the  ritual  of  the  synagogue,  and 
gave  their  sanction  to  the  Shemdneh  Esr^h, 
the  eighteen  solemn  benedictions  in  it. 
Much  of  this  is  evidently  uncertain.  The 
absence  of  any  historical  mention  of  such  a 
body,  not  only  in  the  O.  T.  and  the  Apocry- 
pha, but  in  Josephus,  PhUo,  &c.,  have  led 
some  critics  to  reject  the  whole  statement 
as  a  Rabbinic  invention.  The  narrative  of 
Neh.  viii.  13  clearly  implies  the  existence 
of  a  body  of  men  acting  as  councillors  un- 
der the  presidency  of  Ezra ;  and  these  May 
have  been  an  assembly  of  delegates  from 
all  provincial  synagogues  —  a  synod  of  tlie 
National  Church. 

Syn'tyche,  a  female  member  of  the 
Church  of  Philippi  (Phil.  iv.  2,  3). 

Syr'acuse,  the  celebrated  city  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Sicily.  St.  Paul  arrived 
tliither  in  an  Alexandrian  ship  from  Melita, 


SYRIA 


675 


SYRIA 


on  his  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  12). 
The  site  of  Syracuse  rendered  it  a  con- 
venient place  for  the  African  corn-ships  to 
touch  at,  for  the  liarbor  was  an  excellent 
one,  and  the  fountain  Arethusa  in  the 
island  furnished  an  unfailing  supply  of 
excellent  water. 

Syr'ia  is  the  term  used  throughout  our 
version  for  the  Hebrew  A7-am,  as  well  as 
for  the  Greek  Svola.  Most  probably  Syria 
is  for  Tsyria,  the  country  about  Tsur,  or 
Tyre,  which  was  tlie  first  of  the  Syrian 
towns  known  to  the  Greeks.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  fix  the  limits  of  Syria.  The  limits 
of  the  Hebrew  Aram  and  its  subdivis- 
ions are  spoken  of  under  Aram.  Syria 
Proper  was  bounded  by  Amanus  and 
Taurus  on  the  N.,  by  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Arabian  desert  on  the  E.,  by  Palestine 
on  the  S.,  by  the  Mediterranean  near  the 
mouth  of  tlie  Orontes,  and  then  by  Phoeni- 
cia upon  the  W.  This  tract  is  about  300 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  from 
50  to  150  miles  broad.  It  contains  an  area 
of  about  30,000  square  miles.  —  The  gen- 
eral character  of  the  tract  is  moutainous, 
as  the  Hebrew  name  Aram  (from  a  root 
signifying  "  height ")  sufficiently  implies. 
The  most  fertile  and  valuable  tract  of 
Syria  is  the  long  valley  intervening  be- 
tween Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus.  Of  the 
various  mountain-ranges  of  Syria,  Lebanon 
possesses  the  greatest  interest.  It  extends 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Litany  to  Arka,  a 
distance  of  nearly  100  miles.  Anti-Libanus, 
as  the  name  implies,  stands  over  against 
Lebanon,  running  in  the  same  direction, 
t.  e.  nearly  north  and  south,  and  extending 
the  same  length.  [Lebanon.]  —  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  Syria  are  the  Litany  and  the 
Orontes.  The  Litany  springs  from  a  small 
lake  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  Coele- 
syrian  valley,  about  six  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  Baalbek.  It  enters  the  sea  about  5 
miles  north  of  Tyre.  Tlie  source  of  the 
Orontes  is  but  about  15  miles  from  that  of 
the  Litany.  Its  modern  name  is  the  Nahr- 
el-Asi,  or  "  Rebel  Stream,"  an  appellation 
given  to  it  on  account  of  its  violence  and 
impetuosity  in  many  parts  of  its  course. 
The  chief  towns  of  Syria  may  be  thus  ar- 
ranged, as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  order 
of  their  importance:  1.  Antioch;  2.  Da- 
mascus; 3.  Apamea;  i.  Seleucia;  5.  Tad- 
mor  or  Palmyra ;  G.  Laodicea ;  7.  Epipha- 
nia  (Hamath) ;  8.  Samosata;  9.  Hierap- 
olis  (Mabug) ;  10.  Chalybon;  11.  Emesa; 
?2.  Heliopolis;  13.  Laodicea  ad  Libanum  ; 
14.  Cyrrhus;  15.  Chalcis;  16.  Poseideura; 
17.  Heraclea;  18.  Gindarus;  19.  Zeugma; 
20.  Thapsacus.  Of  these,  Samosata,  Zeug- 
ma, Thapsacus,  are  on  the  Euphrates ; 
Seleucia,  Laodicea,  Poseideum,  and  Her- 
aclea, on  the  sea-shore;  Antioch,  Apa- 
mea, Epiphania,  and  Emesa  (^Hems)  on  the 


Orontes ;  Heliopolis  and  Laodicea  ad  Liba- 
num, in  Coele-syria ;  Hierapolis,  Chalybon, 
Cyrrhus,  Chalcis,  and  Gindarus,  in  the 
northern  highlands;  Damascus  on  the 
skirts,  and  Palmyra  in  the  centre,  of  the 
eastern  desert.  History The  first  oc- 
cupants of  Syria  appear  to  have  been  of 
Hamitic  descent.  The  Canaanitish  races, 
the  Hittites,  Jebusites,  Amorites,  &c.,  are 
connected  in  Scripture  with  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia,  Cush  and  Mizraim  (Gen.  x.  6 
and  15-18).  These  tribes  occupied  not 
Palestine  only,  but  also  Lower  Syria,  in 
very  early  times,  as  we  may  gather  from 
the  fact  that  Hamath  is  assigned  to  them 
in  Genesis  (x.  18).  Afterwards  they  seem 
to  have  become  possessed  of  Upper  Syria 
also.  After  a  while  the  first  comers,  who 
were  still  to  a  great  extent  nomads,  re- 
ceived a  Semitic  infusion,  which  most  prob- 
ably came  to  them  from  the  south-east. 
The  only  Syrian  town  whose  existence  we 
find  distinctly  marked  at  this  time  is  Da- 
mascus (Gen.  xiv.  15;  xv.  2),  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  already  a  place  of  some 
importance.  Next  to  Damascus  must  be 
placed  Hamath  (Num.  xiii.  21,  xxxiv.  8). 
Syria  at  this  time,  and  for  many  centuries 
afterwards,  seems  to  have  been  broken  up 
among  a  number  of  petty  kingdoms.  The 
Jews  first  come  into  hostile  contact  with  the 
Syrians,  under  that  name,  in  the  time  of  Da- 
vid. Claiming  the  frontier  of  the  Euphrates, 
which  God  had  promised  to  Abraham  (Gen. 
XV.  18),  David  made  war  on  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Zobah  (2  Sam.  viii.  3,  4,  13).  The 
Damascene  Syrians  were  likewise  defeated 
with  great  loss  (ib.  ver.  5).  Zobah,  however, 
was  far  from  being  subdued  as  yet.  Wlien, 
a  few  years  later,  the  Ammonites  deter- 
mined on  engaging  in  a  war  with  David, 
and  applied  to  the  Syrians  for  aid,  Zobah, 
togetlier  with  Beth-Rehob,  sent  them  20,000 
footmen,  and  two  other  Syrian  kingdoms 
furnished  13,000  (2  Sam.  x.  6).  This  army 
being  completely  defeated  by  Joab,  Hada- 
dezer obtained  aid  from  Mesopotamia  (ib. 
ver.  16),  and  tried  the  chance  of  a  third 
battle,  which  likewise  went  against  him, 
and  produced  the  general  submission  of 
Syria  to  the  Jewish  monarch.  The  sub- 
mission thus  begun  continued  under  the 
reign  of  Solomon  (1  K.  iv.  21).  The  only 
part  of  Syria  which  Solomon  lost  seems  to 
have  been  Damascus,  where  an  independent 
kingdom  was  set  up  by  Rezon,  a  native  of 
Zobah  (1  K.  xi.  23-25).  On  the  separation 
of  the  two  kingdoms,  soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Rehoboam,  the  remainder  of  Syria 
no  doubt  shook  off  the  yoke.  Damascus 
now  became  decidedly  the  leading  state, 
Hamath  beirig  second  to  it,  and  the  north- 
ern Hittites,  whose  capital  was  Carchemish 
near  Bambuk,  third.  [Damascus.]  Syria 
became  attached  to  the  great  Assyrian  em- 


SYEO-PHOENICIAN 


676 


TABERNACLE 


pire,  from  which  it  passed  to  the  Babylo- 
nians, and  from  them  to  the  Persians.  In 
B.  c.  333  it  submitted  to  Alexander  without 
a  struggle.  Upon  the  death  of  Alexander 
Syria  became,  for  the  first  time,  the  head 
of  a  great  kingdom.  On  the  division  of 
the  provinces  among  his  generals  (b.  c. 
821),  Seleucus  Nicator  received  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Syria.  Antioch  was  begun  in 
B.  c.  300,  and,  being  finished  in  a  few  years, 
was  made  the  capital  of  Seleucus'  kingdom. 
The  country  grew  rich  with  the  wealth 
which  now  flowed  into  it  on  all  sides.  The 
history  of  Syria  under  the  Seleucid  princes 
has  been  already  given  in  the  articles  treat- 
ing of  each  monarch  [Antiochcs,  Deme- 
trius, Seleucus,  &c.].  —  Syria  holds  an 
important  place,  not  only  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  in  the  New.  While  the  country 
generally  was  formed  into  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, under  governors  who  were  at  first 
propraetors  or  quaestors,  then  proconsuls, 
and  finally  legates,  there  were  exempted 
from  the  direct  rule  of  the  governor,  in  the 
first  place,  a  number  of  "  free  cities,"  which 
retained  the  administration  of  their  own 
affairs,  subject  to  a  tribute  levied  according 
to  the  Roman  principles  of  taxation ;  and 
2dly,  a  number  of  tracts,  which  were  as- 
signed to  petty  princes,  commonly  natives, 
to  be  ruled  at  their  pleasure,  subject  to  the 
same  obligations  with  the  free  cities  as  to 
taxation.  After  the  formal  division  of  the 
provinces  between  Augustus  and  the  Sen- 
ate, Syria,  being  from  its  exposed  situation 
among  the  provinciae  principis,  was  ruled 
by  legates,  who  were  of  consular  rank  {con- 
sulares)  and  bore  severally  the  full  title  of 
"  Legatus  Augusti  pro  praetore."  Judaea 
occupied  a  peculiar  position.  A  special 
procurator  was  therefore  appointed  to  rule 
it,  Avho  was  subordinate  to  the  governor  of 
Syria,  but  within  his  own  province  had  the 
power  of  a  legatus.  Syria  continued  with- 
out serious  disturbance  from  the  expulsion 
of  the  Parthians  (b.  c.  38)  to  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Jewish  war  (a.  d.  66).  In  a.  d. 
44-47  it  was  the  scene  of  a  severe  famine. 
A  little  earlier  Christianity  had  begun  to 
spread  into  it,  partly  by  raejins  of  those  who 
"  were  scattered"  at  the  time  of  Stephen's 
persecution  (Acts  xi.  19),  partly  by  the  ex- 
ertions of  St.  Paul  (Gal.  i.  21).  The  Syrian 
Church  soon  grew  to  be  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  (Acts  xiii.  1,  xv.  23,  35,  41,  &c.). 
Sy'ro-phoeni'cian,  occurs  only  in 
Mark  vii.  26.  The  word  denoted  perhaps 
a  mixed  race,  half-Phoenicians  and  half- 
Syrians.  Matthew  (xv.  22)  speaks  of  "a 
woman  of  Canaan  "  in  place  of  St.  Mark's 
"  Syro-phoenician,"  on  the  same  ground 
that  the  Septuagint  translate'  Canaan  by 
Phoenicia.  The  names  Canaan  and  Phoe- 
nicia had  succeeded  one  another  as  geo- 
grapliical  names  in  the  same  country. 


T. 


Ta'anach.,  an  ancient  Canaanitish  city, 
whose  king  is  enumerated  amongst  tha 
tliirty-one  conquered  by  Joshua  (.Josh.  xii. 
21).  It  came  into  the  lialf  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  (Josh.  xvii.  11,  xxi.  25  ;  1  Chr.  vii.  29), 
and  was  bestowed  on  the  Kohathite  Lcvites 
(Josh.  xxi.  25).  Taanach  is  almost  always 
named  in  company  with  Megiddo,  and  they 
were  evidently  tlie  chief  towns  of  that  fine 
rich  district  wliich  forms  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  (1  K. 
iv.  12).  It  is  still  called  Taannyili,  and 
stands  about  4  miles  S.  E.  of  Lejjun. 

Ta'anath-slli'loh,  a  place  named  once 
only  (Josh.  xvi.  6)  as  one  of  the  landmarks 
of  the  boundary  of  Ephraim.  Perhaps  Taa- 
nath  was  the  ancient  Canaanite  name  of 
the  place,  and  Shiloh  the  Hebrew  name. 

Tab'baoth.  Tlie  children  of  Tabbaoth 
were  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  43;  Neh.  vii.  46). 

Tab'bath,  a  place  mentioned  only  in 
Judg.  vii.  22,  nn  describing  the  flight  of  the 
Midianite  host  after  Gideon's  night  attack. 

Tabe'al.  The  son  of  Tabeal  was  ap- 
parently an  Ephraimite  in  the  army  of 
Pekah  the  son  of  Remaliah,  or  a  Syrian  in 
the  army  of  Rezin,  when  they  went  up  to 
besiege  Jerusalem  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (Is. 
vii.  6).  The  Aramaic  form  of  the  name 
favors  the  latter  supposition. 

Ta'beel,  an  officer  of  the  Persian  gov- 
ernment in  Samaria  in  the  reign  of  Arta- 
xerxes  (Ezr.  iv.  7).  His  name  appears  to 
indicate  that  he  was  a  Sj'rian. 

Tab'erah,  the  name  of  a  place  in  the 
wilderness  of  Paran  (Num.  xi.  3 ;  Deut. 
ix.  22).     It  has  not  been  identified. 

Tabering,  an  obsolete  English  word 
used  in  the  A.  V.  of  Nahum  ii.  7.  The 
Hebrew  word  connects  itself  with  tSph,  "  a 
timbrel."  The  A.  V.  reproduces  the  origi- 
nal idea.  The  "  tabour  "  or  "tabor  "was 
a  musical  instrument  of  the  drum-type, 
which  with  the  pipe  formed  the  band  of  a 
country  village.  To  "  tabour,"  accordingly, 
is  to  beat  with  loud  strokes  as  men  beat 
upon  such  an  instrument. 

Tabernacle.  The  Tabernacle  was  the 
tent  of  Jehovah,  called  by  the  same  name  as 
the  tents  of  the  people,  in  the  midst  of 
which  it  stood.  It  was  also  called  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  tabernacle  of  the  con- 
gregation. The  first  ordinances  given  to 
Moses,  after  the  proclamation  of  the  out- 
line of  tlie  law  from  Sinai,  related  to  the 
ordering  of  the  Tabernacle,  its  furniture, 
and  its  service,  as  the  type  wliich  was  to  be 
followed  when  the  people  came  to  their 
own  home,  and  "found  a  place"  for  the 
abode  of  God.    During  the  forty  days  of 


TABERNACLE 


677 


TABERNACLE 


Moees'  first  retirement  with  God  in  Sinai, 
an  exact  pattern  of  the  whole  was  shown 
him,  and  all  was  made  according  to  it  (Ex. 
XXV.  9,  40,  xxvi.  30,  xxxix.  32,  42,  43; 
Nam.  viii.  4;  Acts  vii.  44;  Heb.  viii.  5). 
The  description  of  this  plan  is  preceded  by 
an  account  of  the  freewill-offerings  which 
the  children  of  Israel  were  to  be  asked  to 
make  for  its  execution.  The  materials 
were  :  —  (a)  Metals  :  gold,  silver,  and 
brass.  (Jb)  Textile  fabrics :  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  fine  {white)  linen,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  which  Egypt  was  celebrated; 
also  a  fabric  of  goats'  hair,  the  produce  of 
their  own  flocks,  (c)  Skins :  of  the  ram, 
dyed  red,  and  of  the  badger,  {d)  Wood : 
the  shittim  wood,  the  timber  of  the  wild 
acacia  of  the  desert  itself,  the  tree  of  the 
"  burning  bush."  (e)  Oil,  spices,  and  in- 
cense, for  anointing  the  priests,  and  burn- 
ing in  the  tabernacle.  (/)  Gems :  onyx 
stones,  and  the  precious  stones  for  the 
breastplate  of  the  High- Priest.  The  peo- 
ple gave  jewels,  and  plates  of  gold,  and  sil- 
Ter,  and  brass ;  wood,  skins,  hair,  and  linen  : 
the  women  wove;  the  rulers  offered  pre- 
cious stones,  oil,  spices,  and  incense ;  and 
the  artists  soon  had  more  than  they  needed 
(Ex.  XXV.  1-8;  XXXV.  4-29;  xxxvi.  5-7). 
The  superintendence  of  the  work  was  in- 
trusted to  Bezaleel,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  to  Aholiab,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  who 
were  skilled  in  "  all  manner  of  workman- 
ship "  (Ex.  xxxi.  2,  6,  XXXV.  30,  34).  —  The 
tabernacle  was  a  portable  building,  designed 
to  contain  the  sacred  ark,  the  special  sym- 
bol of  God's  presence,  and  was  surrounded 
by  an  outer  court,  (i.)  The  Court  of  the 
Tabernacle,  in  which  the  Tabernacle  itself 
stood,  was  an  oblong  space,  100  cubits  by 
60  (i.  e.  150  feet  by  75),  having  its  longer 
axis  east  and  west,  with  its  front  to  the  east. 
It  was  surrounded  by  canvas  screens  —  in 
the  East  called  Kannauts  —  5  cubits  in 
height,  and  supported  by  pillars  of  bra^s  5 
cubits  apart,  to  which  the  curtains  were  at- 
tached by  hooks  and  fillets  of  silver  (Ex. 
xxvii.  9,  &c.).  This  enclosure  was  only 
broken  on  the  eastern  side  by  the  entrance, 
which  was  20  cubits  wide,  and  closed  by 
curtains  of  fine  twined  linen  wrought  with 
needlework,  and  of  the  most  gorgeous 
colors.  In  the  outer  or  eastern  half  of 
the  court  was  placed  the  altar  of  burnt-of- 
fering, and  between  it  and  the  Tabernacle 
itself,  the  laver  at  which  the  priests  washed 
their  hands  and  feet  on  entering  the  Tem- 
ple, (ii.)  The  Tabernacle  itself  was  placed 
towards  the  western  end  of  this  enclosure. 
It  was  an  oblong  rectangular  structure,  80 
cubits  in  length  by  10  in  width  (45  feet  by 
15),  and  10  in  height;  the  interior  being 
divided  into  two  chambers,  the  first  or  outer 
of  20  cubits  in  length,  the  inner  of  10 
cubits,  and  consequently  an  exact  cube. 
The  former  was  the  Holy  Place,  or  First 


I  Tabernacle  (Heb.  ix.  2),  containing  the 
golden  candlestick  on  one  side,  the  table 
of  shew-bread  opposite,  and  between  them 
in  the  centre  the  altar  of  incense.  The  lat- 
ter was  the  Most  Holy  Place,  or  the  Holy 
of  Holies,  containing  the  ark,  surmounted 
by  the  cherubim,  with  the  Two  Tables  in- 
side. The  two  sides,  and  the  farther  or 
western  end,  were  enclosed  by  boards  of 
shittim  wood  overlaid  with  gold,  twenty  on 
the  north  and  south  side,  six  on  the  western 
side,  and  the  corner-boards  doubled.  They 
stood  uprigiit,  edge  to  edge,  their  lower 
ends  being  made  with  tenons,  which  dropped 
into  sockets  of  silver,  and  the  corner-boards 
being  coupled  at  the  top  with  rings.  They 
were  furnished  with  golden  rings,  through 
which  passed  bars  of  shittim  wood,  overlaid 
with  gold,  five  to  each  side,  and  the  middle 
bar  passing  from  end  to  end,  so  as  to  brace 
the  whole  together.  Four  successive  cover- 
ings of  curtains  looped  together  were  placed 
over  the  open  top,  and  fell  down  over  the 
sides.  The  first,  or  inmost,  was  a  splendid 
fabric  of  linen,  embroidered  with  figures  of 
cherubim,  in  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet,  and 
looped  together  by  golden  fastenings.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  ends  of  this  set  of 
curtains  hung  down  within  the  Tabernacle, 
forming  a  sumptuous  tapestry.  The  next 
was  a  woollen  covering  of  goats'  hair ;  the 
third,  of  rams'  skins  dyed  red;  and  the 
outermost,  of  badgers*  skins  (so  called  in 
our  version ;  but  the  Hebrew  word  probably 
signifies  seal-skins).  [Badger-skins.]  It 
has  been  usually  supposed  that  these  cover- 
ings were  thrown  over  the  wall,  as  a  pall 
is  thrown  over  a  coffin ;  but  this  would  have 
allowed  every  drop  of  rain  that  fell  on  the 
Tabernacle  to  fall  through;  for,  however 
tightly  the  curtains  might  be  stretched,  the 
water  could  never  run  over  the  edge,  and 
the  sheep-skins  would  only  make  the  mat- 
ter worse,  as  when  wetted  their  weight 
would  depress  the  centre,  and  probably  tear 
any  curtain  that  could  be  made.  There 
can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  tent  had 
a  ridge,  as  all  tents  have  had  from  the  days 
of  Moses  down  to  the  present  day.  The 
front  of  the  Sanctuary  was  closed  by  a  hang- 
ingof  fine  linen,  embroidered  in  blue,  purple, 
and  scarlet,  and  supported  by  golden  hooks, 
on  five  pillars  of  shittim  wood  overlaid  with 
gold,  and  standing  in  brass  sockets ;  and 
the  covering  of  goats'  hair  was  so  made  as 
to  fall  down  over  this  when  required.  A 
more  sumptuous  curtain  of  the  same  kind, 
embroidered  with  cheruJaim,  hung  on  four 
sucih  pillars,  with  silver  sockets,  divided  the 
Holy  from  the  Most  Holy  Place.  It  was 
called  the  Veil,*  as  it  hid  from  the  eyes 
of  all  but  the  High  Priest  the  inmost  sanc- 
tuary, where  Jehovah  dwelt  on  his  mercy 


•  Somptimes  the  tecond  veil,  either  in  reference  to  the  flrrt 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Holy  Place,  or  aa  Iwing  the  T«il  of  tn« 
second  lauctuary  (lieb,  ix  H}. 


TABERNACLE 


678 


TABERNACLE 


Beat,  between  the  cherubim  above  the  ark. 
Hence  "  to  enter  within  the  veil "  is  to 
have  the  closest  access  to  God.  It  was 
only  passed  by  the  High-Priest  once  a  year, 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  in  token  of  the 
mediation  of  Christ,  who,  with  his  own 
blood,  hath  entered  for  us  within  the  veil 
•which  separates  God's  own  abode  from  earth 
(Heb.  vi.  19).  In  the  temple,  the  solemn 
barrier  was  at  length  profaned  by  a  Roman 
conqueror,  to  warn  the  Jews  that  the  privi- 
leges they  had  forfeited  were  "  ready  to 
vanish  away ;  "  and  the  veil  was  at  last  rent 
by  the  hand  of  God  himself,  at  the  same 
moment  that  the  body  of  Christ  was  rent 
upon  the  cross,  to  indicate  that  the  entrance 
into  the  holiest  of  all  is  now  laid  open  to 
all  believers  "  by  the  blood  of  Jesus,  by  a 
new  and  living  way  which  He  hath  conse- 
crated for  us,  through  the  veil,  that  is  to 
say,  His  flesh"  (Heb.  x.  19,  20).  The 
Holy  Place  was  only  entered  by  the  priests 
daily,  to  offer  incense  at  the  time  of  morn- 
ing and  evening  prayer,  and  to  renew  the 
IFghts  on  the  golden  candlestick;  and  on 
the  Sabbath,  to  remove  the  old  shew-bread, 
and  to  place  the  new  upon  the  table,  (iii.) 
The  Sacred  Furniture  and  Instruments  of 
the  Tabernacle.  —  These  are  described  in 
separate  articles,  and  therefore  it  is  only 
necessary  to  give  a  list  of  them  here.  1. 
In  the  Outer  Court.  The  Altar  of  Burnt- 
Offering,  and  the  Brazen  Later.  [Al- 
tar; Laver.]  2.  In  the  Holy  Place. 
The  furniture  of  the  court  was  connected 
with  sacrifice,  that  of  the  sanctuary  itself 
with  the  deeper  mysteries  of  mediation  and 
access  to  God.  The  First  Sanctuary  con- 
tained three  objects :  the  altar  of  incense 
in  the  centre,  so  as  to  be  directly  in  front 
of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  (1  K.  vi.  22), 
the  table  of  shew-bread  on  its  right  or  north 
side,  and  the  golden  candlestick  on  the  left 
or  south  side.  These  objects  were  all  con- 
sidered as  being  placed  before  the  presence 
of  Jehovah,  who  dwelt  in  the  holiest  of  all, 
though  with  the  veil  between.  [Altar; 
Shew-bread;  Candlestick.]  3.  In  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  within  the  veil,  and  shroud- 
ed in  darkness,  there  was  but  one  object, 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  containing  the 
two  tables  of  stone,  inscribed  with  the  Ten 
Commandments.  [Ark.]  History  of  the 
Tabernacle.  —  As  long  as  Canaan  remained 
unconquered,  and  the  people  were  still 
therefore  an  army,  the  Tabernacle  was 
probably  moved  from  place  to  place,  wher- 
ever the  host  of  Israel  was  for  the  time  en- 
camped. It  rested  finally  at  "  the  place 
which  the  Lord  had  chosen,"  at  Shiloh 
(Josh.  ix.  27,  xviii.  1).  The  reasons  of 
the  choice  are  not  given.  Partly,  perhaps, 
its  central  position,  partly  its  belonging  to 
the  powerful  tribe  of  Ephraim,  the  tribe  of 
the  great  captain  of  the  host,  may  have 
determined  the  preference.    There  it  con- 


I  tinued  during  the  whole  period  of  the 
Judges  (Josh.  xix.  51,  xxii.  12;  Judg.  xxi. 
12).  It  was  far,  however,  from  being  what 
it  was  intended  to  be,  tlie  one  national  sanc- 
tuary, the  witness  against  a  lociilizcd  and 
divided  worship.  The  old  religion  of  the 
high  places  kept  its  ground.  Altars  were 
erected,  at  first  with  reserve,  as  being  not 
for  sacrifice  (Josh.  xxii.  2G),  afterwards 
freely  and  without  scruple  (Judg.  vi.  24, 
xiii.  19).  Of  the  names  by  whicli  the  one 
special  sanctuary  was  known  at  tliis  period, 
those  of  the  "House,"  or  the  "Temple," 
of  JeJiovah  (1  Sam.  i.  9,  24,  iii.  3,  15)  are 
most  prominent.  A  state  of  things  which 
was  rapidly  assimilating  the  worship  of  Je- 
hovah to  tliat  of  Ashtaroth,  or  Mylitta,  need- 
ed to  be  broken  up.  The  Ark  of  God  was 
taken,  and  the  sanctuary  lost  its  glory ;  and 
the  Tabernacle,  though  it  did  not  perish, 
never  again  recovered  it  (1  Sam.  iv.  22). 
Samuel  treats  it  as  an  abandoned  shrine, 
and  sacrifices  elsewhere  ;  at  Mizpeh  (1 
Sam.  vii.  9),  at  Ramah  (ix.  12,  x.  3),  at  Gil- 
gal  (x.  8,  xi.  15).  It  probably  became  once 
again  a  movable  sanctuary.  For  a  time 
it  seems,  under  Saul,  to  have  been  settled 
at  Nob  (1  Sara.  xxi.  1-6).  The  massacre 
of  the  priests  and  the  flight  of  Abiathar 
must,  however,  have  robbed  it  yet  further 
of  its  glory.  It  had  before  lost  the  Ark :  it 
now  lost  the  presence  of  the  High-Priest 
(1  Sam.  xxii.  20,  xxiii.  6).  What  change 
of  fortune  then  followed  we  do  not  know. 
In  some  way  or  other,  it  found  its  way 
to  Gibeon  (1  Chr.  xvi.  39).  The  anoma- 
lous separation  of  the  two  things  wliich,  in 
the  original  order,  had  been  joined,  brouglit 
about  yet  greater  anomalies;  and,  while 
the  Ark  remained  at  Kirjath-jearim,  the 
Tabernacle  at  Gibeon  connected  itself  with 
the  worship  of  the  high  places  (1  K.  iii.  4). 
The  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  the  erection 
there  of  a  new  Tabernacle,  with  the  Ark, 
of  which  the  old  had  been  deprived  (2  Sam. 
vi.  17;  1  Chr.  xv.  1),  left  it  little  more 
than  a  traditional,  historical  sanctity.  It 
retained  only  the  old  altar  of  burnt-offer- 
ings (1  Chr.  xxi.  9).  Such  as  it  was, 
however,  neither  kin^  nor  people  could 
bring  themselves  to  sweep  it  away.  The 
double  service  went  on;  Zadok,  as  higli- 
priest,  officiated  at  Gibeon  (1  Chr.  xvi.  39)  ; 
the  more  recent,  more  prophetic  service 
of  psalms  and  hymns  and  music,  under 
Asaph,  gathered  round  the  Tabernacle  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Chr.  xvi.  4,  37).  The  di- 
vided worship  continued  all  the  days  of 
David.  The  sanctity  of  both  places  was 
recognized  by  Solomon  on  his  accession 
(1  K.  iii.  15 ;  2  Chr.  i.  3).  But  it  was  time 
that  the  anomaly  should  cease.  The  pur- 
pose of  David,  fulfilled  by  golomon,  was 
that  the  claims  of  both  should  merge  in  the 
higher  glory  of  the  Temple,  The  final 
day  at  last  came,  and  the  Tabernacle  was 


lABLiiNACLES,  FEAST  OF        679       TABERXACLES,  FEAST  OF 


either  taken  down,  or  left  to  perish  and  be 
forgotten.  So  the  disaster  of  Sliiloh  led  to 
its  natural  consummation.     [Tkmple.] 

Tabernacles,  The  Feast  of  (Ex. 
xxiii.  1(),  "  the  toast  of  in-gathering"),  the 
third  of  the  three  great  festivals  of  the  He- 
brews, which  lasteJ  from  the  loth  till  the 
22d  of  Tisri.  I.  The  following  are  the 
principal  passages  in  the  Pentateuch  wiiich 
refer  to  :t:  Exod.  xxiii.  16;  Lev.  xxiii.  34 
-36,  39-43;  Num.  xxix.  12-38;  Deut.  xvi. 
13-15,  xxxi.  10-13.  In  Neh.  viii.  there  is 
an  account  of  the  observance  of  the  feast 
by  Ezra.  II.  The  time  of  the  festival 
fell  in  the  cutuinn,  when  the  whole  of  the 
chief  fruits  of  the  ground,  the  corn,  the 
wine,  and  the  til,  were  gathered  in  (Ex.  xxiii. 
16;  Lev.  xxiii.  39;  Deut.  xv.  13-15).  Its 
duration  was  stnctly  only  seven  days  (Deut. 
xvi.  13 ;  Ez.  xlv.  25).  But  it  was  followed 
by  a  day  of  holy  convocation,  distinguished 
by  sacrifices  of  it^  own,  which  was  some- 
times spoken  of  as  an  eighth  day  (Lev. 
xxiii.  36;  Neh.  viii.  18).  During  the  seven 
days  the  Israelites  were  commanded  to 
dwell  in  booths  or  huts  formed  of  the 
boughs  of  trees.  .  The  boughs  were  of  the 
olive,  palm,  pine,  myrtle,  and  other  trees 
with  thick  foliage  (Neh.  viii.  15,  16).  Ac- 
cording to  Rabbinical  tradition,  each  Is- 
raelite used  to  tie  the  branches  into  a 
bunch,  to  be  carried  in  his  hand,  to  which 
the  name  luldb  was  given.  The  burnt-of- 
ferings of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  were 
by  far  more  numerous  than  those  of  any 
other  festival.  There  were  offered  on  each 
day  two  rams,  fourteen  lambs,  and  a  kid 
for  a  sin-offering.  But  what  was  most 
peculiar  was  the  arrangement  of  the 
sacrifices  of  bullocks,  in  all  amounting  to 
seventy  (Num.  xxix.  12-38).  The  eighth 
day  was  a  day  of  holy  convocation  of  pe- 
culiar solemnity.  On  the  morning  of  this 
day  the  Hebrews  left  their  huts  and  dis- 
mantled them,  and  took  up  their  abode 
again  in  their  houses.  The  special  offer- 
ings of  the  day  were  a  bullock,  a  ram, 
seven  lambs,  and  a  goat  for  a  sin-offering 
(Num.  xxix.  36,  38).  When  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  fell  ofl  a  Sabbatical  year,  por- 
tions of  the  Law  were  read  each  day  in  pub- 
lic, to  men,  women,  children,  and  stran- 
gers (Deut.  xxxi.  10-13).  We  find  Ezra 
reading  the  Law  during  the  festival  "  day 
by  day,  from  the  first  day  to  the  last  day  " 
(Neh.  viii.  18).  III.  Tliere  are  two  par- 
ticulars in  the  observance  of  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  which  appear  to  be  referred  to 
in  the  New  Testament,  but  are  not  noticed 
in  the  Old.  These  were,  the  ceremony  of 
pouring  out  some  water  of  the  pool  of  Sil- 
oam,  and  the  display  of  some  great  lights 
in  the  court  of  the  women.  We  are  told 
that  each  Israelite,  in  holiday  attire,  having 
made  up  his  liildb,  before  he  broke  his  fast, 
repaired  to  the  Temple  with  the  luldb  in  j 


one  hand  and  the  citron  in  the  other,  at  the 
time  of  the  ordinary  morning  sacrifice.  The 
parts  of  the  victim  were  laid  upon  the  altar. 
One  of  the  priests  fetched  some  water  in  a 
golden  ewer  from  the  pool  of  Siloam,  which 
he  brought  into  the  court  through  the  water- 
gate.  As  he  entered  the  trumpets  sounded, 
and  he  ascended  the  slope  of  the  altar.  At 
the  top  of  this  were  fixed  two  silver  basins 
with  small  openings  at  the  bottom.  Wine 
was  poured  into  that  on  the  eastern  side, 
and  the  water  into  that  on  the  western  side, 
whence  it  was  conducted  by  pipes  into  the 
Cedron.  In  the  evening,  both  men  and 
women  assembled  in  the  court  of  the  wo 
men,  expressly  to  hold  a  rejoicing  for  the 
drawing  of  the  water  of  Siloam.  At  the 
same  time  there  were  set  up  in  the  court 
two  lofty  stands,  each  supporting  four  great 
lamps.  These  were  liglited  on  each  night 
of  the  festival.  It  appears  to  be  generally 
admitted  that  the  words  of  our  Saviour 
(John  vii.  37,  38)  —  "If  any  man  thirst,  let 
him  come  unto  me  and  drink.  He  that  be- 
lieveth  on  me,  as  the  Scripture  hatli  said, 
out  of  his  belly  shall  flow  rivers  of  living 
water  "  —  were  suggested  by  the  pouring 
out  of  the  water  of  Siloam.  But  it  is  very 
doubtful  what  is  meant  by  "  the  last  day, 
that  great  day  of  the  feast."  It  would  seem 
that  either  the  last  day  of  the  feast  itself, 
that  is,  the  seventh,  or  the  last  day  of  the 
religious  observances  of  the  series  of  an- 
nual festivals,  the  eighth,  must  be  intended. 
The  eighth  day  may  be  meant,  and  then  the 
reference  of  our  Lord  would  be  to  an  ordi- 
nary and  well-known  observance  of  the 
feast,  though  it  was  not,  at  the  very  time, 
going  on.  We  must  resort  to  some  such 
explanation,  if  we  adopt  the  notion  tliat  our 
Lord's  words  (John  viii.  12)  —  "I  am  the 
light  of  the  world  "  —  refer  to  the  great 
lamps  of  the  festival.  IV.  There  are  many 
directions  given  in  the  Mishna  for  the 
dimensions  and  construction  of  the  huts. 
They  were  not  to  be  lower  than  ten  palms, 
nor  higher  than  twenty  cubits.  They  were 
to  stand  by  themselves,  and  not  to  rest  on 
any  external  support,  nor  to  be  under  the 
shelter  of  a  larger  building,  or  of  a  tree. 
Tiiey  were  not  to  be  covered  with  skins  or 
clotli  of  any  kind,  but  only  with  bougiis,  or, 
in  part,  with  reed  mats  or  laths.  The  fur- 
niture of  the  huts  was  to  be,  according  to 
most  authorities,  of  the  plainest  description. 
It  is  said  that  the  altar  was  adorned  through- 
out the  seven  days  with  sprigs  of  willows, 
one  of  which  each  Israelite  who  came  into 
the  court  brought  with  him.  Tlie  great  num- 
ber of  the  sacrifices  has  been  already  no- 
ticed. But  besides  these;  jhe  Chagigahs,  or 
private  peace-offerings,  were  more  abun- 
dant than  at  any  other  time.  V.  Though 
all  the  Hebrew  >>nnual  festivals  were  sea- 
sons of  rejoicing,  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
was,  in  this  respect,  distinguished  above 


TABITHA 


680 


TABOR 


them  all.  Tlie  huts  and  the  Mdhs  must 
have  made  a  gay  and  striking  spectacle 
oyer  the  city  by  day,  and  the  lamps,  the 
flambeaux,  the  music,  and  the  joyous  gath- 
erings in  the  court  of  the  Temple  must  have 
given  a  still  more  festive  character  to  the 
night.  VI.  The  main  purposes  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  are  plainly  set  forth 
(Ex.  xxiii.  16  and  Lev.  xxiii.  43).  It  was 
to  be  at  once  a  thanksgiving  for  the  har- 
vest, and  a  commemoration  of  the  time 
when  the  Israelites  dwelt  in  tents  during 
their  passage  through  the  wilderness.  In 
one  of  its  meanings  it  stands  in  connection 
with  the  Passover,  as  the  Feast  of  Abib ; 
and  with  Pentecost,  as  the  feast  of  harvest ; 
in  its  other  meaning,  it  is  related  to  the 
Passover  as  the  great  yearly  memorial  of 
the  deliverance  from  the  destroyer,  and 
from  the  tyranny  of  Egypt.  But  naturally 
connected  with  this  exultation  in  their  re- 
gained freedom  was  the  rejoicing  in  the 
more  perfect  fulfilment  of  God's  promise, 
in  the  settlement  of  His  people  in  the  Holy 
Land.  But  the  culminating  point  of  this 
blessing  was  the  estiiblishment  of  the  cen- 
tral spot  of  the  national  worship  in  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Hence  it  was  evi- 
dently' fitting  that  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
should  be  kept  with  an  unwonted  degree 
of  observance  at  the  dedication  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple  (1  K.  viii.  2,  65 ;  Joseph.  Ant. 
viii.  4,  §  5)  ;  again,  after  the  rebuilding  of 
the  Temple  bj'  Ezra  (Neli.  viii.  13-18),  and 
a  third  time  by  Judas  Maccabaeus  when  he 
had  driven  out  the  Syrians  and  restored  the 
Temple  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah  (2  Mace. 
X.  5-8). 

Tab'itha,  also  called  Dorcas  by  St. 
Luke;  a  female  disciple  of  Joppa,  "full  of 
good  works,"  among  which  that  of  making 
clothes  for  the  poor  is  specifically  men- 
tioned. While  St.  Peter  was  at  the  neigh- 
boring town  of  Lydda,  Tabitha  died ;  upon 
which  the  disciples  at  Joppa  sent  an  urgent 
message  to  the  Apostle,  begging  him  to 
come  to  them  without  delay.  Upon  his 
arrival  Peter  found  the  deceased  already 
prepared  for  burial,  and  laid  out  in  an  up- 
per chamber,  where  she  was  surrounded  by 
the  recipients  and  the  tokens  of  her  char- 
ity. After  the  example  of  our  Saviour  in 
the  house  of  Jairus  (Matt.  ix.  25  ;  Mark  v. 
40),  "  Peter  put  them  all  forth,"  prayed  for 
the  Divine  assistance,  and  then  commanded 
Tabitha  to  arise  (comp.  Mark  v.  41 ;  Luke 
viii.  54).  She  opened  her  eyes  and  sat  up, 
and  then,  assisted  by  the  Apostle,  rose  from 
her  couch.  This  great  miracle,  as  we  are 
further  told,  produced  an  extraordinarj' 
effect  in  Joppa,  and  was  the  occasion  of 
many  conversions  there  (Acts  ix.  36-42). 
The  name  "Tabitha"  is  an  Aramaic  word, 
signifying  a  "  female  gazelle."  St.  Luke 
gi\  es  "  Dorcas  "  as  tlie  Greek  equivalent 
of  the  name. 


Ta'bor  and  Mount  Ta'bor,  one  of  the 

most  interesting  and  remarkable  of  the  sin- 
gle mountains  in  Palestine.  It  rises  ab- 
ruptly from  the  north-eastern  arm  of  tho 
Plain  of/  Esdraelon,  and  stands  entirely  in- 
sulated, except  on  the  west,  where  a  narrow 
ridge  connects  it  with  the  hills  of  Naza- 
reth. It  presents  to  the  eye,  as  seen  from  a 
distance,  a  beautiful  appearance,  being  so 
symmetrical  in  its  proportions,  and  rounded 
off  like  a  hemisphere  or  the  segment  of  a 
circle,  yet  varying  somewhat  as  viewed  from 
different  directions.  The  body  of  the  moun- 
tain consists  of  the  peculiar  limestone  of  the 
country.  It  is  now  called  Jebel-et-  Tiir.  It 
lies  about  6  or  8  miles  almost  due  east  from 
Nazareth.  The  ascent  is  usually  made  on  tho 
west  side,  near  the  little  village  of  Deburieh, 
probably  the  ancient  Daberath  (Josh.  xix. 
12),  though  it  can  be  made  with  entire  ease 
in  other  places.  It  requires  three  quarters 
of  an  hour  or  an  hour  to  reach  the  top. 
The  top  of  Tabor  consists  of  an  irregular 
platform,  embracing  a  circuit  of  half  an 
hour's  walk,  and  commanding  wide  views 
of  the  subjacent  plain  from  end  to  end. 
Tabor  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  makes  a  prominent  figure  in  the 
Ohl.  The  Book  of  Joshua  (xix.  22)  men- 
tions it  as  the  boundary  between  Issachar 
and  Zebulun  (see  ver.  12).  Barak,  at  the 
command  of  Deborah,  assembled  his  forces 
on  Tabor,  and  descended  thence,  with  "  ten 
thousand  men  after  him,"  into  the  plain, 
and  conquered  Sisera  on  the  banks  of  the 
Kishon  (Judg.  iv.  6-15).  The  brothers  of 
Gideon,  each  of  whom  "  resembled  the 
children  of  a  king,"  were  murdered  here 
by  Zebah  and  Zalmunna  (Judg.  viii.  18, 
19).  There  are  at  present  ruins  of  a  for- 
tress round  all  the  top  of  the  summit  of 
Tabor.  The  Latin  Christians  have  now  an 
altar  here,  at  which  their  priests  from 
Nazareth  perform  an  annual  mass.  The 
Greeks  also  have  a  chapel,  where,  on  cer- 
tain festivals,  they  assemble  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  religious  rites.  The  idea  that  our 
Saviour  was  transfigured  on  Tabor  pre- 
vailed extensively  among  the  early  Chris- 
tians, and  reappears  often  still  in  popular 
religious  works.  It  is  impossible,  however, 
to  acquiesce  in  the  correctness  of  this  opin- 
ion. It  can  be  proved  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  from  later  history,  that  a  fortress 
or  town  existed  on  Tabor  from  very  early 
times  down  to  B.  c.  53  or  50;  and,  as  Jo- 
sephus  says  that  he  strengthened  the  fortifi- 
cations there,  about  A.  d.  60,  it  is  morally 
certain  that  Tabor  musf  have  been  inliabit- 
ed  during  the  intervening  period,  that  is, 
in  the  days  of  Clirist.  Tabor,  therefore, 
could  not  have  been  the  Mount  of  Transfig- 
uration ;  for  when  it  is  said  that  Jesus  took 
his  disciples  "up  into  a  high  mountain 
apart,  and  was  transfigured  before  them " 
(Matt.  xvii.  1,  2),  we  must  understand  that 


TABOR 


681 


TAHPANHEa 


He  brought  them  to  the  summit  of  the 
mountain,  where  they  were  alone  by  them- 
selves. 

Ta'bor  is  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  1  Chr. 
vi.  as  a  city  of  the  Merarite  Levites,  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun  (ver.  77).  The  list  of  the 
towns  of  Zebulun  (Josh,  xix.)  contains  tlie 
nvme  of  Chisloth-tabok  (ver.  12).  It  is, 
tlicrefore,  possible,  either  that  Chislotli- 
tabor  is  abbreviated  into  Tabor  by  the 
chronicler,  or  that  by  tlie  time  tliese  later 
lists  were  compiled,  the  Merarites  had  es- 
tablished themselves  on  the  sacred  moun- 
tain, and  tliat  Tabor  is  Mount  Tabor. 

Ta'bor,  The  Plain  of.  This  is  an 
incorrect  translation,  and  should  be  The 
Oak  of  Tabor.  It  is  mentioned  in  1  Sam. 
X.  8  only,  as  one  of  tlie  points  in  the  home- 
ward journey  of  Saul  after  his  anointing  by 
Samuel. 

Tabret.     [Timbrel.] 

Tab'rimon,  properly  Tabrimmok,  i.  e. 
"  good  is  Rimmon,"  the  Syrian  god.  The 
father  of  Benhadad  I.,  king  of  Syria  in  the 
reign  of  Asa  (1  K.  xv.  18). 

Tache.  The  word  thus  rendered  occurs 
only  in  the  description  of  the  structure  of 
the  tabernacle  and  its  fittings  (Ex.  xxvi.  6, 
11,  33,  xxxv.  11,  xxxvi.  13,  xxxix.  33),  and 
appears  to  indicate  the  small  hooks  by 
which  a  curtain  is  suspended  to  the  rings 
from  which  it  hangs,  or  connected  vertical^ 
ly,  as  in  the  case  of  the  veil  of  the  Holy 
of  Holies,  with  the  loops  of  another  curtain. 

Taeh'monite,  The.  "  The  Tachmo- 
nite  that  sat  in  tlie  seat,"  chief  among  Dayid's 
captains  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  8),  is  in  1  Chr.  xi. 
11  called  "  Jashobeam  an  Hachmonite,"  or, 
as  the  margin  gives  it,  "  son  of  Hachmoni." 
Kennicott  has  shown  that  the  words  trans- 
lated "  he  that  sat  in  the  seat "  are  a  cor- 
ruption of  Jashobeam,  and  that  "  the  Tach- 
monite"  is  a  corruption  of  the  "  son  of 
Hachmoni,"  which  was  tlie  family  or  local 
name  of  Jashobeam.  Therefore  he  con- 
cludes "Jashobeam  the  Hachmonite"  to 
have  been  the  true  reading. 

Tad'mor,  called  "  Tadmor  in  the  wil- 
derness," is  the  same  as  the  city  known  to 
the  Greeks  and  Komans  under  the  name  of 
Palmyra.  The  identification  of  the  two  cities 
results  from  the  following  circumstances  . 
1st.  The  same  city  is  specially  mentioned 
by  Josephus  (Ant.  viii.  6,  §  1)  as  bearing 
in  his  time  the  name  of  Tadmor  among  the 
Syrians,  and  Palmyra  among  the  Greeks ; 
and  in  his  Latin  translation  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, Jerome  translates  Tadmor  by  Pal- 
myra(2  Chr.  viii.  4).  The  word  Tadmor  has 
nearly  the  same  meaning  as  Palmyra,  signi- 
fying probably  the  "City  of  Palms,"  from 
Tamar,  "  a  Palm."  It  was  built  by  Sol- 
omon after  his  conquest  of  Hamath  Zobah 
(2  Chr.  viii.  4;  IK.  ix.  18).  As  the  city  is 
nowhere  else  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  it 
would  be  out  of  place  to  enter  into  a  de- 


tailed history  of  it  on  the  present  occasion. 
In  the  second  century  a.  d.  it  seems  to  have 
been  beautified  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  a.  d. 
it  became  a  Roman  colony  under  Caracalla 
(^211-217  a.  D.).  Subsequently,  in  the  reign 
of  Gallienus,  the  Roman  Senate  invested 
Odenathus,  a  senator  of  Palmyra,  with  the 
regal  dignity,  on  account  of  his  services  in 
defeating  Sapor  king  of  Persia.  On  the 
assassination  of  Odenathus,  his  celebratci 
wife  Zenobia  seems  to  have  conceived  the 
design  of  erecting  Palmyra  into  an  inde- 
pendent monarchy ;  and  in  prosecution  of 
this  object,  she,  for  a  while,  successfully 
resisted  the  Roman  arms.  She  was  at 
length  defeated  and  tJiken  captive  by  the 
Emperor  Aurelian  (a.  d.  273),  who  left  a 
Roman  garrison  in  Palmyra.  This  garrison 
was  massacred  in  a  revolt;  and  Aurelian 
punished  the  city  by  the  execution  not  only 
of  those  who  were  taken  in  arms,  but  like- 
wise of  common  peasants,  of  old  men, 
women,  and  children.  Prom  this  blow 
Palmyra  never  recovered,  though  there  are 
proofs  of  its  having  continued  to  be  inhab- 
ited until  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. 

Ta'han,  a  descendant  of  Ephraim 
(Num.  xxvi.  35).  In  1  Chr.  vii.  25  ha 
appears  as  the  son  of  Telah. 

Ta'hanites,  The  (Num.  xxvi.  35). 
[Tahan.] 

Ta'hath.  1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  and  Heman  (1  Chr.  vi. 
24,  37  [9,  22]).  2.  According  to  the  pres- 
ent text,  son  of  Bered,  and  great-grandson 
of  Ephraim  (1  Chr.  vii.  20).  Burrington, 
however,  identifies  Taliath  with  Tahan,  the 
son  of  Ephraim.  3.  Grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, as  the  text  now  stands  (1  Chr.  vii. 
20.)  But  Burrington  considers  him  as  a 
son  of  Ephraim. 

Ta'hath,  the  name  of  a  desert  station 
of  the  Israelites  between  Makheloth  and 
Tarah  (Num.  xxxiii.  26).  The  site  has  not 
been  identified. 

Tah'panhes,  Tehaph'nehes,  Ta- 
hap'anes,  a  city  of  Egypt,  mentioned  in 
the  time  of  the  prophets  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel.  The  name  is  evidently  Egyptian, 
and  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Egyptian 
queen  Tahpenes.  It  was  evidently  a  town 
of  Lower  Egypt,  near  or  on  the  eastern  bor- 
der. 'When  Johanan  and  the  other  captains 
went  into  Egypt  "they  came  to  Tahpan- 
hes  "  (Jer.  xliii.  7).  The  Jews  in  Jeremi- 
ah's time  remained  here  (Jer.  xliv.  1).  It 
was  an  important  town,  being  twice  men- 
tioned by  the  latter  prophet  with  Noph  or 
Memphis  (ii.  16,  xlvi.  14).  Here  stood  a 
house  of  Pharaoh-hophra  before  which  Jere- 
miah hid  great  stones  (xliii.  8-10).  Herod- 
otus calls  this  place  Daphnae  of  Pelusium. 
In  the  Itinerary  of  Antoiiinus  this  town, 
called  Dafno,  is  placed  16  Roman  miles  to 


TAHPENES 


682 


TALMUD 


the  south-west  of  Pelusium.  This  position 
seems  to  agree  witli  that  of  Tel-Defenneh, 
which  marlcs  the  site  of  Daplinae.  Can  the 
name  be  of  Greek  origin? 

Tah'penes,  an  Egyptian  queen,  was 
wife  of  the  Pharaoh  who  received  Hadad 
the  Edomite,  and  who  gave  him  lier  sister 
in  marriage  (1  K.  xi.  18-20).  In  the  ad- 
dition to  ch.  xii.  Shishak  (Susakim)  is  said 
to  have  given  Ano,  the  elder  sister  of  The- 
kemina  iiis  wife,  to  Jeroboam.  It  is  obvi- 
ous tliat  this  and  the  earlier  statement  are 
irreconcilable.  There  is  therefore  but  one 
Tahpenes  or  Thekemina.  No  name  that 
has  any  near  resemblance  to  either  Tah- 
penes or  Thekemina  has  yet  been  found 
among  those  of  the  period. 

Tah'rea,  son  of  Micah,  and  grandson 
of  Mephiboshcth  (1  Clir.  ix.  41). 

Tah'tim  Hod'shi,  The  Land  of, 
one  of  tlie  places  visited  by  Joab  during 
liis  census  of  the  land  of  Israel.  It  occurs 
between  Gilead  and  Dan-jaan  (2  Sara. 
xxiv.  G).  The  name  has  puzzled  all  the 
interpreters.  The  old  versions  throw  no 
light  upon  it. 

Talent.     [Weights.] 

Tal'itha  Cu'mi,  two  Syriac  words 
(Mark  v,  41),  signifying,  "  Damsel,  arise." 

Tal'mai.  1.  One  of  the  three  sons  of 
"  the  Anak,"  who  were  slain  by  the  men 
of  Judah  (Num.  xiii.  22;  Josh.  xv.  14; 
Judg.  i.  10).  2.  Son  of  Ammilmd,  king 
of  Geshur  (2  Sam.  iii.  3,  xiii.  37 ;  I  Clir. 
iii.  2).  He  was  probably  a  petty  cliieftain, 
dependent  on  David. 

Tal'mon,  the  head  of  a  family  of  door- 
keepers in  the  Temple,  "the  porters  for 
the  camps  of  the  sons  of  Levi "  (1  Chr.  ix. 
17;  Neh.  xi.  19).  Some  of  his  descend- 
ants returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  42 ; 
Neh.  vii.  45),  and  were  employed  in  their 
hereditary  office  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah 
and  Ezra  (Neh.  xii.  25). 

Talmud  {i.  e.  doctrine,  from  the  He- 
brew word  "  to  learn  ")  is  a  large  collec- 
tion of  writings,  containing  a  full  account 
of  tlie  civil  and  religious  laws  of  the  Jews. 
It  was  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  Phar- 
isees, common  to  them  with  all  orthodox 
modern  Jews,  that  by  the  side  of  the  writ- 
ten law,  regarded  as  a  summary  of  the 
principles  and  general  laws  of  the  Hebrew 
people,  there  was  an  oral  law,  to  complete 
and  to  explain  the  written  law.  It  was  an 
article  of  faith  that  in  the  Pentateuch  there 
was  no  precept,  and  no  regulation,  cere- 
monial, doctrinal,  or  legal,  of  which  God 
had  not  given  to  Moses  all  explanations 
necessary  for  their  application,  with  the 
order  to  transmit  them  by  word  of  mouth. 
The  classical  passage  in  the  Mishna  on  this 
subject  is  the  following:  "  Moses  received 
the  (oral)  law  from  Sinai,  and  delivered  it 
to  Joshua,  and  Joshua  to  the  elders,  and 
the  elders  to  the  prophets,  and  the  prophets 


to  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue."  Thii 
oral  law,  with  the  numerous  commentaries 
upon  it,  forms  the  Talmud.  It  consists  of 
two  parts,  the  Mishna  and  Gemara.  1.  Tire 
MiSHNA,  or  "second  law,"  which  contains 
a  compendium  of  the  whole  ritual  law,  was 
reduced  to  writing  in  its  present  form  by 
Rabbi  Jehudah  the  Holy,  a  Jew  of  great 
wealth  and  influence,  who  flourished  in  the 
2d  century  of  the  Christian  era.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Simeon  as  patriarch  of 
Tiberias,  and  held  that  office  at  least  thirty 
years.  The  precise  date  of  his  death  is 
disputed';  some  placing  it  in  a  year  some- 
what antecedent  to  194  a.  d.,  while  others 
place  it  as  late  as  220  a.  d.,  when  he  would 
have  been  about  81  years  old.  Viewed  as 
a  whole,  the  precepts  in  the  Mishna  treated 
men  like  children,  formalizing  and  defin- 
ing the  minutest  particulars  of  ritual  obser- 
vances. The  expressions  of  "bondage," 
of  "  weak  and  beggarly  elements,"  and  of 
"  burdens  too  heavy  for  men  to  bear," 
faithfully  represent  the  impression  pro- 
duced by  their  multiplicity.  Tlie  Mishna 
is  very  concisely  written,  and  requires 
notes.  2.  This  circumstance  led  to  the  Com- 
mentaries called  Gemara  (t.  e.  Supplement^ 
Completion),  which  form  the  second  part  of 
the  Talmud,  and  which  are  very  commonly 
meant  when  the  word  "  Talmud  "  is  used 
by  itself.  There  are  two  Geuiaras  :  one  of 
Jerusalem,  in  which  there  is  said  to  be  no 
passage  which  can  be  proved  to  be  later 
than  the  first  half  of  the  4tii  century;  and 
the  other  of  Babylon,  completed  about  500 
A.  D.  The  latter  is  the  most  important,  and 
by  far  the  longest.  It  is  estimated  to  be 
fifteen  times  as  long  as  the  Mishna.  The 
language  of  the  Mishna  is  that  of  the  la- 
ter Hebrew,  purely  written  on  the  whole, 
though  with  a  few  grammatical  Aramaisms, 
and  interspersed  with  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Aramaic  words  which  had  become  natu- 
ralized. The  work  is  distributed  into  six 
great  divisions  or  orders.  The  1st  {Zeraim') 
relates  to  "  seeds,"  or  productions  of  the 
land,  and  it  embraces  all  matters  connected 
with  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  the 
disposal  of  its  produce  in  ofl'erings  or  tithes. 
It  is  preceded  by  a  treatise  on  "  Blessings  " 
{Beracoth).  The  2d  (Moed)  relates  to 
festivals  and  their  observances.  The  3d 
{Nashtm)  to  women,  and  includes  regula- 
tions respecting  betrothals,  nuxrriages,  and 
divorces.  The  4th  {Nezikin)  relates  t» 
damages  sustained  by  means  of  men,  beasts, 
or  things  ;  with  decisions  on  points  at  issue 
between  man  and  man  in  commercial  deal- 
ings and  compacts.  The  5th  {Kodashim) 
treats  of  holy  things,  of  offerings,  and  of 
the  Temple-service.  The  6th  (Tohardth) 
treats  of  what  is  clean  and  unclean.  These 
6  Orders  are  subdivided  into  61  Treatises. 
The  Mishna  was  published  by  Surenhusius 
la  6  vols,  folio,  Amsterdam,  1698,  1703, 


TAMAH 


688 


TAPPUAH 


with  a  Latin  translation  of  the  text.  An 
English  reader  may  obtain  an  excellent 
idea  of  tlie  whole  work  from  an  English 
translation  of  18  of  its  Treatises  by  De 
Sola  and  Raphall,  London,  1843.  There  is 
no  reasonable  doubt  that  although  it  may 
include  a  few  passages  of  a  later  date,  the 
Mishna  was  composed,  as  a  wliole,  in  the 
2d  century,  and  represents  the  traditions 
wliich  were  current  amongst  the  Pharisees 
at  the  time  of  Christ. 

Ta'mah.  The  children  of  Tamah,  or 
Thaniah  (Ezr.  ii.  53),  were  among  the 
Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  vii.  55). 

Ta'mar  {palm-tree).  1.  The  wife  suc- 
cessively of  the  two  sons  of  Judah,  Er  and 
Onan  (Gen.  xxxviii.  6-30).  Her  impor- 
tance in  the  sacred  narrative  depends  on 
the  great  anxiety  to  keep  up  the  lineage  of 
Judah.  It  seemed  as  if  the  family  were  on 
the  point  of  extinction.  Er  and  Onan  had 
successively  perished  suddenly.  Judah's 
wife  Bathshiiah  died ;  and  there  only  re- 
mained a  child  Shelah,  whom  Judah  was 
unwilling  to  trust  to  the  dangerous  union, 
as  it  appeared,  with  Tamar,  lest  he  should 
meet  with  the  same  fate  as  his  brothers. 
Accordingly  she  resorted  to  the  desperate 
expedient  of  intrapping  the  father  himself 
into  the  union  which  he  feared  for  his  son. 
He  took  her  for  one  of  the  unfortunate 
women  wlio  were  consecrated  to  the  impure 
rites  of  the  Canaanite  worship.  He  prom- 
ised her,  as  the  price  of  his  intercourse,  a 
kid  from  the  flocks  to  which  he  was  going, 
and  left  as  his  pledge  his  ornaments  and 
his  staff'.  The  kid  he  sent  back  by  his 
shepherd,  but  the  woman  could  nowhere 
be  found.  Months  afterwards  she  was  dis- 
covered to  be  his  own  daughter-in-law 
Tamar.  She  was  sentenced  to  be  burnt 
alive,  and  was  only  saved  by  the  discovery, 
through  the  pledges  which  Judah  had  left, 
that  her  seducer  was  no  less  than  the  chief- 
tain of  the  tribe.  The  fruits  of  this  inter- 
course were  twins,  Pharez  and  Zarah, 
and  through  Pharez  the  sacred  line  was 
continued.  2.  Daughter  of  David  and 
Maachah  the  Geshurite  princess,  and  thus 
sister  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xiii,  1-32;  1 
Chr.  iii.  9).  She  and  her  brother  wer4 
alike  remarkable  for  their  extraordinary 
beauty.  This  fatal  beauty  inspired  a  frantic 
passion  in  her  half-brother  Aranon,  the 
eldest  son  of  David  by  Ahinoam.  Morning 
by  morning,  as  he  received  the  visits  of  his 
friend  Jonadab,  he  is  paler  and  thinner. 
Jonadab  discovers  the  cause,  and  suggests 
to  liim  the  means  of  accomplishing  his 
wicked  purpose.  He  was  to  feign  sickness. 
The  king  came  to  visit  him ;  and  Amnon 
entreated  the  presence  of  Tamar,  on  the 
pretext  that  she  alone  could  give  him  food 
that  he  would  eat.  She  came  to  his  house, 
took  the  dough  and  kneaded  it  into  the  form 


of  cakes.  She  then  took  the  pan,  in  which 
they  had  been  baked,  and  poured  tliem  all 
out  in  a  heap  before  the  prince.  He  caused 
his  attendants  to  retire,  called  her  to  the 
inner  room,  and  there  accomplished  his 
design.  In  her  touching  remonstrance  two 
points  are  remarkable.  First,  the  expres- 
sion of  the  infamy  of  such  a  crime  "in 
Israel"  implying  the  loftier  standard  of 
morals  that  prevailed,  as  compared  with 
other  countries  at  that  time;  and,  secondly, 
the  belief  that  even  this  standard  might  be 
overborne  lawfully  by  royal  authority  — 
"  Speak  to  the  king,  for  he  will  not  withhold 
me  from  thee."  The  brutal  hatred  of  Amnon 
succeeding  to  his  brutal  passion,  and  the  in- 
dignation of  Tamar  at  his  barbarous  insult 
even  surpassing  her  indignation  at  his 
shameful  outrage,  are  pathetically  and 
graphically  told*  3.  Daughter  of  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  xiv.  7),  became,  by  her  marriage 
with  Uriah  of  Gibeah,  the  mother  of  Maa- 
chah, the  future  queen  of  Judah,  or  wife 
of  Abijah  (1  K.  xv.  2).  4.  A  spot  on  the 
south-eastern  frontier  of  Judah,  named  in 
Ezek.  xlvii.  19,  xlviii.  28,  only,  evidently 
called  from  a  palm-tree.  If  not  Hazazon 
Tamar,  the  old  name  of  Engedi,  it  may  be 
a  place  called  Thamar  in  the  Onomasticon 
("  Hazazon  Tamar"),  a  day's  journey  south 
of  Hebron. 

Tam'muz,  properly  "the  Tsmmiiz," 
the  article  indicating  that  at  some  time  or 
other  tlie  word  had  been  regarded  as  an 
appellative  (Ez.  viii.  14),  Jerome  identifies 
Tammuz  witli  Adonis,  and  in  so  doing  has 
been  followed  by  most  subsequent  com- 
mentators. Luther  and  others  regarded 
Tammuz  as  a  name  of  Bacchus.  That 
Tammuz  was  the  Egyptian  Osiris,  and  that 
his  worship  was  introduced  to  Jerusalem 
from  Egypt,  was  held  by  Calvin,  Piscator, 
Junius,  Leusden,  and  Pfeiffer.  The  slight 
liint  given  by  the  prophet  of  tlie  nature  of 
the  worship  and  worshippers  of  Tammuz 
has  been  sufficient  to  connect  them  with  the 
yearly  mourning  for  Adonis  by  the  Syrian 
damsels.  But  beyoi\d  this  we  can  attach 
no  especial  weight  to  tlie  explanation  of 
Jerome. 

Ta'nach,  a  slight  variation  of  the  name* 
Taanach  (Josh.  xxi.  25). 

Tan'humeth,  the  father  of  Seraiah  in 
the  time  of  Gedaliah  (2  K.  xxv.  23 ;  Jer. 
xl.  8). 

Ta'phath,  the  daughter  of  Solomon, 
who  was  married  to  Ben-Abinadab  (1  K. 
iv.  11). 

Ta'phon,  one  of  the  cities  in  Judaea, 
fortified  by  Baechides  (1  Mace.  ix.  50).  It 
is  probably  the  Beth-Tappuah  of  tlie  Old 
Testament. 

Tap'puah.  (ihe  apple-city).  1.  A  city 
of  Judah,  in  the  district  of  the  ShefeJah, 
or  lowland  (Josh.  xv.  34).  2.  A  place  on 
the  boundary  of  the  "  children  of  Joseph" 


TAPPIIAH,  LAND  OF 


684 


TARSHISH 


(Josh.  xvi.  8,  xvii.  8).  Its  full  name  was 
probably  En-tappuah  (xvii.  7).  3.  One  of 
the  sons  of  Hebron,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chr.  ii.  43).  It  is  doubtless  the  same  as 
Beth-Tappcah. 

Tap'puah,  The  Land  of,  a  district 
named  in  the  specification  of  the  bounda- 
ry between  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (Josh, 
xvii.  8).  The  name  has  not  yet  been  met 
with  at  all  in  the  central  district  of  Pales- 
tine. 

Ta'rah.,  a  desert-station  of  the  Israel- 
ites between  Tahath  and  IVlithcah  (Num. 
xxxiii.  27). 

Tar'alah,  one  of  the  towns  in  the  allot- 
ment of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  27). 

Tare'a,  the  same  as  Tahrea,  the  son  of 
Micah  (1  Clir.  viii.  35). 

Tares.  Tliere  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  zizania  of  the  parable  (Matt.  xiii.  25) 
denote  the  weed  called  "  darnel "  (Z/o/iwrn 
temulentum).  Tlie  darnel  before  it  comes 
into  ear  is  very  similar  in  appearance  to 
wheat ;  hence  the  command  that  the  zizania 
should  be  left  to  the  harvest,  lest  while  men 
plucked  up  the  tares  "they  should  root  up 
also  the  wheat  with  them."  Dr.  Stanley, 
however,  speaks  of  women  and  children 
picking  up  from  the  wheat  in  the  cornfields 
of  Samaria  the  tall  green  stalks,  still  called 
by  the  Arabs  zuwdn.  "  These  stalks,"  he 
continues,  "  if  sown  designedly  throughout 
the  fields,  would  be  inseparable  from  tlie 
wheat,  from  which,  even  when  growing 
naturally  and  by  chance,  they  are  at  first 
sisjht  hardly  distinguishable."  See  also 
Thomson  ("  The  Land  and  the  Book,"  p. 
420)'  "The  grain  is  in  just  the  proper 
btagi;  to  illustrate  the  parable.  In  those 
parts  where  the  grain  has  headed  out,  the 
tares  have  done  the  same,  and  then  a  child 
cannot  mistake  them  for  wheat  or  barley ; 
but  where  both  are  less  developed,  the 
closest  scrutiny  will  often  fail  to  detect 
them.  Even  the  farmers  who  in  this  coun- 
try generally  weed  their  fields,  do  not  at- 
tempt to  separate  the  one  from  the  other." 
The  grain-growers  in  Palestine  believe  that 
the  zuwdn  is  merely  a  degenerate  wheat; 
that  in  wet  seasons  the  wheat  turns  to  tares. 
Dr.  Thomson  asserts  that  this  is  their  fixed 
opinion.  It  is  curious  to  observe  the  re- 
tention of  the  foUacy  through  many  ages. 
*'  Wheat  and  zunin"  says  Lightfoot  (on 
Matt.  xiii.  25),  quoting  from  the  Talmud, 
♦'  are  not  seeds  of  different  kinds."  The  Ro- 
man writers  appear  to  have  entertained  a 
similar  opinion  with  regard  to  some  of  the 
cereals ;  thus  Pliny,  borrowing  probably 
from  Tlieophrastus,  asserts  that  "  barley 
will  degenerate  into  the  oat."  The  notion 
that  the  zizania  of  the  parable  are  merely 
diseased  or  degenerate  wheat  lias  been  de- 
fended by  P.  Brederod,  and  strangely  adopt- 
ed by  Trench,  who  (Notes  on  the  Parables, 
p.  91,  4th  ed  )  regards  the  distinction  of 


these  two  plants  to  be  "a  falsely  assumed 
fact."  If  the  zizania  of  the  parable  de- 
note the  Lolium  tcmidentum,  —  and  there 
cannot  be  any  reasonable  doubt  about  it,  — 
the  plants  are  certainly  distinct.  The  grains 
of  the  L.  temulentum,  if  eaten,  produce  con- 
vulsions, and  even  death. 

Targum.  [See  Versions,  p.  729. "J 
Tar'pelites,  The,  a  race  of  colonists 
who  were  planted  in  the  cities  of  Samaria 
after  the  captivity  of  the  northern  kingdom 
of  Israel  (Ezr.  iv.  9).  They  have  not  been 
identified  with  any  certainty. 

Tar'shish.  1.  Probably  Tartessus,  a 
city  and  emporium  of  the  Phoenicians  in 
the  south  of  Spain,  represented  as  one 
of  the  sons  of  Javan  (Gen.  x.  4;  Jon.  i.  3, 
iv.  2;  1  Chr.  i.  7;  Is.  ii.  16,  xxiii.  i.  6,  10, 
14,  Ix.  9,  Ixvi.  19;  Jer.  x.  9;  Ez.  xxvii.  12, 
25,  xxxviii.  13 ;  1  K.  x.  22,  xxii.  48  [49] ; 
Ps.  xlviii.  8,  Ixvii.  10).  The  identity  of  the 
two  places  is  rendered  highly  probiible  by 
the  following  circumstances  :  1st.  Tliere  is 
a  very  close  similarity  of  name  between 
them,  Tartessus  being  merely  Tarsliish  in 
the  Aramaic  form.  2dly.  There  seems  to 
have  been  a  special  relation  between  Tar- 
shish  and  Tyre,  as  there  was  at  one  time 
between  Tartessus  and  the  Phoenicians. 
3dly.  The  articles  which  Tarshish  is  stated 
by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  12)  to  have 
supplied  to  Tyre,  are  precisely  such  as  we 
know,  through  classical  writers,  to  have 
been  productions  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 
In  regard  to  tin,  the  trade  of  Tarshish  in 
this  metal  is  peculiarly  significant,  and  ta- 
ken in  conjunction  with  similarity  of  name 
and  otlier  circumstances  already  mentioned, 
is  reasonably  conclusive  as  to  its  identity 
with  Tartessus.  For  even  now  the  coun- 
tries in  Europe,  or  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  where  tin  is  found,  are 
very  few ;  and  in  reference  to  ancient  times, 
it  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  such  coun- 
tries except  Iberia  or  Spain,  Lusitania, 
which  was  somewhat  less  in  extent  than 
Portugal,  and  Cornwall  in  Great  Britain. 
In  the  absence  of  positive  proof,  we  may 
acquiesce  in  the  statement  of  Strabo,  that 
the  river  Baetis  (now  the  Guadalquivir) 
was  formerly  called  Tartessus,  that  the 
4:ity  Tartessus  was  situated  between  the 
two  arms  by  which  the  river  flowed  int^ 
the  sea,  and  that  the  adjoining  country  was 
called  Tartessis.  2.  From  the  Book  of 
Chronicles  there  would  seem  to  have  been 
a  Tarshish  accessible  from  the  Ked  Sea, 
in  addition  to  the  Tarshish  of  the  south 
of  Spain.  Thus,  with  regard  to  the  ships 
of  Tarsliish,  which  Jehoshaphat  caused  to 
be  constructed  at  Ezion-Geber  on  the  Aela- 
nitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea  (1  K.  xxii.  48), 
it  is  said  in  the  Chronicles  (2  Chr.  xx. 
36)  that  they  were  made  to  go  to  Tarshish; 
and  in  like  manner  the  navy  of  ships,  which 
Solomon  had  previously  made  in  Ezion- 


TARSUS 


685 


TAXES 


Geber  (IK.  ix.  26),  is  said  in  the  Chroni- 
cles (2  Chr.  ix.  21)  to  have  gone  to  Tar- 
shish  with  the  servants  of  Hiram.  It  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  the  author  of  these 
passages  in  the  Chronicles  contemplated  a 
voyage  to  Tarshish  in  the  south  of  Spain 
by  going  round  what  has  since  been  called 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  expression 
"  ships  of  Tarshish  "  originally  meant  ships 
destined  to  go  to  Tarshish ;  and  then  prob- 
ably came  to  signify  large  Phoenician  ships, 
of  a  particular  size  and  description,  destined 
for  long  voyages,  just  as  in  English  "  East 
Indiaraan "  was  a  general  name  given  to 
vessels,  some  of  which  were  not  intended 
to  go  to  India  at  all.  Hence  we  may  infer 
that  the  word  Tarshish  was  also  used  to 
signify  any  distant  place,  and  in  this  case 
would  be  applied  to  one  in  the  Indian 
Ocean.  This  is  shown  by  the  nature  of 
the  imports  with  which  the  fleet  returned, 
which  are  specified  as  "gold,  silver,  ivory, 
apes,  a.nd  peacocks  "  (1  K.  x.  22).  The  gold 
might  possibly  have  been  obtained  from 
Africa,  or  from  Ophir  in  Arabia,  and  the 
ivory  and  the  apes  might  likewise  have 
been  imported  from  Africa;  but  the  pea- 
cocks point  conclusively,  not  to  Africa,  but 
to  India.  There  are  only  two  species  known  ; 
both  inhabit  the  continent  and  islands  of 
India :  so  that  the  mention  of  the  peacock 
seems  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  the  voy- 
age having  been  to  Africa.  The  inference 
to  be  drawn  from  the  importation  of  pea- 
cocks is  confirmed  by  the  Hebrew  name  for 
the  ape  and  the  peacock.  Neither  of  these 
names  is  of  Hebrew,  or  even  Semitic,  ori- 
gin ;  and  each  points  to  India.  Tims  the 
Hebrew  word  for  ape  is  kSph,  while  the 
Sanscrit  word  is  kapi.  Again,  the  Hebrew 
word  for  peacock  is  tukki,  which  cannot  be 
explained  in  Hebrew,  but  is  akin  to  tdka  in 
the  Tamil  language.  There  are  not,  how- 
ever, sufficient  data  for  determining  what 
were  the  ports  in  India  or  the  Indian  Is- 
lands which  were  reached  by  the  fleet  of 
Hiram  and  Solomon,  thougli  the  suggestion 
of  Sir  Emerson  Tennent  that  they  went  to 
Point  de  Galle,  in  Ceylon,  is  very  prob- 
able. 

Tar'sus,  the  chief  town  of  Cilicia,  *'  no 
mean  city  "  in  other  respects,  but  illustri- 
ous to  all  time  as  the  birtliplace  and  early 
residence  of  the  Apostle  Paul  (Acts  ix.  11, 
xxi.  39,  xxii.  3).  Even  in  the  flourishing 
period  of  Greek  history  it  was  a  city  of 
some  considerable  consequence.  In  the 
civil  wars  of  Rome  it  took  Caesar's  side, 
and  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  from  him  had 
its  name  changed  to  Juliopolis.  Augustus 
made  it  a  "  free  city."  It  was  renowned 
as  a  place  of  education  under  the  early 
Koman  emperors.  Strabo  compares  it  in 
this  respect  to  Athens  and  Alexandria. 
Tarsus  also  was  a  place  of  much  commerce. 
It  vos  situated  in  a  wild  and  fertile  plain 


on  the  banks  of  the  Cydnus.  No  ruins  of 
any  importance  remain. 

Tar'tak,  one  of  the  gods  of  the  Avite, 
or  Avvite,  colonists  of  Samaria  (2  K.  xvii. 
31).  According  to  Rabbinical  tradition, 
Tartak  is  said  to  have  been  worshipped  un- 
der the  form  of  an  ass. 

Tar'tan,  which  occurs  only  in  2  K.  xviii. 
17,  and  Is.  xx.  1,  has  been  generally  re- 
garded as  a  proper  name ;  but  like  Rabsaris 
and  Rabshakeh,  it  is  more  probably  an  of- 
ficial designation,  and  indicates  tJie  As- 
syrian commander-in-chief. 

Tat'nai,  satrap  of  the  province  west  of 
the  Euphrates  in  the  time  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspis  (Ezr.  v.  3,  6,  vi.  6,  13).  The  nan^e 
is  tliought  to  be  Persian. 

Taverns,  The  Three.  [Thrke  Tav- 

ERX9.] 

Taxes.  I.  Under  the  Judges,  accord- 
ing to  the  theocratic  government  contem- 
plated by  the  law,  the  only  payments  in- 
cumbent upon  the  people  as  of  permanent 
obligation  were  the  Tithes,  the  Eirst 
Eruits,  the  Redemption-money  of  the 
first-born,  and  other  oflerings  as  belonging 
to  special  occasions.  The  payment  by  each 
Israelite  of  the  half- shekel  as  "atonement- 
money,"  for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle, 
on  taking  the  census  of  the  people  (Ex. 
XXX.  13),  does  not  appear  to  have  had  the 
character  of  a  recurring  tax,  but  to  have 
been  supplementary  to  the  freewill-oficr- 
ings  of  Ex.  XXV.  1-7,  levied  for  the  one 
purpose  of  the  construction  of  the  sacred 
tent.  In  later  times,  indeed,  after  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon,  there  was  an  annual 
payment  for  maintaining  the  fabric  and  ser- 
vices of  the  Temple ;  but  tlie  fact  that  this 
begins  by  the  voluntary  corai)act  to  pay 
one  third  of  a  shekel  (Neh.  x.  32)  shows 
that  till  then  there  was  no  such  payment 
recognized  as  necessary.  A  little  later  the 
third  became  a  half,  and  under  the  name 
of  the  didrachma  (Matt.  xvii.  24)  was  paid 
by  every  Jew,  in  whatever  part  of  the  world 
he  might  be  living.  II.  The  kingdom,  with 
its  centralized  government  and  greater  mag- 
nificence, involved,  of  coumc,  a  larger  ex- 
penditure, and  therefore  a  heavier  taxation. 
The  chief  burdens  appear  to  have  been, 
(1)  A  tithe  of  the  produce  both  of  the  soil 
and  of  live  stock  (1  Sam.  viii.  15,  17).  (2) 
Forced  military  service  for  a  month  every 
year  (1  Sam.  viii.  12;  1  K.  ix.  22;  1  Chr. 
xxvii.  1).  (3)  Gifts  to  the  king  (1  Sam.  x. 
27,  xvi.  20,  xvii.  18).  (4)  Import  duties  (1 
K.  X.  15).  (5)  The  monopoly  of  certain 
brandies  of  commerce  (1  K.  ix.  28,  xxii. 
48,  X.  28,  29).  (G)  The  appropriation  to 
the  king's  use  of  the  early  crop  of  hay  (Am. 
vii.  1).  At  times,  too,  in  the  history  of 
both  the  kingdoms  there  were  special  bur- 
dens. A  tribute  of  50  shekels  a  head  had 
to  be  paid  by  Menahem  to  the  Assyrian 
king  (2  K.  xv.  20),  and  under  his  successor 


TAXING 


686 


TEL-ABIB 


Hoshea  this  assumed  the  form  of  an  annual 
tribute  (2  K.  xvii.  4).  III.  Under  the  Per- 
sian empire,  the  taxes  paid  by  the  Jews 
were,  in  their  broad  outlines,  the  same  in 
kind  as  those  of  other  subject  races.  Tlie 
financial  system  which  gained  for  Darius 
Hystaspis  the  name  of  the  "  shopkeeper 
king  "  involved  the  paj'ment  by  each  satrap 
of  a  fixed  sum  as  the  tribute  due  from  his 
province.  In  Judaea,  as  in  other  prov- 
inces, the  inhabitants  had  to  provide  in  kind 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  governor's  house- 
hold, besides  a  money-payment  of  40  shek- 
els a  day  (Neh.  v.  14,  15).  In  Ezr.  iv.  13, 
20,  vii.  24,  we  get  a  formal  enumeration  of 
the  three  great  branches  of  the  revenue. 
The  influence  of  Ezra  secured  for  the  whole 
ecclesiastical  order,  from  the  priests  down 
to  the  Nethinim,  an  immunity  from  all 
throe  (Ezr.  vii.  24)  ;  but  the  burden  pressed 
heavily  on  the  great  body  of  the  people. 
IV.  Under  the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  kings 
the  taxes  paid  by  the  Jews  became  yet 
heavier.  The  "  farming  "  system  of  finance 
was  adopted  in  its  worst  form.  The  taxes 
were  put  up  to  auction.  The  contract  sum 
for  those  of  Phoenicia,  Judaea,  Samaria, 
had  been  estimated  at  about  8000  talents. 
An  unscrupulous  adventurer  would  bid 
double  that  sum,  and  would  then  go  down 
to  the  province,  and  by  violence  and  cruel- 
ty, like  that  of  Turkish  or  Hindoo  collect- 
ors, squeeze  out  a  large  margin  of  profit 
for  himself.  V.  The  pressure  of  Roman 
taxation,  if  not  absolutely  heavier,  was 
probably  more  galling,  as  being  more 
thorough  and  systematic,  more  distinctively 
a  mark  of  bondage.  The  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Pompey  was  followed  immediate- 
ly by  the  imposition  of  a  tribute,  and  within 
a  short  time  the  sum  thus  taken  from  the 
resources  of  the  country  amounted  to  10,000 
talents.  AYhen  Judaea  became  formally  a 
Roman  province,  the  whole  financial  system 
of  the  empire  came  as  a  natural  conse- 
quence. The  taxes  were  systematically 
farmed,  and  the  publicans  appeared  as  a 
new  curse  to  the  country.  The  Portoria 
were  levied  at  Mlrbors,  piers,  and  the  gates 
of  cities  (Matt.  xvii.  24;  Rom.  xiii.  7).  In 
addition  to  tliis  there  was  the  poll-tax  paid 
by  every  Jew,  and  looked  upon,  for  that 
reason,  as  the  special  badge  of  servitude. 
United  with  this,  as  part  of  the  same  sys- 
tem, there  was  also,  in  all  probability,  a 
property-tivx  of  some  kind.  In  addition  to 
these  general  taxes,  the  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem were  subject  to  a  special  house-duty 
about  this  period. 

Taxing.  The  English  word  now  con- 
veys to  us  more  distinctly  the  notion  of  a 
tax  or  tribute  actually  levied ;  but  it  appears 
to  have  been  used  in  the  IGth  century  for 
the  simple  assessment  of  a  subsidy  upon  the 
property  of  a  given  county,  or  the  registra- 
tion of  the  people  for  the  purpose  of  a  poll- 


tax.  Two  distinct  registrations,  or  taxings, 
are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.,  both  of  them 
by  St.  Luke.  The  first  is  said  to  have  beeu 
the  result  of  an  edict  of  the  Emperor  Au- 
gustus, that  "  all  the  world  (i.  e.  tlie  Roman 
empire)  should  be  taxed  "  (Luke  ii.  1),  and 
is  connected  by  the  Evangelist  with  the 
name  of  Cyrenius,  or  Quirinus.  [Cyke- 
Nius.]  The  second,  and  more  important 
(Acts  V.  37),  is  distinctly  associated,  in 
point  of  time,  with  the  revolt  of  Judas  of 
Galilee. 

Te'bah,  eldest  of  the  sons  of  Nahor, 
by  his  concubine  Reumah  (Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Tebali'ah,  third  son  of  Hosah  of  the 
children  of  Merari  (1  Clir.  xxvi.  11). 

Te'beth.     [Month.] 

Tehin'nah,  the  father  or  founder  of 
Ir-Nahash,  the  city  of  Nahash,  and  son  of 
Eshton  (1  Chr.  iv.  12). 

Teil-tree.    [Oak.] 

Teko'a  and  Teko'ah.  1.  A  town  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xi.  6),  on  the  range 
of  hills  which  rise  near  Hebron,  and  stretch 
eastward  towards  the  Dead  Sea.  Jerome 
says  that  Tekoa  was  six  Roman  miles  from 
Bethlehem,  and  that  as  he  wrote  he  had 
that  village  daily  before  his  eyes.  The 
"  wise  woman "  whom  Joab  employed  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  David  and 
Absalom  was  obtained  from  this  place  (2 
Sam.  xiv.  2).  Here,  also,  Ira,  the  son  of 
Ikkesh,  one  of  David's  thirty,  "  the  mighty 
men,"  was  bom,  and  was  called  on  that  ac- 
count "the  Tekoite"  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  2G). 
It  was  one  of  the  places  which  Rehoboam 
fortified,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  as  a 
defence  against  invasion  from  the  south  (2 
Chr.  xi.  6).  Some  of  the  people  from 
Tekoa  took  part  in  building  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  after  the  return  from  the  Cap- 
tivity (Neh.  iii.  5,  27.  In  Jer.  vi.  1,  the 
prophet  exclaims,  "  Blow  the  trumpet  in 
Tekoa,  and  set  up  a  sign  of  fire  in  Beth- 
Haccerem."  But  Tekoa  is  chiefly  memo- 
rable as  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Amos 
(Amos  vii.  14).  Tekoa  is  known  still  as 
Teko'a.  It  lies  on  an  elevated  hill,  Avhicli 
spreads  itself  out  into  an  irregular  plain  of 
moderate  extent.  Various  ruins  exist,  such 
as  the  walls  of  houses,  cisterns,  broken 
columns,  and  heaps  of  building-stones.  2. 
A  name  occurring  in  the  genealogies  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  ii.  24,  iv.  5),  as  the  son  of 
Ashur.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  town 
of  Tekoa  is  meant. 

Teko'ite,  The.  Ira  ben-Ikkesh,  one 
of  David's  warriors,  is  thus  designated  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  26;  1  Chr.  xi.  28,  xxvii.  9). 
The  common  people  among  the  Tekoites 
displayed  great  activity  in  the  repairs  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nchemiah 
(Neh.  iii.  5,  27). 

Tel'-a'bib  was  probably  a  city  of  Chal- 
daea  or  Babylonia,  not  of  Upper  Mesopota- 
mia,  as  generally  imagined  (Ez.  iii.  16). 


At. 


tfc 


CM  . 

pr, 

KCv. 

in 

ea- 

m  , 
(J. 


■    posi.     X  «e  laenimcauon  oi    tne  existing  |  the  priests,  tlie  congregation  of  the  people 


fintmi¥.. 


TEMPLE 


689 


TEMPLE 


proof,  and  as  neither  in  the  account  of 
Solomon's  building  nor  in  any  subsequent 
repairs  or  incidents  is  any  mention  made 
of  such  buildings,  we  may  safely  conclude 
that  they  did  not  exist  before  the  time  of 
the  great  rebuilding  immediately  preceding 
the  Christian  era.  In  the  outer  court  there 
was  a  new  altar  of  burnt-offering  much 
larger  than  the  old  one,  [Altar.]  Instead 
of  the  brazen  laver  there  was  "  a  molten 
sea"  of  brass,  a  masterpiece  of  Hiram's 
skill,  for  the  ablution  of  the  priests.  It 
was  called  a  "  sea "  from  its  great  size. 
[Sea,  Molten.]  The  chambers  for  the 
priests  were  arranged  in  successive  stories 
against  the  sides  of  the  sanctuary;  not, 
however,  reaching  to  the  top,  so  as  to  leave 
space  for  the  windows  to  light  the  Holy  and 
Most  Holy  Places.  We  are  told  by  Jose- 
phus  and  the  Talmud  that  there  was  a 
superstructure  on  the  Temple  equal  in 
height  to  the  lower  part;  and  this  is  con- 
firmed by  the  statement  in  the  Books  of 
Chronicles  that  Solomon  "  overlaid  the 
tipper  chambers  with  gold "  (2  Chr.  iii. 
9).  Moreover,  "the  altars  on  the  top  of 
the  upper  chamber,"  mentioned  in  the 
Books  of  the  Kings  (2  K.  xxiii.  12),  were 
apparently  upon  the  Temple.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  these  upper  chambers  bore  some 
analogy  to  the  platform  or  Talar  that  ex- 
isted on  the  roofs  of  the  Palace-Temples  at 
Persepolis,  as  they  are  exhibited  in  the 
drawings  which  represent  the  Tomb  of 
Darhis.  It  is  true  this  was  erected  five 
centuries  after  the  building  of  Solomon's 
temple ;  but  it  is  avowedly  a  copy  in  stone 
of  older  Assyrian  forms,  and  as  such  may 
represent,  with  more  or  less  exactness,  con- 
temporary buildings.  Nothing  in  fact  could 
represent  more  correctly  "  the  altars  on 
the  top  of  the  upper  chamber,"  which  Jo- 
siah  beat  down,  than  this,  nor  could  any- 
thing more  fully  meet  all  the  architectural 
or  devotional  exigencies  of  the  case.  —  The 
dedication  of  the  Temple,  which  was  the 
grandest  ceremony  ever  performed  under 
the  Mosaic  dispensation,  is  described  under 
Solomon.  This  Temple  was  destroyed  on 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, B.  c.  586. 

Temple  of  Zkrubbabel.  —  We  have 
very  few  particulars  regarding  the  Temple 
which  the  Jews  erected  after  their  return 
from  the  Captivity  (about  b.  c.  520),  and 
no  description  that  would  enable  us  to  real- 
ize its  appearance.  But  there  are  some 
dimensions  given  in  the  Bible  and  else- 
where which  are  extremely  interesting,  as 
affording  points  of  comparison  between  it 
and  the  Temple  which  preceded  it,  and  the 
one  erected  after  it.  The  first  and  most 
authentic  are  those  given  in  the  Book  of 
Ezra  (vi.  3),  when  quoting  the  decree  of 
Cyrus,  wherein  it  is  said,  "  Let  the  house 
be  builded,  the  place  where  they  offered 
44 


sacrifices,  and  let  the  foundations  thereof 
be  strongly  laid;  the  height  thereof  three- 
score cubits,  and  the  breadth  thereof  three- 
score cubits,  with  three  rows  of  great  stones 
and  a  row  of  new  timber."  Joscphus  quotes 
this  passage  almost  literally,  but  in  doing 
so  enables  us  with  certainty  to  translate  the 
word  here  called  Row  as  "  Story  "  —  as 
indeed  the  sense  would  lead  us  to  infer. 
The  other  dimension  of  CO  cubits  in  breadth, 
is  20  cubits  in  excess  of  that  of  Solomon's 
Temple,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  its 
correctness,  for  we  find  both  from  Josephus 
and  the  Talmud  that  it  was  the  dimension 
adopted  for  the  Temple  when  rebuilt,  or 
rather  repaired,  by  Herod.  We  are  left, 
therefore,  with  the  alternative  of  assuming 
that  the  porch  and  the  chambers  all  round 
were  20  cubits  in  width,  including  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls,  instead  of  10  cubits, 
as  in  the  earlier  building.  This  altera- 
tion in  the  width  of  the  Pteromata  made 
the  Temple  100  cubits  in  length  by  60  in 
breadth,  witli  a  height,  it  is  said,  of  CO 
cubits,  including  the  upper  room  or  Talar, 
though  we  cannot  help  suspecting  that 
this  last  dimension  is  somewhat  in  excess 
of  the  truth.  From  these  dimensions  we 
gather,  that  if  the  Priests  and  Levites  and 
Elders  of  families  were  disconsolate  at 
seeing  how  much  more  sumptuous  the  old 
Temple  was  than  the  one  which  on  account 
of  their  poverty  they  had  just  been  able  to 
erect  (Ezr.  iii.  12),  it  certainly  was  not 
because  it  was  smaller,  as  almost  every 
dimension  had  been  increased  one  third ; 
but  it  may  have  been  that  the  carving  and 
the  gold  and  other  ornaments  of  Solomon's 
Temple  far  surpassed  this,  and  the  pillars 
of  the  portico  and  the  veils  may  all  have  been 
far  more  splendid;  so  also  probably  were 
tlie  vessels ;  and  all  this  is  what  a  Jew  would 
mourn  over  far  more  than  mere  architec- 
tural splendor.  In  speaking  of  these  Tem- 
ples we  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  their 
dimensions  were  practically  very  far  in- 
ferior to  those  of  the  heathen.  Even  that 
of  Ezra  is  not  larger  than  an  average  par- 
ish church  of  the  last  century —  Solomon's 
was  smaller.  It  was  the  lavish  display  of 
the  precious  metals,  the  elaboration  of 
carved  ornament,  and  the  beauty  of  the 
textile  fabrics,  which  made  up  their  splen- 
dor and  rendered  them  so  precious  in  the 
eyes  of  the  people. 

Temple  of  Ezekiel.  —  The  vision  of  a 
Temple  which  the  prophet  Ezekiel  saw 
while  residing  on  the  banks  of  the  Chcbar 
in  Babylonia  in  the  25th  year  of  the  Captiv- 
ity, does  not  add  much  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  It  is  not  a  description  of  a 
Temple  that  ever  was  built  or  ever  could 
be  erected  at  Jerusalem,  and  can  conse- 
quently only  be  considered  as  the  beau 
ideal  of  what  a  Shemitic  Temple  ought  to 
be.    Notwithstanding  its  ideal  character. 


TEMPLE 


690 


TEMPLE 


the  whole  is  extremely  curious,  as  showing 
■what  were  the  aspirations  of  the  Jews  in 
this  direction,  and  how  different  they  were 
from  those  of  other  nations ;  and  it  is  inter- 
esting here,  inasmuch  as  there  can  be  little 
doubt  but  that  the  arrangements  of  Herod's 
Temple  were  in  a  great  measure  influenced 
by  the  description  here  given. 

Temple  of  Herod.  —  Herod  announced 
to  the  people  assembled  at  the  Passover 
(b.  c.  20  or  19)  his  intention  of  restoring 
the  Temple.  If  we  may  beheve  Joscphus, 
he  pulled  down  the  whole  edifice  to  its  foun- 
dations, and  laid  them  anew  on  an  enlarged 
scale ;  but  the  ruins  still  exhibit,  in  some 
parts,  what  seem  to  be  the  foundations  laid 
by  Zerubbabel,  and  beneath  them  the  more 
massive  substructions  of  Solomon.  The 
new  edifice  was  a  stately  pile  of  Graeco- 


Eoraan  architecture,  built  in  w  liite  marble 
with  gilded  acroteria.  It  is  minutely  de- 
scribed by  Josephus,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment lias  made  us  familiar  with  the  pride 
of  the  Jews  in  its  magnificence.  A  differ- 
ent feeling,  however,  marked  the  coinC 
mencement  of  the  work,  wliich  met  with 
some  opposition  from  the  fear  that  what 
Herod  had  begun  he  would  not  be  able  to 
finish.  He  overcame  all  jealousy  by  en- 
gaging not  to  pull  down  any  part  of  the 
existing  buildings  till  all  tlie  materials  for 
tiie  new  edifice  were  collected  on  its  site. 
Two  years  appear  to  have  been  occupied  in 
these  preparations,' among  which  Josephus 
mentions  the  teaching  of  some  of  tiie  priests 
and  Levites  to  work  as  masons  and  carpen- 
ters —  and  then  the  work  began.  Tlie  holy 
"  house,"  including  the  Porch,  Sanctuary, 


Tempte,of  Herod  TCitored.    Scale  of  200  feet  to  1  inch. 


and  Holy  of  Holies,  was  finished  in  a  year 
and  a  half  (b.  c.  16).  Its  completion,  on 
the  anniversary  of  Herod's  inauguration, 
was  celebrated  by  lavish  sacrifices  and  a 
great  feast.  About  b.  c.  9  —  eight  years 
from  the  commencement  —  the  court  and 
cloisters  of  the  Temple  were  finished,  and 
the  bridge  between  the  south  cloister  and 
the  upper  city  (demolished  by  Pompey) 
was  doubtless  now  rebuilt  with  that  massive 
masonry  of  which  some  remains  still  sur- 
vive. The  Temple  or  holy  "  house"  itself 
was  in  dimensions  and  arrangement  very 
similar  to  that  of  Solomon,  or  rather  that 
of  Zerubbabel — more  like  the  latter;  but 


this  was  surrounded  by  an  inner  enclosure 
of  great  strength  and  magnificence,  meas- 
uring as  nearly  as  can  be  made  out  180 
cubits  by  240,  and  adorned  by  porches  and 
ten  gateways  of  great  magnificence;  and 
beyond  this  again  was  an  outer  enclosure 
measuring  externally  400  cubits  each  way, 
which  was  adorned  with  porticos  of  great- 
er splendor  than  any  we  know  of  as  attached 
to  any  temple  of  the  ancient  world.  The 
Temple  was  certainly  situated  in  the  S.  W. 
angle  of  the  area  now  known  as  the  Harara 
area  at  Jerusalem,  and  its  dimensions  were 
what  Josephus  states  thera  to  be  —  400 
cubits,  or  one  stadium,  each  way.    At  the 


TEMPLE 


691 


TEifPLE 


time  when  Herod  rebuilt  it,  he  enclosed  a 
Bpace  ''twice  as  hirge"  as  that  before 
occupied  by  the  Temple  and  its  courts —  an 
expression  that  probably  must  not  be  taken 
too  literally,  at  least  if  we  are  to  depend  on 
the  measurements  of  Hecataeus.  Accord- 
ing to  them,  the  whole  area  of  Herod's 
Temple  was  between  four  and  five  times 
greater  than  that  which  preceded  it.  What 
ITerod  did,  apparently,  was  to  take  in  the 
whole  space  between  the  Temple  and  the 
city  wall  on  its  eastern  side,  and  to  add  a 
considerable  space  on  the  north  and  south, 
to  support  the  porticos  which  he  added 
there.  As  the  Temple  terrace  thus  became 
the  principal  defence  of  the  city  on  the  east 
side,  there  were  no  gates  or  openings  in  that 
direction,  and  being  situated  on  a  sort  of 
rocky  brow  —  as  evidenced  from  its  appear- 
ance in  the  vaults  that  bound  it  on  this  side 
it  was  at  all  later  times  considered  Tin- 
attackable  from  the  eastward.  The  north 
side,  too,  where  not  covered  by  the  fortress 
Antonia,  became  part  of  the  defences  of 
the  city,  and  was  likewise  without  external 
gates.  On  the  south  side,  which  was  en- 
closed by  the  wall  of  Ophel,  there  were 
double  gates  nearly  in  the  centre.  These 
gates  still  exist  at  a  distance  of  about  365 
feet  from  the  south-western  angle,  and  are 
perhaps  the  only  architectural  features  of 
the  Temple  of  Herod  which  remain  in  situ. 
This  entrance  consists  of  a  double  archway 
of  Cyclopean  architecture  on  the  level  of 
the  ground,  opening  into  a  square  vestibule 
measuring  40  feet  each  way.  From  this  a 
double  tunnel,  nearly  200  feet  in  length, 
leads  to  a  flight  of  steps  which  rise  to  the 
surface  in  the  court  of  the  Temple,  exactly 
at  that  gateway  of  the  inner  Temple  which 
led  to  the  altar,  and  is  the  one  of  the  four 
gateways  on  this  side  by  which  any  one 
arriving  from  Ophel  would  naturally  wish 
to  enter  the  inner  enclosure.  We  learn 
from  the  Talmud  that  the  gate  of  the  inner 
Temple  to  which  this  passage  led  was  called 
the  "  Water  Gate ;  "  and  it  is  interesting 
to  be  able  to  identify  a  spot  so  prominent 
in  the  description  of  Nehemiah  (xii.  37). 
Towards  the  west  there  were  four  gateways 
to  the  external  enclosure  of  the  Temple. 
Cloisters.  —  The  most  magnificent  part  of 
the  Temple,  in  an  architectural  point  of 
view,  seems  certainly  to  have  been  the 
cloisters  which  were  added  to  the  outer 
court  when  it  was  enlarged  by  Herod.  The 
cloisters  in  the  west,  north,  and  east  sides 
were  composed  of  double  rows  of  Corin- 
thian columns,  25  cubits  or  37  feet  6  inches 
in  height,  with  flat  roofs,  and  resting  against 
the  outer  wall  of  the  Temple.  These,  how- 
ever, were  immeasurably  surpassed  in  mag- 
nificence by  the  royal  porch  or  Stoa  Basil- 
ica, which  overhung  the  southern  wall.  It 
consisted  of  a  nave  and  two  aisles,  that 
towards  the  Temple- being  open,  that  to- 


wards the  country  closed  by  a  wall.  Tlie 
breadth  of  the  centre  aisle  was  45  feet ;  of 
the  side  aisles,  30  from  centre  to  centre  of 
the  pillars ;  tlieir  height  50  feet,  and  that 
of  the  centre  aisle  100  feet.  Its  section  was 
thus  something  in  excess  of  that  of  York 
Cathedral,  while  its  total  length  was  one 
stadium  or  600  Greek  feet,  or  100  feet  in 
excess  of  York,  or  our  largest  Gothic  ca- 
thedrals. This  magnificent  structure  was 
supported  by  162  Corinthian  columns.  The 
court  of  tlie  Temple  was  very  nearly  a 
square.  It  may  have  been  exactly  so,  for 
we  have  not  all  the  details  to  enable  us  to 
feel  quite  certain  about  it.  To  the  eastward 
of  tliis  was  the  court  of  the  women.  The 
great  ornament  of  these  inner  courts  seems 
to  have  been  their  gateways,  the  three 
especially  on  the  north  and  south  leading 
to  the  Temple  court.  These,  according  to 
Josephus,  were  of  great  height,  strongly 
fortified,  and  ornamented  with  great  elab- 
oration. But  the  wonder  of  all  was  the 
great  eastern  gate  leading  from  the  court 
of  the  women  to  the  upper  court.  It  was 
in  all  probability  the  one  called  the  "  Beau- 
tiful Gate  "  in  the  New  Testament.  Imme- 
diately within  this  gateway  stood  the  altar 
of  burnt-offerings.  Both  the  Altar  and  the 
Temple  were  enclosed  by  a  low  parapet, 
one  cubit  in  height,  placed  so  as  to  keep 
the  people  separate  from  the  priests  while 
the  latter  were  performing  their  functions. 
Within  this  last  enclosure,  towards  the 
westward,  stood  the  Temple  itself.  As 
before  mentioned,  its  internal  dimensions 
were  the  same  as  those  of  the  Temple  of 
Solomon.  Although  the  internal  dimen- 
sions remained  the  same,  there  seems  no 
reason  to  doubt  but  that  the  whole  plan  was 
augmented  by  the  Pteromata,  or  surround- 
ing parts,  being  increased  from  10  to  20 
cubits,  so  that  the  third  temple,  like  the 
second,  measured  60  cubits  across  and  100 
cubits  east  and  west.  The  width  of  the 
facade  was  also  augmented  by  wings  or 
shoulders  projecting  20  cubits  each  way, 
making  the  whole  breadth  100  cubits,  or 
equal  to  the  length.  So  far  all  seems  cer- 
tain ;  but  when  we  come  to  the  height,  every 
measurement  appears  doubtful.  Both  Jo- 
sephus and  the  Talmud  seem  delighted  with 
the  truly  Jewish  idea  of  a  buildhig  which, 
without  being  a  cube,  was  100  cubits  long, 
100  broad,  and  100  high.  We  cannot  help 
suspecting  that  in  this  instance  Joseplms 
was  guilty  of  systematically  doubling  the 
altitude  of  the  building  he  was  describing, 
as  it  can  be  proved  he  did  in  some  other 
instances.  But  when  we  turn  from  actual 
measurement,  and  try  to  realize  its  appear- 
ance, or  the  detail  of  its  architecture,  wo 
launch  into  a  sea  of  conjecture  with  very 
little  indeed  to  guide  us,  at  least  in  regard 
to  tlie  appeararce  of  the  Temple  itself. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  case  with  tha 


TEN  COMMANDMENTS 


692 


TEN  COMMANDMENTS 


Temple  of  Solomon,  it  is  nearly  certain  that 
the  style  of  the  second  Teniple  must  liave 
been  identical  with  this  of  the  buildings  we 
are  so  familiar  with  at  Persepolis  and  Susa. 
The  Jews  were  too  closely  connected  with 
the  Persians  and  Babylonians  at  this  period 
to  know  of  any  other  style,  and  in  facttheir 
Temple  was  built  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  very  parties  who  were  erecting  the 
contemporary  edifices  at  Persepolis  and 
Susa.  There  is  no  reason  for  doubting  that 
the  Sanctuary  always  stood  on  the  identi- 
cally same  spot  in  which  it  had  been  placed 
by  Solomon  a  thousand  years  before  it  was 
rebuilt  by  Herod. 

Ten  Commandments.  The  popular 
name  in  this,  as  in  so  many  instances,  is 
not  that  of  Scripture.  There  we  have  the 
"  Ten  Words  "  (Ex.  xxxiv.  28 ;  Deut.  iv. 
13,  X.  4),  the  "Covenant"  (Ex.,  Deut., 
II.  cc. ;  1  K.  viii.  21 ;  2  Chr.  vi.  11,  &c.), 
or,  very  often,  as  the  solemn  attestation  of 
the  divine  will,  the  Testimony  (Ex.  xxv. 
16,  21;  xxxi.  18,  &c.).  The  circumstances 
in  which  the  Ten  great  Words  were  first 
given  to  the  people  surrounded  them  with 
an  awe  which  attached  to  no  other  precept. 
In  the  midst  of  the  cloud,  and  the  dark- 
ness, and  the  flashing  lightning,  and  the 
fiery  smoke,  and  the  thunder  like  the  voice 
of  a  trumpet,  Moses  was  called  to  receive 
the  Law  without  which  the  people  would 
cease  to  be  a  holy  nation.  Here,  as  else- 
where, Scripture  unites  two  facts  which 
men  separate.  God,  and  not  man,  was 
speaking  to  the  Israelites  in  those  terrors, 
and  yet,  in  the  language  of  later  inspired 
teachers,  other  instrumentality  was  not  ex- 
cluded. No  other  words  were  proclaimed 
in  like  manner.  And  the  record  was  as 
exceptional  as  the  original  revelation.  Of 
no  other  words  could  it  be  said  that  they 
were  written  as  these  were  written,  en- 
graved on  the  Tables  of  Stone,  not  as  ori- 
ginating in  man's  contrivance  or  sagacity, 
but  by  the  power  of  the  Eternal  Spirit,  by 
the  "finger  of  God"  (Ex.  xxxi.  18,  xxxii. 
16).  The  number  Ten  was,  we  can  hardly 
doubt,  itself  significant  to  Moses  and  the 
Israelites.  The  received  symbol,  then  and 
at  all  times,  of  completeness,  it  taught  the 
people  that  the  Law  of  Jehovah  was  perfect 
(Ps.  xix.  7).  The  terra  "  Commandments  " 
had  come  into  use  in  the  time  of  Christ 
(Luke  xviii.  20).  Their  division  into  Two 
Tables  is  not  only  expressly  mentioned,  but 
the  stress  laid  upon  the  two  leaves  no  doubt 
that  the  distinction  was  important,  and  that 
it  answered  to  that  summary  of  the  law 
which  was  made  both  by  Moses  and  by 
Christ  into  two  precepts ;  so  that  the  First 
Table  contained  Duties  to  God,  and  the 
Second,  Duties  to  our  Neighbor.,  —  But 
here  arises  a  difficulty,  not  only  as  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  commandments  be- 
tween the  "  Two  Tables,"  but  as  to  the 


division  of  the  ■ '  Ten  Words  "  theraselvest 
The  division  is  not  clearly  made  in  the 
Scripture  itself;  and  that  arrangement, 
with  which  we  are  familiar  from  child- 
hood, is  only  one  of  three  modes,  handed 
down  from  the  ancient  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian churches,  to  say  nothing  of  modern 
theories ;  and  others  are  used  at  this  day 
by  Jews  and  Roman  Catholics.  (1)  The 
modern  Jews,  following  the  Talmud,  take 
the  words  which  are  often  called  the  Pref- 
ace, as  the  First  Commandment  (Ex.  xx. 
2;  Deut.  v.  6:  "I  am  Jehovah  thy  God, 
which  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  from  the  house  of  bondage  ")  ;  and 
the  prohibitions  both  against  having  other 
gods,  and  against  idolatry,  as  the  second 
(Ex.  XX.  3-6 ;  Deut.  v.  7-10)  ;  the  rest  be- 
ing arranged  as  with  us.  (2)  Tlie  Roman 
Catholic  and  Lutheran  churches,  following 
St.  Augustine,  regard  the  First  Command- 
ment as  embracing  all  the  above  words,  in 
one  comprehensive  law  against  folse  wor- 
ship and  idolatry.  Thus  our  Third  Com- 
mandment is  their  Second,  and  so  on  to  our 
Ninth,  which  is  their  Eighth.  They  then 
make  our  ycra^A  against  coveting  their  Ninth 
and  Tenth.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  Two 
Tables,  the  First  contains  three  command- 
ments, closing  with  the  Sabbath  law,  and 
the  Second  the  remaining  seven.  (3) 
The  arrangement  adopted  by  the  Greek 
and  English  churches,  following  Philo,  Jo- 
sephus,  and  Origen,  and  all  the  Latin  fa- 
thers, makes  the  law  against  having  other 
gods  besides  Jehovah  the  First  Command' 
ment,  and  that  against  idolatry  the  Second^ 
though  a  slight  difference  of  opinion  re- 
mains, whether  the  first  words  belong  to 
the  First  Commandment,  or  form  a  Preface 
to  the  whole.  —  There  are  then  three  prin- 
cipal divisions  of  the  Two  Tables  :  (i.) 
That  of  tlie  Roman  Catholic  Church  men- 
tioned above,  making  the  First  Table  con- 
tain three  commandments,  and  the  Second 
the  other  seven,  (ii.)  The  ftimiliar  divis- 
ion, referring  the  first  four  to  our  duty  to- 
wards God,  and  the  six  remaining  to  our 
duty  towards  man.  (iii.)  The  division 
recognized  by  the  old  Jewish  writers,  Jo- 
sephus  and  Philo,  which  places  five  com- 
mandments in  each  Table ;  and  thus  pre- 
serves the  pentade  and  decade  grouping 
which  pervades  the  whole  code.  It  has 
been  maintained  that  the  law  of  filial  duty, 
being  a  close  consequence  of  God's  fatherly 
relation  to  us,  may  be  referred  to  the  First 
Table.  But  this  is  to  place  human  parents 
on  a  level  with  God,  and,  by  parity  of  rea- 
soning, the  Sixth  Commandment  might  be 
added  to  the  First  Table,  as  murder  is  the 
destruction  of  God's  image  in  man.  Far 
more  reasonable  is  the  view  which  regards 
the  authority  of  parents  as  heading  the 
Second  Table,  as  the  earthly  reflex  of  that 
authority  of  the  Father  of  His  people  and 


TENT 


693 


TERTULLUS 


of  all  men  which  heads  the  First  and  as  the 
first  principle  of  the  whole  law  of  love  to 
our  neighbors,  because  we  are  all  brethren ; 
and  the  family  is,  for  good  and  ill,  the  model 
of  the  state. —To  these  Ten  Command- 
ments we  find  in  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
an  eleventh  added :  "  But  when  the  Lord 
thy  God  shall  have  brought  thee  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  whither  thou  goest  to  pos- 
sess it,  thou  shalt  set  thee  up  two  great 
stones,  and  shalt  plaister  them  with  plais- 
ter,  and  slialt  write  upon  these  stones  all 
the  words  of  this  Law.  Moreover,  after 
thou  shalt  have  passed  over  Jordan,  thou 
shalt  set  up  those  stones  which  I  command 
thee  this  day,  on  Mount  Gerizim,  and  thou 
shalt  build  there  an  altar  to  the  Lord  tliy 
God,  an  altar  of  stones  :  thou  shalt  not  lift 
up  any  iron  thereon.  Of  unhewn  stones 
shalt  thou  build  that  altar  to  the  Lord  thy 
God,  and  tliou  shalt  offer  on  it  burnt-offer- 
ings to  the  Lord  tliy  God,  and  thou  shalt 
sacrifice  peace-offerings,  and  shalt  eat  them 
there,  and  thou  shalt  rejoice  before  the  Lord 
thy  God  in  that  mountain  beyond  Jordan, 
by  tlie  Avay  where  the  sun  goeth  down,  in 
the  land  of  the  Canaanite  that  dwelleth.  in 
the  plain  country  over  against  Gilgal,  by 
the  oak  of  Moreh,  towards  Sichem."  The 
interpolation  has  every  mark  of  being  a 
bold  attempt  to  claim  for  the  schismatic 
worship  on  Gerizim  the  solemn  sanction  of 
the  voice  on  Sinai,  to  place  it  on  the  same 
footing  as  the  Ten  great  "Words  of  God. 
The  absence  of  any  distinct  reference  to 
the  Ten  Commandments  as  such  in  the 
Pirke  Aboih  (=  Maxims  of  the  Fathers) 
is  both  strange  and  significant.  With  all 
their  ostentation  of  profound  reverence  for 
the  Law,  the  teaching  of  the  Rabbis  turned 
on  other  points  than  the  great  laws  of 
duty. 

Tent.  Among  the  leading  characteris- 
tics of  the  nomade  races,  those  two  have 
always  been  numbered  whose  origin  has 
been  ascribed  to  Jabal  the  son  of  Lamech 
(Gen.  iv.  20),  viz.  to  be  tent-dwellers  and 
keepers  of  cattle.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  forefathers  of  the  Hebrew  race ;  nor 
was  it  until  the  return  into  Canaan  from 
Egypt  that  the  Hebrews  became  inhabitants 
of  cities.  An  Arab  tent  is  called  bett, 
"  house ;  "  its  covering  consists  of  stuff", 
about  three  quarters  of  a  yard  broad,  made 
of  black  goats'-hair  (Cant.  i.  5),  laid  par- 
allel with  the  tent's  length.  This  is  suflS- 
cient  to  resist  the  heaviest  rain.  The  tent- 
poles,  or  columns,  are  usuallj'nine  in  num- 
ber, placed  in  three  groups,  but  many  tents 
have  only  one  pole,  otiiers  two  or  three. 
The  ropes  which  hold  the  tent  in  its  place 
are  fastened,  not  to  the  tent-cover  itself, 
but  to  loops  consisting  of  a  leathern  thong 
tied  to  the  ends  of  a  stick,  round  which  is 
twisted  a  piece  of  old  cloth,  which  is  itself 
Bewedtotlie  tent-cover.     The  ends  of  the 


tent-ropes  are  fastened  to  short  sticks  or 
pins,  which  are  driven  into  the  ground  with 
a  mallet  (Judg.  iv.  21).  Round  the  back 
and  sides  of  the  tent  runs  a  piece  of  stuff"  re- 
movable at  pleasure  to  admit  air.  The  tent 
is  divided  into  two  apartments,  separated  by 
a  carpet  partition  drawn  across  the  middle 
of  the  tent  and  fastened  to  the  three  middle 
posts.  When  the  pasture  near  an  encamp- 
ment is  exhausted,  the  tents  are  taken  down, 
packed  on  camels,  and  removed  (Is.  xxxviii. 
12;  Gen.  xxvi.  17,  22,  25).  In  choosing 
places  for  encampment,  Arabs  prefer  the 
neighborhood  of  trees,  for  the  sake  of  tht 
shade  and  coolness  which  they  alford  (Gen 
xviii.  4,  8). 

Te'rah,  the  father  of  Abram,  Nahor, 
and  Haran,  and  through  them  the  ancestor 
of  the  great  families  of  the  Israelites,  Ish- 
maelites,  Midianites,  Moabites,  and  Am- 
monites (Gen.  xi.  24-32).  The  account 
given  of  him  in  the  O.  T.  narrative  is  very 
brief.  We  learn  from  it  simply  that  he  was 
an  idolater  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  that  he  dwelt 
beyond  the  Euphrates  in  Ur  of  the  Clial- 
dees  (Gen.  xi.  28),  and  that  in  the  south- 
westerly migration,  which  from  some  un- 
explained cause  he  undertook  in  his  old 
age,  he  went  with  his  son  Abram,  his 
daughter-in-law  Sarai,  and  his  grandson 
Lot,  '*  to  go  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  and 
they  came  unto  Haran,  and  dwelt  there " 
(Gen.  xi.  31).  And  finally,  "the  days  of 
Terah  were  two  hundred  and  five  years ; 
and  Terah  died  in  Haran"  (Gen.  xi.  32). 

Ter'aphim,  only  in  plural,  images  con- 
nected with  magical  rites.  The  derivation 
of  the  name  is  obscure.  In  one  case  a 
single  statue  seems  to  be  intended  by  the 
plural  (1  Sam.  xix.  18,  16.  The  teraphim, 
translated  "  images "  in  A.  V.,  carried 
away  from  Laban  by  Rachel,  were  regarded 
by  Laban  as  gods,  and  it  would  therefore 
appear  that  they  were  used  by  those  who 
added  corrupt  practices  to  the  patriarchal 
religion.  Teraphim  again  are  included 
among  Micah's  images  (Judg.  xvii.  3-5, 
xviii.  17,  18,  20).  Teraphim  were  con- 
sulted for  oracular  answers  by  the  Israel- 
ites  (Zech.  X.  2;  eomp.  Judg.  xviii.  5,  6; 

1  Sam.  XV.  22,  23,  xix.  13,  Ifi,  LXX.;  and 

2  K.  xxiii.  24),  and  by  the  Babylonians,  in 
the  case  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ez.  xxi.  10- 
22). 

Te'resh,  one  of  the  two  ennuchs  whose 
plot  to  assassinate  Ahasuerus  was  discov- 
ered by  Mordecai  (Esth.  ii.  21,  vi.  2).  He 
was  hanged. 

Ter'tius,  probably  a  Roman,  was  the 
amanuensis  of  Paul  in  writing  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  (Rom.  xvi.  22). 

Tertul'lUS,  "a  certain  orator"  (Acts 
xxiv.  1)  who  was  retained  by  the  High- 
Priest  and  Sanhedrim  to  accuse  the  Apostle 
Paul  at  Caesarea  before  the  Roman  Procu- 
rator Antonius  Felix.     He  evidently  be* 


TESTAMENT 


694 


THEBES 


longed  to  the  class  of  professional  orators. 
We  may  infer  that  Tertullus  was  of  JRoraan, 
or  at  all  events  of  Italian  origin.  The  ex- 
ordium of  his  speech  is  designed  to  concil- 
iate the  good  will  of  the  Procurator,  and 
Is  accordingly  overcharged  with  flattery. 
There  is  a  strange  contrast  between  the 
opening  clause  and  the  brief  summary  of 
the  Procurator's  administration  given  by 
Tacitus  {Hist.  v.  9).  But  the  commenda- 
tions of  Tertullus  were  not  altogether  un- 
founded, as  Eelix  had  really  succeeded  in 
putting  down  several  seditious  movements. 
It  is  not  very  easy  to  determine  whether 
St.  Luke  has  preserved  the  oration  of  Ter- 
tullus entire.  On  the  whole  it  seems  most 
natural  to  conclude  that  the  historian,  wlio 
was  almost  certainly  an  ear-witness,  merely 
gives  an  abstract  of  the  speech,  giving, 
however,  in  full  the  most  salient  points 
(ver.  5). 

Testament,  New.  [New  Testament  ; 
Bible.] 

Testament,  Old.  [Old  Testament  ; 
Bible.] 

Tetrarch,  properly  the  sovereign  or 
governor  of  the  fourth  part  of  a  country. 
(1.)  Herod  Antipas  (Matt.  xiv.  1 ;  Luke 
iii.  1,  19,  ix.  7;  Acts  xiii.  1),  who  is  com- 
monly distinguished  as  "Herod  the  te- 
trarch,"  although  the  title  of  "king"  is 
also  assigned  to  him  both  by  Matthew 
(xiv.  9)  and  by  Mark  (vi.  14,  22,  sqq.). 
(2.)  Herod  Philip,  who  is  said  by  Luke 
(iii.  1)  to  have  been  "tetrarch  of  Ituraea, 
and  of  the  region  of  Trachonitis."  (3.) 
Lysanias,  who  is  said  (Luke  iii.  1)  to  have 
been  "  tetrarch  of  Abilene."  The  title  of 
tetrarch  was  at  this  time  probably  applied 
to  petty  tributary  princes  without  any  such 
determinate  meaning.  But  it  appears  from 
Josephus  that  the  tetrarchies  of  Antipas 
and  Philip  were  regarded  as  consti- 
tuting each  a  fourth  part  of  their  father's 
kingdom.  "We  conclude  that  in  these  two 
cases,  at  least,  the  title  was  used  in  its 
strict  and  literal  sense. 

Thaddae'us,  a  name  in  Mark's  cata- 
logue of  the  twelve  Apostles  (Mark  iii. 
18)  in  the  great  majority  of  MSS.  In 
Matthew's  catalogue  (Matt.  x.  3)  Lebbaeus 
is  probably  the  original  reading.  From  a 
comparison  with  the  catalogue  of  St.  Luke 
(Luke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  i.  13)  it  seems  scarcely 
possible  to  doubt  that  the  three  names  of 
Judas,  Lebbaeus,  and  Thaddaeus  were 
borne  by  one  and  the  same  person. 

Tha'hash.,  son  of  Nahor  by  his  concu- 
bine lleuniah  (Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Tha'mall.  "The  children  of  Tha- 
mah  "  were  a  family  of  Ncthinim  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  63). 

Tha'mar.    Tamar  l  (Matt.  i.  3). 

Thank-offering,  or  Peace-offering, 
the  properly  eucharistic  offering  among  the 
Jews,  in  its  theory  resembling  the  Meat- 


offering, and  therefore  indicating  that 
the  offerer  was  already  reconciled  to,  and 
in  covenant  Avith,  God.  Its  ceremonial  is 
described  in  Lev.  iii.  The  peace-offerings, 
unlike  other  sacrifices,  were  not  ordained 
to  be  offered  in  fixed  and  regular  course. 
The  only  constantly  recurring  peace-offer- 
ing appears  to  have  been  that  of  tlie  two 
firstling  lambs  at  Pentecost  (Lev.  xxiii.  19). 
The  general  principle  of  the  peace-offer- 
ing seems  to  have  been  that  it  should  be 
entirely  spontaneous,  offered  as  occasion 
should  arise,  from  the  feeling  of  tlie  sacri- 
ficer  himself  (Lev.  xix.  5).  On  the  first 
institution  (Lev.  vii.  11-17),  peace-offer- 
ings are  divided  into  "  ofi'erings  of  thanks- 
giving," and  "  vows  or  freewill-offerings ;  " 
of  which  latter  class  the  offering  by  a 
Nazarite,  on  the  completion  of  his  vow,  is 
the  most  remarkable  (Num.  vi.  14).  AVe 
find  accordingly  peace-oflerings  offered  for 
the  people  on  a  great  scale  at  periods  of 
unusual  solemnhy  or  rejoicing.  In  two 
cases  only  (Judg.  xx.  26 ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  25) 
peace-offerings  are  mentioned  as  offered 
with  burnt-offerings  at  a  time  of  national 
sorrow  and  fasting. 

Thalra,  Teeah  the  father  of  Abraham 
(Luke  i'ii.  34). 

Thar'ra,  Esth.  xii.  1.  A  corrupt  form 
of  Tekesh. 

Thar'shish.  1.  In  this  more  accurate 
form  the  translators  of  the  A.  V.  have 
given  in  two  passages  (1  K.  x.  22,  xxii.  48) 
the  name  elsewhere  presented  as  Tarshish. 
2.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  the  family  of  Bil- 
han  and  the  house  of  Jediael  (1  Chr,  vii. 
10  only). 

Theatre.  For  the  explanation  of  the 
Biblical  allusions,  two  or  three  points  only 
require  notice.  The  Greek  term,  like  the 
corresponding  English  term,  denotes  the 
place  where  dramatic  performances  are 
exhibited,  and  also  the  scene  itself  or  spec- 
tacle which  is  witnessed  there.  It  occurs 
in  the  first  or  local  sense  in  Acts  xix.  29. 
It  was  in  the  theatre  at  Caesarea  that  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  gave  audience  to  the  Tyrian 
deputies,  and  was  himself  struck  with  death, 
because  he  heard  so  gladly  the  impious  ac- 
clamations of  the  people  (Acts  xii.  21-23). 
The  other  sense  of  the  term  "  theatre  "  oc- 
curs in  1  Cor.  iv.  9,  where  the  A.  V.  ren- 
ders, "  God  hath  set  forth  us  the  apostles 
last,  as  it  were  appointed  to  death ;  for  we 
are  made  a  spectacle  unto  the  world,  and  to 
angels,  and  to  men."  Instead  of  "  specta- 
cle," some  might  prefer  the  more  energetic 
Saxon,  "  gazing-stock,"  as  in  Tyndale, 
Cranmer,  and  the  Geneva  version. 

Thebes  (A.  V.  No,  the  multitude  of 
No,  populous  No),  a  chief  city  of  ancient 
Egypt,  long  the  capital  of  the  upper  coun- 
try, and  the  seat  of  the  Diospolitan  dynas- 
ties, that  ruled  over  all  Egypt  at  the  era  of 
its  highest  splendor.     The  sacred  name  of 


THEBES 


695 


THEOPHILUS 


Thebes  was  P-amen,  "  the  abode  of  Amon," 
which  the  Greeks  reproduced  in  their  Dios- 
polis,  especially  with  the  addition  the  Great. 
No-Amon  is  the  name  of  Thebes  in  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  ( Jer.  xlvi.  25 ;  Nah.  iii. 
8).  Ezekiel  uses  No  simply  to  designate 
the  Egyptian  seat  of  Amnion  (Ez.  xxx.  14, 
16).  [No-Amon.]  The  origin  of  the  city 
is  lost  in  antiquity.  Niebuhr  is  of  opinion 
that  Thebes  was  much  older  than  Memphis, 
and  that,  "  after  the  ceiUre  of  Egyptian 
life  was  transferred  to  Lower  Egypt,  Mem- 
phis acquired  its  greatness  through  the  ruin 
of  Thebes."  But  both  cities  date  from  our 
earliest  authentic  knowledge  of  Egyptian 
history.  The  first  allusion  to  Thebes  in 
classical  literature  is  the  familiar  passage 
of  the  Iliad  (ix.  381-385):  —"Egyptian 
Thebes,  where  are  vast  treasures  laid  up  in 
the  houses  ;  where  are  a  hundred  gates,  and 
from  each  two  hundred  men  go  forth  with 
horses  and  chariots."  In  the  1st  century 
before  Christ,  Diodorus  visited  Thebes,  and 
he  devotes  several  sections  of  his  gen- 
eral work  to  its  history  and  appearance. 
Though  he  saw  the  city  when  it  had  sunk 
to  quite  secondary  importance,  he  pre- 
serves the  tradition  of  its  early  grandeur  — 
its  circuit  of  140  stadia,  the  size  of  its  pub- 
lic edifices,  the  magnificence  of  its  tem- 
ples, the  number  of  its  monuments,  the 
dimensions  of  its  private  houses,  some  of 
them  four  or  five  stories  high  —  all  giving 
it  an  air  of  grandeur  and  beauty  surpassing 
not  only  all  other  cities  of  Egypt,  but  of 
the  world.  But  the  monuments  of  Thebes 
are  the  most  reliable  witnesses  for  the 
ancient  grandeur  of  the  city.  These  are 
found  in  almost  equal  proportions  upon 
both  sides  of  tlie  river.  The  plan  of  the 
city,  as  indicated  by  the  principal  monu- 
ments, was  nearly  quadrangular,  measuring 
two  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  four 
from  east  to  west.  Its  four  great  landmarks 
were,  Karnak  and  Luxor  upon  the  eastern 
or  Arabian  side,  and  Qoornah  and  Medee- 
net  Haboo  upon  the  western  or  Libyan 
side.  There  are  indications  that  each  of 
these  temples  may  have  been  connected 
with  those  facing  it  upon  two  sides  by  grand 
dromoi,  lined  with  sphinxes  and  other 
colossal  figures.  Upon  the  western  bank 
there  was  almost  a  continuous  line  of  tem- 
ples and  public  edifices  for  a  distance  of 
two  miles,  from  Qoornah  to  Medeenet 
Haboo;  and  Wilkinson  conjectures  that 
from  a  point  near  the  latter,  perhaps  in  the 
line  of  the  colossi,  the  "  Koyal  street"  ran 
down  to  the  river,  which  was  crossed  by  a 
ferry  terminating  at  Luxor  on  the  eastern 
side.  Beginning  at  the  northern  extremity 
on  the  western  bank,  the  first  conspicuous 
ruins  are  those  of  the  Mencphtheion,  a  pal- 
ace-temple of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  and 
therefore  belonging  to  the  middle  style  of 
Egyptian  architecture.   Nearly  a  mile  south- 


ward from  the  Meneplitheion  are  the  re- 
mains of  the  combined  palace  and  temple 
known  since  the  days  of  Strabo  as  the  Mem- 
nonium.  Proceeding  again  towards  the 
south  for  about  tlie  same  distance,  we  find 
at  Medeenet  Haboo  ruins  upon  a  more 
stupendous  scale  than  at  any  other  point 
upon  the  western  bank  of  Thebes.  These 
consist  of  a  temple  founded  by  Thothmes 
I.,  which  presents  some  of  the  grandest 
effects  of  the  old  Egyptian  architecture, 
and  its  battle-scenes  are  a  valuable  contri- 
bution to  the  history  of  Kameses  III.  Be- 
hind this  long  range  of  temples  and  palaces 
are  the  Libyan  hills,  which,  for  a  distance 
of  five  miles,  are  excavated  to  the  depth  of 
several  hundred  feet  for  sepulchral  cham- 
bers. Some  of  these,  in  the  number  and 
variety  of  their  chambers,  the  finish  of 
their  sculptures,  and  the  beauty  and  fresh- 
ness of  their  frescoes,  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  monuments  of  Egj'ptian  gran- 
deur and  skill.  The  eastern  side  of  the 
river  is  distinguished  by  the  remains  of 
Luxor  and  Karnak,  the  latter  being  of  it- 
self a  city  of  temples.  The  approach  to 
Karnak  from  the  south  is  marked  by  a  se- 
ries of  majestic  gateways  and  towers,  which 
were  the  appendages  of  later  times  to  the 
original  structure.  The  temple  properly 
faces  the  river,  i.  e.  towards  the  north-west. 
The  courts  and  propylaea  connected  with 
this  structure  occupy  a  space  nearly  1800 
•feet  square,  and  the  buildings  represent 
almost  every  dynasty  of  Egjpt,  from  Scsor- 
tasen  I.  to  Ptolemy  Euergetes  I.  Courts, 
pylons,  obelisks,  statues,  pillars,  everything 
pertaining  to  Karnak,  are  on  the  grandest 
scale.  The  grandeur  of  Egypt  is  here  in 
its  architecture,  and  almost  evei-y  pillar, 
obelisk,  and  stone  tells  its  historic  legend 
of  her  greatest  monarchs.  Ezekiel  pro- 
claims the  destruction  of  Thebes  by  the 
arm  of  Babylon  (Ez.  xxx.  14-lG).  The 
Persian  invader  completed  the  destruction 
that  the  Babylonian  had  begun. 

TheTbez,  a  place  memorable  for  the 
death  of  the  bravo  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix. 
60),  was  known  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  in 
whose  time  it  was  situated  "  in  the  di.>trict 
of  Ncapolis,"  13  Roman  miles  therefrom, 
on  the  road  to  Scythopolis.  There  it  still 
is,  its  name  —  TubAs  —  hardly  changed. 

Ttierasar.    [Tel-assar.] 

Theoph'ilus,  the  person  to  whom  St. 
Luke  inscribes  his  Gospel  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  (Luke  i.  3;  Acts  i.  1).  From 
the  honorable  epithet  applied  to  him  in 
Luke  i.  3,  it  has  been  argued  with  much 
probability  that  he  was  a  person  in  high 
official  position.  Thus  Theophylact  con- 
jectures that  he  was  a  Roman  governor,  or 
a  person  of  senatorial  rank.  Oecumenius 
tells  us  that  he  was  a  governor.  Jacob 
Hase  conjectured  that  he  was  no  other  than 
the  celebrated  Philo.    Grotius  also  conjee- 


THESSALONIANS 


696 


THESSALONIANS 


tures  that  he  was  a  magistrate  of  Achaia 
baptized  by  St.  Luke.  All  tliat  can  be  con- 
jectured with  any  degree  of  safety  con- 
cerning him,  comes  to  this,  that  he  was  a 
Gentile  of  rank  and  consideration,  who 
came  under  the  influence  of  St.  Luke,  or 
under  that  of  St.  Paul,  at  Rome,  and  was 
converted  to  the  Christian  faith. 

Thessalo'nians,  First  Epistle  to 
the,  was  written  by  the  Apostle  Paul  at 
Corinth,  a  few  months  after  he  had  founded 
the  Church  at  Thessalonica,  at  the  close  of 
the  year  52  or  the  beginning  of  53.  The 
Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  then  (for  the 
second  followed  the  first  after  no  long  inter- 
val) are  the  earliest  of  St.  Paul's  writings 
—  perhaps  the  earliest  written  records  of 
Christianity.  It  is  interesting  therefore  to 
compare  the  Thessalonian  Epistles  with 
the  later  letters,  and  to  note  the  points  of 
difference.  These  differences  are  mainly 
threefold.  (1.)  In  the  general  style  of 
these  earlier  letters  there  is  greater  simpli- 
city and  less  exuberance  of  language.  The 
brevity  of  the  opening  salutation  is  an  in- 
stance of  this.  The  closing  benediction  is 
correspondingly  brief.  And  throughout  the 
Epistles  there  is  much  more  evenness  of 
style.  (2.)  The  antagonism  to  St.  Paul  is 
not  the  same.  Here  the  opposition  comes 
from  Jews.  A  period  of  five  years  changes 
the  aspect  of  the  controversy.  The  oppo- 
nents of  St.  Paul  are  then  no  longer  Jews, 
so  much  as  Judaizing  Christians.  It  wa^ 
now  urged  that  tlrough  the  Gentiles  may  be 
admitted  to  the  Church  of  Christ,  the  only 
door  of  admission  is  the  Mosiuc  covenant- 
rite  of  circumcision.  The  language  of  St. 
Paul,  speaking  of  the  Jewish  Christians  in 
this  Epistle,  shows  that  the  opposition  to 
bis  teaching  had  not  at  this  time  assumed 
this  second  phase.  (3.)  Many  of  the  dis- 
tinctive doctrines  of  Christianity  were  yet 
not  evolved  and  distinctly  enunciated  till 
the  needs  of  the  Church  drew  them  out 
into  prominence  at  a  later  date.  It  has 
often  been  observed,  for  instance,  that  there 
is  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  no 
mention  of  the  characteristic  contrast  of 
"  faith  and  works  ;  "  that  the  word  "justifi- 
cation" does  not  once  occur;  that  ti»e  idea 
of  dying  with  Christ  and  living  with  Christ, 
so  frequent  in  St.  Paul's  later  writings,  is 
absent  in  these.  In  the  Epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians,  the  Gospel  preached  is  that 
of  the  coming  of  Christ,  rather  than  of  the 
cross  of  Christ.  There  are  many  reasons 
why  the  subject  of  the  second  advent  should 
occupy  a  larger  space  in  the  earliest  stage 
of  the  Apostolical  teaching  than  afterwards. 
The  occasion  of  this  Epistle  was  as  follows  : 
St.  Paul  had  twice  attempted  to  revisit 
Thessalonica,  and  both  times  had  been  dis- 
appointed. Thus  prevented  from  seeing 
them  in  person,  he  had  sent  Timothy  to  in- 
quire and  report  to  Mm  as  to  their  condition 


(iii.  1-5).  Timothy  returned  with  most 
favorable  tidings,  reporting  not  only  their 
progress  in  Christian  faith  and  practice, 
but  also  their  strong  attachment  to  their  old 
teacher  (iii.  6-10).  The  First  Epistle  to 
the  Thessalonians  is  the  outpouring  of  the 
Apostle's  gratitude  on  receiving  tliis  wel- 
come news.  At  the  same  time  the  report 
of  Timothy  was  not  unmixed  with  alloy. 
There  were  certain  features  in  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Thessalonian  Church  which 
called  for  St.  haul's  interference,  and  to 
which  he  addresses  himself  in  his  letter. 
(1.)  The  very  intensity  of  their  Christian 
faitli,  dwelling  too  exclusively  on  the  day  of 
the  Lord's  coming,  had  been  attended  with 
evil  consequences.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
theoretical  diflSculty  had  been  felt.  Certain 
members  of  the  Clmrch  had  died,  and  there 
was  great  anxiety  lest  they  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  any  share  in  the  glories  of  the 
Lord's  advent  (iv.  13-18).  (2.)  The  Thes- 
salonians needed  consolation  and  encour- 
agement under  persecution  (ii.  14,  iii.  2-4). 
(3.)  An  unhealthy  state  of  feeling  with  re- 
gard to  spiritual  gifts  was  manifesting  itself 
(v.  19,  20).  (4.)  There  was  the  danger 
of  relapsing  into  their  old  heathen  prof- 
ligacy (iv.  4-8).  Yet  notwithstanding  all 
these  drawbacks,  the  condition  of  the 
Thessalonian  Churcli  was  highly  satisfac- 
tory, and  the  most  cordial  relations  existed 
between  St.  Paul  and  his  converts  there. 
This  honorable  distinction  it  shares  with 
the  other  great  Clmrch  of  Macedonia,  that 
of  Philippi.  —  The  Epistle  is  rather  prac- 
tical than  doctrinal.  It  was  suggested 
rather  by  personal  feeling,  than  by  any 
urgent  need,  which  might  have  formed  a 
centre  of  unity,  and  impressed  a  distinct 
character  on  the  whole.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances we  need  not  expect  to  trace 
unity  of  purpose,  or  a  continuous  argument, 
and  any  analysis  must  be  more  or  less  artifi- 
cial. The  body  of  the  Epistle,  however,  may 
conveniently  be  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
former  of  which,  extending  over  the  first 
three  chapters,  is  chiefly  taken  up  with  a 
retrospect  of  the  Apostle's  relation  to  his 
Thessalonian  converts,  and  an  explanation 
of  his  present  circumstances  and  feelings, 
while  the  latter,  comprising  the  4tli  and  5th 
chapters,  contains  some  seasonable  exhor- 
tations. At  the  close  of  each  of  these  di- 
visions is  a  prayer,  commencing  with  the 
same  words,  "  May  God  Himself,"  &c.,  and 
expressed  in  somewhat  similar  language. 
The  Epistle  closes  with  personal  injunc- 
tions and  a  benediction  (v.  25-28).  The 
external  evidence  in  favor  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians is  chiefly  negative,  but  this  is  impor- 
tant enough.  There  is  no  trace  that  it  was 
ever  disputed  at  any  age  or  in  any  section 
of  the  Church,  or  even  by  any  individual, 
till  the  present  century.      C)n  the   other 


THESSALONIANS 


697 


THESSALONIANS 


hand,  the  allusions  to  it  in  writers  before 
the  close  of  the  2il  century  are  confessedly 
faiat  and  uncertain.  It  is  more  important 
to  observe  that  the  Epistle  was  included  in 
the  old  Latin  and  Syriac  "Versions,  that  it 
is  found  in  the  Canon  of  the  Muratorian 
fragment,  and  that  it  was  also  contained  in 
that  of  Marcion.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
2d  century  from  Irenaeus  downwards,  we 
find  this  Epistle  directly  quoted  and  as- 
cribed to  St.  Paul.  The  evidence  derived 
from  the  character  of  the  Epistle  itself  is 
80  strong  that  it  may  fairly  be  called  irre- 
sistible. It  would  be  impossible  to  enter 
into  the  question  of  style  here,  but  the 
reader  may  be  referred  to  the  Introduction 
of  Jowett,  who  has  handled  this  subject 
very  fully  and  satisfactorily.  An  equally 
strong  argument  may  be  drawn  also  from 
the  matter  contained  in  the  Epistle.  In  the 
first  place,  the  fineness  and  delicacy  of 
touch  with  which  the  Apostle's  relations  to- 
wards his  Thessalonian  converts  are  drawn, 
are  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  the  clumsy 
forgeries  of  the  early  Church.  In  the  sec- 
ond place,  the  writer  uses  language  which, 
however  it  may  be  explained,  is  certainly 
colored  by  the  anticipation  of  the  speedy 
advent  of  the  Lord.  Such  a  position  would 
be  an  anachronism  in  a  writer  of  the  2d 
century. 

Thessalo'nians,  Second  Epistle 
to  th.e,  appears  to  have  been  written  from 
Corinth  not  very  long  after  the  First,  for 
Silvanus  and  Timotheus  were  still  with  St. 
Paul  (i.  1).  In  tlie  former  letter  we  saw 
chiefly  tlie  outpouring  of  strong  personal 
affection,  occasioned  by  the  renewal  of  the 
Apostle's  intercourse  with  the  Thessalo- 
nians,  and  the  doctrinal  and  hortatory  por- 
tions are  there  subordinate.  In  the  Second 
Epistle,  on  the  other  hand,  his  leading  mo- 
tive seems  to  have  been  the  desire  of  cor- 
recting errors  in  the  Church  of  Thessalo- 
nica.  We  notice  two  points  especially 
which  call  for  his  rebuke.  First,  it  seems 
tliat  the  anxious  expectation  of  the  Lord's 
advent,  instead  of  subsiding,  had  gained 
ground  since  the  writing  of  the'  First  Epis- 
tle. Secondly,  the  Apostle  had  also  a  per- 
sonal ground  of  complaint.  His  autliority 
was  not  denied  by  any,  but  it  was  tampered 
with,  and  an  unauthonzed  use  was  made 
of  his  name.  Dosigtimg  men  might  mis- 
represent his  teaching  in  two  ways,  either 
by  suppressing  wliat  he  actually  had  writ- 
ten or  siiid,  or  by  forging  letters  and  in 
other  ways  representing  him  as  teaching 
what  he  had  not  taught.  There  are  two 
passages  which  allude  to  these  misrepre- 
Bentjitions  of  his  teaching.  In  the  first  of 
these  he  tells  them,  in  vague  langujige, 
"  not  to  be  troubled  either  by  spirit  or  by 
word  or  by  letter,  as  coming  from  us,  as  if 
the  day  of  the  Lord  were  at  hand  "  (ii.  2, 
S).    In  the  second  passage  at  the  close  of 


the  Epistle  he  says,  ♦«  The  salutation  of 
Paul  with  mine  own  hand,  which  is  a  token 
in  every  Epistle  :  so  I  write  "  (iii.  17)  — 
evidently  a  precaution  against  forgery.  It 
will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  teaching  of  the 
Second  Epistle  is  corrective  of,  or  rather 
supplemental  to,  that  of  the  First,  and 
therefore  presupposes  it.  This  Epistle,  in 
the  range  of  subject  as  well  as  in  style  and 
general  character,  closely  resembles  the 
First;  and  the  remarks  made  on  that  Epis 
tie  apply  for  the  most  part  equally  well  to 
this.  The  structure  also  is  somewhat  sim- 
ilar, the  main  body  of  the  Epistle  being 
divided  into  two  parts  in  the  same  way,  and 
each  part  closing  with  a  prayer  (ii.  16,  17, 
iii.  16).  The  Epistle  ends  with  a  special 
direction  and  benediction  (iii.  17,  18).  The 
external  evidence  in  favor  of  the  Second 
Epistle  is  somewhat  more  definite  than  that 
which  can  be  brought  in  favor  of  the  First. 
It  seems  to  be  referred  to  in  one  or  two 
passages  of  Polycarp ;  and  the  language  in 
which  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of  the  Man  of 
Sin  is  so  similar  that  it  can  scarcely  be  in- 
dependent of  this  Epistle.  The  Second 
Epistle,  like  the  First,  is  found  in  the 
canons  of  the  Syriac  and  Old  Latin  Ver- 
sions, and  in  those  of  the  Muratorian  frag- 
ment and  of  the  heretic  Marcion ;  is  quoted 
expressly  and  by  name  by  Irenaeus  and 
others  at  the  close  of  the  second  century, 
and  was  universally  received  by  the 
Church.  The  internal  character  of  the 
Epistle  too,  as  in  tlie  former  case,  bears  the 
strongest  testimony  to  its  Pauline  origin. 
Its  genuineness,  in  fact,  was  never  ques- 
tioned until  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century.  The  apocalyptic  passage  (ii.  1- 
12)  is  the  great  stumbling-block.  It  has 
been  objected  to,  either  as  alluding  to 
events  subsequent  to  St.  Paul's  death,  the 
Neronian  persecution  fur  instance;  or  as 
betraying  religious  views  derived  from  the 
Montanism  of  the  second  century ;  or  last- 
ly, as  contradicting  St.  Paul's  anticipations 
expressed  elsewhere,  especially  in  the  First 
Epistle,  of  the  near  approach  of  the  Lord's 
advent.  The  most  striking  feature  in  the 
Epistle  is  this  apocalyptic  passage,  an- 
nouncing the  revelation  of  the  *'  Man  of 
Sin"  (ii.  1-12),  and  it  will  not  be  irrele- 
vant to  investigate  its  meaning.  (I.)  The 
passage  speaks  of  a  great  apostasy  which 
is  to  usher  in  the  advent  of  Christ,  the 
great  judgment.  There  are  three  promi- 
nent figures  in  the  picture,  Christ,  Anti- 
christ, and  the  Restrainer.  The  "  mystery 
of  lawlessness  "  is  already  at  work.  At 
present  it  is  checked  by  the  Restrainer; 
but  the  check  will  be  removed,  and  then  it 
will  break  out  in  all  its  violence.  Then 
Christ  will  appear.  (II.)  Many  differ- 
ent explanations  have  been  offered  of 
this  passage.  By  one  class  of  interpreters 
it  has  been  referred  to  circumstances  which 


THESSALONIANS 


698 


THESSALONICA 


passed  within  the  circle  of  the  Apostle's 
own  experience.  Others,  again,  have  seen 
in  it  the  prediction  of  a  crisis  yet  to  be  re- 
alized, the  end  of  all  things.  The  former 
of  these,  the  Praeterists,  have  identified 
the  "Man  of  Sin"  with  divers  historical 
characters  —  with  Caligula,  Nero,  Titus, 
Simon  Magus,  Simon  son  of  Giora,  the 
high-priest  Ananias,  &c.,  and  have  sought 
for  an  historical  counterpart  to  the  Ke- 
strainer  in  like  manner.  The  latter,  the 
Futurists,  have  also  given  various  accounts 
of  the  Antichrist,  the  mysterious  power  of 
evil  wliieh  is  already  working.  To  Protes- 
tants, for  instance,  it  is  the  Papacy ;  to  the 
Greek  Church,  Mohammedanism.  (III.) 
Now  in  arbitrating  between  the  Praeterists 
and  the  Futurists,  we  are  led  by  the  analo- 
gy of  other  prophetic  announcements,  as 
well  as  by  the  language  of  the  passage  it- 
self, to  take  a  middle  course.  Neither  is 
wholly  right,  and  yet  both  are  to  a  certain 
extent  right.  It  is  the  special  characteris- 
tic of  prophecy  to  speak  of  the  distant  fu- 
ture tlirough  the  present  and  immediate. 
Following  the  analogy  of  the  older  proph- 
ets and  of  our  Lord  himself,  we  may  agree 
with  the  Praeterists  that  St.  Paul  is  refer- 
ring to  events  which  fell  under  his  own 
cognizance;  for  indeed  the  Restrainer  is 
said  to  be  restraining  now,  and  the  mystery 
of  iniquity  to  be  already  working ;  while  at 
the  same  time  we  may  accept  the  Futurist 
view,  that  the  Apostle  is  describing  the  end 
of  all  things,  and  that  therefore  the  proph- 
ecy has  not  yet  received  its  most  striking 
and  complete  fulfilment.  (IV.)  If  this 
view  be  correct,  it  remains  to  inquire  what 
particular  adversary  of  the  Gospel,  and 
what  particular  restraining  influence,  St. 
Paul  may  have  had  in  view.  But,  before 
attempting  to  approximate  to  an  expliina- 
tion,  we  may  clear  the  way  by  laying  down 
two  rules.  First.  Tlie  imagery  of  the 
passage  must  be  interpreted  mainly  by  it- 
self, and  by  the  circumstances  of  tlie  time. 
The  great  adversary  in  the  Revelation 
seems  to  be  the  Roman  power ;  but  it  may 
be  widely  different  here.  There  were  even 
in  the  Apostolic  age  "many  Antichrists;" 
and  we  cannot  be  sure  that  the  Antichrist 
present  to  the  mind  of  St.  Paul  was  the 
same  with  the  Antichrist  contemplated  by 
St.  John.  Secondly.  In  all  figurative  pas- 
sages it  is  arbitrary  to  assume  that  a  person 
is  denoted  where  we  find  a  personification. 
Thus  the  "  Man  of  Sin "  here  need  not 
be  an  individual  man ;  it  may  be  a  body 
of  men,  or  a  power,  a  spiritual  influence. 
(V.)  Now  we  find  that  the  chief  opposi- 
tion to  the  Gospel,  and  especially  to  St. 
Paul's  preaching  at  this  time,  arose  from 
the  Jews.  It  seems  on  the  whole  probable 
that  the  Antichrist  is  represented  especial- 
ly by  Judaism.     Corresponding    to   this 


view  of  the  Antichrist,  we  shall  probably 
be  correct  in  regarding  the  Roman  Empire 
as  the  restraining  power.  It  was  to  Ro- 
man justice  and  Roman  magistrates  that 
the  Apostle  had  recourse  at  tliis  time  to 
shield  hira  from  the  enmity  of  the  Jews, 
and  to  check  their  violence.  It  was  only 
at  a  later  date,  under  Nero,  that  Rome  be- 
came the  antagonist  of  Christendom,  and 
then  she  also  in  turn  was  fitly  portrayed  by 
St.  John  as  the  type  of  Antichrist. 

Thessaloni'ca.  The  original  name 
of  this  6ity  was  Therma ;  and  that  part  of 
the  Macedonian  shore  on  which  it  was  sit- 
uated retained  through  the  Roman  period 
the  designation  of  the  Tliermaic  Gulf. 
Cassander  the  son  of  Antipater  rebuilt  and 
enlarged  Therma,  and  naflied  it  after  hia 
wife  Thessalonica,  the  sister  of  Alexander 
tlie  Great.  The  name  ever  since,  under 
various  slight  modifications,  has  been  con- 
tinuous, and  the  city  itself  has  never  ceased 
to  be  eminent.  Salonfki  is  still  the  most 
important  town  of  European  Turkey,  next 
after  Constantinople.  Strabo  in  the  first 
century  speaks  of  Thessalonica  as  the 
most  populous  city  in  Macedonia.  Thus 
we  are  brought  to  St.  Paul's*  visit  (with 
Silas  and  Timothy)  during  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  and  to  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Thessalonica.  Tliree  cir- 
cumstances must  here  be  mentioned,  which 
illustrate  in  an  important  manner  this  visit 
and  this  journey  as  well  as  the  two  Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonians.  (1.)  Tliis  was  the 
chief  station  on  the  great  Roman  Road 
called  the  Via  Egnatia,  which  connected 
Rome  with  the  whole  region  to  the  north 
of  the  Aegean  Sea.  (2.)  Placed  as  it  was 
on  this  great  Road,  and  in  connection  with 
other  important  Roman  ways,  Tliessalonica 
was  an  invaluable  centre  for  the  spread  of 
the  Gospel.  In  fact  it  was  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  on  a  level  with  Corinth  and  Ephesus 
in  its  share  of  tlie  commerce  of  the  Le- 
vant. (3.)  The  circumstance  noted  in  Acts 
xvii.  1,  that  here  was  the  synago^^ue  of  the 
Jews  in  thi^art  of  Macedonia,  had  evident- 
ly much  to  do  with  the  Apostle's  plans, 
and  also  doubtless  with  his  success.  Trade 
would  inevitably  bring  Jews  to  Thessaloni- 
ca :  jftid  it  is  remarkable  that,  ever  since, 
they  have  had  a  prominent  place  in  the  an- 
nals of  the  city.  The  first  scene  of  the 
Apostle's  work  at  Thessalonica  was  the 
synagogue  (Acts  xvii.  2,  3).  It  is  stated 
that  the  ministrations  among  the  Jews  con- 
tinued for  three  weeks  (ver.  2).  Not  that 
we  are  obliged  to  limit  to  this  time  the 
whole  stay  of  the  Apostle  at  Thessalonica. 
A  flourishing  Church  was  certainly  formed 
there ;  and  the  Epistle  s  show  that  its  ele  ments 
were  much  more  Gentile  than  Jewish.  The 
narrative  in  the  Acts  affords  a  singularly 
accurate  illustration  of  the  political  consti* 


THEUDAS 


699 


THOMAS 


tution  of  Thessalonica.  Not  only  is  the 
demus  mentioned  (Acts  xvii.  6)  in  harmo- 
ny with  what  has  been  above  said  of  its  be- 
ing a  "  free  city,"  but  the  peculiar  title  pol- 
itarchs  (ib.  6),  of  the  chief  magistrates. 
This  term  occurs  in  no  other  writing ;  but 
it  may  be  read  to  this  day  conspicuously  on 
an  arch  of  the  early  Injperial  times,  which 
spans  the  main  street  of  the  city.  The 
arch  just  mentioned  (called  the  Varddr 
gate)  is  at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
town.  At  its  eastern  extremity  is  another 
Roman  arch  of  later  date,  and  probably 
commemorating  some  victory  of  Constan- 
tino. The  main  street,  which  both  these 
arches  cross,  and  which  intersects  the  city 
from  east  to  west,  is  undoubtedly  the  line 
of  the  Via  L'gnatia.  —  A  word  must  be  said, 
in  conclusion,  on  the  later  ecclesiastical 
history  of  Thessalonica.  For  during  sev- 
eral centuries  tliis  city  was  the  bulwark, 
not  simply  of  tlie  later  Greek  Empire,  but 
of  OrienUil  Christendom,  and  was  largely 
instrumental  in  the  conversion  of  the  Sla- 
vonians and  Bulgarians.  Thus  it  received 
tlie  designation  of  "the  Orthodox  City;" 
and  its  struggles  are  very  prominent  in  the 
writings  of  tlie  Byzantine  historians. 

Theu'das,  the  name  of  an  insurgent 
mentioned  in  Gamaliel's  speech  before  the 
Jewish  council  (Acts  v.  35-39)  at  the  time 
of  the  arraignment  of  the  Apostles.  He  ap- 
peared, according  to  Luke's  account,  at  the 
head  of  about  four  hundred  men.  Josephus 
speaks  of  a  Theudas  who  played  a  similar 
part  in  the  time  of  Claudius,  about  a.  d.  44, 
i.  e.  some  ten  or  twelve  years  at  least  later 
than  the  delivery  of  Gamaliel's  speech ;  and 
Bince  Luke  places  his  Theudas,  in  the  or- 
der of  time,  before  Judas  the  Galilean,  who 
made  his  appearance  soon  after  the  de- 
thronement of  Archelaus,  i.  e.  a.  d.  6  or  7, 
the  Theudas  mentioned  by  St.  Luke  must 
be  a  different  person  from  the  one  spoken 
of  by  Josephus.  The  former  was  probably 
one  of  the  insurrectionary  chiefs  or  fanatics 
by  whom  the  land  was  overrun  in  the  last 
year  of  Herod's  reign. 

Thieves,  The  two.  The  men  who 
under  tliis  name  appear  in  the  history  of 
the  crucifixion  were  robbers  rather  than 
tliieves,  belonging  to  the  lawless  bands  by 
which  Palestine  was  at  that  time  and  after- 
wards infested.  Against  these  brigands 
every  Roman  procurator  had  to  wage  con- 
tinual war.  It  was  necessary  to  use  an 
armed  police  to  encounter  them  (Luke 
xxii.  52).  Of  the  previous  history  of  the 
two  who  suffered  on  Golgotha  we  know 
nothing.  They  had  been  tried  and  con- 
demned, and  were  waiting  their  execution 
before  our  Lord  was  accused.  It  is  prob- 
able enough,  as  the  death  of  Barabbas  was 
clearly  expected  at  the  same  time,  that  they 
had  taken  part  in  his  insurrection.  They 
had  expected  to  die  with  Jesos  Barabbas. 


They  find  themselves  with  one  who  bore 
the  same  namCybut  who  was  described  in 
the  superscription  on  liis  cross  as  Jesus  of 
Nazareth.  They  could  hardly  fail  to  have 
heard  something  of  his  fame  as  a  prophet, 
of  his  triumphal  entry  as  a  king.  Tiiey 
catch  at  first  the  prevailing  tone  of  scorn. 
But  over  one  of  them  there  came  a  cliange. 
He  looked  back  upon  his  past  life,  and  saw 
an  infinite  evil.  He  looked  to  the  man 
dying  on  the  cross  beside  him,  and  saw 
an  infinite  compassion.  There  indeed  was 
one  unlike  all  other  "  kings  of  the  Jews  " 
whom  the  robber  had  ever  known.  Such 
a  one  must  be  all  that  He  had  claimed 
to  be.  To  be  forgotten  by  that  king  seems 
to  him  now  the  most  terrible  of  all  pun- 
ishments ;  to  take  part  in  the  triumpli  of 
His  return,  the  most  blessed  of  all  hopes. 
The  yearning  prayer  was  answered,  not 
in  the  letter,  but  in  the  spirit.  We  can- 
not wonder  that  a  history  of  such  marvel- 
lous interest  should  at  all  times  have  fixed 
itself  on  men's  minds,  and  led  them  to 
speculate  and  ask  questions  which  we 
have  no  data  to  answer.  The  simplest  and 
truest  way  of  looking  at  it  has  been  that  of 
those  who  have  seen  in  the  "  dying  thief" 
the  first  great  typical  instance  that  "  a  man 
is  justified  by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  the 
law."  Other  conjectures  turn  more  on  the 
circumstances  of  the  liistory.  Bengel  finds 
in  the  Lord's  words  to  him  an  indication 
that  the  penitent  thief  was  a  Gentile,  the 
impenitent  a  Jew,  and  that  thus  the  scene 
on  Calvary  was  typical  of  the  position  of 
the  two  Churches.  Stier  reads  in  the  words 
of  reproof  the  language  of  one  who  had  all 
along  listened  with  grief  and  horror  to  the 
revilings  of  the  multitude,  the  burst  of  an 
indignation  previously  suppressed.  The 
Ai)ocryphal  Gospels,  as  usual,  do  their 
best  to  lower  the  divine  history  to  the  level 
of  a  legend. 

Thita'nathah,  a  town  in  the  allotment 
of  D.an  (Josh.  xix.  43  only).  It  is  named 
between  Elon  and  Ekron.  The  name  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  residence  of  Sam-> 
son's  wife. 
Thistle.  [Thorns  and  Thistles.] 
Thom'as,  one  of  the  Apostles.  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebius,  his  real  name  was 
Judas.  This  may  have  been  a  mere  con- 
fusion with  Thaddeus,  who  is  mentioned  in 
the  extract.  But  it  may  also  be  that  Thomas 
was  a  surname.  The  word  means  "a  twin;" 
and  so  it  is  translated  in  John  xi.  16,  xxi.  2 
{Didymus).  Out  of  this  name  has  grown 
the  tradition  that  he  had  a  twin-sister, 
Lydia,  or  that  he  was  a  twin-brother  of  our 
Lord;  which  last,  again,  would  confirm  his 
identification  with  Judas  (comp.  Matt.  xiii. 
55).  He  is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Antioch. 
In  the  catalogue  of  the  Apostles  he  is  coupled 
with  Matthew  in  Matt.  x.  3 ;  Mark  iii.  18 ; 
Luke  vi.  15 ;  and  with  Philip  in  Acts  i.  13* 


THOMAS 


700 


THEESHOLDS 


All  that  we  know  of  him  is  derived  from  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John ;  and_^his  amounts  to 
three  traits,  whicli,  however,  so  exactly 
agree  together,  that,  slight  as  they  are,  they 
place  his  character  before  us  with  a  precis- 
ion which  belongs  to  no  otlier  of  the  twelve 
Apostles,  except  I'eter,  John,  and  Judas 
Iscariot.  This  character  is  that  of  a  man 
Blow  to  believe,  seeing  all  the  diflSiculties  of 
a  case,  subject  to  despondency,  viewing 
things  on  the  darker  side,  and  yet  full  of 
ardent  love  of  his  Master.  The  first  trait 
is  his  speech  when  our  Lord  determined  to 
face  the  dangers  that  awaited  Him  in  Judaea 
on  his  journey  to  Bethany.  Thomas  said 
to  his  fellow-disciples,  "  Let  us  also  go, 
that  we  may  die  with  him  "  (John  xi.  liJ) . 
The  second  was  his  speech  during  the  Last 
Supper,  "  Thomas  saith  unto  Him,  Lord, 
we  know  not  whither  thou  goest,  and  how 
can  we  know  the  way?"  (xiv.  5).  It  was 
the  prosaic,  incredulous  doubt  as  to  moving 
a  step  in  the  unseen  future,  and  yet  an 
eager  inquiry  to  know  how  this  step  was  to 
be  taken.  The  third  was  after  the  Resur- 
rection. He  was  absent  —  possibly  by  ac- 
cident, perhaps  characteristically  —  from 
the  first  assembly  when  Jesus  had  appeared. 
The  others  told  him  what  they  had  seen. 
He  broke  forth  into  an  exclamation,  the 
terms  of  which  convey  to  us  at  once  the 
vehemence  of  his  doubt,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  vivid  picture  that  his  mind  re- 
tained of  his  Master's  form  as  he  had  last 
Been  Him  lifeless  on  the  cross  (John  xx. 
25).  On  the  eighth  day  he  was  with  them 
at  theii  gathering,  perhaps  in  expectation 
of  a  recurrence  of  the  visit  of  the  previous 
week;  and  Jesus  stood  amongst  them.  He 
uttered  the  same  salutation,  "  Peace  be  unto 
you ;  "  and  then  turning  to  Thomas,  as  if 
this  had  been  the  special  object  of  His  ap- 
pearance, uttered  the  words  which  convey 
as  strongly  the  sense  of  condemnation  and 
tender  reproof  as  those  of  Thomas  had 
shown  the  sense  of  hesitation  and  doubt. 
The  effect  on  Thomas  is  immediate.  The 
conviction  produced  by  the  removal  of  his 
doubt  became  deeper  and  stronger  than  that 
of  any  of  the  other  Apostles.  The  words 
in  which  he  expressed  his  belief  contain  a 
far  higher  assertion  of  his  Master's  divine 
nature  than  is  contained  in  any  other  ex- 
pression used  by  Apostolic  lips,  "My  Lord, 
and  my  God."  The  answer  of  our  Lord 
sums  up  the  moral  of  the  whole  narrative : 
"  Because  thou  hast  seen  me,  thou  hast  be- 
lieved :  blessfed  are  they  that  have  not  seen 
me,  and  yet  have  believed"  (xx.  29).  In 
the  N.  T.  we  hear  of  Thomas  only  twice 
again,  once  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  with  the 
seven  disciples,  where  he  is  ranked  next 
after  Peter  (John  xxi.  2),  and  again  in  thf 
assemblage  of  the  Apostles  after  the  Ascen- 
Bion  (Acts  i.  13).  The  earlier  traditions, 
as  believed  in  the  4th  century,  represent 


him  as  preaching  in  Parthia  or  Persia,  and 
as  finally  buried  at  Edessa.  The  later  tra- 
ditions carry  him  farther  east.  His  mar- 
tyrdom (whether  in  Persia  or  India)  is  said 
to  have  been  occasioned  by  a  lance,  and  is 
commemorated  by  tlie  Latin  Church  on 
Dec.  21,  by  the  Greek  Church  on  Oct.  6, 
and  by  the  Indians  on  July  1. 

Thorns  and  TMstles.  There  appear  to 
be  eighteen  or  twenty  Hebrew  words  which 
point  to  different  kinds  of  prickly  or  thorny 
siirubs.  These  words  are  variously  ren- 
dered in  the  A.  V.  by  "  thorns,"  '•  briers," 
*'  thistles,"  &c.  It  were  a  hopeless  task  to 
enter  into  a  discussion  of  these  numerous 
Hebrew  terms ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  make 
a  few  remarks  upon  the  "  crown  of  thorns  " 
(nticjitxvo?  ii  aievLidihf,  Matt,  xxvii.  29),  which 
was  put  in  derision  upon  our  Lord's  head 
before  his  crucifixion.  The  Rhamnus,  or 
Spina  Christi,  although  abundant  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  cannot  be  the 
plant  intended,  because  its  thorns  are  so 
strong  and  large  that  it  could  not  have  been 
woven  into  a  wreath.  The  large-leaved 
acanthus  (bear's-foot)  is  totally  unsuited  for 
the  purpose.  Had  the  acacia  been  intended, 
as  some  suppose,  the  phrase  would  have 
been  <S  axutdr,?.  Obviously  some  small, 
flexile,  thorny  shrub  is  meant ;  perhaps  cap- 
pares  spinosae.  Hasselquist  {Travels,  p. 
260)  says  that  the  thorn  used  was  the 
Arabian  Nabk.  "  It  was  very  suitable  for 
their  purpose,  as  it  has  many  sharp  thorns, 
which  inflict  painful  wounds  ;  and  its  flexi- 
ble, pliant,  and  round  branches  might  easily 
be  plaited  in  the  form  of  a  crown."  It  also 
resembles  the  rich  dark  green  of  the  tri- 
umphal ivy-wreath,  which  would  give  addi- 
tional pungency  to  its  ironical  purpose. 

Three  Taverns,  a  station  on  the  Ap- 
pian  Road,  along  which  St.  Paul  travelled 
from  Puteoli  to  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  15). 
The  distances,  reckoning  southwards  from 
Rome,  are  given  as  follows  in  the  Antonine 
Itinerary,  "  to  Aricia,  16  miles  ;  to  Three 
Taverns,  17  miles;  to  Appii  Forum,  10 
miles ; "  and,  comparing  this  with  what  ia 
observed  still  along  the  line  of  road,  we 
have  no  difficulty  in  coming  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  "  Three  Taverns "  was  near  the 
modern  Cisterna.  Just  at  this  point  a  road 
came  in  from  Antiura  on  the  coast.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  "  Three  Taverns  "  was  a 
frequent  meeting-place  of  travellers. 

Threshing.     [Agriculture.] 

Threshold.  Of  the  two  words  so  ren- 
dered in  A.  v.,  one,  miphthdn,  seems  to 
mean  sometimes  a  projecting  beam  or  cor- 
bel (Ez.  ix.  3,  X.  4,  18). 

Thresholds,  The.  This  word,  Asup- 
p6,  appears  to  be  inaccurately  rendered  in 
Neh.  xft.  25,  though  its  real  force  has  per- 
haps not  yet  been  discovered.  The  "  house 
of  the  Asuppim,"  or  simply  '•  the  Asuppim," 
is  mentioned  in  1  Chr.  xxvi.  15,  17,  as  a 


THROXE 


701 


TIBERIAS 


part,  prolably  a  gate,  of  the  enclosure  of 
the  "  house  of  Jehovah,"  apparently  at  its 
S.  W.  corner.  The  allusion  in  Neh.  xii.  25 
is  undoubtedly  to  the  same  place.  [Gate.] 
Throne.  The  Hebrew  word,  so  trans- 
lated, applies  to  any  elevated  seat  occupied 
by  a  person  in  authority,  whether  a  high- 
priest  (1  Sam.  i.  d),  a  judge  (Ps.  cxxii.  5), 
or  a  military  chief  (Jer.  i.  15).  The  use  of 
a  chair  in  a  country  where  the  usual  pos- 
tures were  squatting  and  reclining,  was  at 
all  times  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  dignity 
(2  K.  iv.  10;  Prov.  ix.  14).  In  order  to 
8i)ecify  a  throne  in  our  sense  of  the  term, 
it  was  necessary  to  add  to  the  word  the 
notion  of  royalty;  hence  the  frequent  oc- 
currence of  such  expressions  as  "  throne 
of  the  kingdom"  (Deut.  xvii.  18;  IK.  i. 
46;  2  Chr.  vii.  18).  The  characteristic 
feature  in  the  royal  throne  was  its  eleva- 
tion :  Solomon's  throne  was  approached  by 
sLx  steps  (1  K.  X.  19;  2  Chr.  ix.  18)  ;  and 
Jehovah's  throne  is  described  as  *'  high  and 
lifted  up  "  (Is.  vi.  1).  The  materials  and 
workmanship  were  costly.    It  was  furnished 


Auyrion  Throne,  or  Chair  of  State.    (Layard.) 

with  arms  or  "  stays."  The  steps  were  also 
lined  with  pairs  of  lions.  As  to  the  form  of 
chair,  we  are  only  informed  in  1  K.  x.  19 
that  "  the  top  was  round  behind."  The 
king  sat  on  his  throne  on  state  occasions. 
At  such  times  he  appeared  in  his  royal 
robes.  The  throne  was  the  symbol  of  su- 
preme power  and  dignity  (Gen.  xli.  40). 
Similarly,  "  to  sit  upon  the  throne,"  im- 
plied the  exercise  of  regal  power  (Deut. 
xvii.  18;  IK.  xvi.  11). 
Tliuin'mim.  [Urim  and  Thummim.] 
Ttmnder  is  hardly  ever  heard  in  Pales- 
tine from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle 
of  September.  Hence  it  was  selected  by 
Samuel  as  a  striking  expression  of  the  Di- 
Tine  displeasure  towards  the  Israelites  (1 


Sam.  xii.  17).  Rain  in  harvest  was  deemed 
as  extraordinary  as  snow  in  summer  (Prov. 
xxvi.  1),  and  Jerome  a.ssert8  that  he  had 
never  witnessed  it  in  the  latter  part  of  June, 
or  in  July  (Cotmot.  on  Am.  iv.  7).  In  the 
imaginative  philosophy  of  the  Hebrews, 
thunder  was  regarded  as  the  voice  of  Jeho- 
vah (Job  xxxvii.  2,  4,  5,  xl.  9 ;  Ps.  xviii. 
13,  xxix.  3-9;  Is.  xxx.  30,  31),  who  dwelt 
behind  the  thunder-cloud  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  7). 
Thunder  was,  to  the  mind  of  the  Jew, 
the  symbol  of  Divine  power  (Ps.  xxix.  3, 
&c.),  and  vengeance  (1  Sam.  ii.  10;  2  Sam. 
xxii.  14). 

Thyati'ra,  a  city  on  the  Lycus,  founded 
by  Seleucus  Nicator,  lay  to  the  left  of  the 
road  from  Pergamus  to  Sardis,  on  the  very 
confines  of  Mysia  and  Ionia,  so  as  to  be 
sometimes  reckoned  within  the  one,  and 
sometimes  within  the  other.  Dyeing  ap- 
parently formed  an  important  part  of  the 
industrial  activity  of  Thyatira,  as  it  did  of 
that  of  Colossae  and  Laodicea  (Acts  xvi. 
14).  The  principal  deity  of  the  city  was 
Apollo ;  but  there  was  another  superstition, 
of  an  extremely  curious  nature,  which  seems 
to  have  been  brought  thither  by  some  of 
the  corrupted  Jews  of  the  dispersed  tribes. 
A  fane  stood  outside  the  walls,  dedicated  to 
Sambatha  —  the  name  of  the  sibyl  who  is 
sometimes  called  Chaldaean,  sometimes 
Jewish,  sometimes  Persian  —  in  the  midst 
of  an  enclosure  designated  "  the  Chaldae- 
an's  court."  This  seems  to  lend  an  illus- 
tration to  the  obscure  passage  in  Rev.  ii. 
20,  21,  which  some  interpret  of  the  wife  of 
the  bishop.  Now  there  is  evidence  to  show 
that  in  Thyatira  there  was  a  great  amalga- 
mation of  races.  If  the  sibyl  Sambatha 
was  really  a  Jewess,  lending  her  aid  to  the 
amalgamation  of  different  religions,  and 
not  discountenanced  by  the  authorities  of 
the  Judaeo-Christian  Church  at  Thyatira, 
both  the  censure  and  its  qualification  be- 
come easy  of  explanation. 

Thyine  Wood  occurs  in  Rev.  xviil.  12, 
where  the  margin  has  "sweet"  (wood). 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  wood  here 
spoken  of  is  that  of  the  Thuya  aiiicidaia, 
Desfont.,  the  Callitris  quadritalvis  of  pres- 
ent botanists.  This  tree  was  much  prized  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  on  account 
of  the  beauty  of  its  wood  for  various  orna- 
mental purposes.  By  the  Romans  the  tree 
was  called  citrus,  the  wood  citrum.  It  is 
a  native  of  Barbary,  and  grows  to  the 
height  of  15  to  25  feet. 

Tibe'rias,  a  city  in  the  time  of  Christ, 
on  the  Sea  of  Galilee ;  first  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament  (Johnvi.  1,23,  .xxi.  1), 
and  then  by  Josephus,  who  states  that  it  was 
built  by  Herod  Antipas,  and  was  named  by 
him  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius.  It 
was  probably  a  new  town,  and  not  a  re- 
stored or  enlarged  one  merely ;  for  "  Rak- 
kath  "  (Josh.  xix.  35),  which  is  said  in  tha 


TIBERIAS 


702 


TIGLATH-PILESER 


Talmud  to  have  occupied  the  same  position, 
lay  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  whereas  Tibe- 
rias appears  to  have  been  within  the  limits 
of  Zebulun  (Matt.  iv.  13).  Tiberias  was 
the  capital  of  Galilee  from  the  time  of  its 
origin  until  the  reign  of  Herod  Agrippa  II., 
who  changed  the  seat  of  power  back  again 
to  Sepphoris,  where  it  had  been  before  the 
founding  of  the  new  city.  Many  of  the 
inhabitants  were  Greelis  and  Romans,  and 
foreign  customs  prevailed  there  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  give  oflFence  to  the  stricter 
Jews.  The  ancient  name  has  survived  in 
that  of  the  modern  Tubarteh,  which  occu- 
pies the  original  site.  Near  Tubarieh, 
about  a  mile  farther  south  along  the  shore, 
are  the  celebrated  warm  baths,  which  the 
Roman  naturalists  reckoned  among  the 
greatest  known  curiosities  of  the  world.  It 
is  remarkable  that  the  Gospels  give  us  no 
information,  that  the  Saviour,  who  spent 
60  much  of  his  public  life  in  Galilee,  ever 
Tisited  Tiberias.  Tiberias  has  an  interest- 
ing history,  apart  from  its  strictly  Biblical 
associations.  It  bore  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  wars  between  the  Jews  and  the 
Romans.  The  Sanhedrim,  subsequently  to 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  after  a  temporary  so- 
journ at  Jarania  and  Sepphoris,  became 
fixed  there  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Celebrated  schools  of  Jewish 
learning  flourished  there  through  a  succes- 
sion of  several  centuries.  The  Mishna  was 
compiled  at  this  place  by  the  great  Rabbi 
Judah  Hakkodesh  (a.  d.  190).  It  has  been 
possessed  successively  by  Romans,  Per- 
sians, Arabs,  and  Turks ;  and  contains  now, 
under  the  Turkish  rule,  a  mixed  population 
of  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and  Christians, 
variously  estimated  at  from  two  to  four 
thousand. 

Tibe'rias,  The  Sea  of  (John  xxi.  1). 
[Gesnesaret,  Sea  of.] 

Tibe'rius  (in  full,  Tiberius  Claudius 
Nero),  the  2d  Roman  emperor,  successor  of 
Augustus,  who  began  to  reign  a.  d.  14,  and 
reigned  until  a.  d.  37.  He  was  the  son  of  Ti- 
berius Claudius  Nero  and  Livia,  and  hence 
a  step-son  of  Augustus.  He  was  born  at 
Rome  on  the  16th  of  November,  b.  c.  45.  He 
became  emperor  in  his  55th  year,  after  hav- 
ing distinguished  himself  as  a  commander  in 
various  wars,  and  having  evinced  talents 
of  a  high  order  as  an  orator,  and  an  admin- 
istrator of  civil  affairs.  He  even  gained 
the  reputation  of  possessing  the  sterner 
virtues  of  the  Roman  character,  and  was 
regarded  as  entirely  worthy  of  the  imperial 
honors  to  which  his  birth  and  supposed 
personal  merits  at  length  opened  the  way. 
Yet,  on  being  raised  to  the  supreme  power, 
he  suddenly  became,  or  showed  himself  to 
be,  a  very  different  man.  His  subsequent 
life  was  one  of  inactivity,  sloth,  and  self- 
indulgence.  He  was  despotic  in  his  gov- 
ernment, cruel  and  vindictive  in  his  dispo- 


sition. Tiberius  died,  a.  d.  37,  at  the  age 
of  78,  after  a  reign  of  23  years.  Our 
Saviour  was  put  to  death  in  the  reign  of 
Tiberius. 

Tib'hath,  a  city  of  Hadadezer,  king 
of  Zobah  (1  Chr.  xviii.  8),  which  in  2  Sam. 
viii.  8  is  called  Betah.  Its  exact  position  is 
unknown. 

Tib'ni.  After  Zimri  had  burnt  himself 
in  his  palace,  there  was  a  division  in  the 
northern  kingdom,  half  of  the  people  fol- 
lowing Tibni  the  son  of  Ginath,  and  half 
following  Omri  (1  K.  xvi.  21,  22).  Omri 
was  the  choice  of  the  army.  Tibni  was 
probably  put  forward  by  the  people  of  Tir- 
zah,  which  was  then  besieged  by  Omri  and 
his  host.  The  struggle  between  the  con- 
tending factions  lasted  four  years  (comp.  1 
K.  xvi.  15,  23). 

Ti'dal  is  mentioned  only  in  Gen.  xiv.  1, 
9.  He  is  called  "  king  of  nations,"  from 
which  we  may  conclude  that  he  was  a  chief 
over  various  nomadic  tribes. 

Tlg'lath-pile'ser.  In  1  Chr.  v.  26, 
and  again  in  2  Chr.  xxViii.  20,  the  name  of 
this  king  is  written  "Tilgath-pilneser ;  " 
but  in  this  form  there  is  a  double  corrup- 
tion. The  native  word  reads  as  Tigulti- 
pal-tsira,  for  which  the  Tiglath-Pil-esor  of 
2  Kings  is  a  fair  equivalent.  Tiglath-Pileser 
is  the  second  Assyrian  king  mentioned  in 
Scripture  as  having  come  into  contact  with 
the  Israelites.  He  attacked  Samaria  in  the 
reign  of  Pekah,  probably  because  Pekah 
withheld  his  tribute,  and,  having  entered  his 
territories,  he  "took  Ijon,  and  Abcl-beth- 
maachah,  and  Janoah,  and  Kedesh,  and 
Hazor,  and  Gilead,  and  Galilee,  and  all  the 
land  of  Naphtali,  and  carried  them  captive 
to  Assyria"  (2  K.  xv.  29).  The  date  of 
this  invasion  cannot  be  fixed.  After  his 
first  expedition,  a  close  league  was  formed 
between  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah, 
having  for  its  special  object  the  humiliation 
of  Judah.  At  first  great  successes  were 
gained  by  Pekah  and  his  confederate  (2  K. 
XV.  37 ;  2  Chr.  xxviii.  6-8) ;  but,  on  their 
proceeding  to  attack  Jerusalem  itself,  Ahaz 
applied  to  Assyria  for  assistance,  and  Tig- 
lath-Pileser, consenting  to  aid  him,  again 
appeared  at  the  head  of  an  arm}'  in  these 
regions.  He  first  marched,  naturally, 
against  Damascus,  which  he  took  (2  K. 
xvi.  9),  razing  it  to  the  ground,  and  killing 
Rezin,  the  Damascene  monarch.  After 
this,  probably,  he  proceeded  to  chastise 
Pekah,  whose  country  he  entered  on  the 
north-east,  where  it  bordered  upon  "  Syria 
of  Damascus."  Here  he  overran  the  whole 
district  to  the  east  of  Jordan,  carrying  into 
captivity  "  the  Reubenites,  the  Gadites, 
and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  "  (1  Chr.  v. 
26).  Before  returning  into  his  own  land, 
Tiglath-Pileser  had  an  inten'iew  with  Ahaz 
at  Damascus  (2  K.  xvi.  10).  This  is  all 
that  Scripture  tells  us    of  Tiglath-Pileser. 


TIGRIS 


703 


TIMBREL 


He  appears  to  have  succeeded  Pal,  and  to 
have  been  succeeded  by  Shalmaneser;  to 
have  been  contemporary  with  Rezin,  Pekah, 
and  Ahaz ;  and  therefore  to  have  ruled 
Assyria  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighth 
century  before  our  era.  From  his  own 
inscriptions  we  learn  that  his  reign  lasted 
at  least  seventeen  years  ;  that,  besides  war- 
ring in  Syria  and  Samaria,  he  attacked 
Babylonia,  Media,  Armenia,  and  the  inde- 
pendent tribes  in  the  upper  regions  of 
Mesopotamia;  thus,  like  the  other  great 
Assyrian  nionarchs,  warring  along  the 
whole  frontier  of  the  empire ;  and  finally, 
that  he  was  (probably)  not  a  legitimate 
prince,  but  a  usurper  and  the  founder  of 
a  dynasty.  The  authority  of  Berosus  and 
Herodotus,  combined  with  the  monumental 
indications,  justifies  us  in  concluding  that 
the  founder  of  the  Lower  Dynasty  or  Em- 
pire, the  first  monarch  of  the  New  King- 
dom, was  the  Tiglath-Pileser  of  Scripture. 
He  reigned  certainly  from  b.  c.  747  to  b.  c. 
730,  and  possibly  a  few  years  longer,  being 
succeeded  by  Shalmaneser  at  least  as  early 
as  B.  c.  725.  Tiglath-Pileser 's  wars  do  not, 
generally,  appear  to  have  been  of  much 
importance.  No  palace  or  great  building 
can  be  ascribed  to  this  king.  His  slabs, 
wliich  are  tolerably  numerous,  show  that 
be  must  have  built  or  adorned  a  residence 
at  Calah  (^Nimrud),  where  they  were 
found. 


Tiglath-pUeier. 

Ti'gris  is  used  by  the  LXX.  as  the  Greek 

equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  Iliddekel ;  and 
occurs  also  in  several  of  the  apocryphal 
books,  as  in  Tobit  (vi.  1),  Judith  (i.  6), 
and  Ecclesiasticus  (xxiv.  25).  The  Tigris, 
like  the  Euphrates,  rises  from  two  princi- 
pal sources  in  the  Armenian  mountains, 
and  flows  into  the  Euphrates.     Its  length, 


exclusive  of  meanders,  is  reckoned  at  1146 
miles.  It  receives,  along  its  middle  and 
lower  course,  no  fewer  tluin  five  important 
tributaries.  These  are  the  river  of  ZaTcko 
or  Eastern  Khabour,  the  Great  Zab  (^ZaJi 
Ala),  the  Lesser  Zab  {Zab  Asfal),  the  Ad' 
hem,  and  the  Diyaleh  or  ancient  Gyndes. 
All  these  rivers  flow  from  the  high  range 
of  Zagros.  We  find  but  little  mention  of 
the  Tigris  in  Scripture.  It  appears  indeed 
under  the  name  of  Iliddekel,  among  the 
rivers  of  Eden  (Gen.  ii.  14),  and  is  there 
correctly  described  as  "  running  eastward 
to  Assyria."  But  after  this  we  hear  no 
more  of  it,  if  we  except  one  doubtful  allu- 
sion in  Nahum  (ii.  6),  until  the  Captivity, 
when  it  becomes  well  known  to  the  prophet 
Daniel.  With  him  it  is  *'  the  Great  River." 
The  Tigris,  in  its  upper  course,  anciently 
ran  through  Armenia  and  Assyria.  Lower 
down,  from  about  the  point  where  it  enters 
on  the  alluvial  plain,  it  separated  Babylonia 
from  Susiana.  In  the  wars  between  the 
Romans  and  the  Parthians,  we  find  it  con- 
stituting, for  a  short  time  (from  a.  d.  114 
to  A.  D.  117),  the  boundary  line  betweeft 
these  two  empires. 

Tik'vall.  1.  The  father  of  Shallum  the 
husband  of  the  prophetess  Huldah  (2  K. 
xxii.  14).  2.  The  father  of  Jahaziah  (Ezr. 
X.  15). 

Tik'vath  (properly  T6kihath  or  Tok- 
hath),  TiKVAH  the  father  of  Shallum  (2 
Chr.  xxxiv.  22). 

Tile.  For  general  information  on  the 
subject,  see  the  articles  Brick,  Pottebt, 
Seal.  The  expression  in  the  A.  V.  ren- 
dering of  Luke  V.  19,  "  through  the  tiluag" 
has  given  much  trouble  to  expositors.  1. 
Terrace-roofs,  if  constructed  improperly, 
or  at  the  wrong  season  of  the  year,  are  apt 
to  crack,  and  to  become  so  saturated  with 
rain  as  to  be  easily  penetrable.  May  not 
the  roof  of  the  house  in  which  our  Lord 
performed  his  miracle,  have  been  in  this 
condition  ?  2.  Or  did  not  St.  Luke,  a  na- 
tive, probably,  of  Greek  Antioch,  use  the 
expression  "  tiles,"  as  the  form  of  roof 
which  was  most  familiar  to  himself  and  to 
his  Greek  readers,  witliout  reference  to  the 
particular  material  of  the  roof  in  question  ? 

Til'gatll-pilne'ser,  a  variation,  and 
probably  a  corruption,  of  the  name  TiG- 
LATH-piLESEB  (1  Chr.  v.  6,  26 ;  2  Chr. 
xxviii.  20). 

Ti'lon,  one  of  the  four  sons  of  Shimon, 
whose  family  is  reckoned  in  the  genealogies 
of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

Timae'us,  the  father  of  the  blind  man, 
Bartimaeus  (Mark  x.  46). 

Timbrel,  Tabret  (Heb.  tdph).  In 
old  English  tabor  was  used  for  any  dmm. 
Tabouret  and  tabourine  are  diminutives 
of  tahor,  and  denote  the  instrument  now 
known  as  the  tambourine.  Tabret  is  a 
contraction  of  tabouret.    The  Heb.  idph  is 


TIMNA 


704 


TIMOTHY 


undoubtedly  the  instrument  described  by 
travellers  as  the  dAiff  or  diff  of  the  Arabs. 
It  w^as  used  in  very  early  times  by  the 
Syrians  of  Padan-aram  at  their  merry- 
makings (Gen.  xxxi.  27).  It  was  played 
principally  by  women  (Ex.  xv.  20;  Judg. 
xi.  34 ;  1  Sam.  xviii.  6 ;  Ps.  Ixviii.  25)  as 
an  accompaniment  to  the  song  and  dance 
(comp.  Jud.  iii.  7),  and  appears  to  have 
been  worn  by  them  as  an  ornament  (Jer. 
xxxi.  4).  The  diff  of  the  Arabs  is  described 
by  Eussell  as  "a  hoop  (sometimes  with 
pieces  of  brass  fixed  in  it  to  make  a  jin- 
gling) over  which  a  piece  of  parchment  is 
distended.  It  is  beaten  with  the  fingers, 
and  is  the  true  tympanum  of  the  ancients." 
In  Barbary  it  is  called  tar. 

Tim'na,  Tim'nah.  1.  A  concubine 
of  Eliphaz  son  of  Esau,  and  mother  of 
Amalek  (Gen.  xxxvi.  12)  :  it  may  be  prc- 
fiiuned  that  she  was  the  same  as  Timna, 
sister  of  Lotan  (ver.  22,  and  1  Chr.  1.  39). 
2.  A  duke,  or  phylarch,  of  Edom  in  the 
last  list  in  Gen.  xxxvi.  40-43  (1  Chr.  i.  61- 
64).  Timnah  was  probably  the  name  of 
a  place  or  a  district.  (See  the  following 
article.) 

Tim'nah.  1.  A  place  which  formed 
one  of  the  landmarks  on  the  north  boun- 
dary of  the  allotment  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
10).  It  is  probably  identical  with  the 
Thimxathah  of  Josh.  xix.  43,  and  that 
again  with  tiie  Timnath,  or,  more  accu- 
rately, Timnathah,  of  Samson  (Judg.  xiv. 
1,  2,  5),  and  the  Thamnatha  of  the  Macca- 
bees. The  modern  representative  of  all 
these  various  forms  of  the  same  name  is 
probably  Tibneh,  a  village  about  two  miles 
west  of  Ain  Shems  (Beth-sheinesh).  In 
the  later  history  of  the  Jews,  Timnah  must 
have  been  a  conspicuous  place.  It  was 
fortified  by  Bacchides  as  one  of  the  most 
important  military  posts  of  Judaea  (1  Mace. 
ix.  50).  2.  A  town  in  the  mountain  dis- 
trict of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  57).  A  distinct 
place  from  that  just  examined.  3.  Inac- 
curately written  Tijinath  in  the  A.  V.,  the 
scene  of  the  adventure  of  Judah  with  his 
diiughter-in-law  Tamar  (Gen.  xxxviii.  12, 
13,  14).  There  is  nothing  here  to  indicate 
its  position.  It  may  be  identified  either 
with  the  Timnah  in  the  mountains  of  Judah 
[No.  2],  or  with  the  Timnathah  of  Samson. 
[No.  1.] 

Tim'nath.     [Timnah.] 

Tim'nathah,  the  residence  of  Samson's 
wife  (Judg.  xiv.  1,  2,  5). 

Tim'nath-he'res,  the  name  under 
which  the  city  and  burial-place  of  Joshua, 
previously  called  Timnath-serah,  is  men- 
tioned in  Judg.  ii.  9.     [Timnath-serah.] 

Tim'nath-se'rall,  the  name  of  the  city 
which  was  presented  to  Joshua  after  the 
partition  of  the  country  (Josh.  xix.  50), 
and  in  "the  border"  of  which  he  was 
buried  (xxiv.  30).    It  is  specified  as  "in 


Mount  Ephraim  on  the  north  side  of  Mount 
Gaash."  In  Judg.  ii.  9,  the  name  is  altered 
to  TiMNATH-HERES.  The  latter  form  is 
that  adopted  by  the  Jewish  writers.  Ac- 
cordingly, they  identify  the  place  with 
Kefar  cheres,  which  is  said  by  Jewish 
travellers  to  be  about  5  miles  S.  of  She- 
chem  (iVafiZiis).  No  place  with  tliat  name 
appears  on  the  maps.  Another  identifica- 
tion has,  however,  been  suggested  by  Dr. 
Eli  Smith.  In  his  journey  from  Jifna  to 
Mejdel-Yaha,  about  6  miles  from  the  for- 
mer, he  discovered  the  ruins  of  a  consider- 
able town.  Opposite  the  town  was  a  much 
higher  hill,  in  the  north  side  of  which  are 
several  excavated  sepulchres.  The  whole 
bears  the  name  of  Tibneh. 

Tim'nite,  The,  Samson's  father-in-law, 
a  native  of  Timnathah  (Judg.  xv.  6). 

Ti'mon,  one  of  the  seven,  commonly 
called  "  deacons"  (Acts  vi.  1-6).  He  was 
probably  a  Hellenist. 

Timo'theus.  1.  A  "captain  of  the 
Ammonites"  (1  Mace.  v.  6),  who  was  de- 
feated on  several  occasions  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus,  b.  c.  164  (1  Mace.  v.  G,  11,  34- 
44).  He  was  probably  a  Greek  adventurer. 
2.  In  2  Mace,  a  leader  named  Timotheus 
is  mentioned  as  having  taken  part  in  the 
invasion  of  Nicanor  (b.  c.  166 :  2  Mace, 
viii.  30,  ix.  3).  At  a  later  time  he  was 
driven  to  a  stronghold,  Gazara,  which  was 
stormed  by  Judas,  and  there  Timotheus 
was  taken  and  slain  (2  Mace.  x.  24-37).  It 
has  been  supposed  that  the  events  recorded 
in  this  latter  narrative  are  identical  with 
those  in  1  Mace.  v.  6-8.  But  the  name 
Timotheus  was  very  common,  and  it  is  evi- 
dent that  Timotheus  the  Ammonite  leader 
was  not  slain  at  Jazer  (1  Mace.  v.  34).  3. 
The  Greek  name  of  Timotht  (Acts  xvi.  1, 
xvii.  14,  &c.). 

Tim'othy.  The  disciple  thus  named 
was  the  son  of  one  of  those  mixed  mar- 
riages wiiich,  though  condemned  by  stricter 
Jewish  opinion,  were  yet  not  uncommon  in 
the  later  periods  of  Jewish  history.  The 
father's  name  is  unknown  :  he  was  a  Greek, 
i.  e.  a  Gentile  by  descent  (Acts  xvi.  1,  3). 
The  absence  of  any  personal  allusion  to 
the  father  in  the  Acts  or  Epistles  suggests 
the  inference  that  he  must  have  died  or 
disappeared  during  his  son's  infancy.  The 
care  of  the  boy  thus  devolved  upon  his 
mother  Eiinice  and  her  mother  Lois  (2 
Tim.  i.  5).  Under  their  training  his  edu- 
cation was  emphatically  Jewish.  "  From 
a  child"  he  learnt  to  "know  the  Holy 
Scriptures"  daily.  The  language  of  the 
Acts  leaves  it  uncertain  whether  Lystra  or 
Derbe  were  the  residence  of  the  devout 
family.  The  arrival  of  Paul  and  Barnabas 
in  Lycaonia  (Acts  xiv.  6)  brought  the  mes- 
sage of  glad  tidings  to  Timothy  and  his 
mother,  and  they  received  it  with  "un- 
feigned faith  "  (2  Tim.  i.  6).    If  at  Lystra, 


TIMOTHT 


705 


TIMOTHY 


AS  seems  probable  from  2  Tim.  iii.  11,  he 
may  have  witnessed  the  half-completed 
sacrifice,  the  half-finished  martyrdom,  of 
Acts  xiv.  19.  The  preaching  of  the  Apos- 
tle on  Ills  return  from  his  short  circuit  pre- 
pared him  for  a  life  of  suffering  (Acts  xiv. 
22).  From  that  time  his  life  and  education 
must  have  been  under  the  direct  superin- 
tendence of  the  body  of  elders  (ib.  23). 
During  the  interval  of  seven  years  between 
the  Apostle's  first  and  second  journeys,  the 
boy  grew  up  to  manhood.  His  zeal,  prob- 
ably his  asceticism,  became  known  both  at 
Lystra  and  Iconium.  Those  who  had  the 
deepest  insight  into  character,  and  spoke 
with  a  prophetic  utterance,  pointed  to 
him  (1  Tim.  i.  18,  iv.  14),  as  others  had 
pointed  before  to  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts 
xiii.  2),  as  specially  fit  for  the  missionary 
work  in  which  the  Apostle  was  engaged. 
Personal  feeling  led  St.  Paul  to  the  same 
conclusion  (Acts  xvi.  3),  and  he  was 
solemnly  set  apart  to  do  the  work  and 
possibly  to  bear  the  title  of  Evangelist  (1 
Tim.  iv.  U;  2  Tim.  i.  6,  iv.  5),  A  great 
obstacle,  however,  presented  itself.  Tim- 
othy, though  reckoned  as  one  of  the  seed 
of  Abraham,  had  been  allowed  to  grow  up 
to  the  age  of  manhood  without  the  sign  of 
circumcision.  His  condition  was  that  of  a 
negligent,  almost  of  an  apostate  Israelite. 
The  Jews  might  tolerate  a  heathen,  as 
such,  in  the  synagogue  or  the  church,  but 
an  laicircumcised  Israelite  would  be  to 
them  a  horror  and  a  portent.  With  a 
special  view  to  their  feelings,  making  no 
sacrifice  of  principle,  the  Apostle,  who  had 
refused  to  permit  the  circumcision  of  Titus, 
"took  and  circumcised"  Timothy  (Acts 
xvi.  3).  Henceforth  Timothy  was  one  of 
his  most  constant  companions.  They  and 
Silvanus,  and  probably  Luke  also,  jour- 
neyed to  Pliilippi  (Acts  xvi.  12),  and  there 
already  the  young  Evangelist  was  con- 
spicuous at  once  for  his  filial  devotion  and 
his  zeal  (Phil.  ii.  22).  His  name  does  not 
appear  in  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  work 
at  Thessalonica,  and  it  is  possible  that  he 
remained  some  time  at  Pliilippi.  He  ap- 
pears, liowever,  at  Beroea,  and  remains 
there  when  Paul  and  Silas  are  obliged  to 
leave  (Acts  xvii.  14),  going  on  afterwards 
to  join  his  master  at  Athens  (1  Thess.  iii. 
2).  From  Athens  he  is  sent  back  to  Thes- 
salonica (ib.).,  as  having  special  gifts  for 
comforting  and  teaching.  He  returns  from 
Thessalonica,  not  to  Athens,  but  to  Corinth, 
and  his  name  appears  united  with  St.  Paul's 
in  the  opening  words  of  both  the  letters 
written  from  that  city  to  the  Thessalonians 
(1  Thess.  i.  1 ;  2  Thess.  i.  1).  Of  the  next 
five  years  of  his  life  we  have  no  record. 
When  we  next  meet  with  him,  it  is  as  being 
sent  on  in  advance  when  the  Apostle  was 
contemplating  the  long  journey  which  was 
to  include  Macedonia,  Achaia,  Jerusalem, 
45 


and  Rome  (Acts  xix.  22).  It  is  probable 
that  he  returned  by  the  same  route  and  met 
St.  Paul  according  to  a  previous  arrange- 
ment (1  Cor.  xvi.  11),  and  was  thus  with 
him  when  the  Second  Epistle  was  written 
to  the  Church  of  Corinth  (2  Cor.  i.  1).  He 
returns  with  the  Apostle  to  that  city, 
and  joins  in  messages  of  greeting  to  the 
disciples  whom  he  had  known  personally 
at  Corinth,  and  who  had  since  found  their 
way  to  Rome  (Rom.  xvi.  21).  He  forms 
one  of  the  company  of  friends  who  go  with 
St.  Paul  to  Pliilippi,  and  tiien  sail  by  them- 
selves, waiting  for  his  arrival  by  a  different 
sliip  (Acts.  XX.  3-G).  The  absence  of  his 
name  from  Acts  xxvii.  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  he  did  not  share  in  the  perilous 
voyage  to  Ital}'.  He  must  have  joined  the 
Apostle,  however,  apparently  soon  after 
his  arrival  at  Rome,  and  was  with  him 
j  when  the  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  to  the 
Colossians,  and  to  Philemon  were  written 
'(Phil.  i.  1,  ii.  19;  Col.  i.  1;  Philem.  1). 
I  All  the  indications  of  this  period  point  to  in- 
I  cessant  missionary  activity.  From  the  two 
Epistles  addressed  to  him,  we  are  able  to  put 
together  a  few  notices  as  to  his  later  life. 
It  follows  from  1  Tim.  i.  3  that  he  and  his 
master,  after  the  release  of  the  latter  from 
his  imprisonment,  revisited  the  proconsular 
Asia,  that  the  Apostle  then  continued  his 
journey  to  Macedonia,  Avhilst  the  disciple 
remained,  half  reluctantly,  even  weeping  at 
the  separation  (2  Tim.  i.  4),  at  Ephesus,  to 
check,  if  possible,  the  outgrowth  of  heresy 
and  licentiousness  which  had  sprung  up 
there.  The  position  in  which  he  found 
himself  might  well  make  him  anxious.  He 
had  to  rule  presbyters,  most  of  whom  were 
older  than  himself  (1  Tim.  iv.  12).  Leader* 
of  rival  sects  were  there.  The  name  oT 
his  beloved  teacher  was  no  longer  honored 
as  it  had  been.  We  cannot  wonder  tliat  the 
Apostle,  knowing  these  trials,  should  be  taft 
of  anxiety  and  fear  for  his  disciple's  steacik 
fastness.  In  the  Second  Epistle  to  him  this, 
deep  personal  feeling  utters  itself  yet  more- 
fully.  The  last  recorded  words  of  the  Apos- 
tle express  the  earnest  hope,  repeated  yet 
more  earncstlj',  that  he  might  see  him  once 
again  (ib.  iv.  9,  21).  We  may  hazard  the 
conjecture  that  he  reached  him  in  time,  and 
that  the  last  hours  of  the  teacher  were 
soothed  by  the  presence  of  the  disciple 
whom  he  loved  so  truly.  Some  writer* 
have  even  seen  in  Hub.  xiii.  23  an  indica- 
tion that  he  shared  St.  Paul's  imprisonment,, 
and  was  released  from  it  by  the  death  oi 
Nero.  Beyond  this  all  is  apocryphal  and 
uncertain.  He  continues,  according  to  the 
old  traditions,  to  act  as  bishop  of  Ephesus, 
and  dies  a  martyr's  death  under  Domitian 
or  Nerva.  A  somewhat  startling  theory  aa 
to  the  intervening  period  of  his  life  has 
found  favor  with  some.  If  he  continued, 
according  to  the  received  tradition,  to  bf 


TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO         706 


TIRATHITFS 


bishop  of  Ephesus,  then  he,  and  no  other, 
must  have  been  the  "angel "  of  that  church 
to  whom  the  message  of  Rev.  ii.  1-7  was 
addressed. 

Timothy,  Epistles  of  Paul  to.  The 
First  Epistle  was  probably  written  in  the 
interval  between  St.  Paul's  first  and  second 
imprisonments  at  Rome.  The  absence  of 
any  local  reference  but  that  in  i.  3,  suggests 
Macedonia  or  some  neighboring  district. 
In  some  MSS.  and  versions,  Laodicea  is 
named  in  the  inscription  as  the  place  from 
which  it  was  sent.  The  Second  Epistle 
appears  to  have  been  written  soon  after- 
wards and  in  all  probability  at  Rome.  The 
following  are  the  characteristic  features  of 
these  Epistles:  —  (1)  The  ever-deepening 
sense  in  St.  Paul's  heart  of  the  Divine 
Mercy,  of  which  he  was  the  object,  as 
shown  in  the  insertion  of  the  word  "  mercy  " 
in  the  salutations  of  both  Epistles,  and  in 
the  "  obtained  mercy "  of  1  Tim.  i.  13. 
(2)  The  greater  abruptness  of  the  Second 
Epistle.  From  first  to  last  there  is  no  plan, 
no  treatment  of  subjects  carefully  thought 
out.  All  speaks  of  strong  overflowing  emo- 
tion, memories  of  the  past,  anxieties  about 
the  future.  (3)  The  absence,  as  com- 
pared with  St.  Paul's  other  Epistles,  of  Old 
TestJiment  references.  This  may  connect 
itself  with  the  fact  just  noticed,  that  these 
Epistles  are  not  argumentative,  possibly 
also  with  the  request  for  the  "  books  and 
parchments "  which  had  been  left  behind 
(2  Tim.  iv.  13).  (4)  The  conspicuous 
position  of  the  "  faithful  sayings  "  as  taking 
the  place  occupied  in  other  Epistles  by  the 
O.  T.  Scriptures.  The  way  in  which  these 
are  cited  as  authoritative,  the  variety  of 
subjects  which  they  cover,  suggest  the 
thought  that  in  them  we  have  specimens 
of  the  prophecies  of  tlie  Apostolic  Church 
which  had  most  impressed  themselves  on 
the  mind  of  the  Apostle,  and  of  the  disci- 
ples generally.  1  Cor.  xiv.  shows  how 
deep  a  reverence  he  was  likely  to  feel  for 
such  si>iritual  utterances.  In  1  Tim.  iv.  1, 
we  have  a  distinct  reference  to  them.  (5) 
The  tendency  of  the  Apostle's  mind  to  dwell 
more  on  the  universality  of  the  redemptive 
work  of  Christ  (1  Tim.  ii.  3-6,  iv.  10),  and 
his  strong  desire  that  all  the  teaching  of  his 
disciples  should  be  "  sound."  (G)  The 
importance  attached  by  him  to  the  practical 
details  of  administration.  The  gathered  ex- 
perience of  a  long  life  had  taught  him  that 
the  life  and  well-being  of  the  Church  re- 
quired these  for  its  safeguards.  (7)  The 
recurrence  of  doxologies  (1  Tim.  i.  17,  vi. 
15,  16 ;  2  TiiTL  iv.  18)  as  from  one  living 
perpetually  in  the  presence  of  God,  to 
whom  tlie  language  of  adoration  was  as  his 
natural  speech. 

Tin.  Among  the  various  metals  found 
among  tlie  spoils  of  the  Midianites,  tin  is 
emuDecaied  (Num.  xxxi.  22) .  It  was  known 


to  the  Hebrew  metal-workers  as  an  alloy 
of  other  metals  (Is.  i.  25;  Ez.  xxii.  18,  20). 
The  markets  of  Tyre  were  supplied  with  it 
by  the  ships  of  Tarshish  (Ez.  xxvii.  12). 
It  was  used  for  plummets  (Zech.  iv.  10), 
and  was  so  plentiful  as  to  furnish  the  writer 
of  Ecclesiasticus  (xlvii.  18)  with  a  figure 
by  which  to  express  the  wealth  of  Solomon. 
As  to  the  country  from  which  the  Hebrews 
obtained  tin,  see  Tarshish.  In  the  Ho- 
meric times  the  Greeks  were  familiar  with 
it.  Twenty  layers  of  tin  were  in  Agamem- 
non's cuirass.  Copper,  tin,  and  gold  were 
used  by  Hephaestus  in  welding  the  famoua 
shield  of  Achilles.  No  allusion  to  it  is 
found  in  tlie  Odyssey.  Tin  is  not  found  in 
Palestine.  Whence,  then,  did  the  ancient 
Hebrews  obtain  their  supply  ?  "  Only  three 
countries  are  known  to  contain  any  consid- 
erable quantity  of  it :  Spain  and  Portugal, 
Cornwall  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Devon- 
shire, and  the  islands  of  Junk,  Ceylon,  and 
Banca,  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca"  (Ken- 
rick,  Phoenicia,  p.  212).  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  mines  of  Britain  were 
the  chief  source  of  supply  to  the  ancient 
world.  With  regard  to  the  tin  obtained 
from  Spain,  although  the  metal  was  found 
there,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  pro- 
duced in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the 
Phoenician  markets.  We  are  therefore 
driven  to  conclude  that  it  was  from  the 
Cassiterides,  or  tin  districts  of  Britain,  that 
the  Phoenicians  obtained  the  great  bulk  of 
this  commodity,  and  that  this  was  done  bjr 
the  direct  voyage  from  Gades. 

Tiph'sah.  is  mentioned  in  1  K.  iv,  24  as 
the  limit  of  Solomon's  empire  towards  the 
Euphrates,  and  in  2  K.  xv.  16  it  is  said  to 
have  been  attacked  by  Menahem.  It  wa3 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  under 
the  name  of  Thapsacus,  and  was  the  point 
where  it  was  usual  to  cross  the  Euphrates. 
Thapsacus  has  been  generally  placed  at  the 
modern  Delr  ;  but  the  Euphrates  expedi- 
tion proved  that  there  is  no  ford  at  Delr, 
and  that  the  only  ford  in  this  part  of  the 
course  of  the  Euphrates  is  at  Suriyeh,  45 
miles  below  Bahs,  and  1G5  above  Defr. 
This,  then,  must  have  been  the  position  of 
Thapsacus. 

Ti'ras,  the  youngest  son  of  Japhcth 
(Gen.  X.  2),  usually  identifi'^d  with  the 
Thracians,  as  presenting  the  closest  verbal 
approximation  to  the  name.  The  corre- 
spondence between  Thrace  and  Tiras  is  not 
so  complete  as  to  be  convincing.  Granted, 
however,  the  verbal  identity,  no  objection 
would  arise  on  ethnological  grounds  to 
placing  the  Thracians  Among  the  Japhetic 
races. 

Ti'rathites,  The,  one  of  the  three 
families  of  Scribes  residing  at  Jabez  (I 
Chr.  ii.  55),  the  others  beirgthe  Shimeath- 
ites  and  Suchathites.  The  passage  is  hope- 
lessly obscure. 


« 


'•3 


TIRE 


707 


TITHE 


Tire,  an  ornamental  headdress  worn  on 
festive  occasions  (Ez.  xxiv.  17,  23). 

Tir'hakah,  king  of  Ethiopia  (Cush), 
the  opponent  of  Sennacherib  (2  K.  xix.  9 ; 
Is.  xxxvii,  9).  He  raaj-  be  identified  with 
Tarkos  or  Tarakos,  who  was  the  third  and 
last  king  of  the  xxvth  dynasty,  which  was 
of  Ethiopians.  His  accession  was  probably 
about  B.  c.  695.  Possibly  Tirhakah  ruled 
over  Ethiopia  before  becoming  king  of 
Egypt. 

Tir'hanah,  son  of  Caleb  ben-Hezron 
by  liis  concubine  Maachah  (1  Clir.  ii.  48). 

Tir'ia,  son  of  Jehaleleel,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  16). 

Tir'shatha  (always  written  with  the 
article),  the  title  of  the  governor  of  Judaea 
under  the  Persians,  perhaps  derived  from  a 
Persian  root  signifying  "  stern,"  "  severe," 
is  added  as  a  title  after  the  name  of  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  viii.  9,  x.  1),  and  occurs  also 
in  tliree  other  places.  In  tlie  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  (Ezr.  ii.  63 ;  Neh.  vii.  65,  x.  1)  it  is 
rendered  "  governor." 

Tir'zah.,  youngest  of  the  five  daughters 
of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33,  xxvii.  1, 
xxxvi.  11;  Josh.  xvii.  3). 

Tir'zah,  an  ancient  Canaanite  city, 
whose  king  is  enumerated  amongst  those 
overthrown  in  the  conquest  of  the  country 
(Josh.  xii.  24).  It  reappears  as  a  royal 
city  —  the  residence  of  Jeroboam  and  of  his 
successors  (1  K.  xiv.  17,  18).  Tirzah  re- 
appears as  the  seat  of  the  conspiracy  of 
Menahem  ben-Gaddi  against  the  wretched 
Shallum  (2  K.  xv.  14,  16).  Its  reputation 
for  beauty  throughout  the  country  must 
Lave  been  wide-spread.  It  is  in  this  sense 
that  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon. Eusebius  mentions  it  in  connection 
with  Menahem,  and  identifies  it  with  a 
"  village  of  Samaritans  in  Batanaea."  Its 
site  is  Telluzah,  a  place  in  the  mountains 
north  of  NaUus. 

Tish'bite,  The,  the  well-known  desig- 
nation of  Elijali  (I  K.  xvii.  1,  xxi.  17,  28; 
2  K.  i.  3,  8,  ix.  36).  The  name  naturally 
points  to  a  place  called  Tishbeh,  Tishbi,  or 
ratlier  perhaps  Tesheb,  as  the  residence  of 
the  prophet.  Assuming  that  a  town  is  al- 
luded to,  as  Elijah's  native  place,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  infer  that  it  was  itself  in  Gil- 
ead,  as  many  have  imagined.  The  com- 
mentators and  lexicographers,  with  few 
exceptions,  adopt  the  name  "Tishbite" 
as  referring  to  the  place  Thisbe  in  Naph- 
tali,  which  is  found  in  the  LXX.  text  of 
Tobit  i.  2. 

Ti'tans.  These  children  of  Uranus 
(Heaven)  and  Gaia  (Earth)  were,  accord- 
ing to  the  earliest  Greek  legends,  the  van- 
quished predecessors  of  the  Olympian  gods, 
condemned  by  Zeus  to  dwell  in  Tartarus, 
yet  not  without  retaining  many  relics  of 
their  ancient  dignity.  By  later  (Latin) 
poets  they  were  confounded  with  the  kin- 


dred Gigantes.  In  2  Sara.  v.  18,  22,  "the 
valley  of  Eephaim  "  is  represented  by 
i,  xuiXug  TMv  TiTuitoy  instead  of  v  xoi-lu;  Te5» 
yiyurio)!-,  1  Chr.  xi.  15,  xiv.  9,  13.  Sev- 
eral Christian  fathers  inclined  to  the  belief 
that  TtiTav  was  the  mystic  name  of  •'  the 
beast "  indicated  in  Rev.  xiii.  18. 

Tithe.  Instances  of  the  use  of  tithes 
are  found  prior  to  the  appointment  of  the 
Levitical  tithes  under  the  Law.  In  Biblical 
history  tlie  two  prominent  instances  are  — 
1.  Abram  presenting  the  tenth  of  all  his 
property,  or  rather  of  the  spoils  of  his  vic- 
tory, to  Melchizedek  (Gen.  xiv.  20;  Heb. 
vii.  2,  6).  2.  Jacob,  after  his  vision  at  Luz, 
devoting  a  tenth  of  all  his  property  to  God 
in  case  he  should  return  liome  in  safety 
(Gen.  xxviii.  22).  The  first  enactment  of 
the  Law  in  respect  of  tithe  is  the  declaration 
that  the  tenth  of  all  produce,  as  well  as  of 
flocks  and  cattle,  belongs  to  Jehovah,  and 
must  be  offered  to  Him ;  that  the  tithe  was 
to  be  paid  in  kind,  or,  if  redeemed,  with  an 
addition  of  one  fifth  to  its  value  (Lev.  xxvii. 
30-33).  This  tenth  is  ordered  to  be  as- 
signed to  the  Levites,  as  the  reward  of  their 
service,  and  it  is  ordered  further,  that  they 
are  themselves  to  dedicate  to  the  Lord  a 
tenth  of  these  receipts,  which  is  to  be  de- 
voted to  the  maintenance  of  the  high-priest 
(Num.  xviii.  21-28).  This  legislation  is 
modified  or  extended  in  the  Book  of  Deu- 
teronomy, i.  e.  from  thirty-eight  to  forty 
years  later.  Commands  are  given  to  the 
people,  1.  To  bring  their  tithes,  together 
with  tlieir  votive  and  other  offerings  and 
first-fruits,  to  the  chosen  centre  of  worship, 
the  metropolis,  there  to  be  eaten  in  festive 
celebration  in  company  with  their  children, 
their  servants,  and  the  Levites  (Deut.  xii. 
5-18).  2.  All  the  produce  of  the  soil  was 
to  be  tithed  every  year,  and  these  tithes, 
with  the  firstlings  of  the  flock  and  herd, 
were  to  be  eaten  in  the  metropolis.  3.  But 
in  case  of  distance,  permission  is  given  to 
convert  the  produce  into  money,  which  is 
to  be  taken  to  the  appointed  place,  and 
there  laid  out  in  the  purchase  of  food  for  a 
festal  celebration,  in  which  the  Levite  is, 
by  special  command,  to  be  included  (Deut. 
xiv.  22-27).  4.  Then  follows  the  direction, 
that  at  the  end  of  tiiree  years  all  the  tithe 
of  that  year  is  to  be  gathered  and  laid  up 
"  within  the  gates,"  and  tliat  a  festival  is  to 
be  held,  in  which  the  stranger,  the  fatlier- 
less,  and  the  widow,  together  with  the  Le- 
vite, are  to  partake  (ib.  vers.  28,  29).  5. 
Lastly,  it  is  ordered  that  after  taking  the 
tithe  in  each  third  year,  "which  is  the  year 
of  tithing,"  an  exculpatory  declaration  is  to 
be  made  by  every  Israelite,  that  he  has 
done  his  best  to  fulfil  the  divine  command 
(Deut.  xxvi.  12-14).  From  all  tliis  we 
gather,  1.  That  one  tenth  of  the  whole 
produce  of  the  soil  was  to  be  assigned  for 
the  mainteuance  of  the  Levites.    2.  That 


TITUS 


708 


TITUS 


out  of  this  the  Levites  were  to  dedicate  a 
tenth  to  God,  for  the  use  of  the  high-priest. 

3.  That  a  tithe,  in  all  probability  a  second 
tithe,  was  to  be  applied  to  festival  purposes. 

4.  That  in  every  third  year,  either  this  fes- 
tiral  tithe  or  a  third  tenth  was  to  be  eaten 
in  company  with  the  poor  and  the  Levites. 
The  question  arises,  were  there  three  tithes 
taken  in  this  third  year;  or  is  the  third 
tithe  only  the  second  under  a  different  de- 
scription? It  must  be  allowed  that  the 
third  tithe  is  not  without  support.  Josephus 
distinctly  says  that  one  tenth  was  to  be  giv- 
en to  the  priests  and  Levites,  one  tenth  was 
to  be  applied  to  feasts  in  the  metropolis, 
and  that  a  tenth  besides  these  was  every 
third  year  to  be  given  to  the  poor  (comp. 
Tob.  i.  7,  8).  On  the  other  hand,  Maimon- 
ides  says  the  third  and  sixth  years'  second 
tithe  was  shared  between  the  poor  and  the 
Levites,  i.  e.  that  there  was  no  third  tithe. 
Of  these  opinions,  that  which  maintains 
three  separate  and  complete  tithings  seems 
improbable.  It  is  plain  that  under  the  kings 
the  tithe-system  partook  of  the  general  neg- 
lect into  which  the  observance  of  the  Law 
declined,  and  that  Hezekiah,  among  his 
other  reforms,  took  effectual  means  to  re- 
vive its  use  (2  Chr.  xxxi.  5,  12,  19).  Sim- 
ilar measures  were  taken  after  the  Captivity 
by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  44),  and  in  both 
these  cases  special  officers  were  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  stores  and  storehouses 
for  the  purpose.  Yet,  notwitlistanding  par- 
tial evasion  or  omission,  the  system  itself 
was  continued  to  a  late  period  in  Jewish 
history  (Heb.  vii.  5-8 ;  Matt,  xxiii.  23 ;  Luke 
xviii.  12). 

Ti'tUS.  Our  materials  for  the  biography 
of  this  companion  of  St.  Paul  must  be 
drawn  entirely  from  the  notices  of  him  in 
the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  the 
Galatians,  and  to  Titus  himself,  combined 
with  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy.  He 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts  at  all.  Taking 
the  passages  in  the  Epistles  in  the  chrono- 
logical order  of  the  events  referred  to,  we 
turn  first  to  Gal.  ii.  1,  3.  We  conceive  the 
journey  mentioned  here  to  be  identical  with 
that  (recorded  in  Acts  xv.)  in  which  Paul 
and  Barnabas  went  from  Antioch  to  Jeru- 
salem to  the  conference  which  was  to  de- 
cide the  question  of  the  necessity  of  cir- 
cumcision to  the  Gentiles.  Here  we  see 
Titus  in  close  association  with  Paul  and 
Barnabas  at  Antioch.  He  goes  with  them 
to  Jerusalenj,  His  circumcision  was  either 
not  insisted  on  at  Jerusalem,  or,  if  demand- 
ed, was  firmly  resisted.  He  is  very  em- 
phatically spoken  of  as  a  Gentile,  by  which 
is  most  probably  meant  that  both  his  parents 
were  Gentiles.  Titus  would  seem,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  council,  to  have  been  spe- 
pially  a  representative  of  the  church  of  the 
uncircumcision.  It  is  to  our  purpose  to 
remark  that,  in  the  passage  cited  above, 


Titus  is  so  mentioned  as  apparently  to  im- 
ply that  he  had  become  person;' Uy  known 
to  the  Galatian  Christians.  After  leaving 
Galatia  (Acts  xviii.  23),  and  spending  a 
long  time  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  1-xx.  1), 
the  Apostle  proceeded  to  Macedonia  by 
way  of  Troas.  Here  he  expected  to  meet 
Titus  (2  Cor.  ii.  13),  who  had  been  sent  on 
a  mission  to  Corinth.  In  this  hope  he  was 
disappointed,  but  in  Macedonia  Titus  joined 
him  (2  Cor.  vii.  6,  7,  13-15).  The  mission 
to  Corinth  had  reference  to  the  iramorali 
ties  rebuked  in  the  First  Epistle,  and  to 
the  effect  of  that  First  Epistle  on  the  of- 
fending church.  We  learn  further  that  the 
mission  was  so  far  successful  and  satisfac- 
tory. But  if  we  proceed  further,  we  discern 
another  part  of  the  mission  with  which  he 
was  intrusted.  This  had  reference  to  the 
collection,  at  that  time  in  progress,  for  the 
poor  Christians  of  Judaea  (viii.  6).  Thus 
we  are  prepared  for  what  the  Apostle  now 
proceeds  to  do  after  his  encouraging  con- 
versations with  Titus  regarding  the  Co- 
rinthian Church.  He  sends  him  back  from 
Macedonia  to  Corinth,  in  company  with 
two  other  trustworthy  Christians,  bearing 
the  Second  Epistle,  and  with  an  earnest 
request  (viii.  6,  17)  that  he  would  see  to 
the  completion  of  the  collection  (viii.  G). 
It  has  generally  been  considered  doubtful 
who  the  udtlifoi  were  (1  Cor.  xvi.  11,  12) 
that  took  the  First  Epistle  to  Corinth. 
Most  probably  they  were  Titus  and  his 
companion,  whoever  that  might  be,  who  i) 
mentioned  with  him  in  the  second  letter  (3 
Cor.  xii.  18).  A  considerable  interval  now 
elapses  before  we  come  upon  the  next  no- 
tices of  this  disciple.  St.  Paul's  first  im- 
prisonment is  concluded,  and  his  last  trial 
is  impending.  In  the  interval  between  the 
two,  he  and  Titus  were  together  in  Crete 
(Tit.  i.  5).  We  see  Titus  remaining  in  the 
island  when  St.  Paul  left  it,  and  receiving 
there  a  letter  written  to  him  by  the  Apos- 
tle. From  this  letter  we  gather  the  fol- 
lowing biographical  details :  In  the  first 
place  we  learn  that  he  was  originally  con- 
verted through  St.  Paul's  instrumentality 
(i.  4.).  Next  we  learn  the  various  partic- 
ulars of  the  responsible  duties  which  he 
had  to  discharge  in  Crete.  He  is  to  com- 
plete what  St.  Paul  had  been  obliged  to 
leave  unfinished  (i.  5),  and  he  is  to  organ- 
ize the  Church  throughout  the  island  by 
appointing  presbyters  in  every  city.  Next 
he  is  to  control  and  bridle  (ver.  11)  the 
restless  and  mischievous  Judaizers,  and  he 
is  to  be  peremptory  in  so  doing  (ver.  13). 
He  is  to  urge  the  duties  of  a  decorous  and 
Christian  life  upon  the  women  (ii.  3-5), 
some  of  whom  (ii.  3)  possibly  had  some- 
thing of  an  official  character  (ver.  3,  4). 
The  notices  which  remain  are  more  strictly 
personal.  Titus  is  to  look  for  the  arrival 
in  Crete  of  Artemas  and  Tychicus  (iii.  12), 


TITUS.  EPISTLE  TO 


709 


TOBIAH 


and  then  he  is  to  hasten  to  join  St.  Paul  at 
Kicopolis,  where  the  Apostle  is  proposing 
to  pass  the  winter.  Zenas  and  Apollos  are 
in  Crete,  or  expected  there ;  for  Titus  is  to 
send  them  on  their  journey,  and  supply 
them  with  whatever  they  need  for  it  (iii. 
13).  Whether  Titus  did  join  the  Apostle 
at  Nicopolis  we  cannot  tell.  But  we  natu- 
rally connect  the  mention  of  this  place  with 
what  St.  Paul  wrote,  at  no  great  interval  of 
time  afterwards,  in  the  last  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  (2  Tim.  iv,  10) ;  for  Dalmatia  lay 
to  the  north  of  Nicopolis,  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  it.  From  the  form  of  tlie  whole 
sentence,  it  seems  probable  that  this  dis- 
ciple had  been  with  St.  Paul  in  Rome  dur- 
ing his  final  imprisonment;  but  this  cannot 
be  asserted  confidently.  Tlie  traditional 
connection  of  Titus  with  Crete  is  much 
more  specific  and  constant,  though  liere 
again  we  cannot  be  certain  of  the  facts. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  permanent  bishop 
in  the  island,  and  to  have  died  there  at  an 
advanced  age.  The  modern  capital,  Can- 
dia,  appears  to  claim  the  honor  of  being 
his  burial-place.  In  the  fragment  by  the 
lawyer  Zenas,  Titus  is  called  Bishop  of 
Gortyna.  Lastly,  the  name  of  Titus  was 
the  watchword  of  the  Cretans  when  they 
were  invaded  by  the  Venetians. 

Titus,  Epistle  to.  There  are  no  spe- 
cialties in  this  Epistle  which  require  any 
very  elaborate  treatment  distinct  from  the 
other  Pastoral  Letters  of  St.  Paul.  If  those 
two  were  not  genuine,  it  would  be  difficult 
confideictly  to  maintain  the  genuineness  of 
this.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  Epistles  to 
Tinjothy  are  received  as  St.  Paul's,  there  is 
not  the  slightest  reason  for  doubting  the  au- 
thorship of  that  to  Titus.  Nothing  can  well 
be  more  explicit  than  the  quotations  in  Ire- 
naeus,  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Tertullian, 
to  say  nothing  of  earlier  allusions  in  Justin 
Martyr,  Theophilus,  and  Clemens  Eomanus. 
As  to  internal  features,  we  may  notice,  in 
the  first  place,  that  the  Epistle  to  Titus  has 
all  the  characteristics  of  tlie  other  Pastoral 
Epistles.  This  tends  to  show  tkat  this  Let- 
ter was  written  about  the  same  time  and 
under  similar  circumstances  with  the  other 
two.  [Timothy,  Epistles  to.]  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  this  Epistle  has  marks  in 
its  phraseology  and  style  which  assimilate 
it  to  the  general  body  of  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  As  to  any  difficulty  arising  from 
supposed  indications  of  advanced  hierarchi- 
cal arrangements,  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
in  this  Epistle  notn^uTtoog  and  int^jeunog 
are  used  as  synonymous  (i.  5,  7),  just  as 
they  are  in  the  address  at  Miletus,  about 
the  year  58  A.  d.  (Acts  xx.  17,  28).  At 
the  same  time  this  Epistle  has  features  of 
its  own,  especially  a  certain  tone  of  abrupt- 
ness and  severity,  which  probably  arises 
partly  out  of  the  circumstances  of  the 
Cretan  population,  partly  out  of  the  char- 


acter  of  Titus   himself.     Concerning  the 
contents   of  this   Epistle,  enough  has  al- 
ready been  said  in  the  preceding  article. 
;  No  very  exact  subdivision  is  either  neces- 
,  sary  or  possible.     As  to  the  time  and  place 
'  and  other  circumstances  of  the  writing  of 
this  Epistle,  the  following  scheme  of  filling 
;  up  St.  Paul's  movements  after  his  first  im- 
1  prisonment  will  satisfy  all  the   conditions 
I  of  the  case.'  We  may  suppose  him  (possi- 
bly after  accomplishing  his  long  projected 
visit  to  Spain)  to  have  gone  to  Ephcsus, 
and  taken   voyages  from  thence,   first  to 
Macedonia  and  then  to  Crete,  during  the 
former  to  have  written  the  First  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  and  after  returning  from  the  lat- 
ter to  have  written  the  Epistle  to  Titus, 
being  at  the  time  of  despatching  it  on  the 
point  of  starting  for  Nicopolis,  to  which 
place  he  went,  taking  Miletus  and  Corinth 
on  the  way.     At  Nicopolis  we  may  con- 
ceive him  to  have  been  finally  apprehended 
and  taken  to  Rome,  whence  he  wrote  the 
Second  Epistle  to  Timotli}'. 

Ti'zite,  The,  the  designation  of  John, 
one  of  tiie  heroes  of  David's  army  (I  Chr. 
xi.  45).  It  occurs  nowhere  else,  and 
nothing  is  known  of  the  place  or  family 
which  it  denotes. 

To'ah,  a  Kohathite  Levite,  ancestor  of 
Samuel  and  Heman  (1  Chr.  vi.  34  [19]). 

Tob-adoni'jah,  one  of  the  Levites  sent 
by  Jehoshaphat  through  the  cities  of  Ju- 
dah  to  teach  the  Law  to  the  people  (2  Chr. 
xvii.  8). 

Tob,  The  Land  of,  a  place  in  which 
Jephthah  took  refuge  when  expelled  from 
home  by  his  half-brother  (Judg.  xi.  3),  and 
where  he  remained,  at  the  head  of  a  band  of 
freebooters,  till  he  was  brought  back  by  the_ 
sheikhs  of  Gilead  (ver.  5).  The  narrative 
implies  that  the  land  of  Tob  was  not  far 
distant  from  Gilead;  at  the  same  time, 
from  the  nature  of  the  case,  it  must  have 
lain  out  towards  the  eastern  deserts.  It  is 
undoubtedly  mentioned  again  in  2  Sam.  x. 
6,  8,  as  Ishtob,  i.  e.  Man  of  Tob,  meaning, 
according  to  a  common  Hebrew  idiom,  the 
"  men  of  Tob."  After  a  long  interval  it 
appears  again,  in  the  Maccabaean  history 
(1  Mace.  v.  l.S),  in  the  names  Tobie  and 
Tubieni  (2  Mace.  xii.  17).  No  identifi- 
cation of  this  ancient  district  with  any 
modern  one  has  yet  been  attempted. 

Tobi'ah.  1.  "The  children  of  To- 
biah"  were  a  family  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel,  but  were  unable  to  prove  their 
connection  with  Israel  (Ezr.  ii.  60;  Neh. 
vii.  02).  2.  "Tobiah  the  slave,  the  Am- 
monite," played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
rancorous  opposition  made  by  Sanballat  the 
Moabite  and  his  adherents  to  the  rebuilding 
of  Jerusalem.  The  two  races  of  Moab  and 
Ammon  found  in  these  men  fit  representa- 
tives of  that  hereditary  hatred  to  the  Israel- 
ites which  began  before  the  entrance  into 


TOBIJAH 


710 


TOMB 


Canaan,  and  was  not  extinct  when  the  He- 
brews had  ceased  to  exist  as  a  nation.  But 
Tobiah,  though  a  slave  (Neh.  ii.  10,  19), 
unless  this  is  a  title  of  opprobrium,  and  an 
Ammonite,  found  means  to  ally  himself 
with  a  priestly  family,  and  his  son  Johanan 
married  the  daughter  of  MeshuUaui  tlie  son 
of  Berechiah  (Neh.  vi.  18).  He  himself 
was  the  son-in-law  of  Shechaniah  the  son 
of  Arab  (Neh.  vi.  17),  and  these  family  re- 
lations created  for  him  a  strong  faction 
among  the  Jews. 

Tobi'jah.  1.  One  of  the  Levites  sent 
by  Jehoshaphat  to  teach  the  Law  in  the 
cities  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xvii.  8).  2.  One 
of  the  Captivity  in  the  time  of  Zechariah, 
in  whose  presence  the  prophet  was  com- 
manded to  take  crowns  of  silver  and  gold 
and  put  them  on  the  head  of  Joshua  the 
high-priest  (Zech.  vi.  10,  14).  Rosen- 
mQller  conjectures  that  he  was  one  of  a 
deputation  who  came  up  to  Jerusalem, 
from  the  Jews  who  still  remained  in  Baby- 
lon, with  contributions  of  gold  and  silver 
for  the  Teniple. 

To'bit,  Book  of,  a  book  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha, which  exists  at  present  in  Greek, 
Latin,  Syriac,  and  Hebrew  texts,  but  it  was 
probably  written  originally  in  Greek.  The 
sctiie  of  the  book  is  placed  in  Assyria,' 
whither  Tobit,  a  Jew,  had  been  carried  as  a 
captive  by  Shalmaneser.  It  is  represented 
as  completed  shortly  after  the  fall  of  Nine- 
veh (b.  c.  606;  Tob.  xlv.  15),  and  written, 
in  the  main,  some  time  before  (Tob.  xii. 
20).  But  the  whole  tone  of  the  narrative 
bespeaks  a  later  age ;  and  above  all,  the 
doctrine  of  good  and  evil  spirits  is  elabo- 
rated in  a  form  which  belongs  to  a  period 
considerably  posterior  to  the  Babylonian 
Captivity  (Asmodeus,  iii.  8,  vi.  14,  viii.  3; 
Eaphael,  xii.  15).  It  cannot  be  regarded 
as  a  true  history.  It  is  a  didactic  narra- 
tive ;  and  its  point  lies  in  the  moral  lessons 
which  it  conveys,  and  not  in  the  incidents. 
In  modern  times  the  moral  excellence  of 
the  book  has  been  rated  highly,  except  in 
the  heat  of  controversy.  Nowhere  else  is 
there  preserved  so  complete  and  beautiful 
a  picture  of  the  domestic  life  of  the  Jews 
after  tlie  Return.  Almost  every  family  re- 
lation is  touched  upon  with  natural  grace 
and  afiection.  A  doctrinal  feature  of  the 
book  is  the  firm  belief  in  a  glorious  resto- 
ration of  the  -Jewish  people  (xiv.  5,  xiii. 
9-18).  But  the  restoration  contemplated 
is  national,  and  not  the  work  of  a  universal 
Saviour.  In  all  there  is  not  the  slightest 
trace  of  the  belief  in  a  personal  Messiah. 

To'chen,  a  place  mentioned  (1  Chr.  iv. 
82  only)  amongst  the  towns  of  Simeon. 

Togar'mah,  a  son  of  Gomer,  and  brother 
of  Ashkenaz  andRiphath  (Gen.  x.  3).  To- 
garmah,  as  a  geographical  term,  is  connected 
with  Armenia,  and  the  subsequent  notices 
of  the  name   (£z.  xxvii.  14,  xxxviii.  6) 


accord  with  this  view.  The  Armenian 
language  presents  many  peculiarities  which 
distinguisli  it  from  other  branches  of  the 
Indo-European  fiimily ;  but  in  spite  of  this, 
however,  no  hesitation  is  felt  by  philolo- 
gists in  placing  it  among  the  Indo-Europeaa 
languages. 

To'hu,  an  ancestor  of  Samuel  th« 
prophet,  perhaps  the  same  as  Toah  (1 
Sam.  i.  1 ;  comp.  1  Chr.  vi.  34). 

To'i,  king  of  Hamath  on  the  Orontes, 
who,  after  the  defeat  of  his  powerful  enemy 
tlie  Syrian  king  Hadadezer  by  the  army  of 
David,  sent  his  son  Joram,  or  Hadoram, 
to  congratulate  the  victor  and  do  him  hom- 
age with  presents  of  gold  and  silver  and 
brass  (2  Sam.  viii.  9,  10). 

Tola.  1.  The  first-born  of  Issachar, 
and  ancestor  of  the  Tolaites  (Gen.  xlvi. 
13;  Num.  xxvi.  23;  1  Chr.  vii.  1,  2).  2. 
Judge  of  Israel  after  Abimelech  (Judg.  x. 
1,  2).  He  is  described  as  "  the  son  of 
Puah,  the  son  of  Dodo,  a  man  of  Issa- 
char." Tola  judged  Israel  for  23  years  at 
Shamir  in  Mount  Ephraim,  where  he  died 
and  was  buried. 

To'lad,  one  of  the  towns  of  Simeon 
(1    Chr.   iv.    29),    elsewhere    called    El- 

TOLAD. 

Tolaites,  The,  the  descendants  of 
Tola  the  son  of  Issachar  (Num.  xxvi.  26). 

Tomb.  It  has  been  hitherto  too  much 
the  fashion  to  look  to  Egypt  for  the  proto- 
type of  every  form  of  Jewish  art ;  but  if 
tliere  is  one  thing  in  the  Old  Testament 
more  clear  than  another,  it  is  the  absolute 
antagonism  between  the  two  peoples,  and 
the  abhorrence  of  everything  Egyptian  that 
prevailed  from  first  to  last  among  the  Jew- 
ish people.  From  the  burial  of  Sarah  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii.  19)  to 
the  funeral  rites  prepared  for  Dorcas  (Acts 
ix.  37),  there  is  no  mention  of  any  sar- 
cophagus, or  even  coffin,  in  any  Jewish 
burial.  Still  less  were  the  rites  of  the 
Jews  like  those  of  the  Pelasgi  or  Etrus- 
cans. They  were  marked  with  the  same 
simplicity  that  characterized  all  their  re- 
ligious observances.  This  simplicity  of 
rite  led  to  what  may  be  called  the.distin* 
guishing  characteristic  of  Jewish  sepulchrea 
—  the  deep  loculus  —  which,  so  far  as  is 
now  known,  is  universal  in  all  purely 
Jewish  rock-cut  tombs,  but  hardly  known 
elsewhere.  Its  form  will  be  understood  by 
referring  to  the  following  diagram,  repre- 
senting the  forms  of  Jewish  sepulture.  In 
tlie  apartment  marked  A,  there  are  twelve 
such  loculi,  about  two  feet  in  width  by  three 
feet  high.  On  the  ground  floor  these  gen- 
erally open  on  the  level  of  the  floor;  when 
in  the  upper  story,  as  at  C,  on  a  ledge  or 
platform,  on  which  the  body  might  be  laid 
to  be  anointed,  and  on  which  the  stones 
might  rest  which  closed  the  outer  end  of 
each  loculus.  The  shallow  loculus  is  shown 


TOMB 


711 


TOMB 


Diagram  of  Jewith  Sepulchre. 

In  chamber  B,  but  was  apparently  only 
used  when  sarcophagi  were  employed,  and, 
therefore,  so  far  as  we  know,  only  during 
the  Graeco-Roman  period,  when  foreign 
customs  came  to  be  adopted.  The  shallow 
loculus  would  have  been  singularly  inap- 
propriate and  inconvenient,  where  an  un- 
embalmed  body  was  laid  out  to  decay  —  as 
there  would  evidently  be  no  means  of 
shutting  it  oft'  from  the  rest  of  the  cata- 
comb. The  deep  loculus,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  as  strictly  conformable  with  Jew- 
ish customs,  and  could  easily  be  closed  by 
a  stone  fitted  to  the  end  and  luted  into  the 
groove  which  usually  exists  there.  This 
fact  is  especiallj-  interesting  as  it  affords  a 
key  to  much  that  is  otherwise  hard  to  be 
understood  in  certain  passages  in  the  New 
Testament.  Thus  in  John  xi.  39,  Jesus 
Bays,  "  Take  away  the  stone,"  and  (ver.  40), 
"  they  took  away  the  stone,"  without  difficul- 
ty, apparently.  And  chap.  xx.  1,  the  same  ex- 
pression is  used,  "  the  stone  is  taken  away." 
There  is  one  catacomb — that  known  as  the 
•'  Tombs  of  the  Kings  "  —  which  is  closed 
by  a  stone  rolling  across  its  entrance ;  but  it 
is  the  only  one,  and  the  immense  amount  of 
contrivance  and  fitting  which  it  has  re- 
quired is  sufficient  proof  that  such  an  ar- 
rangement was  not  applied  to  any  other  of 
the  numerous  rock  tombs  around  Jerusa- 
lem, nor  could  the  traces  of  it  have  been 
obliterated  had  it  anywhere  existed.  Al- 
tliough,  therefore,  the  Jews  were  singularly 
free  from  the  pomps  and  vanities  of  fune- 
real magnificence,  they  were  at  all  stages 
of  their  independent  existence  an  eminently 
burying  people.  Tombs  of  the  Patriarchs. 
—  Turning  from  these  considerations  to  the 
more  strictly  historical  part  of  the  subject, 
we  find  that  one  of  the  most  striking  events 
in  the  life  of  Abraham  is  the  purchase  of 
the  field  of  Ephron  the  Hittite  at  Hebron, 
in  which  was  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  in  or- 
^er  that  he  might  therein  bury  Sarah  his 
wife,  and  that  it  might  be  a  sepulchre  for 
himself  and  his  children.  There  he  and  his 
immediate  descendants  were  laid  3700  years 
ago,  and  there  they  are  believed  to  rest 
now;  but  no  one  in  modem  times  has  seen 


I  their  remains,  or  been  allowed  to  enter  into 
the  cave  where  they  rest.  Unfortunately 
none  of  those  who  have  visited  Hebron  have 
had  sufficient  architectural  knowledge  to 
be  able  to  say  when  the  church  or  mosque 
which  now  stands  above  the  cave  was  erect- 
ed. Though  much  more  easy  of  access,  it 
is  almost  as  difficult  to  ascertain  the  age  of 
the  wall  that  encloses  the  sacred  precincts 
of  these  tombs.  There  is,  in  fact,  nothing 
known  with  sufficient  exactness  to  decide 
the  question,  but  the  probabilities  certainly 
tend  towards  a  Christian  or  Saracenic  origin 
for  the  whole  structure,  both  internally  and 
externally.  From  the  time  when  Abraham 
established  the  burying-place  of  his  family 
at  Hebron  till  tlie  time  when  David  fixed 
that  of  his  fannly  in  the  city  which  bore  his 
name,  the  Jewish  rulers  had  no  fixed  or 
favorite  place  of  sepulture.  Each  was 
buried  on  his  own  property,  or  where  he 
died,  without  much  caring  either  for  the 
sanctity  or  convenience  of  tlie  place  chosen. 
Tomb  of  tlie  Kings.  —  Of  the  twenty-two 
kings  of  Judah  who  reigned  at  Jerusalem 
from  1048  to  590  b.  c,  eleven,  or  exactly 
one  half,  were  buried  in  one  hypogeum  in 
the  "  city  of  David."  Of  all  these  it  is 
merely  said  that  they  were  buried  in  "  the 
sepulchres  of  their  fathers  "  or  "  of  the 
kings  "  in  the  city  of  David,  except  of  two 
—  Asa  and  Hezekiah.  Two  more  of  these 
kings  (Jehoram  and  Joash)  were  buried 
also  in  the  city  of  David,  "  but  not  in  the 
sepulchres  of  the  kings."  The  passage  in 
Nehemiah  iii.  IG,  and  in  Ezekiel  xliii.  7,  9, 
together  with  the  reiterated  assertion  of  the 
Books  of  Kings  and  Clironicles  that  these 
sepulchres  were  situated  in  the  city  of 
David,  leave  no  doubt  but  that  they  were 
on  Zion,  or  tlie  Eastern  Hill,  and  in  the  im- 
mediate proximity  of  the  Temple.  Up  to 
the  present  time  we  have  not  been  able  to 
identify  one  single  sepulchral  excavation 
about  Jerusalem  which  can  be  said  with 
certainty  to  belong  to  a  period  anterior  to 
that  of  the  Maccabees,  or,  more  correctly, 
to  have  been  used  for  burial  before  the  time 
of  the  Romans.  The  only  important  hypo- 
geum which  is  wholly  Jewish  in  its  arrange- 
ments, and  may  consequently  belong  to  an 
earlier  or  to  any  epoch,  is  that  known  as 
the  Tombs  of  the  Prophets  in  the  western 
fiank  of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  It  has  every 
appearance  of  having  originally  been  a 
natural  cavern  improved  by  art,  and  with 
an  external  gallery  some  140  feet  in  extent, 
into  which  twenty-seven  deep  or  Jewish 
loculi  open.  Graeco-Roman  Tombs.  —  Be- 
sides the  tombs  above  enumerated,  ^here 
are  around  Jerusalem,  in  the  Valleys  of 
Hinnora  and  Jehoshaphat,  and  on  the  pla- 
teau to  the  north,  a  number  of  remarkable 
rock-cut  sepulchres,  with  more  or  less 
architectural  decoration,  sufficient  to  enable 
us  to  ascertain  that  they  are  all  of  uciirl/ 


TOMB 


712 


TOMB 


the  same  age,  and  to  assert  with  very  toler- 
able confidence  that  the  epoch  to  which  they 
belong  must  be  between  the  introduction 
of  Roman  influence  and  the  destruction  of 
the  city  by  Titus.  In  the  village  of  Siloara 
there  is  a  monolithic  cell  of  singularly 
Egyptian  aspect,  which  De  Saulcy  assumes 
to  be  a  chapel  of  Solomon's  Egyptian  wife. 
It  is  probably  of  very  much  more  modern 
date,  and  is  more  Assyrian  than  Egyptian 
in  character.  The  principal  remaining 
architectural  sepulchres  may  be  divided 
into  t^iree  groups.  First,  those  existing  in 
the  Valley  of  Jehoshapliat,  and  known 
popularly  as  the  Tombs  of  Zecliariah,  of 
St.  James,  and  of  Absalom.  Second,  those 
known  as  the  Tombs  of  the  Judges,  and 
the  so-called  Jewish  tomb  about  a  mile 
north  of  the  city.  Third,  that  known  as 
the  Tombs  of  the  lungs,  about  half  a  mile 
north  of  the  Damascus  Gate.  Of  the  three 
first-named  tombs  the  most  southern  is 
known  as  that  of  Zechariah,  a  popular 
name  which  there  is  not  even  a  shadow  of 


So-eslled  **  Tomb  of  Zechariah." 

tradition  to  justify.  It  consists  of  a  square 
solid  basement,  measuring  18  feet  6  inches 
each  way,  and  20  feet  high  to  the  top  of  the 
cornice.  On  each  face  are  four  engaged 
Ionic  columns  between  antic,  and  these 
are  surmounted,  not  by  an  Egyptian  cor- 
nice, as  is  usually  asserted,  but  by  one 
of  purely  Assyrian  type,  such  as  is  found 
at  Khorsabad.  In  all  its  details  it  is  so  dis- 
tinctly Roman  that  it  is  impossible  to  as- 
sume that  it  belongs  to  an  earlier  age  than 
that  of  their  influence.  Above  the  cornice 
is  a  pyramid  rising  at  rather  a  sharp  angle, 
and  hewn  like  all  the  rest  out  of  the  solid 


rock.  To  call  this  building  a  tomb  is  evi. 
dently  a  misnomer,  as  it  is  absolutely  solid 
—  hewn  out  of  the  living  rock  by  cutting 
a  passage  round  it.  It  has  no  internal 
chambers,  not  even  the  semblance  of  a 
doorway.  The  hypogeura  known  as  the 
Tombs  of  the  Judges  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  catacombs  around  Jeru- 
salem, containing  about  sixty  deep  loculi, 
arranged  in  three  stories ;  the  upper  stories 
with  ledges  in  front,  to  give  convenient  ac- 
cess, and  to  support  the  stones  that  closed 
them ;  the  lower  flush  with  the  ground;  the 
whole,  consequently,  so  essentially  Jewish 
that  it  might  be  of  any  age  if  it  were  not 
for  its  distance  from  the  town,  and  its  ar- 
chitectural character.  Tombs  of  Herod.  — 
The  last  of  tlie  great  groups  enumerated 
above  is  that  known  as  the  Tombs  of  the 
Kings — Kehiir  es  Sultan  —  or  the  Royal 
Caverns,  so  called  because  of  their  mag- 
nificence, and  also  because  that  name  is  ap- 
plied to  them  by  Josephus.  They  are  twice 
again  mentioned  under  the  title  of  the 
"  Monuments  of  Herod."  The  entrance 
doorway  of  this  tomb  is  below  the  level  of 
the  ground.  It  is  closed  by  a  very  curious 
and  elaborate  contrivance  of  a  rolling  stone, 
often  described,  but  very  clumsily  answer- 
ing its  purpose.  Within,  the  tomb  consists 
of  a  vestibule  or  entrance-hall  about  20 
feet  square,  from  whicli  tliree  other  square 
apartments  open,  eacli  surrounded  by  deep 
loculi.  But  perhaps  the  most  remarka- 
ble peculiarity  of  the  hypogeura  is  tlie  sar- 
cophagus chamber,  in  which  two  sarcophagi 
were  found,  one  of  which  was  brought 
home  by  De  Saulcy,  and  is  now  in  the 
Louvre.  There  seems  no  reason  for  doubt- 
ing but  that  all  the  architectural  tombs  of 
Jerusalem  belong  to  the  age  of  the  Romans, 
like  everything  that  has  yet  been  found 


Fa$adc  of  Herod'*  Tomb*.    From  a  Photograph. 

either  at  Petra,  Baalbec,  Palmyra,  or 
Damascus,  or  even  among  the  stone  cities 
of  the  Hauran.  Tomb  of  Helena  of  Adia- 
bene.  —  There  was  one  other  very  famous 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF   713   TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


tomb  at  Jerusalem,  which  cannot  be  passed 
over  in  silence,  tlxough  not  one  vestige  of 
it  exists.  We  are  told  that  "  she  with  her 
brother  were  buried  in  the  pyramids  which 
she  had  ordered  to  be  constructed  at  a  dis- 
tance of  three  stadia  from  Jerusalem " 
(Joseph.  Ant.  xx.  4,  §  3).  This  is  confirmed 
by  Pausanias  (viii.  16).  It  was  situated 
outside  the  third  wall,  near  a  gate  between 
the  Tower  Psephinus  and  the  Royal  Cav- 
erns (B.  J.  v.  22,  and  v.  4,  §  2).  They  re- 
mained sufficiently  entire  in  the  4th  century 
to  form  a  conspicuous  object  in  the  land- 
scape. Since  the  destruction  of  the  city  by 
Titus,  none  of  the  native  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem  have  been  in  a  position  to  in- 
dulge in  much  sepulchral  magnificence,  or 
perhaps  had  any  taste  for  this  class  of  dis- 
play ;  and  we  in  consequence  find  no  rock- 
cut  hypogea,  and  no  structural  monuments, 
that  arrest  attention  in  modern  times.  The 
people,  however,  still  cling  to  their  ancient 
cemeteries  in  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat 
with  a  tenacity  singularly  characteristic  of 
the  East.     [Blkial.] 

Tongues,  Confusion  of.  The  unity 
of  the  Imnian  race  is  most  clearly  implied, 
if  not  positively  asserted,  in  the  Mosaic 
writings.  The  general  declaration,  "  So 
God  created  man  in  His  own  image  .  ,  . 
male  and  female  created  He  them"  (Gen. 
i.  27),  is  limited,  as  to  the  mode  in  which 
tJie  act  was  carried  out,  by  the  subsequent 
narrative  of  the  creation  of  Adam  (Gen.  ii. 
22).  Unity  of  language  is  assumed  bj'  the 
sacred  liistorian  apparently  as  a  corollary 
of  the  unity  of  race.  No  explanation  is 
given  of  the  origin  of  speech,  but  its  exer- 
cise is  evidently  regarded  as  coeval  with 
the  creation  of  man.  The  original  unity  of 
speech  was  restored  in  Noah.  Disturbing 
causes  were,  however,  early  at  work  to  dis- 
solve tliis  twofold  union  of  community  and 
speech.  The  human  family  endeavored  to 
clieck  the  tendency  to  separation  by  the 
establishment  of  a  great  central  edifice, 
and  a  city  wiiicli  should  serve  as  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  whole  world.  The  project 
was  defeated  by  the  interposition  of  Jeho- 
vah, who  determined  to  "  confound  their 
language,  so  tliat  they  might  not  understand 
one  another's  speech."  Contemporaneous- 
ly with,  and  perhaps  as  the  result  of,  this 
confusion  of  tongues,  the  people  were  scat- 
tered abroad  from  thence  upon  the  face 
of  all  the  earth,  and  the  memory  of  the 
great  event  was  preserved  in  the  name  Ba- 
bel. [Babel,  Tower  of.]  In  the  Bor- 
sippa  inscription  of  Nebuchadnezzar  there 
is  an  allusion  to  the  Confusion  of  Tongues. 
"  We  siy  for  the  other,  that  is,  this  edifice, 
tlie  house  of  the  Seven  Lights  of  the  Earth, 
tJje  most  ancient  monument  of  Borsippa : 
a  former  king  built  it  (they  reckon  42  ages), 
but  he  did  not  complete  its  head.  Since  a 
remote  tiiM  people  JmcL  ahai\doned  it,  with-  i 


out  order  expressing  their  words.  Since 
that  time,  the  earthquake  and  the  thunder 
had  dispersed  its  sun-dried  clay ;  the  bricka 
of  the  casing  had  been  split,  and  the  earth 
of  the  interior  had  been  scattered  in  heaps." 
It  is  unnecessary  to  assume  that  the  judg- 
ment inflicted  on  the  builders  of  Babel 
amounted  to  a  loss,  or  even'  a  suspension, 
of  articulate  speech.  The  desired  object 
would  be  equally  attained  by  a  miraculous 
forestalraent  of  those  dialectical  difierences 
of  language  which  are  constantly  in  pro- 
cess of  production.  The  elements  of  the 
one  original  language  may  have  remained, 
but  so  disguised  by  variations  of  pronun- 
ciation, and  by  the  introduction  of  new 
combinations,  as  to  be  practically  obliter- 
ated. The  confusion  of  tongues  and  the 
dispersion  of  nations  are  spoken  of  in  the 
Bible  as  contemporaneous  events.  The 
divergence  of  the  various  families  into  dis- 
tinct tribes  and  nations  ran  parallel  with 
the  divergence  of  speecli  into  dialects  and 
languages,  and  thus  the  10th  chapter  of 
Genesis  is  posterior  in  historical  sequence 
to  the  events  recorded  in  the  11th  chapter. 
—  The  Mosaic  table  does  not  profess  to  de- 
scribe the  process  of  the  dispersion ;  but,  as- 
suming that  dispersion  as  having  taken  place, 
it  records  the  ethnic  relations  existing  be- 
tween the  various  nations  affected  by  it. 
These  relations  are  expressed  under  the 
guise  of  a  genealogy ;  the  ethnological  char- 
acter of  the  document  is,  however,  clear. 
The  general  arrangeiiicnt  of  the  table  is  as 
follows  :  The  whole  human  race  is  referred 
back  to  Noah's  three  sons,  Shem,  Ham,  and 
Japheth.  The  Shemites  are  described  last, 
apparently  that  the  continuity  of  the  nar- 
rative may  not  be  further  disturbed ;  and 
the  Hamites  stand  next  to  the  Shemites,  in 
order  to  show  tliat  these  were  more  closely 
related  to  each  otlier  than  to  the  Japliet- 
ites.  1.  The  Japhetite  list  contains  fourteen 
names,  of  which  seven  represent  indepen- 
dent, and  the  remainder  affiliated  nations,  as 
follows  :  (i.)  Gomer,  connected  ethnically 
with  the  Cimmerii,  Cimbri  (  ?),  and  Cyviry  ; 
and  geographically  with  Crimea.  Associ- 
ated with  Gomer  are  the  three  following : 
(a)  Ashkenaz.  (6)  Riphath.  (c)  Togar- 
mah.  (ii.)  Magog,  the  Scythians,  (iii.) 
Madai,  Media,  (iv.)  Javan,  the  Tonians, 
as  a  general  appellation  for  the  Hellenic 
race,  with  whom  are  associated  the  four 
following :  (o)  Elishah.  (6)  Tarshish.  (c) 
Kittim.  (d)  Dodanim.  (v.)  Tubal,  (vi.) 
Meshech.  (vii.)  Tiras.  2.  The  Hamitic 
list  contains  thirty  names,  of  which  four 
represent  independent,  and  the  remainder 
affiliated  nations,  as  follows:  (i.)  Cush, 
in  two  branches,  the  western  or  African 
representing  Aethiopia,  the  Keesh  of  the 
old  Egyptian,  and  the  eastern  or  Asiatic 
being  connected  with  the  names  of  the  tribe 
Cossaei,  the  district  Cissia,  and  the  proT- 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


714 


TONGFiSS,  GIFT  OP 


ince  Susiana  or  Khuzisian.  "With  Cush 
are  associated  —  (a)  Seba.     (6)    Havilah. 

(c)  Sabtali.  (d)  Kaamah,  with  whom  are 
associated — (a*)  Slieba.  (6*)  Dedan.  (e) 
Sabtechah.  (/)  Niiurod.  (ii.)  Mizraim, 
the  two  Misrs,  1.  e.  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt, 
with  whom  the  following  seven  are  con- 
nected :  (a)  Ludim.  (6)  Ananiim.  (c) 
Naphtuhim.  {d)  Pathrusira.  (c)  Caslu- 
him.  (/)  Caphtorim.  {g)  Phut,  (iii.)  Ca- 
naan, the  geographical  position  of  which 
calls  for  no  remark  in  this  place.  To 
Canaan  belong  the  following  eleven :  (a) 
Zidou,  the  well-known  town  of  that  name 
in  Phoenicia.  (6)  Heth,  or  the  Hittites  of 
Biblical  history,  (c)  The  Jebusite,  of  Jebus 
or  Jerusalem.  (<?)  The  Amorite.  (e)  The 
Girgasite.  (/)  The  Hivite.  {g)  The  Ark- 
iie.  {h)  The  Sinite.  (t)  The  Arvadite. 
(j)  The  Zemarite.  (k)  The  Hamathite. 
8.  The  Shemitic  list  contains  twenty-five 
names,  of  which  five  refer  to  independent, 
and  the  remainder  to  affiliated  tribes,  as 
follows  :  (^i.)  Elam.  (ii.)  Asshur.  (iii.)  Ar- 
phaxad,  with  whom  are  associated  —  (a) 
Salah;  Salah's  son  (a*)  Eber;  and  Eber's 
two  sons  (a^)  Pcleg  and  (i*)  Joktan,  with 
tlie  following  thirteen  sons  of  Joktan, 
viz.:  {a*)  Almodad.  (b*)  Sheleph.  (c^) 
Hazarmaveth.  {d*)  Jerah.  {e*)  Hadoram. 
if*)  Uzal.  ig*)  Diklah.  (h*)  Obal.  (t^) 
Abimael.  (/•»)  Sheba.  (k*)  Ophir.  (Z*) 
Havilah.  (m.*)  Jobab.  (iv.)  Lud.  (v.) 
Aram,  with  whom  the  following  are  as- 
sociated :   (a)    Uz.     (6)  Hul.     (c)  Gether. 

(d)  Mash.  There  is  yet  one  name  noticed 
in  tJie  table,  viz.  Philistim,  wliich  occurs  in 
the  Hamitic  division,  but  without  any  direct 
assertion  of  Hamitic  descent.  The  total 
number  of  names  noticed  in  the  table,  in- 
cluding Philistim,  would  thus  amount  to 
70,  which  was  raised  by  patristic  writers  to 
72.  For  an  account  of  the  identification 
of  these  names,  see  the  separate  articles. 

Tongues,  Gift  of.  I.  rhhjx.i,  or 
yXn>aoix,  the  word  employed  throughout  the 
N.  T.  for  the  gift  now  under  consideration, 
is  used  —  (1.)  for  the  bodily  organ  of  speech; 
(2.)  for  a  foreign  word,  imported  and  half- 
naturalized  in  Greek;  (3.)  in  Hellenistic 
Greek,  for  "  speech"  or  "  language."  The 
received  traditional  view,  which  starts  from 
the  third  meaning,  and  sees  in  the  gift  of 
tongues  a  distinctly  linguistic  power,  is  the 
more  correct  one.  II.  The  chief  passages 
from  which  we  have  to  draw  our  conclusion 
as  to  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  gift  in 
question  are —  (I.)  Mark  xvi.  17 ;  (2.)  Acts 
ii.  1-13,  X.  46,  xix.  6;  (3.)  1  Cor.  xii.,  xiv. 
III.  The  promise  of  a  new  power  coming 
from  the  Divine  Spirit,  giving  not  onlj' 
comfort  and  insight  into  truth,  but  fresh 
powers  of  utterance  of  some  kind,  appears 
once  and  again  in  our  Lord's  teaching. 
The  disciples  are  to  take  no  thought  what 
th£7  shall  speak,  for  the  Spirit  of  their 


Father  shall  speak  in  them  (Matt.  x.  19, 
20;  Mark  xiii.  11).  The  lips  of  Galilean 
peasants  are  to  speak  freely  and  boldly 
before  kings.  The  promise  of  our  Lord  to 
his  disciples,  "  They  shall  speak  with  new 
tongues  "  (Mark  xvi.  17),  was  fulfilled  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  cloven  tongues 
like  fire  sat  upon  the  disciples,  and  "  every 
m.an  heard  them  speak  in  his  own  language" 
(Acts  ii.  1-12).  IV.  The  wonder  of  the 
day  of  Pentecost  is,  in  its  broad  features, 
familiar  enough  to  us.  What  views  have 
men  actually  taken  of  a  plienomenon  so 
marvellous  and  exceptional?  (1.)  The 
prevalent  belief  of  the  Cimrch  has  been, 
that  in  the  Pentecostal  gift  the  disciples 
received  a  supernatural  knowledge  of  all 
such  languages  as  they  needed  for  their 
work  as  Evangelists.  The  knowledge  was 
permanent.  Widely  diffused  as  this  belief 
has  been,  it  must  be  remembered  that  it 
goes  beyond  the  data  with  wliich  the  N.  T. 
supplies  us.  Each  instance  of  the  gift 
recorded  in  the  Acts  connects  it,  not  with 
the  work  of  teaching,  but  with  that  of 
praise  and  adoration;  not  with  the  nor- 
mal order  of  men's  lives,  but  with  excep- 
tional epochs  in  them.  Tlie  speech  of 
St.  Peter  which  follows,  like  most  other 
speeches  addressed  to  a  Jerusalem  audi- 
ence, was  spoken  apparently  in  Aramaic. 
When  St.  Paul,  who  "  spake  with  tongues 
more  than  all,"  was  at  Lystra,  there  is  no 
mention  made  of  his  using  the  language  of 
Lycaonia.  It  is  almost  implied  that  he  did 
not  understand  it  (Acts  xiv.  11).  Not  one 
word  in  the  discussion  of  spiritual  gifts  in 
1  Cor.  xii.-xiv.  implies  that  tlie  gift  was  of 
this  nature,  or  given  for  tiiis  purpose.  Nor, 
it  may  be  added,  within  the  limits  assigned 
bj  the  providence  of  God  to  the  working 
of  the  Apostolic  Church,  was  such  a  gift 
necessary.  Aramaic,  Greek,  Latin,  the  three 
languages  of  the  inscription  on  the  cross, 
were  media  of  intercourse  throughout  the 
empire.  Some  interpreters  have  seen  their 
way  to  another  solution  of  the  difficulty  by 
changing  the  character  of  the  miracle.  It 
lay  not  in  any  new  power  bestowed  on  the 
speakers,  but  in  the  impression  produced 
on  the  hearers.  Words  which  the  Galilean 
disciples  uttered  in  their  own  tongue  were 
heard  by  those  who  listened  as  in  their  na- 
tive speech.  There  are,  it  is  believed, 
weighty  reasons  against  both  the  earlier 
and  later  forms  of  this  hypothesis.  (1.)  It 
is  at  variance  with  the  distinct  statement  of 
Acts  ii.  4,  "  They  began  to  speak  with 
other  tongues."  (2.)  It  at  once  multiplies 
the  miracle,  and  degrades  its  character. 
Not  the  120  disciples,  but  the  whole  multi- 
tude of  many  thousands,  are  in  this  case 
the  subjects  of  it.  (3.)  It  involves  an  ele- 
ment of  falsehood.  The  miracle,  on  this 
view,  was  wrought  to  make  men  believe 
what  was  not  actually  the  fact.    ^4.)  It  is 


TONGUES,  GiFT  OF 


715 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


altogether  inapplicable,  to  the  phenomena 
of  1  Cor.  xiv.  Critics  of  a  negative  school 
have,  as  might  be  expected,  adopted  the 
easier  course  of  rejecting  the  narrative 
either  altogether  or  in  part.  What,  then, 
are  the  facts  actually  brought  before  us  ? 
What  inferences  may  be  legitimately  drawn 
from  tliem?  (1.)  The  utterance  of  words 
by  the  disciples,  in  other  languages  than 
their  own  Galilean  Aramaic,  is  distinctly 
asserted.  (2.)  The  words  spoken  appear 
to  have  been  determined,  not  by  the  will  of 
the  speakers,  but  by  tlie  Spirit  which  "  gave 
them  utterance."  (3.)  The  word  used, 
ii/io(fdfYYto6itt,  has  in  the  LXX.  a  special  as- 
sociation with  the  oracular  speech  of  true 
or  false  prophets,  and  appears  to  imply 
some  peculiar,  perhaps  musical,  solemn  in- 
tonation (comp.  1  Chr.  xxv.  1 ;  Ez.  xiii. 
9).  (4.)  The  "  tongues  "  were  used  as  an 
instrument,  not  of  teaching,  but  of  praise. 
(5.)  Those  who  spoke  them  seemed  to  others 
to  be  under  the  influence  of  some  strong  ex- 
citement, "  full  of  new  wine."  (6.)  Ques- 
tions as  to  the  mode  of  operation  of  a  power 
above  the  common  laws  of  bodily  or  mental 
life  lead  us  to  a  region  where  our  words 
should  be  "  wary  and  few."  It  must  be  re- 
membered, then,  that  in  all  likelihood  such 
words  as  they  then  uttered  had  been  heard 
by  the  disciples  before.  The  difference 
was,  that  before,  the  Galilean  peasants  had 
stood  in  that  crowd,  neither  heeding,  nor 
understanding,  nor  remembering  what  they 
heard,  still  less  able  to  reproduce  it;  now 
they  had  the  power  of  speaking  it  clearly 
and  freely.  The  Divine  work  would  in  this 
case  take  the  form  of  a  supernatural  exalta- 
tion of  the  memory,  not  of  imparting  a 
miraculous  knowledge  of  words  never  heard 
before.  (7.)  The  gift  of  tongues,  the 
ecstatic  burst  of  praise,  is  definitely  assert- 
ed to  be  a  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  of 
Joel  ii.  28.  We  are  led,  therefore,  to  look 
for  that  which  answers  to  the  Gift  of 
Tongues  in  the  other  element  of  prophecy 
which  is  included  in  the  O.  T.  use  of  the 
word ;  and  this  is  found  in  the  ecstatic 
praise,  the  burst  of  song  (1  Sam.  x.  5-13, 
xix.  20-24 ;  1  Chr.  xxv.  3).  (8.)  The  other 
instances  in  the  Acts  offer  essentially  the 
same  phenomena.  By  implication  in  xiv. 
15-19,  by  express  statement  in  x.  47,  xL 
15,  17,  xix.  6,  it  belongs  to  special  critical 
epochs.  VI.  The  First  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
rinthians supplies  fuller  data.  The  spiritual 
gifts  are  classified  and  compared,  arranged, 
apparently,  according  to  their  worth.  The 
facts  which  may  be  gatliered  are  briefly 
tliese :  (1.)  The  phenomena  of  the  Gilt 
of  Tongues  were  not  confined  to  one  Church 
or  section  of  a  Church.  (2.)  The  compari- 
son of  gifts,  in  both  the  lists  given  by  St. 
Paul  (1  Cor.  xii.  8-10,  28-30),  places  that 
of  tongues,  and  the  interpretation  of 
tongues,  lowest  in  the  scale.     (3.)    The 


main  characteristic  of  the  "  tongue  "  is  that 
it  is  unintelligible.  The  man  "speaks  mys- 
teries," prays,  blesses,  gives  thanks,  in  the 
tongue  (1  Cor.  xiv.  15,  16),  but  no  one  un- 
derstands him.  (4.)  The  peculiar  nature 
of  the  gift  leads  the  Apostle  into  what  ap- 
pears, at  first,  a  contradiction.  •'  Tongues 
are  for  a  sign,"  not  to  believers,  but  to 
those  who  do  not  believe ;  yet  the  effect  on 
unbelievers  is  not  that  of  attracting,  but 
repelling.  •  They  involve  of  necessity  a  dis- 
turbance of  the  equilibrium  between  the  un- 
derstanding and  the  feelings.  Therefore  it  is 
that,  for  those  who  believe  already,  proph- 
ecy is  the  greater  gift.  (5.)  Tiie  *'  tongues," 
however,  must  be  regarded  as  real  lan- 
guages. The  "  divers  kinds  of  tongues  "  (1 
Cor.  xii.  28),  the  "  tongues  of  men  "  (1  Cor. 
xiii.  1),  pointto  differences  of  some  kind,  and 
it  is  easier  to  conceive  of  these  as  differences 
of  language  than  as  belonging  to  utterances 
all  equally  wild  and  inarticulate.  (6.) 
Connected  with  the  "  tongues,"  there  was 
the  corresponding  power  of  interpretation. 
VII.  (1.)  Traces  of  the  gift  are  found,  as 
has  been  said,  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Ro- 
mans, the  Galatians,  the  Ephesians.  From 
the  Pastoral  Epistles,  from  those  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  John,  they  are  altogether 
absent,  and  this  is  in  itself  significant.  (2.) 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  "  tongues  "  was  gradual.  There 
must  have  been  a  time  when  "tongues" 
were  still  heard,  though  less  frequently,  and 
with  less  striking  results.  For  the  most 
part,  however,  the  place  which  they  had 
filled  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  was 
supplied  by  the  "  hymns  and  spiritual 
songs  "  of  the  succeeding  age.  After  this, 
within  the  Church  we  lose  nearly  all  traces 
of  them.  VIII.  (i.)  A  wider  question  of 
deep  interest  presents  itself.  Can  we  find 
in  the  religious  history  of  mankind  any 
facts  analogous  to  the  manifestation  of 
the  "tongues"?  The  three  characteristic 
phenomena  are,  as  has  been  seen,  (1)  an 
ecstatic  state  of  partial  or  entire  uncon- 
sciousness ;  (2)  the  utterance  of  words  in 
tones  startling  and  impressive,  but  often 
conveying  no  distinct  meaning;  (8)  the 
use  of  languages  which  tlie  speaker  at 
other  times  was  unable  to  converse  in.  (ii.) 
The  history  of  the  O.  T.  presents  us  with 
some  instances  in  which  the  gift  of  proph- 
ecy has  accompaniments  of  this  nature 
(1  Sam.  xix.  24).  (iii.)  We  cannot  ex- 
clude the  false  prophets  and  diviners  of 
Israel  from  the  range  of  our  inquiry.  We 
have  distinct  records  of  strange,  mysteri- 
ous intonations.  The  ventriloquist  wizards 
"peep  and  mutter"  (Is.  viii.  19).  The 
"  voice  of  one  who  has  a  familiar  spirit,* 
comes  low  out  of  the  ground  (Is.  xxix.  4). 
(iv.)  The  quotation  by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  21)  from  Is.  xxviii.  11.  With  the 
phenomena  of  the  "tongues"  present  to 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


716 


TORTOISE 


his  mind,  he  saw  in  them  the  fulfilment  of 
the  Prophet's  words.  A  remarkable  par- 
allel to  the  text  thus  interpreted  is  found  in 
Hos.  ix.  7.  (v.)  The  history  of  heathen 
oracles  presents,  it  need  hardly  be  said, 
examples  of  the  orgiastic  state,  in  which 
the  wisest  of  Greek  tliinkers  recognized  the 
lower  type  of  inspiration,  (vi.)  More  dis- 
tinct parallels  are  found  in  the  accounts  of 
the  wilder,  more  excited  sects  which  have, 
frcm  time  to  time,  appeared  in  the  history 
of  Christendom,  (vii.)  The  history  of  the 
.French  prophets  at  the  commencement  of 
the  18th  century  presents  some  facts  of 
special  interest.  What  is  specially  notice- 
able is,  that  the  gift  of  tongues  was  claimed 
by  them.  It  is  remarkable  that  a  strange 
Eevivalist  movement  was  spreading,  nearly 
at  the  same  time,  through  Silesia,  the  chief 
feature  of  which  was  that  boys  and  girls  of 
tender  age  were  almost  the  only  subjects  of 
it,  and  that  they  too  spoke  and  prayed  with 
a  wonderful  power,  (viii.)  The  so-called 
Unknown  Tongues,  which  manifested  them- 
selves first  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  and 
afterwards  in  the  Caledonian  Church  in 
Regent  Square,  present  a  more  striking 
phenomenon,  and  the  data  for  judging  of 
its  nature  are  more  copious.  Here,  more 
than  in  most  other  cases,  there  were  the 
conditions  of  long,  eager  expectation,  fixed 
brooding  over  one  central  thought,  the  mind 
Btrainou  to  a  preternatural  tension.  Sud- 
denly, now  from  one,  now  from  another, 
chiefly  from  women,  devout  but  illiterate, 
mysterious  sounds  were  heard.  The  man 
over  whom  they  exercised  so  strange  a 
power,  has  left  on  record  his  testimony, 
that  to  him  they  seemed  to  embody  a  more 
than  earthly  music,  leading  to  the  belief 
that  the  "  tongues  "  of  the  Apostolic  age 
had  been  as  the  archetypal  melody  of  which 
all  the  Church's  chants  and  hymns  were 
but  faint,  poor  echoes.  To  those  who  were 
without,  on  the  other  hand,  they  seemed 
but  an  unintelligible  gibberish,  the  yells  and 
groans  of  madmen.  The  speaker  was  com- 
monly unable  to  interpret  what  he  uttered, 
(ix.)  In  certain  exceptional  states  of  mind 
and  body  the  powers  of  memory  are  known 
to  receive  a  wonderful  and  abnormal 
strength.  In  the  delirium  of  fever,  in  the 
ecstasy  of  a  trance,  men  speak  in  their  old 
age  languages  which  they  have  never  heard 
or  spoken  since  their  earliest  youth.  In  all 
such  cases  the  marvellous  power  is  the  ac- 
companiment of  disease.  IX.  These  phe- 
nomena have  been  brought  together  in 
order  that  we  may  see  how  far  they  resem- 
ble, how  far  they  differ  from,  those  which 
we  have  seen  reason  to  believe  constituted 
the  outward  signs  of  the  Gift  of  Tongues. 
Whatever  resemblances  there  may  be,  the 
points  of  difference  are  yet  greater.  The 
phenomena  which  have  been  described  are, 
yrith  hardly  an  exception,  morbid ;  the  pre- 


cursors or  the  consequences  of  clearly  rec« 
ognizable  disease.  The  Gift  of  Tongues 
was  bestowed  on  men  in  full  vigor  and 
activity,  preceded  by  no  frenzy,  followed 
by  no  exhaustion.  "The  gift  of  tlie  day  of 
Pentecost  was  the  starting-point  of  the  long 
history  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  the  witness, 
in  its  very  form,  of  a  universal  family 
gathered  out  of  all  nations.  It  belonged, 
however,  to  a  critical  epoch,  not  to  the  con- 
tinuous life  of  the  Church.  It  implied  a 
disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  man's 
normal  state.  But  it  was  not  the  instru- 
ment for  building  up  tlie  Church. 

Topaz  (Heb.  pitd&h  :  Ex.  xxviii.  17, 
xxxix.  10;  Ez.  xxviii.  13;  Job  xxviii.  19; 
Rev.  xxi.  20).  The  topaz  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  is  generally  allowed  to 
be  our  chrysolite,  wliile  their  clirysolite  is 
our  topaz.  Chrysolite  is  a  silicate  of  mag- 
nesia and  iron ;  it  is  so  soft  as  to  lose  its 
polish  unless  worn  with  care. 

To'pliel  (Deut.  i.  1)  has  been  identified 
with  Tufileh  on  a  wady  of  the.  same  name 
running  north  of  Bozra  towards  the  S.  E. 
corner  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

To'pheth,  and  once  To'pliet,  was  in 
the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  "  Valley  of  the 
Son  of  Hinnom  "  (Jer.  vii.  31),  which  is 
"  by  the  entry  of  the  east  gate"  (xix.  2). 
The  locality  of  Hinnom  is  explained  else- 
where. [Hinnom.]  It  seems  also  to  have 
been  part  of  the  king's  gardens,  and  watered 
by  Siloam,  perhaps  a  little  to  the  south  of 
the  present  Birket  el-Hamra.  The  name 
Tophet  occurs  only  in  the  Old  Testament 
(2  K.  xxiii.  10;  Is.  xxx.  33;  Jer.  vii.  31, 
32,  xix.  6,  11,  12,  13,  14).  The  New  does 
not  refer  to  it,  nor  the  Apocrypha.  Tophet 
has  been  variously  translated.  The  most 
natural  meaning  seems  that  suggested  by 
tlie  occurrence  of  the  word  in  two  consec- 
utive verses,  in  the  one  of  which  it  is  a 
tabrct,  and  in  the  other  Tophet  (Is.  xxx. 
32,  33).  The  Hebrew  words  are  nearly 
identical;  and  Tophet  was  probably  the 
king's  "  nmsic-grove  "  or  garden,  denoting 
originally  nothing  evil  or  hateful.  Cer- 
tainly there  is  no  proof  that  it  took  its 
name  from  the  drums  beaten  to  drown  the 
cries  of  the  burning  victims  that  passed 
tlirough  the  fire  to  Molcch.  Afterwards 
it  was  defiled  by  idols,  and  polluted  by  the 
sacrifices  of  Baal  and  the  fires  of  Molech. 
Then  it  became  the  place  of  abomination, 
the  very  gate  or  pit  of  hell.  The  pious 
kings  defiled  it,  and  threw  down  its  altars 
and  high  places,  pouring  into  it  all  the  filth 
of  the  city,  ti',1  it  became  the  *'  abhorrence" 
of  Jerusalem. 

Tor'mah.  occurs  only  in  the  margin  of 
Judg.  ix.  31.  By  a  few  commentators  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  the  word  was  ori- 
ginally the  same  with  Abdmah  in  ver.  41. 

Tortoise  (Heb.  tsdh).  The  is&b  occurs 
only  in  Lev.  xi.  29,  as  the  name  of  some 


TOU 


717 


TRIAL 


unclean  animal.  The  Hebrew  word  may 
be  identified  with  the  kindred  Arabic  dhab, 
"a  large  kind  of  lizard,"  which  appears  to 
be  the  Psammosaurus  Scincus  of  Cuvier. 

To'u,  Toi,  king  of  Hamath  (1  Chr.  xviii. 
J),  10). 

Tower.  Watch-towers  or  fortified  posts 
in  frontier  or  exposed  situations  are  nien- 
ti  )ned  in  Scripture,  as  the  tower  of  Edar, 
&c.  (Gen.  XXXV.  21 ;  Mic.  iv.  8;  Is.  xxi.  5, 
8,  11,  &c.),  the  tower  of  Lebanon  (2  Sam. 
v'm.  6).  Besides  these  military  structures, 
we  read  in  Scripture  of  towers  built  in  vine- 
yards as  an  almost  necessary  appendage  to 
them  (Is.  V.  2;  Matt.  xxi.  33;  Mark  xii. 
1).  Such  towers  are  still  in  use  in  Pales- 
tine in  vineyards,  especially  near  Hebron, 
and  are  used  as  lodges  for  the  keepers  of 
the  vineyards. 

Town  Clerk,  the  title  ascribed  in  our 
Version  to  the  magistrate  at  Ephesus  who 
appeased  the  mob  in  the  theatre  at  the  time 
of  the  tumult  excited  by  Demetrius  and  his 
fellow-craftsmen  (Acts  xix.  35).  The  ori- 
ginal service  of  this  class  of  men  was  to 
record  the  laws  and  decrees  of  the  state, 
and  to  read  them  in  public. 

Trachoni'tis  (Luke  iii.  1)  is  in  all 
probability  the  Greek  equivalent  for  the 
Aramaic  Argob.     [Argob.] 

Trance,  (l.)  In  the  only  passage 
(Num.  xxiv.  4,  16)  in  which  this  word 
occurs  in  the  English  of  the  O.  T.  there  is, 
as  the  Italics  show,  no  corresponding  word 
in  Hebrew.  In  the  N.  T.  we  meet  with  the 
word  three  times  (Acts  x.  10,  xi.  5,  xxii. 
17),  the  Vulgate  giving  "excessus"  in  the 
two  former,  "  stupor  mentis  "  in  the  latter. 
The  meaning  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  words 
is  obvious  enough.  The  fxnraais  is  the 
state  in  which  a  man  has  passed  out  of  the 
usual  order  of  his  life,  beyond  the  usual 
limits  of  consciousness  and  volition.  "  Hx- 
cessus,"  in  like  manner,  became,  in  ecclesi- 
astical writers,  a  synonyme  for  the  condition 
of  seeming  death  to  the  outer  world,  which 
we  speak  of  as  a  trance.  The  history  of 
the  English  word  presents  an  interesting 
parallel.  (2.)  Used  as  the  word  is  by  Luke, 
"the  pliysician,"  and,  in  this  special  sense, 
by  him  only,  in  the  N.  T.,  it  would  be  in- 
teresting to  inquire  what  precise  meaning 
it  had  in  the  medical  terminology  of  the 
time.  Fram  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  who 
uses  it  to  describe  the  loss  of  conscious 
perception,  it  had  probably  borne  the  con- 
notation which  it  has  had,  with  shades  of 
meaning  for  good  or  evil,  ever  since.  (3.) 
We  may  compare  with  these  statements  the 
more  precise  definitions  of  modem  medical 
science.  There  the  ecstatic  state  appears 
as  one  form  of  catalepsy.  In  ca'talepsy 
pare  and  simple,  there  is  "  a  sudden  sus- 
pension of  thought,  of  sensibility,  of  vol- 
untary motion."  In  the  ecstatic  form  of 
catalepsy,  on  the  other  hand,  "  the  patient 


is  lost  to  all  external  impressions,  but  rapt 
and  absorbed  in  some  object  of  the  im- 
agination." There  is,  for  the  most  part,  a 
higli  degree  of  mental  excitement.  The 
patient  utters  the  most  enthusiastic  and 
fervid  expressions,  or  the  most  earnest 
warnings.  The  character  of  the  whole 
frame  is  that  of  intense  contemplative  ex- 
citement. The  causes  of  this  state  are  to 
be  traced  commonly  to  strong  religious  im- 
pressions. (4.)  Wliatever  explanation  may 
be  given  of  it,  it  is  true  of  many,  if  not  of 
most,  of  those  who  have  left  the  stamp  of 
their  own  character  on  the  religious  history 
of  mankind,  that  they  have  been  liable  to 
pass  at  times  into  this  abnormal  state.  The 
union  of  intense  feeling,  strong  volition, 
long-continued  thought  (the  conditions  of 
all  wide  and  lasting  influence),  aided  in 
many  cases  by  the  withdrawal  from  the 
lower  life  of  the  support  which  is  needed 
to  maintain  a  healthy  equilibrium,  appears 
to  have  been  more  than  the  "  earthen  ves- 
sel "  will  bear.  The  words  which  speak 
of  "an  ecstasy  of  adoration "  are  often  lit- 
erally true.  (5.)  We  are  now  able  to  take 
a  true  estimate  of  the  trances  of  Biblical 
history.  As  in  other  things,  so  also  here, 
the  phenomena  are  common  to  higher  and 
lower,  to  true  and  false  systems.  We  may 
not  point  to  trances  and  ecstasies  as  proofs 
of  a  true  Revelation,  but  still  less  may  we 
think  of  them  as  at  all  inconsistent  with  it. 
Thus,  though  we  have  not  the  word,  we  have 
the  thing  in  the  "deep  sleep,"  the  "  horror 
of  great  darkness,"  that  fell  on  Abraham 
(Gen.  XV.  12).  Balaam,  as  if  overcome  by 
the  constraining  power  of  a  Spirit  mightier 
than  his  own,  "  sees  the  vision  of  God, 
falling,  but  with  opened  eyes "  (Num. 
xxiv.  4).  Saul,  in  like  manner,  when  the 
wild  chant  of  the  prophets  stirred  the  old 
depths  of  feeling,  himself  also  "  prophesied" 
and  "  fell  down  "  (most,  if  not  all,  of  his 
kingly  clothing  being  thrown  off  in  the 
ecstasy  of  the  moment)  "all  that  day  and 
all  that  night "  (1  Sam.  xix.  24).  Some- 
thing there  w:as  in  Jeremiah  that  made  men 
say  of  him  that  he  was  as  one  that  "  is  mad 
and  maketh  himself  a  prophet "  (Jer.  xxix. 
26).  In  Ezekiel  the  phenomena  appear  in 
more  wonderful  and  awful  forms  (Ez.  iii. 
15).  (6.)  As  other  elements  and  forms 
of  the  prophetic  work  were  revived  in  "the 
Apostles  and  Prophets  "  of  the  N.  T.,  so 
also  was  this.  Though  different  in  form, 
it  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  phenomena 
as  the  Gift  of  Tongues,  and  is  connected 
with  "visions  and  revelations  of  the  Lord." 
In  some  cases,  indeed,  it  is  the  chosen  chan« 
nel  for  such  revelations  (Acts  x.,  xi.,  xxii. 
17-21).  Wisely  for  the  most  part  did  the 
Apostle  draw  a  veil  over  these  more  mys- 
terious experiences  (2  Cor.  xii.  1-4). 
Trespass-offering.  [Sin-offebing.] 
TriaL     A  few  remarks  may  here  be 


TRIBUTE 


718 


TROOP 


added  on  judicial  proceedings  mentioned  in 
Scripture.  (1.)  The  trial  of  our  Lord  be- 
fore Pilate  was,  in  a  legal  sense,  a  trial  for 
the  offence  laesae  majestatis ;  one  wliich 
would  be  punishable  with  death  (Luke 
xxiii.  2,  38;  John  xix.  12,  15).  (2.)  The 
trials  of  the  Apostles,  of  St.  Stephen,  and 
of  St.  Paul,  before  the  high-priest,  were 
conducted  according  to  Jewish  rules  (Acts 
iv.,  V.  27,  vi.  12,  xxii.  30,  xxiii.  1).  (3.) 
The  trial;  if  it  may  be  so  called,  of  St.  Paul 
and  Silas  at  Philippi,  was  held  before  the 
duumviri,  on  tlie  charge  of  innovation  in 
religion  —  a  crime  punishable  with  banish- 
ment or  death  (Acts  xvi.  19,  22).  (4.) 
The  interrupted  trial  of  St.  Paul  before  the 
proconsul  Gallio  w,as  an  attempt  made  by 
the  Jews  to  establish  a  cliarge  of  the  same 
kind  (Acts  xviii.  12-17).  (5.)  The  trials 
of  St.  Paul  at  Caesarea  (Acts  xxiv.,  xxv., 
xxvi.)  were  conducted  according  to  Roman 
rules  of  judicature,  (a.)  In  the  first  of 
these,  before  Felix,  we  observe  the  employ- 
ment, by  the  plaintiffs,  of  a  Roman  advocate 
to  plead  in  Latin.  (6.)  The  postponement 
of  the  trial  after  St.  Paul's  reply,  (c.)  The 
free  custody  in  which  the  accused  was  kept, 
pending  the  decision  of  the  judge  (Acts 
xxiv.  23-26).  The  second  formal  trial 
(Acts  xxv.  7,  8)  presents  two  new  features  : 
(o.)  The  appeal,  appellatio  or provocatio,  to 
Caesar,  by  St.  Paul  as  a  Roman  citizen. 
The  effect  of  the  appeal  was  to  remove  the 
case  at  once  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  em- 
peror. (6.)  The  conference  of  the  procu- 
rator with  "the  council"  (Acts  xxv.  12), 
the  assessors,  who  sat  on  the  bench  with 
the  praetor  as  consiliarii.  But  the  expres- 
sion may  denote  the  deputies  from  the 
Sanhedrim.  (6.)  We  have,  lastly,  the 
mention  (Acts  xix.  38)  of  a  judicial  assem- 
blj  which  held  its  session  at  Ephesus. 

Tribute.  The  chief  Biblical  facts  con- 
nected with  the  payment  of  tribute  have 
been  already  given  under  Taxes.  The 
tribute  (money)  mentioned  in  Matt.  xvii. 
24,  25,  was  the  half  shekel  (=  half  stater 
=  two  drachmae),  applied  to  defray  the 
general  expenses  of  the  Temple.  After  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple  it  was  seques- 
trated by  Vespasian  and  his  successors,  and 
transferred  to  the  Temple  of  the  Capitoline 
Jupiter.  This  "  tribute "  of  Matt.  xvii. 
24  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  tribute 
paid  to  the  Roman  emperor  (Matt.  xxii. 
17).  The  Temple-rate,  though  resting  on 
an  ancient  precedent  (Ex.  xxx.  13)  was,  as 
above,  a  fixed  annual  tribute  of  compara- 
tively late  origin.  The  question  whether 
the  cost  of  the  morning  and  evening  sacri- 
fice ought  to  be  defrayed  by  such  a  fixed 
compulsory  payment,  or  left  to  the  freewill- 
offerings  of  the  people,  had  been  a  contest- 
ed point  between  the  Pharisees  and  Sad- 
ducees,  and  the  former  had  carried  the  day 
after  a  long  struggle  and  debate.    We  have 


to  remember  this  when  we  come  to  the 
narrative  of  St.  Matthew.  In  a  hundred 
different  ways,  the  teaching  of  our  Lord 
had  been  in  direct  antagonism  to  that  of 
the  Pharisees.  The  Sanhedrim,  b}'  makinjj 
the  Temple-offering  a  fixed  annual  tax, 
collecting  it  as  men  collected  tribute  to 
Caesar,  were  lowering,  not  raising,  the  re- 
ligious condition  and  character  of  the  peo- 
ple. They  were  placing  every  Israelite  on 
the  footing  of  a  "  stranger,"  not  on  that  of 
a  "  son."  In  proportion  to  the  degree  in 
which  any  man  could  claim  the  title  of  a 
Son  of  God,  in  that  proportion  was  he 
"  free  "  from  this  forced  exaction.  Hence 
we  see,  in  these  words,  a  precept  as  wide 
and  far-reaching  as  the  yet  more  memora- 
ble one,  "  Render  unto  Caesar  the  things 
that  be  Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the  things 
that  be  God's." 

Tribute-money.  [Taxes;  Tribute.] 

Trip'olis,  the  Greek  name  of  a  Phoeni- 
cian city  of  great  commercial  importance, 
which  served  at  one  time  as  a  point  of  fed- 
eral union  for  Aradus,  Sidon,  and  Tyre. 
What  its  Phoenician  name  was  is  unknown 
(2  Mace.  xiv.  1).  The  ancient  Tripolis 
was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Sultan  EI 
Mansour  in  the  year  1289  a.  d.  ;  and  the 
modern  Turahlous  is  situated  a  couple  of 
miles  distant  to  the  east,  and  is  no  longer 
a  port.  El  Myna,  which  is  perhaps  on  th» 
site  of  the  ancient  Tripolis,  is  a  small  fish- 
ing village. 

Tro'as,  the  city  from  which  St.  Paul 
first  sailed,  in  consequence  of  a  divine  in- 
timation, to  carry  the  Gospel  from  Asia  to 
Europe  (Acts  xvi.  8,  11).  It  is  mentioned 
on  other  occasions  (Acts  xx.  5,  6 ;  2  Cor. 
ii.  12,  13 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  13).  Its  full  name 
was  Alexandria  Troas  (Liv.  xxxv.  42),  and 
sometimes  it  was  called  simply  Alexandria, 
sometimes  simply  Troas.  It  wsis  first  built 
by  Antigonus,  under  the  name  of  Antigonea 
Troas,  and  peopled  with  the  inhabitants  of 
some  neighboring  cities.  Afterwards  it  was 
embellished  by  Lysimachus,  and  named 
Alexandria  Troas.  Its  situation  was  on 
the  coast  of  Mysia,  opposite  the  S.  E.  ex- 
tremity of  the  island  of  Tenedos.  Under 
the  Romans  it  was  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant towns  of  the  province  of  Asia.  In  the 
time  of  St.  Paul  it  was  a  colonia  with  the 
Jus  Italicum.  The  modern  name  is  Eski- 
Stamboul,  with  considerable  ruins.  We  can 
still  trace  the  harbor  in  a  basin  about  400 
feet  long  and  200  broad. 

Trogyl'lium  is  the  rocky  extremity  of 
the  ridge  of  Mycale,  exactly  opposite  Sa- 
mo8  (Acts  XX.  15).  A  little  to  the  east  of 
the  extreme  point  there  is  an  anchorage, 
which  is  still  called  St.  Paul's  Port.     [Sa- 

MOS.] 

Troop,  Band.  These  words  are  em- 
ployed to  represent  the  Hebrew  word 
gidild,  which  has  invariably  the  sense  of  aa 


TROPHIMUS 


719 


TUBAL-CAIN 


Irregular  force,  gathered  with  the  object  of 
luarauding  and  plunder. 

Troph'imus.  Both  he  and  Tychicus 
accompanied  St.  Paul  from  Macedonia  as 
far  as  Asia,  but  Tychicus  seems  to  have  re- 
mained there,  while  Trophimus  proceeded 
with  the  Apostle  to  Jerusalem.  Tliere  he 
was  the  innocent  cause  of  the  tumult  in 
which  St.  Paul  was  apprehended  (Acts  xxi. 
27-29).  From  this  passage  we  learn  two 
new  facts,  viz.  that  Trophimus  was  a  Gen- 
tile, and  that  he  was  a  native  of  Ephescs. 
Trophimus  was  probably  one  of  the  two 
bretliren  who,  with  Titus,  conveyed  the  2d 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (2  Cor.  viii.  IG- 
2i).     [Tychicus.] 

Trumpet.     [Cornet.] 

Trumpets,  Feast  of  (Num.  xxix.  1 ; 
Lev.  xxiii.  24),  the  fe.ast  of  the  new  moon, 
which  fell  on  tlie  first  of  Tizri.  It  differed 
from  the  ordinary  festivals  of  the  new  moon 
in  several  important  particulars.  It  was 
one  of  the  seven  days  of  Holy  Convocation. 
Instead  of  the  mere  blowing  of  the  trum- 
pets of  the  Temple  at  the  time  of  the  offer- 
ing of  the  sacrifices,  it  was  "  a  day  of  blow- 
ing of  trumpets."  In  addition  to  the  daily 
sacrifices  and  the  elevcH  victims  offered  on 
the  first  of  every  month,  there  were  offered 
a  young  bullock,  a  ram,  and  seven  lambs 
of  the  first  year,  with  the  accustomed  meat- 
offerings, and  a  kid  for  a  sin-offering  (Num. 
xxix.  1-6).  The  regular  monthly  offering 
was  thus  repeated,  with  the  exception  of 
the  young  bullock.  It  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  Ps.  Ixxxi.,  one  of  the  songs  of 
Asaph,  was  composed  expressly  for  the 
Feast  of  Trumpets.  The  Psalm  is  used 
in  the  service  for  the  day  by  the  modern 
Jews.  Various  meanings  have  been  as- 
signed to  the  Feast  of  Trumpets.  But 
there  seems  to  be  no  sufficient  reason  to 
call  in  question  the  common  opinion  of 
Jews  and  Christians,  that  it  was  the  festival 
of  the  New  Year's  Day  of  the  civil  year, 
the  first  of  Tizri,  the  month  which  com- 
menced the  Ssibbatical  year  and  the  year 
of  Jubilee. 

Tryplie'na  and  Trypho'sa,  two  Chris- 
tian women  at  Rome,  enumerated  in  the 
conclusion  of  St.  Paul's  letter  (Rom.  xvi. 
12).  They  may  have  been  sisters,  but  it  is 
more  likely  that  they  were  fellow-deacon- 
esses. We  know  nothing  more  of  these 
two  sister-workers  of  the  Apostolic  time. 
It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  columbaria 
of  '*  Caesar's  household,"  in  the  Vigna 
Codini,  near  Porta  S.  Sebasiiano,  contain 
the  name  Tryphena. 

Try'ph.oil,  a  usurper  of  the  Syrian 
throne.  His  proper  name  was  Diodotus, 
and  the  surname  Tryphon  was  given  to 
him,  or  adopted  by  him,  after  his  accession 
to  power. .  He  was  a  native  of  Cariana. 
In  the  time  of  Alexander  Balas  he  was 
attached  to  the  court;  but  towards  the  close 


of  his  reign  he  seems  to  have  joined  in  the 
conspiracy  which  was  set  on  foot  to  transfer 
the  crown  of  Syria  to  Ptolemy  Pliilometor 
(1  Mace.  xi.  13).  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander Balas  he  took  advantage  of  the  un- 
popularity of  Demetrius  II.  to  put  forward 
the  claims  of  Antiochus  VI.,  the  young 
son  of  Alexander  (1  Mace.  xi.  39 ;  b.  c. 
145).  After  a  time  he  obtained  the  sup- 
port of  Jonathan,  and  the  young  king  was 
crowned  (b.  c.  144).  Tryphon,  however, 
soon  revealed  his  real  designs  on  the  king- 
dom, and,  fearing  the  opposition  of  Jona- 
than, he  gained  possession  of  his  person  by 
treachery  (1  Mace.  xii.  39-50),  and  after  a 
short  time  put  him  to  death  (1  Mace.  xiii. 
23).  As  the  way  seemed  now  clear,  he 
murdered  Antiochus  and  seized  the  su- 
preme power  (1  Mace.  xiii.  31,  32).  De- 
metrius was  preparing  an  expedition  against 
him  (b.  c.  141),  when  he  was  taken  prisoner 
(1  Mace.  xiv.  1-3),  and  Tryphon  retained 
the  throne  till  Antiochus  VII.,  the  brother 
of  Demetrius,  drove  him  to  Dora,  from 
which  he  escaped  to  Orthosia  (1  Mace.  xv. 
10-14,  37-39;  b.  c.  139).  Not  long  after- 
wards, being  hard  pressed  by  Antiochus, 
he  committed  suicide,  or,  according  to  other 
accounts,  was  put  to  death  by  Antiochus. 

Tiypho'sa.     [Tryphena.] 

Tu'Dal  is  reckoned  with  Javan  and  Me- 
shech  among  the  sons  of  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2;  1  Chr.  i.  5).  The  three  are  again  asso- 
ciated in  the  enumeration  of  the  sources 
of  the  wealth  of  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii,  13). 
Tubal  and  Javan  (Is.  Ixvi.  19),  Meshech 
and  Tubal  (Ez.  xxxii.  26,  xxxviii.  2,  3, 
xxxix.  1),  are  nations  of  the  north  (Ez. 
xxxviii.  15,  xxxix.  2).  Josephus  identifies 
the  descendants  of  Tubal  with  the  Iberians, 
that  is,  the  inhabitants  of  a  tract  of  coun- 
try between  the  Caspian  and  Euxine  Seas, 
which  nearly  corresponded  to  the  modem 
Georgia.  The  Moschi  and  Tibareni  are 
constantly  associated  under  the  names  of 
Muskai  and  Tuplai  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions. In  former  times  the  Tibareni  were 
probably  more  important,  and  the  Moschi 
and  Tibareni,  Meshech  and  Tubal,  may 
have  been  names  by  which  powerful  hordes 
of  Scythians  were  known  tc  the  Hebrews. 
But  in  history  we  only  hear  of  them  as 
pushed  to  the  farthest  limits  of  their  an- 
cient settlements,  and  occupying  merely  a 
strip  of  coast  along  the  Euxine.  In  the 
time  of  Xenophon  the  Tibareni  were  an 
independent  tribe.  Long  before  this  they 
were  subject  to  a  number  of  petty  chiefs, 
which  was  a  principal  element  of  their 
weakness,  and  rendered  their  subjugation 
by  Ass^ia  more  easy.  The  Arabic  Ver- 
sion of  Gen.  X.  2  gives  Chorasan  and  China 
for  Meshech  and  Tubal ;  in  Eusebius  (see 
Bochart)  they  are  Illyria  and  Thessaly. 

Tu'bal-ca'in,  the  son  of  Laraech  th» 
Cainite  by  his  wife  Zillah  (Gen.  iv.  22) 


TURPENTINE-TREE 


720 


TYRE 


He  is  called  *'  a  furbisher  of  every  cutting 
instrument  of  copper  and  iron." 

Turpentine-tree  occurs  only  once, 
viz.  in  the  Apocrypha  (Ecclus.  xxiv.  16). 
It  is  the  Pistacia  terebinthus,  terebinth- 
tree,  common  in  Palestine  and  the  East. 
The  terebinth  occasionally  grows  to  a  large 
size.  It  belongs  to  the  Nat.  Order  Anacar- 
diaceae,  the  plants  of  which  order  generally 
contain  resinous  secretions. 

Turtle,  Turtle-dove  (Heb.  idr). 
The  turtle-dove  occurs  first  in  Scripture 
in  Gen.  xv.  9.  During  the  early  period  of 
Jewish  history,  there  is  no  evidence  of  any 
other  bird  except  the  pigeon  having  been 
domesticated,  and  up  to  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, who  may,  with  the  peacock,  have 
introduced  other  gallinaceous  birds  from 
India,  it  was  probably  the  only  poultry 
known  to  the  Israelites.  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  the  palm-dove  (^Tut-tur  aegyptia- 
cus,  Temm.)  may  in  some  measure  have 
supplied  the  sacrifices  in  the  wilderness, 
for  it  is  found,  in  amazing  numbers  wher- 
ever the  palm-tree  occurs,  whether  wild  or 
cultivated.  From  its  habit  of  pairing  for 
life,  and  its  fidelity  for  its  mate,  it  was  a 
symbol  of  purity  and  an  appropriate  offer- 
ing. The  regular  migration  of  the  turtle- 
dove and  its  return  in  spring  are  alluded 
to  in  Jer.  viii.  7,  and  Cant.  ii.  11,  12.  It  is 
from  its  plaintive  note  doubtless  that  David, 
in  Ps.  Ixxiv.  19,  poiiring  forth  his  lament 
to  God,  compares  himself  to  a.  turtle-dove. 
The  turtle-dove  {Turtur  auritus,  L.)  is 
most  abundant,  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  an  allied  species,  the  palm-dove, 
or  Egyptian  turtle  {Turtur  aegyptiacus, 
Temm.),  is  by  no  means  uncommon. 

Tych'icus  and  Troph'imus,  com- 
panions of  St.  Paul  on  some  of  his  journeys, 
are  mentioned  as  natives  of  Asia.  (1.)  In 
Acts  XX.  4,  Tychicus  and  Trophimus  are 
expressly  said  to  be  "  of  Asia;  "  but  while 
Trophimus  went  with  St.  Paul  to  Jerusa- 
lem (Acts  xxi.  29),  Tychicus  was  left  be- 
hind in  Asia,  probably  at  Miletus  (Acts  xx. 
15,  38).  (2.)  How  Tychicus  was  employed 
in  the  interval  before  St.  Paul's  first  im- 
prisonment we  cannot  tell ;  but  in  that  im- 
prisonment he  was  with  the  Apostle  again, 
as  we  see  from  Col.  iv.  7,  8.  Together 
with  Onesimus,  he  was  doubtless  the  bearer 
both  of  tills  letter  and  the  following  as  well 
*  to  Philemon.  (3.)  The  language  concern- 
ing Tychicus  in  Eph.  vi.  21,  22,  is  very 
similar,  though  not  exactly  in  the  same 
words.  (4.)  The  next  references  are  in 
the  Pastoral  Epistles,  the  first  in  chrono- 
logical order  being  Tit.  iii.  12.  Here  St. 
Paul  (writing  possibly  from  Ephesus)  says 
that  it  is  probable  he  may  send  Tychicus  to 
Crete,  about  the  time  when  he  himself  goes 
to  Nicopolis.  (5.)  In  2  Tim.  iv.  12  (writ- 
ten at  Rome  during  the  second  imprison- 
ment) he  says,  "I  am  herewith  sending 


Tychicus  to  Ephesus."  Probably  this  mis- 
sion may  have  been  connected  with  the 
carrying  of  the  first  Epistle.  From  the 
same  Epistle  (2  Tim.  iv.  20)  we  learn  that 
Trophimus  had  been  left  by  the  Apostle  a 
little  time  previously,  in  infirm  health,  at 
Miletus.  There  is  much  probability  in  the 
conjecture  that  Tychicus  and  Trophimus 
were  the  two  brethren  who  were  associated 
with  Titus  (2  Cor.  viii.  16-24)  in  conduct- 
ing the  business  of  the  collection  for  the 
poor  Christians  in  Judaea. 

Tyran'nus,  the  name  of  a  man  in  whose 
school  or  place  of  audience  Paul  taught  the 
Gospel  for  two  years,  during  his  sojourn 
at  Ephesus  (see  Acts  xix.  9).  The  pre- 
sumption is,  that  Tyrannus  himself  was  a 
Greek,  and  a  public  teacher  of  philosophy 
or  rhetoric. 

T3rre,  a  celebrated  commercial  city  of 
Phoenicia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea.  Its  Hebrew  name  "  Tzor  "  sig- 
nifies a  rock ;  which  well  agrees  with  the 
site  of  Siir,  the  modern  town,  on  a  rocky 
peninsula,  formerly  an  island.  There  is 
no  doubt  that,  previous  to  the  siege  of  the 
city  by  Alexander  the  Great,  Tyre  was  sit- 
uated on  an  islancf;  but,  according  to  the 
tradition  of  the  inhabitants,  there  was  a  city 
on  the  mainland  before  there  was  a  city  on 
the  island ;  and  the  tradition  receives  some 
color  from  the  name  of  Palaetyrus,  or  Old 
Tyre,  which  was  borne  in  Greek  times  by 
a  city  on  the  continent,  30  stadia  to  the 
south.  But  a  difficulty  arises  in  supposing 
that  Palaetyrus  was  built  before  Tyre,  as  the 
word  Tyre  evidently  means  a  "  a  rock,"  and 
few  persons  who  have  visited  the  site  of 
Palaetyrus  can  seriously  suppose  that  any 
rock  on  the  surface  there  can  have  given  rise 
to  the  name.  It  is  important,  however,  to 
bear  in  mind  that  this  question  regarding 
Palaetyrus  is  merely  archaeological,  and 
that  nothing  in  Biblical  history  is  affected  by 
it.  Nebuchadnezzar  necessarily  besieged 
the  portion  of  the  city  on  the  mainland,  aa 
he  had  no  vessels  with  which  to  attack  the 
island ;  but  it  is  reasonalily  certain  that,  in 
the  time  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  the  heart 
or  core  of  the  city  was  on  tie  island. 
Whether  built  before  or  later  than  Palae- 
tyrus, the  renowned  city  of  Tyre,  though 
it  laid  claims  to  a  very  high  antiquity  (Is. 
xxiii.  7),  is  not  mentioned  either  in  the 
Iliad  or  in  the  Odyssey.  The  tribe  of  Ca- 
naanites  which  inhabited  the  small  tract 
of  country  which  may  be  called  Phoenicia 
Proper  was  known  by  the  generic  name  of 
Sidonians  (Judg.  xviii.  7;  Is.  xxiii.  2,  4, 
12;  Josh.  xiii.  6;  Ez.  xxxii.  30)  ;  and  this 
name  undoubtedly  included  Tyrians,  the 
inhabitants  being  of  the  same  race,  and  the 
two  cities  being  less  than  20  English  miles 
distant  from  each  other.  In  the  Bible, 
Tyre  is  named  for  the  first  time  in  the  Book 
of  Joshua  (xix.  29),  where  it  is  adverted  to 


TYRE 


721 


TYRE 


as  a  fortified  city  (in  the  A.  V.  ••  the  strong 
city  "),  in  reference  to  the  boundaries  of 
the  tribe  of  Asher.  The  Israelites  dwelt 
among  the  Sidonians  or  Phoenicians,  wlio 
were  inhabitants  of  the  land  (Judg.  i.  31, 
32),  and  never  seem  to  have  had  any  war 
with  that  intelligent  race.  Subsequently, 
in  a  passage  of  Samuel  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  7), 
it  is  stated  that  the  enumerators  of  the  cen- 
sus in  the  reign  of  David  went  in  pursu- 
ance of  their  mission  to  Tyre,  amongst 
other  cities,  which  must  be  understood  as 
implying,  not  that  Tyre  was  subject  to  Da- 
vid's authority,  but  merely  that  a  census 
was  thus  taken  of  the  Jews  resident  there. 
But  the  first  passages  in  the  Hebrew  his- 
torical writings,  or  in  ancient  history  gen- 
erally, whicli  afford  glimpses  of  the  actual 
condition  of  Tyre,  are  in  the  Book  of  Sam- 
uel (2  Sam.  V.  11),  in  connection  with  Hi- 
ram king  of  Tyre  sending  cedar-wood  and 
workmen  to  David,  for  building  him  a  pal- 
ace; and  subsequently  in  the  Book  of 
Kings,  in  connection  with  the  building  of 
Solomon's  temple.  It  is  evident  that  under 
Solomon  there  was  a  close  alliance  between 
the  Hebrews  and  the  Tyrians.  Hiram  sup- 
plied Solomon  with  cedar-wood,  precious 
metals,  and  workmen,  and  gave  him  sailors 
for  the  voyage  to  Opliir  and  India,  while  on 
the  other  hand  Solomon  gave  Hiram  sup- 
plies of  corn  and  oil,  ceded  to  him  some 
cities,  and  permitted  him  to  make  use  of 
some  havens  on  the  Red  Sea  (1  K.  ix.  11- 
14,  26-28,  X.  22).  These  friendly  relations 
survived  for  a  time  the  disastrous  secession 
of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  a  century  later 
Ahab  married  a  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king 
of  the  Sidonians  (1  K.  xvi.  31),  who,  ac- 
cording to  Menander,  was  daughter  of  Ith- 
obal,  king  of  Tyre.  When  mercantile  cu- 
pidity induced  the  Tyrians  and  the  neigh- 
boring Phoenicians  to  buy  Hebrew  captives 
from  their  enemies,  and  to  sell  them  as 
slaves  to  the  Greeks  and  Edomites,  there 
commenced  denunciations,  and,  at  first, 
threats  of  retaliation  (Joel  iii.  4-8 ;  Amos 
i.  9,  10).  Wlien  Shalmaneser,  king  of  As- 
syria, had  taken  the  city  of  Samaria,  had 
conquered  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  car- 
ried its  inhabitants  into  captivity,  he  laid 
siege  to  Tyre,  which,  however,  successful- 
ly resisted  his  arms.  It  is  in  reference  to 
this  siege  that  the  prophecy  against  Tyre 
in  Isaiah,  chap,  xxiii.,  was  uttered.  After 
the  siege  of  Tyre  by  Shalmaneser  (which 
must  have  taken  place  not  long  after  721 
B.  c),  Tyre  remained  a  powerful  state  with 
its  own  kings  (Jer.  xxv.  22,  xxvii.  3;  Ez. 
xxviii.  2-12),  remarkable  for  its  wealth, 
with  territory  on  the  mainland,  and  pro- 
tected by  strong  fortifications  (Ez.  xxviii. 
5,  xxvi.  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  xxvii.  11 ;  Zech.  ix. 
3).  Our  knowledge  of  its  condition  thence- 
forward until  the  siege  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
depends  entirely  on  various  notices  of  it 
46 


by  the  Hebrew  prophets ;  but  some  of  these 
notices  are  singularly  full,  and  especially 
the  twenty-seventh  ciiapter  of  Ezekiel  fur- 
nishes us,  on  some  points,  with  details  such 
as  have  scarcely  come  down  to  us  respecting 
any  one  city  of  antiquity,  excepting  Rome 
and  Athens.  One  point  especially  arrests 
the  attention  —  that  Tyre,  like  its  splendid 
daughter  Carthage,  employed  mercenary 
soldiers  (Ez.  xxvii^O,  11).  Independently, 
however,  of  this  fact  respecting  Tyrian  mer- 
cenary soldiers,  Ezekiel  gives  interesting 
details  concerning  the  trade  of  Tyre.  It  ap- 
pears that  its  gold  came  from  Arabia  by  the 
Persian  Gulf  (v.  22),  just  as  in  the  time  of 
Solomon  it  came  from  Arabia  by  the  Red  Sea. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  silver,  iron,  lead, 
and  tin  of  Tyre  came  from  a  very  different 
quarter  of  the  world,  viz.  from  the  south 
of  Spain,  where  the  Phoenicians  had  es- 
tablished their  settlement  of  Tarshish,  or 
Tartessus.  As  to  copper,  we  should  have 
presumed  that  it  was  obtained  from  the  val- 
uable mines  in  Cyprus ;  but  it  is  mentioned 
here  in  conjunction  with  Javan,  Tubal,  and 
Mesliech,  which  points  to  the  districts  on 
the  south  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Armenia,  in  the  southern  line 
of  the  Caucasus,  between  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  Caspian.  The  country  whence  Tyre 
was  supplied  with  wheat  was  Palestine. 
Tyre  likewise  obtained  from  Palestine  oil, 
honey,  and  balm,  but  not  wine  apparently, 
notwithstanding  the  abundance  of  grapes 
and  wine  in  Judah  (Gen.  xlix.  11).  The 
wine  was  imported  from  Damascus,  and 
was  called  wine  of  Helbon.  The  Bedouin 
Arabs  supplied  Tyre  with  lambs  and  rams 
and  goats.  Egypt  furnished  linen  for  sails, 
and  the  dyes  from  shell-fish  were  imported 
from  the  Peloponnesus.  Lastly,  from  De- 
dan  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  horns  of  ivory 
and  ebony  were  imported,  which  must 
originally  have  been  obtsiined  from  India. 
(Ez.  xxvii.  10,  11,  22,  12,  13,  17,  18,  21,  7,. 
15).  In  the  midst  of  great  prosperity  ani 
wealth,  which  was  the  natural  result  of 
such  an  extensive  trade  (Ez.  xxviii.  4),. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  the  Chaldees,  invaded  Judaea,  and  cap- 
tured Jerusalem.  As  Tyre  was  so  near  toi 
Jerusalem,  and  as  the  conquerors  were-  » 
fierce  and  formidable  race  (Hab.  i.  6),  it 
would  naturally  be  supposed  that  this, 
event  would  have  excited  alarm  and  terror- 
amongst  the  Tyrians.  Instead  of  this,  we 
may  infer  from  Ezekiel's  statement  (xxvi. 
2)  that  their  predominant  feeling  was  one- 
of  exultation.  At  first  sight  this  appears 
strange  and  almost  inconceivable;  but  it 
is  rendered  intelligible  by  some  previous 
events  in  Jewish  history.  Only  34  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  com- 
menced the  celebrated  Reformation  of 
Josiah,  B.  c.  622.  This  momentous  reli- 
gious revolution  (2  K.  xxii.,  xxiii.)  fully 


TYRE 


722 


ULAI 


explains  the  exultation  and  malevolence 
of  the  Tyrians.  In  that  Reformation, 
Josiah  liad  heaped  insults  on  the  gods  who 
were  the  objects  of  Tyrian  veneration  and 
love.  Indeed,  he  seemed  to  have  en- 
deavored to  exterminate  their  religion  (2 
K.  xxiii.  20).  These  acts  must  have  been 
regarded  by  the  Tyrians  as  a  series  of 
sacrilegious  and  abominable  outrages ;  and 
we  can  scarcely  doubt.that  tlie  death  in 
battle  of  Josiah  at  Megiddo,  and  the  subse- 
quent destruction  of  the  city  and  Temple 
of  Jerusalem,  were  hailed  by  them  with 
triumphant  joy  as  instances  of  divine  ret- 
ribution in  human  affairs.  This  joy,  how- 
ever, must  soon  have  given  way  to  other 
feelings,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  invaded 
Phoenicia,  and  laid  siege  to  Tyre.  That 
siege  lasted  tliirteen  years,  and  it  is  still  a 
disputed  point  whether  Tyre  was  actually 
taken  by  Nebucliadnezzar  on  this  occasion. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  probable  that, 
on  some  terms  or  other.  Tyre  submitted  to 
the  Clialdees.  The  rule  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar over  Tyre,  though  real,  may  have  been 
light,  and  in  the  nature  of  an  alliance. 
During  the  Persian  domination  the  Tyrians 
were  subject  in  name  to  the  Persian  king, 
and  may  have  given  him  tribute.  With 
the  rest  of  Phoenicia,  they  had  submitted 
to  the  Persians  without  striking  a  blow. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  following  cen- 
tury, B.  c.  332,  Tyre  was  assailed  for  the 
third  time  by  a  great  conqueror.  At  that 
time  Tyre  was  situated  on  an  island  nearly 
half  a  mile  from  the  mainland ;  it  was  com- 
pletely surrounded  by  prodigious  walls,  the 
loftiest  portion  of  which  on  the  side  front- 
ing the  mainland  reached  a  height  of  not 
less  than  150  feet;  and  notwithstanding  the 
persevering  efforts  of  Alexander,  he  could 
not  have  succeeded  in  his  attempt,  if  the 
harbor  of  Tyre  to  the  north  had  not  been 
blockaded  by  the  Cyprians,  and  that  to  the 
south  by  the  Phoenicians,  thus  affording 
an  opportunity  to  Alexander  for  uniting 
tlie  island  to  the  mainland  by  an  enormous 
artificial  mole.  The  immediate  results  of 
the  capture  by  Alexander  were  most  dis- 
astrous to  it,  as  its  brave  defenders  were 
put  to  death ;  and  in  accordance  with  the 
barbarous  policy  of  p.ncient  times,  30,000 
of  its  inhabitants,  including  slaves,  free 
females  and  free  children,  were  sold  as 
slaves.  It  gradually,  however,  recovered 
its  prosperity  through  the  immigration  of 
fresh  settlers,  though  its  trade  is  said  to 
have  suffered  by  the  vicinity  and  rivalry  of 
Alexandria.  Under  the  Macedonian  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander  it  shared  the  fortunes 
of  the  Seleucidae.  Under  the  Romans,  at 
firstit  continued  to  enjoy  a  kind  of  freedom. 
£«lree<iuently,  however,  on  the  arrival  of 
Aug-iistus  in  the  East,  he  is  said  to  have  | 
deprived  both  Tyre  and  Sidon  of  their  liber-  I 
ties  ibr  seditious  conduct.     Still  the  pros-  { 


perity  of  Tyre  in  the  time  of  Augustus  wag 
undeniably  great.  Strabo  gives  an  account 
of  it  at  that  period,  and  speaks  of  the 
great  wealth  which  it  derived  from  the 
dyes  of  the  celebrated  Tyrian  purple, 
which,  as  is  well  known,  were  extracted 
from  shell-fish  found  on  the  coast,  belong- 
ing to  a  species  of  the  genus  Murex.  The 
accounts  of  Strabo  and  Pliny  have  a  pecu- 
liar interest  in  this  respect,  that  they  tend 
to  convey  an  idea  of  what  the  city  must 
have  been,  when  visited  by  Christ  (Matt. 
XV.  21;  Mark  vii.  24).  It  was  perhaps 
more  populous  than  Jerusalem,  and  if  so, 
it  was  undoubtedly  the  largest  city  which 
he  is  known  to  have  visited.  At  the  time 
of  the  crusades  Tyre  was  still  a  flourish- 
ing city,  when  it  surrendered  to  the  Chris- 
tians on  the  27th  of  June,  1144.  It  con- 
tinued more  than  a  century  and  a  half  ia 
the  hands  of  Christians,  but  was  deserted 
by  its  inhabitants  in  a.  d.  1291,  upon  the 
conquest  of  Acre  (Ptolemais)  by  the  Sul- 
tan of  Egypt  and  Damascus.  This  was 
the  turning-point  in  the  history  of  Tyre, 
which  has  not  yet  recovered  from  the  blow. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
there  has  been  a  partial  revival  of  pros- 
perity. 

Ty'rus.  This  form  is  employed  in  the 
A.  V.  of  the  Books  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Hosea  (Joel  has  "Tyre"),  Amos,  Zecli- 
ariali,  as  follows :  Jer.  xxv.  22,  xxvii.  3, 
xlvii.  4;  Ezek.  xxvi.  2,  3,  4,  7,  15,  xxvii. 
2,  3,  8,  32,  xxviii.  2,  12,  xxix.  18 ;  Hos.  ix. 
13;  Am.  i.  9,  10;  Zech.  ix.  2,  3. 


U. 


TJ'cal.  According  to  the  received  text 
of  Prov.  XXX.  1,  Ithiel  and  Ucal  must  be 
regarded  as  proper  names ;  and  if  so,  they 
must  be  the  names  of  disciples  or  sons  of 
Agur  the  son  of  Jakeh,  an  unknown  sage 
among  the  Hebrews.  But  there  is  great 
obscurity  about  the  passage.  Ewald  con- 
siders both  Ithiel  and  Ucal  as  symbolical 
names,  employed  by  the  poet  to  designate 
two  classes  of  thinkers  to  whom  he  ad- 
dresses himself. 

U'el,  one  of  the  family  of  Bani,  who 
during  the  Captivity  had  married  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezr.  x.  34). 

Uk'naz.  In  the  margin  of  1  Chr.  iv. 
15  the  words  "even  Kenaz"  in  the  text 
are  rendered  "  Uknaz,"  as  the  proper  name. 

U'lai  is  mentioned  by  Daniel  (viii.  2, 
16)  as  a  river  near  to  Susa,  where  he  saw 
his  vision  of  the  ram  and  the  he-goat.  It 
has  been  generally  identified  with  the  Eu- 
laeus  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  geograpiiers, 
a  large  stream  in  the  immediate  neiehbor- 
hood  of  that  city.  The  Eulaeus  has  been 
by   many  identified    with    the    Choaspes, 


ULAM 


723 


UNCLEANNESS 


which  is  undoubtedly  the  modem  Kerkhah, 
an  affluent  of  the  Tigris,  flowing  into  it  a 
little  below  Kurnah. 

XJ  lam.  1.  A  descendant  of  Gilead,  the 
grandson  of  Manasseh,  and  father  of  Bedan 
(1  Chr.  vii.  17).  2.  The  first-born  of 
Eshek,  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  Saul 
(1  Chr.  viii.  39,  40). 

Ul'la,  an  Asherite,  head  of  a  family  in 
his  tribe  (1  Chr.  vii.  39). 

Um'mah,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  allot- 
ment of  Aslier  (Josh.  xix.  30  only).  Prob- 
ably 'Alma  in  the  highlands  on  the  coast, 
about  five  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Ras  en-Nak- 
hiira. 

Unclean  Meats.  These  were  things 
strangled,  or  dead  of  themselves,  or  through 
beasts  or  birds  of  prey ;  whatever  beast  did 
not  both  part  the  hoof  and  chew  the  cud ; 
and  certain  other  smaller  animals  rated  as 
"  creeping  things ;  "  certain  classes  of  birds 
mentioned  in  Lev.  xi.  and  Deut.  xiv.,  twenty 
or  twenty-one  in  all ;  whatever  in  the  waters 
had  not  both  fins  and  scales ;  whatever 
winged  insect  had  not  besides  four  legs  the 
two  hind-legs  for  leaping;  besides  things 
offered  in  sacrifice  to  idols ;  and  all  blood 
or  whatever  contained  it  (save  perhaps  the 
blood  of  fish,  as  would  appear  from  that 
only  of  beast  and  bird  being  forbidden. 
Lev,  vii.  26),  and  therefore  flesh  cut  from 
the  live  animal ;  as  also  all  fat,  at  any  rate 
that  disposed  in  masses  among  the  intes- 
tines, and  probably  wherever  discernible 
and  separable  among  the  flesh  (Lev.  iii. 
li-17,  vii.  23).  The  eating  of  blood  was 
prohibited  even  to  "  the  stranger  that  so- 
journeth  among  you"  (Lev.xvii.  10, 12, 13, 
14).  As  regards  blood,  the  prohibition  in- 
deed dates  from  the  declaration  to  Noah 
against  "  flesh  with  the  life  thereof,  which 
is  the  blood  thereof,"  in  Gen.  ix.  4,  which 
■was  perhaps  regarded  by  Moses  as  still 
binding  upon  all  Noah's  descendants.  It 
is  noteworthy  that  the  practical  effect  of 
the  rule  laid  down  is  to  exclude  all  the 
carnivora  among  quadrupeds,  and,  so  far 
as  we  can  interpret  the  nomenclature,  the 
rapiores  among  birds.  They  were  proba- 
bly excluded  as  being  not  averse  to  human 
carcasses,  and  in  most  Eastern  countries 
acting  as  the  servitors  of  the  battle-field 
and  the  gibbet.  Even  swine  have  been 
known  so  to  feed;  and  further,  by  their 
constant  runcation  among  whatever  lies  on 
the  ground,  suggest  impurity,  even  if  they 
were  not  generally  foul  feeders.  Amongst 
fish  those  which  were  allowed  contain  un- 
questionably the  most  wholesome  varieties, 
save  that  they  exclude  the  oyster.  Practi- 
cally the  law  left  among  the  allowed  meats 
an  ample  variety,  and  no  inconvenience 
was  likely  to  arise  from  a  prohibition  to 
eat  camels,  horses,  and  asses.  As  Orien- 
tals have  minds  sensitive  to  teaching  by 
types,  there  can  be  httle  doubt  that  such 


ceremonial  distinctions  not  only  tended  to 
keep  Jew  and  Gentile  apart,  but  were  a 
perpetual  reminder  to  the  former  that  he 
and  the  latter  were  not  on  one  level  before 
God.  Hence,  when  that  ceremony  was 
changed,  we  find  that  this  was  the  very 
symbol  selected  to  instruct  St.  Peter  in  the 
truth  that  God  was  not  a  "respecter  of 
persons."  It  was  no  mere  question  of 
which  among  several  means  of  supporting 
life  a  man  chose  to  adopt,  when  the  perse- 
cutor dictated  the  alternative  of  swine's 
flesh  or  the  loss  of  life  itself,  but  whether 
he  should  surrender  the  badge  and  type  of 
that  privilege  by  which  Israel  stood  as  the 
favored  nation  before  God  (1  Mace.  i.  63, 
64;  2  Mace.  vi.  18,  vii.  1).  The  same 
feeling  led  to  the  exaggeration  of  the  Mo- 
saic regulations,  until  it  was  "  unlawful  for 
a  man  that  was  a  Jew  to  keep  company 
with  or  come  unto  one  of  another  nation  " 
(Acts  X.  28)  ;  and  with  such  intensity  were 
badges  of  distinction  cherished,  that  the 
wine,  bread,  oil,  cheese,  or  anything  cooked 
by  a  heathen,  were  declared  unlawful  for  a 
Jew  to  eat.  It  remains  to  mention  the  san- 
itary aspect  of  the  case.  Swine  are  said  to 
be  peculiarly  liable  to  disease  in  their  own 
bodies.  This  probably  means  that  they  are 
more  easily  led  than  other  creatures  to  the 
foul  feeding  which  produces  it.  As  regards 
the  animals  allowed  for  food,  comparing 
them  with  those  forbidden,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  on  which  side  the  balance  of  whole- 
someness  lies. 

Uncleanness.  The  distinctive  idea 
attached  to  ceremonial  uncleanness  among 
the  Hebrews  was,  that  it  cut  a  person  off 
for  the  time  from  social  privileges,  and  left 
his  citizenship  among  God's  people  for  the 
while  in  abeyance.  There  is  an  intense 
reality  in  the  fact  of  the  Divine  Law  tak- 
ing hold  of  a  man  by  the  ordinary  infirnu- 
ties  of  flesh,  and  setting  its  stamp,  as  it 
were,  in  the  lowest  clay  of  which  he  is 
moulded.  The  sacredness  attached  to  the 
human  body  is  parallel  to  that  which  in- 
vested the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  itself.  It 
is  as  though  Jehovah  thereby  would  teach 
them  that  the  "very  hairs  of  their  head 
were  all  numbered"  before  him,  and  that 
"in  his  book  were  all  their  members  writ- 
ten." Thus  was  inculcated,  so  to  speak,  a 
bodily  holiness.  Nor  were  the  Israelites  to 
be  only  "  separated  from  other  people,"  but 
they  were  to  be  "  holy  unto  God  "  (Lev.  xx. 
24,  26),  "  a  kingdom  of  priests,  and  a  holy 
nation."  The  importance  to  physical  well- 
being  of  the  injunctions  which  required 
frequent  ablution,  under  wliatevcr  special 
pretexts,  can  be  but  feebly  appreciated  in 
our  cooler  and  damper  climate.  Unclean- 
ness, as  referred  to  man,  may  be  arranged 
in  three  degrees;  (1)  that  which  defiled 
merely  "  until  even,"  and  was  removed  by 
bathing  and  washing  the  clothes  at  the  end 


UNDERGIRDING 


724 


UR 


of  it  —  such  were  all  contacts  with  dead 
animals ;  (2)  that  graver  sort  which  defiled 
for  seven  days,  and  was  removed  by  the 
use  of  the  "water  of  separation"  —  such 
were  all  defilements  connected  with  tlie 
human  corpse ;  (3)  uncleanness  from  the 
morbid,  puerperal,  or  menstrual  state,  last- 
ing as  long  as  that  morbid  state  lasted  ;  and 
in  tlie  case  of  leprosy  lasting  often  for  life. 
As  the  human  person  was  itself  the  seat  of 
a  covenant-token,  so  male  and  female  had 
each  their  ceremonial  obligations  in  pro- 
portion to  their  sexual  differences.  There 
is  an  emphatic  reminder  of  human  weak- 
ness in  the  fact  of  birth  and  death  —  man's 
passage  alike  into  and  out  of  his  mortal 
state  —  being  marked  with  a  stated  pollu- 
tion. The  corpse  bequeathed  a  defilement 
of  seven  days  to  all  who  handled  it,  to  the 
"tent"  or  chamber  of  death,  and  to  sundry 
things  within  it.  Nay,  contact  with  one 
slain  in  the  fiold  of  battle,  or  with  even  a 
human  bone  or  grave,  was  no  less  effectual 
to  pollute,  than  that  with  a  corpse  dead  by 
the  course  of  nature  (Num.  xix.  11-18). 
Tliis  shows  that  the  source  of  pollution  lay 
in  the  mere  fact  of  death.  The  duration 
of  defilement  caused  by  the  birth  of  a 
female  infant,  being  double  that  due  to  a 
male,  extending  respectively  to  eighty  and 
forty  days  in  all  (Lev.  xii.  2-5),  may  per- 
haps represent  the  woman's  heavier  share 
in  the  first  sin  and  first  curse  (Gen.  iii.  16; 
1  Tim.  ii.  14).  Amongst  causes  of  defile- 
ment should  be  noticed  the  fact  that  the 
ashes  of  the  red  heifer,  burnt  whole,  which 
were  mixed  with  water,  and  became  the 
standing  resource  for  purifying  unclean- 
ness in  the  second  degree,  themselves  be- 
came a  source  of  defilement  to  all  who 
were  clean,  even  as  of  purification  to  the 
unclean,  and  so  the  water.  Somewhat  sim- 
ilarly the  scape-goat,  who  bore  away  the 
sins  of  the  people,  defiled  him  who  led  him 
into  the  wilderness,  and  the  bringing  forth 
and  burning  the  sacrifice  on  the  Great  Day 
of  Atonement  had  a  similar  power.  This 
lightest  form  of  uncleanness  was  expiated 
by  bathing  the  body  and  washing  the 
clothes.  Besides  the  water  of  purification 
made  as  aforesaid,  men  and  women,  in  their 
**  issues,"  were,  after  seven  days,  reckoned 
from  the  cessation  of  the  disorder,  to  bring 
two  turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons  to  be 
killed  by  the  priests.  All  these  kinds  of 
uncleanness  disqualified  for  holy  func- 
tions :  as  the  layman  so  affected  might 
not  approach  the  congregation  and  the 
sanctuary,  so  any  priest  who  incurred  de- 
filement must  abstain  from  holy  things 
(Lev.  xxii.  2-8).  [Leprosy.]  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Persians  shows  a  singularly 
close  correspondence  witli  the  Levitical 
code. 
Undergirding,  Acts  xxvii.  17.  [Ship.] 
XJnicorn,  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.  of 


the  Hebrew  ReSm,  a  word  which  occurs 
seven  times  in  the  O.  T.  as  tlio  name  of 
some  large  wild  animal.  The  Rtim  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  however,  has  nothing  at  all 
to  do  witli  the  one-horned  animal  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  writers,  as  is  evident 
from  Deut.  xxxiii.  17,  where,  in  the  bless- 
ing of  Joseph,  it  is  said,  *'  His  glory  is  like 
the  firstling  of  his  bullock,  and  his  horns 
are  like  the  horns  of  a  unicorn  "  not,  as  the 
text  of  the  A.  V.  renders  it,  "  tlie  horns  of 
unicorns."  The  two  horns  of  the  Re6m 
are  "  the  ten  thousands  of  Ephraim  and 
the  thousands  of  Manasseh."  This  text 
puts  a  one-horned  animal  entirely  out  of 
the  question.  Considering  that  the  ReSm 
is  spoken  of  as  a  two-horned  animal  of 
great  strength  and  ferocity,  tliat  it  was 
evidently  well  known  and  often  seen  by 
the  Jews,  that  it  is  mentioned  as  an  ani- 
mal fit  for  sacrificial  purposes,  and  that  it 
is  frequently  associated  with  bulls  and  oxen, 
we  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  some 
species  of  wild-ox  is  intended.  The  allu- 
sion in  Ps.  xcii.  10,  "  But  thou  shalt  lift 
up,  as  a  Ritym,  my  horn,"  seems  to  point 
to  the  mode  in  which  the  Bovidae  use  their 
horns,  lowering  the  head  and  then  tossing 
it  up.  But  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
Avhat  particular  species  of  wild-ox  is  signi- 
fied. Probably  some  gigantic  Urus  is  in- 
tended. 

Un'm.  1.  One  of  tlie  Levite  doorkeep- 
ers in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chr.  xv.  18, 
20).  2.  A  second  Levite  (unless  the  fam- 
ily of  the  foregoing  be  intended),  concerned 
in  the  sacred  office  after  the  Return  from 
Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  9). 

U'phaz,  Jer.  X.  9 ;  Dan.  x,  5.  [Ophir.] 
Ur  was  the  land  of  Haran's  nativity 
(Gen.  xi.  28),  the  place  from  wliicli  Terah 
and  Abraham  started  "  to  go  into  the  land 
of  Canaan"  (Gen.  xi.  31).  It  is  called  in 
Genesis  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldaeans,"  while  in 
the  Acts  St.  Stephen  places  it,  by  implica- 
tion, in  Mesopotamia  (vii.  2,  4).  These 
are  all  the  indications  which  Scripture 
furnishes  as  to  its  locality.  It  has  been 
identified  by  the  most  ancient  traditions 
with  the  city  of  Or-fah  in  the  highlands  of 
Mesopotamia,  which  unite  the  table-land 
of  Armenia  to  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates. 
In  later  ages  it  was  called  Edessa,  and  was 
celebrated  as  the  capital  of  Abgarus  or  Ac- 
barus,  who  was  said  to  have  received  the 
letter  and  portrait  of  our  Saviour.  "  Two 
physical  features  must  have  secured  Orfah, 
from  the  earliest  times,  as  a  nucleus  for  the 
civilization  of  those  regions.  One  is  a  high- 
crested  crag,  the  natural  fortifications  of 
the  crested  citadel.  .  .  .  The  .  other  is  an 
abundant  spring,  issuing  in  a  pool  of 
transparent  clearness,  and  embosomed  in 
a  mass  of  luxuriant  verdure,  which,  amidst 
the  dull  brown  desert  all  around,  makes, 
and  nmst  always  have  made,  this  spot  an 


URBANE 


725 


tmiJAH 


oasis,  a  paradise,  in  the  Chaldaean  wilder- 
ness. Round  this  sacred  pool,  '  The  Beau- 
tiful Spring  Callirrhoe,'  as  it  was  called  by 
the  Greek  writers,  gather  the  modern  tra- 
ditions of  the  Patriarch."  (Stanley,  Jewish 
Chu7ch,  part  i.,  p.  7.)  But  in  opposition  to 
the  most  ancient  traditions,  many  modern 
writers  have  fixed  the  site  of  Ur  at  a  very 
different  position,  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Clialdaea,  at  Mugheir,  not  very  far  above  — 
and  probably  in  the  time  of  Abraham  actu- 
ally upon  —  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Among  the  ruins  which  are  now  seen  at  the 
spot,  are  the  remains  of  one  of  the  great 
temples,  of  a  model  similar  to  that  of  Ba- 
bel, dedicated  to  the  Moon,  to  whom  the 
city  was  sacred. 

TJr'bane  would  have  been  better  written 
Ueban  in  the  A.  V. ;  since  unlearned  readers 
sometimes  mistake  the  sex  of  this  Christian 
disciple,  who  is  in  the  long  list  of  those 
whom  St.  Paul  salutes  in  writing  to  Rome 
(Rom.  xvi.  9). 

U'ri.  1.  The  father  of  Bezaleel,  one 
of  the  architects  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi. 
2,  XXXV.  30,  xxxviii.  22;  1  Chr.  ii.  20;  2 
Chr.  i.  5).  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  grandson  of  Caleb  ben-Hezron.  2. 
The  father  of  Geber,  Solomon's  commissa- 
riat officer  in  Gilead  (IK.  iv.  19).  3.  One 
of  the  gatekeepers  of  the  temple  in  the 
time  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  24). 

Uri'ah.  1.  One  of  the  thirty  command- 
ers of  the  thirty  bands  into  which  the  Is- 
raelite army  of  David  was  divided  (1  Chr. 
xi.  41 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  39).  Like  others  of 
David's  officers  he  was  a  foreigner — aHit- 
tite.  His  name,  however,  and  his  manner 
of  speech  (2  Sam.  xi.  11)  indicate  that  he 
had  adopted  the  Jewish  religion.  He  mar- 
ried Bathsheba,  a  woman  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  the  daughter  of  Eliam  —  possibly 
the  same  as  the  son  of  Ahithophel,  and  one 
of  his  brother  officers  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34), 
and  hence,  perhaps,  Uriah's  first  acquaint- 
ance with  Bathsheba.  It  may  be  inferred 
from  Nathan's  parable  (2  Sam.  xii.  3)  that 
he  was  passionately  devoted  to  his  wife,  and 
that  their  union  was  celebrated  in  Jerusalem 
as  one  of  peculiar  tenderness.  In  the  first 
war  with  Ammon  he  followed  Joab  to  the 
siege,  and  with  him  remained  encamped  in 
the  open  field  (ib.  11).  He  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  at  an  order  from  the  king,  on 
the  pretext  of  asking  news  of  the  war,  — 
really  in  the  hope  that  his  return  to  his 
wife  might  cover  the  shame  of  his  own 
crime.  The  king  met  with  an  unexpected 
obstacle  in  the  austere,  soldier-like  spirit 
which  guided  all  Uriah's  conduct,  and 
which  gives  us  a  high  notion  of  the  char- 
acter and  discipline  of  David's  officers. 
On  the  morning  of  the  third  day,  David 
Bent  him  back  to  the  camp  with  a  letter 
containing  the  command  to  Joab  to  cause 
his  destruction  in  the  battle.     The  device 


of  Joab  was,  to  observe  the  part  of  the 
wall  of  Rabbath- Ammon,  where  the  greatest 
force  of  the  besieged  was  congregated,  and 
thither,  as  a  kind  of  forlorn  hope,  to  send 
Uriah.  A  sally  took  place.  Uriah  and  the 
officers  with  him  advanced  as  liir  as  the 
gate  of  the  city,  and  were  there  shot  down 
by  the  archers  on  the  wall.  Just  as  Joab 
had  forewarned  the  messenger,  the  king 
broke  into  a  furious  passion  on  hearing  of 
the  loss.  The  messenger,  as  instructed 
by  Joab,  calmly  continued,  and  ended  the 
story  with  the  words,  "  Thy  servant  also, 
Uriah  the  Hittite,  is  dead."  In  a  moment 
David's  anger  is  appeased.  It  is  one  of  the 
touching,  parts  of  the  story  that  Uriah  falls 
unconscious  of  his  wife's  dishonor.  2. 
High-priest  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (Is.  viii. 
2 ;  2  K.  xvi.  10-16).  We  first  hear  of  him 
as  a  witness  to  Isaiah's  prophecy  concern- 
ing Maher-shalal-hash-baz,  with  Zechariah, 
the  son  of  Jeberechiah.  He  is  probably  the 
same  as  Urijah  the  priest,  who  built  the 
altar  for  Ahaz  (2  K.  xvi.  10).  If  this  be 
so,  the  prophet  may  have  summoned  him 
as  a  witness  on  account  of  his  position  as 
high-priest,  not  on  account  of  his  personal 
qualities ;  though,  as  the  incident  occurred 
at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Ahaz, 
Uriah's  irreligious  subserviency  may  not 
yet  have  manifested  itself.  Of  the  parent- 
age of  Uriah  we  know  nothing.  He  prob- 
ably succeeded  Azariah,who  was  high-priest 
in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  and  was  succeeded 
by  that  Azariah  who  was  high-priest  in  the 
reign  of  Hezekiah.  Hence  it  is  probable 
that  he  was  son  of  the  former  and  father 
of  the  latter.  3.  A  priest  of  the  family  of 
Hakkoz,  the  head  of  the  seventh  course  of 
priests  (Ezr.  viii.  33;  Neh.  iii.  4,  21). 

TJri'as.  1.  Ukiah,  the  husband  of  Bath- 
sheba (Matt.  i.  6).  2.  Ueijah  3  (1  Esdr. 
ix.  43). 

U'riel,  "  the  fire  of  God,"  an  angel 
named  only  in  2  Esdr.  iv.  1,  36,  v.  20,  x.  28. 

U'riel.  1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of 
Tahath  (1  Chr.  vi.  24).  2.  Chief  of  the 
Kohathites  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Clir. 
XV.  5,  11).  3.  Uriel  of  Gibeah  was  the 
father  of  Maachah,  or  Michaiah,  the  fa- 
vorite wife  of  Rehoboam,  and  mother  of 
Abijah  (2  Chr.  xiii.  2).  In  2  Chr.  xi.  20 
she  is  called  "  Maac]|^h  the  daughter  of 
Absalom."  Rashi  gives  a  long  note  to  the 
effect  that  her  father's  name  was  Uriel 
Abishalom. 

Uri'jah.  1.  Urijah  the  priest  in  the 
reign  of  Ahaz  (2  K.  xvi.  10),  probably  tho 
same  as  Uriah  2.  2.  A  priest  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Koz,  or  hak-Koz,  the  same  as  Uriah 
3.  3.  One  of  the  priests  who  stood  at  Ez- 
ra's right  hand  when  he  read  the  law  to  the 
people  (Neh.  viii.  4).  4.  The  son  of  Shem- 
aiah  of  Kirjath-jearim.  He  prophesied 
in  the  days  of  Jchoiakim,  and  the  king 
sought  to  put  liim  to  death ;  but  he  escaped. 


TJEIM  AND  THUMMIM 


726 


UZ 


and  fled  into  Egypt.  His  retreat  was  soon 
discovered  :  Elnathan  and  his  raen  brought 
him  up  out  of  Egypt,  and  Jehoiakira  slew 
him  with  the  sword,  and  cast  his  body  forth 
among  the  graves  of  the  common  people 
(Jer.  xxvi.  20-23). 

TJ'rim  and  Thum'mim.  When  the 
Jewisli  exiles  were  met  on  their  return  from 
Babylon  by  a  question  which  they  had  no 
data  for  answering,  they  agreed  to  post- 
pone the  settlement  of  the  difficulty  till 
there  should  rise  up  "a  Priest  with  Urim 
and  Thummim  "  (Ezr.  ii.  63;  Neh.  vii.  65). 
The  inquiry,  what  those  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim themselves  were,  seems  likely  to  wait 
as  long  for  a  final  and  satisfying  answer. 
On  every  side  we  meet  with  confessions 
of  ignorance.  Urim  means  "light,"  and 
Thummim  "  perfection."  Scriptural  State- 
ments. —  The  mysterious  words  meet  us 
for  the  first  time,  as  if  they  needed  no  ex- 
planation, in  the  description  of  the  high- 
priest's  apparel.  Over  the  Ephod  there  is 
to  be  a  "  breastplate  of  judgment"  of  gold, 
scarlet,  purple,  and  fine  linen,  folded  square 
and  doubled,  a  "  span  "  in  length  and  width. 
In  it  are  to  be  set  four  rows  of  precious 
stones,  each  stone  with  the  name  of  a  tribe 
of  Israel  engraved  on  it,  that  Aaron  may 
"  bear  them  on  his  heart."  Then  comes  a 
further  order.  Inside  the  breastplate,  as 
the  Tables  of  the  Covenant  were  placed 
inside  the  Ark  (Ex.  xxv.  16,  xxviii.  30), 
are  to  be  placed  "  the  Urim  and  the  Thuin,- 
mim,"  the  Light  and  the  Perfection;  and 
they,  too,  are  to  be  on  Aaron's  heart  when 
he  goes  in  before  the  Lord  (Ex.  xxviii. 
15-30).  Not  a  word  describes  them.  They 
are  mentioned  as  things  already  familiar 
both  to  Moses  and  the  people,  connected 
naturally  with  the  functions  of  the  high- 
priest,  as  mediating  between  Jehovah  and 
His  people.  The  command  is  fulfilled 
(Lev.  viii.  8).  They  pass  from  Aaron  to 
Eleazar  with  the  sacred  ephod  and  other 
pontificalia  (Num.  xx.  28).  When  Joshua 
is  solemnly  appointed  to  succeed  the  great 
hero-lawgiver,  he  is  bidden  to  stand  before 
Eleazar,  the  priest,  *'  who  shall  ask  counsel 
for  him  after  the  judgment  of  Urim,"  and 
this  counsel  is  to  determine  the  movements 
of  the  host  of  Israel  (Num.  xxvii.  21).  In 
the  blessings  of  Mo»s  they  appear  as  the 
crowning  glory  of  the  tribe  of  Levi :  "  Thy 
Thummim  and  thy  Urim  are  with  thy  Holy 
One"  (Deut.  xxxiii.  8,9).  In  what  way 
the  Urim  and  Thummim  were  consulted  is 
quite  uncertain.  Josephus  and  the  Rabbins 
supposed  that  the  stones  gave  out  the  orac- 
ular answer  by  preternatural  illumination. 
But  it  seems  to  be  far  simplest  and  most  in 
agreement  with  the  different  accounts  of 
inquiries  made  by  Urim  and  Thummim 
(1  Sara.  xiv.  3,  18,  19,  xxiii.  2,  4,  9,  11,  12, 
xxviii.  6;  Judg.  xx.  28;  2  Sam.  v.  23,  &c.) 
to  suppose  that  the  answer  was  ^ren  sim- 


ply by  the  Word  of  the  Lord  to  the  high- 
priest  (comp.  John  xi.  61),  when  he  had 
inquired  of  the  Lord  clothed  with  the 
epliod  and  breastplate.  Such  a  view  agrees 
with  the  true  notion  of  the  breastplate,  of 
which  it  was  not  the  leading  characteristic 
to  be  oracular,  but  only  an  incidental  priv- 
ilege connected  with  its  fundamental  mean- 
ing. What  that  meaning  was  we  learn  from 
Ex.  xxviii.  30,  where  we  read,  "  Aaron  shall 
bear  the  judgment  of  the  children  of  Israel 
upon  his  heart  before  the  Lord  continually.** 
Now  the  judicial  sentence  is  one  by  which 
any  one  is  either  justified  or  condemned. 
In  prophetic  vision,  as  in  actual  Oriental 
life,  the  sentence  of  justification  was  often 
expressed  by  the  nature  of  the  robe  worn. 
"  He  hath  clothed  me  with  the  garments  of 
salvation.  He  hath  covered  me  with  the  robe 
of  righteousness,  as  a  bridegroom  decketh 
himself  with  ornaments,  and  as  a  bride 
adorneth  herself  with  her  jewels  "  (Is.  Ixi. 
10)  is  a  good  illustration  of  this ;  cf.  Ixii.  3. 
In  like  manner,  in  Rev.  iii.  5,  vii.  9,  xix. 
14,  &c.,  the  white  linen  robe  expresses  the 
righteousness  or  justification  of  saints. 

Usury.  It  need  only  be  remarked  here 
that  the  practice  of  mortgaging  land,  some- 
times at  exorbitant  interest,  grew  up  among 
the  Jews  during  the  Captivity,  in  direct 
violation  of  the  law  (Lev.  xxv.  36,  37 ;  Ez. 
xviii.  8,  13,  17).  We  find  the  rate  reach- 
ing 1  in  100  per  month,  corresponding  to 
the  Roman  centesimcie  usurae,  or  12  per 
cent,  per  annum.  The  law  of  the  Kurin, 
like  the  Jewish,  forbids  all  usury.  The  laws 
of  Menu  allow  18  and  even  24  per  cent,  as 
an  interest  rate ;  but,  as  was  the  law  in 
Egypt,  accumulated  interest  was  not  to 
exceed  twice  the  original  sum  lent.  This 
Jewish  practice  was  annulled  by  Nehemiah. 
[Loan.] 

U'ta,  1  Esdr.  V.  30.  It  appears  to  be  a 
corruption  of  Akkub  (Ezr.  ii.  45). 

U'thai.  1.  The  son  of  Ammihud,  of 
the  children  of  Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah 
(1  Chr.  ix.  4).  2.  One  of  the  son?  of  Big- 
vai,  who  returned  in  the  second  caravan 
with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  14). 

U'thii.     1  Esdr.  viii.  40.     [Uthai  2.] 

Uz.  1.  A  son  of  Aram  (Gen.  x.  23 ;  1 
Chr.  i.  17),  and  consequently  a  grandson 
of  Shem.  2.  A  son  of  Nahor  by  Milcah 
(Gen.  xxii.  21 ;  A.  V.  Huz).  3.  A  son  of 
Dishan,  and  grandson  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
28).  4.  The  country  in  which  Job  lived 
(Job  i.  1).  As  far  as  we  can  gather,  "  the 
land  of  Uz  "  lay  either  E.  or  S.  E.  of  Pales- 
tine (Job  i.  3) ;  adjacent  to  the  Sabaeans 
and  the  Chaldaeans  (Job  i.  15,  17),  conse- 
quently N.  of  the  southern  Arabians,  and 
W.  of  the  Euphrates;  and,  lastly,  adjacent 
to  the  Edomites  of  Mount  Seir,  who  at  one 
period  occupied  Uz,  probably  as  conquer- 
ors (Lam.  iv.  21),  and  whose  troglodyte 
habits  are  probably  described  in  Job  xxz* 


UZAI 


727 


UZZIAH 


G,  7.  From  the  above  data  we  infer  that 
the  land  of  Uz  corresponds  to  the  Arabia 
Deserta  of  clussicdl  geography,  at  all  events 
to  so  much  of  it  as  lies  north  of  the  30th 
parallel  of  latitude.  Whether  the  name  of 
Uz  survived  to  classical  times  is  uncertain ; 
a  tribe  named  Aesiiae  is  mentioned  by  Ptol- 
emy, who  perhaps  may  be  identified  with 
tlie  Uz  of  Scripture, 

XJ'zai,  the  father  of  Palal,  who  assisted 
Nehemiah  in  rebuilding  the  city  wall  (Neh. 
iii.  25). 

IT'zal.  the  sixth  son  of  Joktan  (Gen.  x. 
27;  1  Chr.  i.  21),  whose  settlements  are 
clearly  traced  in  the  ancient  name  of  San'h, 
the  capital  city  of  the  Yemen,  which  was 
originally  Awzdl.  It  has  disputed  the  right 
to  be  the  chief  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Sheba 
ft-om  the  earliest  ages  of  which  any  tradi- 
tions have  come  down  to  us.  From  its 
position  in  the  centre  of  the  best  portion  of 
that  kingdom,  it  must  always  have  been  an 
important  city,  though  probably  of  less  im- 
portance than  Seba  itself.  Uzal,  or  Awzal, 
is  most  probably  the  same  as  the  Auzara, 
or  Ausara  of  the  classics.  It  is  perhaps 
referred  to  by  Ezek.  (xxvii.  19),  translated 
in  the  A.  V.  "  Javan,  going  to  and  fro." 

Uz'za.  1.  A  Benjamite  of  the  sons  of 
Ehud  (1  Chr.  viii.  7).  2.  Elsewhere  called 
UzzAH  (1  Chr.  xiii.  7,  9, 10,  II).  [Uzzah.] 
3.  The  children  of  Uzza  were  a  family 
of  Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezr.  ii.  49;  Neh.  vii,  51).  4.  Properly 
"  Uzzah."  As  the  text  now  stands,  Uzzah 
is  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1  Chr.  vi.  29 
[14]  )  ;  but  there  appears  to  be  a  gap  in  the 
verse.  Perhaps  he  is  the  same  as  Zina,  or 
Zizah,  the  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  10, 
11)  ;  for  these  names  evidently  denote  the 
same  person,  and,  in  Hebrew  character,  are 
not  unlike  Uzzah. 

TJz'za,  The  Garden  of,  the  spot  in 
which  Manasseh  king  of  Judah,  and  his  son 
Amon,  were  both  buried  (2  K.  xxi.  18,  2(j). 
It  was  the  garden  attached  to  Manasseh's 
palace  (ver.  18).  The  fact  of  its  mention 
shows  that  it  was  not  where  the  usual  sepul- 
chres of  the  kings  were.  No  clew,  however, 
is  afforded  to  its  position.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  garden  was  so  called 
from  being  on  the  spot  at  which  Uzza  died 
during  the  removal  of  the  ark  from  Kirjath- 
jearim  to  Jerusalem. 

Uz'zah,  or  TJz'za,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Abinadab,  in  whose  house  atKirjath-jearira 
the  ark  rested  for  20  years.  Uzzah  prob- 
ably was  the  second,  and  Ahio  the  third. 
They  both  accompanied  its  removal,  when 
David  first  undertook  to  carry  it  to  Jenxsa- 
lem.  Ahio  apparently  went  before  the  new 
cart  (1  Chr.  xiii.  7)  on  which  it  was  placed, 
and  Uzzah  walked  by  the  side.  "  At  the 
threshing-floor  of  Nachon"  (2  Sam.  vi.  6), 
or  Chidon  (1  Chr.  xiii.  9),  perhaps  slipping 
over  the  smooth  rock,  the  oxen  stumbled. 


Uzzah  caught  the  ark  to  prevent  its  falling. 
The  profanation  was  punished  by  his  in- 
stant death,  to  the  great  grief  of  David, 
who  named  the  place  Perez-Uzzah  (the 
breaking-forth  on  Uzzah).  But  Uzzah's 
fate  was  not  merely  the  penalty  of  his  own 
raslmess.  The  improper  mode  of  trans- 
porting the  ark,  whicli  ought  to  have  been 
borne  on  the  shoulders  of  the  Levites,  was 
the  primary  cause  of  his  unholy  deed ;  and 
David  distinctly  recognized  it  as  a  punish- 
ment on  the  people  in  general,  "  because 
we  sought  him  not  after  the  due  order." 

Uz'zen-she'rah.,  a  town  founded  or 
rebuilt  by  Sherah,  an  Ephraimite  woman, 
the  daughter  either  of  Ephraim  himself  or 
of  Beriah.  It  is  named  only  in  1  Chr.  vii. 
24,  in  connection  with  the  two  Bethhorons. 

TTz'zi.  1.  Son  of  Bukki,  and  father  of 
Zerahiah,  in  the  line  of  the  high-priests 
(1  Chr.  vi.  5,51;  Ezr.  vii.  4).  Though 
Uzzi  was  the  lineal  ancestor  of  Zadok,  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  was  ever  high- 
priest.  He  must  have  been  contemporary 
with,  but  rather  earlier  than,  Eli.  2.  Son 
of  Tola  the  son  of  Issachar  (1  Chr.  vii.  2, 
3).  3.  Son  of  Bela,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin (1  Chr.  vii.  7).  4.  Another,  or  the 
same,  from  whom  descended  some  Benja- 
mite houses,  which  were  settled  at  Jerusa- 
lem after  the  return  from  captivity  (1  Chr. 
ix.  8).  5.  A  Levite,  son  of  Bani,  and 
overseer  of  the  Levites  dwelling  at  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xi.  22). 
6.  A  priest,  chief  of  the  father's  house  of 
Jedaiah,  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  the  high- 
priest  (Neh.  xii.  19).  7.  One  of  the  priests 
who  assisted  Ezra  in  the  dedication  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  42).  Perhaps 
the  same  as  the  preceding. 

Uzzi'a,  one  of  David's  guard,  and 
apparently  a  native  of  Ashtaroth  beyond 
Jordan  (1  Chr.  xi.  44). 

Uzzi'ah.  1.  King  of  Judah  (b.  c.  808- 
9 — 756-7).  In  some  passages  his  name 
appears  in  the  lengthened  form  Azariah, 
which  some  attribute  to  an  error  of  the 
copyists.  This  is  possible,  but  there  are 
other  instances  of  the  princes  of  Judah 
changing  their  names  on  succeeding  to  the 
throne.  After  the  murder  of  Araaziah,  his 
son  Uzziah  was  chosen  by  the  people  to 
occupy  the  vacant  thrcne  at  the  age  of  16; 
and  for  the  greater  part  of  his  long  reign 
of  52  years  he  lived  in  the  fear  of  God, 
and  showed  himself  a  wise,  active,  and 
pious  ruler.  He  began  his  reign  by  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  against  his  lather's  ene- 
mies the  Edomites,  who  had  revolted  from 
Judali  in  Jehoram's  time,  80  years  before, 
and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  'Akaba,  where  he  took  the  impor- 
tant place  of  Elath  (2  K.  xiv.  22 ;  2  Chr. 
xxvi.  1,  &c.).  Uzziah  waged  other  victori- 
ous wars  in  the  south,  especially  against 
!  the  Mehunim,  or  people  of  Madn,  and  the 


UZZIEL 


728 


VASHTI 


Arabs  of  Gurbaal.  Towards  the  west, 
Uzziah  fought  with  equal  success  against 
the  Philistines,  levelled  to  the  ground  the 
walls  of  Gath,  Jahneh,  and  Aslidod,  and 
founded  new  fortified  cities  in  the  Philis- 
tine territory.  He  strengthened  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem.  He  was  also  a  great  patron 
of  agriculture.  He  never  deserted  the  wor- 
ship of  the  true  God,  and  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  Zechariah,  a  prophet  who  is 
only  mentioned  in  connection  with  him  (2 
Chr.  xxvi.  6).  So  tlie  southern  kingdom 
was  raised  to  a  condition  of  prosperity 
which  it  had  not  known  since  the  death  of 
Solomon.  The  end  of  Uzziah  was  less 
prosperous  than  his  beginning.  Elated  with 
his  splendid  career,  he  determined  to  burn 
incense  on  the  altar  of  God,  but  was  op- 
posed by  the  high-priest  Azariah  and  eighty 
others.  (See  Ex.  xxx.  7,  8 ;  Num.  xvi. 
40,  xviii.  7).  The  king  was  enraged  at 
their  resistance,  and,  as  he  pressed  forward 
with  his  censer,  was  suddenly  smitten  with 
leprosy.  Uzziah  was  buried  "  with  his 
fathers,"  yet  apparently  not  actually  in  the 
royal  sepulchres  (2  Chr.  xxvi.  23).  Dur- 
ing his  reign  an  earthquake  occurred, 
which,  though  not  mentioned  in  the  histori- 
cal books,  was  apparently  very  serious  in 
its  consequences,  for  it  is  alluded  to  as  a 
chronological  epoch  by  Amos  (i.  1),  and 
mentioned  in  Zech.  xiv.  5,  as  a  convulsion 
from  which  the  people  "  fled."  It  is  to  be 
observed,  with  reference  to  the  general 
character  of  Uzziah's  reign,  that  the  writer 
of  the  Second  Book  of  Chronicles  distinctly 
states  that  his  lawless  attempt  to  burn  in- 
cense was  the  only  exception  to  the  excel- 
lence of  his  administration  (2  Chr.  xxvii. 
2).  2.  A  Kohathite  Levitc,  and  ancestor 
of  Samuel  (1  Chr.  vi.  24  [9]  ).  3,  A  priest 
of  the  sons  of  Harim,  who  had  taken  a 
foreign  wife  in  the  days  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x. 
21).  4.  Father  of  Athaiah,  or  Uthai  (Neh. 
xi.  4).  5.  Father  of  Jehonathan,  one  of 
David's  overseers  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  25). 

XJzzi'el.  1.  Fourth  son  of  Kohath, 
father  of  Mishael,  Elzaphan  or  Elizaphan, 
and  Zithri,  and  uncle  to  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  18, 
22 ;  Lev.  x.  4).  2.  A  ^imeonite  captain, 
son  of  Ishi,  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  (1  Chr. 
iv.  42).  3.  Head  of  a  Benjamite  house,  of 
the  sons  of  Bela  (1  Chr.  vii.  7).  4.  A 
musician,  of  the  sons  of  Heman,  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chr.  xxv.  4).  5.  A  Levite,  of 
the  sons  of  Jeduthun,  in  the  days  of  Heze- 
kiah (2  Chr.  xxix.  14,  19).  6.  Son  of 
Harhaiah,  probably  a  priest,  in  the  days  of 
Nehemiah,  who  took  part  in  repairing  the 
wall  (Neh.  iii.  8).  He  is  described  as  "  of 
the  goldsmiths,"  i.  e.  of  those  priests  whose 
hereditary  ofBce  it  was  to  repair  or  make 
the  sacred  vessels. 

Uzzi'elites,  The,  the  descendants  of 
Uzziel,  and  one  of  the  four  great  families  of 
theKohathites(Num.iii.  27 ;  IChr.  xxvi.  23). 


V. 


Vajez'atha,  one  of  the  ten  sons  of  Ha- 
man  whom  the  Jews  slew  in  Shushan  (Esth. 
ix.  9). 

Vale,  Valley.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  state  that  these  words  signify  a  hollow 
sweep  of  ground  between  two  more  or  less 
parallel  ridges  of  high  land.  Tlie  structure 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  Holy  Land  docs 
not  lend  itself  to  the  formation  of  valleys  in 
our  sense  of  the  word.  The  abrupt  transi- 
tions of  its  crowded  rocky  hills  preclude 
the  existence  of  any  extended  sweep  of 
valley.  Valley  is  employed  in  the  A.  V.  to 
render  five  distinct  Hebrew  words.  1. 
'Emek.  This  appears  to  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  general  sense  of  the  English 
word  than  any  other.  It  is  connected  with 
several  places.  2.  Gal  or  Ge.  Of  this 
there  is  fortunately  one  example  which  can 
be  identified  with  certainty  —  the  deep  hol- 
low which  compasses  the  S.  W.  and  S.  of 
Jerusalem.  This  identification  establishes 
the  Ge  as  a  deep  and  abrupt  ravine,  with 
steep  sides  and  narrow  bottom.  3.  Nachal. 
This  word  answers  to  the  Arabic  wadij, 
and  expresses,  as  no  single  English  word 
can,  the  bed  of  a  stream  (often  wide  and 
shelving,  and  like  a  "  valley  "  in  character, 
which  in  the  rainy  season  may  be  nearly' 
filled  by  a  foaming  torrent,  though  for  thy 
greater  part  of  the  year  dry).  4.  Bik'dh. 
This  terra  appears  to  mean  rather  a  plain 
than  a  valley,  though  so  far  resembling  it 
as  to  be  enclosed  by  mountains.  It  is  ren- 
dered by  "  valley  "  in  Deut.  xxxiv.  3 ;  Josh, 
xi.  8,  17,  xii.  7 ;  2  Chr.  xxxv.  22 ;  Zech.  xii. 
11.  5.  has-Shefildh.  The  district  to  which 
the  name  has-ShifSldh  is  applied  in  the 
Bible  has  no  resemblance  whatever  to  a 
valley,  but  is  a  broad,  swelling  tract  of  many 
hundred  miles  in  area,  which  sweeps  gently 
down  from  the  mountains  of  Judah  to  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  rendered  "  the  vale  " 
in  Deut.  i.  7;  Josh.  x.  40;  1  K.  x.  27;  2 
Chr.  i.  15;  Jer.  xxxiii.  13;  and  "the  val- 
ley"  or  "  valleys  "  in  Josh.  ix.  1,  xi.  2,  IG, 
xii.  8,  XV.  33 ;  Judg.  i.  9 ;  Jer.  xxxii.  44. 

Vani'ah.,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bani  (Ezr. 
X.  36). 

Vastl'lll,  the  firstborn  of  Samuel  as  the 
text  now  stands  (1  Chr.  vi.  28  [13]).  But 
in  1  Sam.  viii.  2  the  name  of  his  firstborn 
is  Joel.  Most  probably  in  tlie  Chronicles 
the  name  of  Joel  has  dropped  out,  and 
"  Vashni "  is  a  corruption  of  veshini,  "  and 
(the)  second." 

Vash  ti,  the  "queen"  of  Ahasuerus, 
who,  for  refusing  to  show  herself  to  the 
king's  guests  at  the  royal  banquet,  when 
sent  for  by  the  king,  was  repudiated  and 
deposed  (Esth.  i.).  Many  attempts  have 
been  made,  to  identify  her  with  historical 


VEIL 


729 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


personages;  but  it  is  far  more  probable 
that  she  was  only  one  of  the  inferior  wives, 
dignified  with  the  title  of  queen,  whose 
name  has  utterly  disappeared  from  history. 

Veil.  Wiih  regard  to  the  use  of  the 
veil,  it  is  important  to  observe  that  it  was 
by  no  means  so  general  in  ancient  as  in 
modem  times.  Much  of  the  scrupulousness 
in  respect  of  the  use  of  the  veil  dates  from 
tlie  promulgation  of  the  Koran,  which  for- 
bade women  appearing  unveiled  except  in 
the  presence  of  their  nearest  relatives.  In 
ancient  times,  the  veil  was  adopted  only  in 
exceptional  cases,  either  as  an  article  of 
ornamental  dress  (Cant.  iv.  1,  3,  vi.  7),  or 
by  betrothed  maidens  in  the  presence  of 
their  future  Imsbands,  especially  at  the  time 
of  the  wedding  (Gen.  xxiv.  65,  xxix.  25), 
or,  lastly,  by  women  of  loose  character  for 
purposes  of  concealment  (Gen.  xxxviii.  14). 
Among  the  Jews  of  the  New  Testament  age 
it  appears  to  have  been  customary  for  the 
women  to  cover  their  heads  (not  necessarily 
their  faces)  when  engaged  in  public  worship. 

Veil  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Tem- 
ple.    [Tabernacle  ;  Temple.] 

Versions,  Ancient,  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  In  treating  of  the 
ancient  versions  that  have  come  down  to 
us,  in  whole  or  in  part,  they  will  be  de- 
Bcribed  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  lan- 
guages. 

Aethiopic  Veksion.  —  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Aethiopia  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury, through  the  labors  of  Frumentius  and 
Aedesius  of  Tyre,  who  had  been  made 
slaves  and  sent  to  the  king.  The  Aethiopic 
version  which  we  possess  is  in  the  ancient 
dialect  of  Axura ;  hence  some  have  ascribed 
it  to  the  age  of  the  earliest  missionaries ; 
but  from  the  general  character  of  the  ver- 
sion itself,  this  is  improbable ;  and  the 
Abyssinians  themselves  attribute  it  to  a 
later  period.  The  Old  Testament,  as  well 
as  the  New,  was  executed  from  the  Greek. 
In  1513  Potkcn  published  the  Aethiopic 
Psalter  at  Kome.  In  1548-9  the  Aethiopic 
New  Test,  was  also  printed  at  Rome,  edited 
by  three  Abyssinians.  A  complete  edition 
of  the  Aethiopic  Old  Test,  has  been  com- 
menced by  Dillmann,  the  first  portion  of 
which  appeared  in  1853. 

Arabic  Veusions.  (I.)  Arabic  Ver- 
sions of  the  Old  Test.  (A.)  Made  from  the 
Hebrew  text.  Rabbi  Saatliah  Haggaon,  the 
Hebrew  commentator  of  the  10th  century, 
translated  portions  (some  think  the  whole) 
of  the  O.  T.  into  Arabic.  His  version  of 
the  Pentateuch  was  printed  at  Constantino- 
ple in  154G.  (B.)  Made  from  the  Peshito 
Syriac.  This  is  the  base  of  the  Arabic  text 
contained  in  the  Polyglots  of  the  books  of 
Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Nehe- 
miah.  (C.)  Made  from  the  LXX.  The 
version  in  the  Polyglots  of  the  books  not 
specified  above.     (II.)  Arabic  Versions  of 


the  New  Test.  1.  The  Roman  editio  prin- 
ceps  of  the  four  Gospels,  1590-91.  2.  The 
Erpenian  Arabic.  The  whole  New  Test, 
edited  by  Erpenius,  1616,  atLcydcn,  from  a 
MS.  of  the  13th  or  14th  century.  3.  The 
Arabic  of  the  Paris  Polyglot,  1645.  4. 
The  Carshuni  Arabic  text  (i.  e.  in  Syriac 
letters),  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  New  Test., 
published  at  Rome,  in  1703. 

Armenian  Version.  —  Before  the  5th 
century  the  Armenians  are  said  to  have 
used  the  Syriac  alphabet ;  but  at  that  time 
Miesrob  is  stated  to  have  invented  the 
Armenian  letters.  Soon  after  this  it  is 
said  that  translations  into  the  Armenian 
language  commenced,  at  first  from  the 
Syriac.  Miesrob,  with  his  companions, 
Joseph  and  Eznak,  began  a  version  of  the 
Scriptures  with  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  and 
completed  all  the  Old  Test.;  and  in  the 
New,  they  used  the  Syriac  as  their  basis, 
from  their  inability  to  obtain  any  Greek 
books.  But  when,  in  the  year  431,  Joseph 
and  Eznak  returned  from  the  council  of 
Ephesus,  bringing  with  them  a  Greek  copy 
of  the  Scriptures,  Isaac,  the  Armenian 
Patriarch,  and  Miesrob,  threw  aside  what 
they  had  already  done,  in  order  that  they 
might  execute  a  version  from  the  Greek. 
The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  in  Armenian  appeared  at 
Amsterdam  in  16G6,  under  the  care  of  a 
person  commonly  termed  Oscan,  or  Uscan, 
and  described  as  being  an  Armenian  bishop. 

Chaldee  Versions.  —  Targum,  a  Chal- 
dee  word  of  uncertain  origin,  is  the  general 
term  for  the  Chaldee,  or,  more  accurately, 
Aramaic  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  injunction  to  "  read  the  Book  of  the 
Law  before  all  Israel  .  .  .  the  men  and 
women,  and  children,  and  the  strangers," 
on  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  of  every  Sab- 
batical year,  as  a  means  of  solemn  instruc- 
tion and  edification,  is  first  found  in  Deut. 
xxxi.  10-13.  Among  the  first  acts  under- 
taken by  Ezra  towards  the  restoration  of 
the  primitive  religion  and  public  worship  ia 
reported  his  reading  "  before  the  congre- 
gation, both  of  men  and  women,"  of  the 
returned  exiles,  "  in  the  Book  in  the  Law 
of  God  "  (Neh.  viii.  2,  8).  Aided  by  those 
men  of  learning  and  eminence  with  whom, 
according  to  tradition,  he  founded  that  most 
important  religious  and  political  body  called 
the  Great  Synagogue,  or  Men  of  the  Great 
Assembly,  he  appears  to  have  succeeded  ia 
so  firmly  establishing  regular  and  frequent 
public  readings  in  the  Sacred  Records,  that 
later  authorities  almost  unanimously  trace 
this  hallowed  custom  to  times  immemorial 
—  nay,  to  the  times  of  Moses  himself.  To 
these  ancient  readings  in  the  Pentateuch 
were  added,  in  the  course  of  time,  read- 
ings in  the  Prophets  (in  some  Babylonian 
cities  even  in  the  Hagiographa),  which 
were  called  Ilaftaroth.    If,  however,  the 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


780 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


primitive  religion  was  re-established,  to- 
gether with  the  second  Temple,  in  more 
than  its  former  vigor,  thus  enabling  the 
small  number  of  the  returned  exiles  —  and 
these,  according  to  tradition,  the  lowest  of 
the  low,  the  poor  in  wealth,  in  knowledge, 
and  in  ancestry,  the  very  outcasts  and  ref- 
use of  the  nation  as  it  were  —  to  found 
upon  the  ruins  of  Zion  one  of  the  most 
important  and  lasting  spiritual  common- 
wealths that  has  ever  been  known,  there 
was  yet  one  thing  which  neither  authority 
nor  piety,  neither  academy  nor  synagogrue, 
could  restore  to  its  original  power  and 
glory  —  the  Hebrew  language.  The  Jews, 
on  the  return  from  captivity,  no  longer 
spoke  the  Hebrew  language ;  and  as  the 
common  people  had  lost  all  knowledge  of 
the  tongue  in  which  the  sacred  books  were 
written,  it  naturally  followed  that  recourse 
must  be  had  to  a  translation  into  the  idiom 
with  which  they  were  familiar^ the  Chal- 
dee  or  Aramaic.  Moreover,  since  a  bare 
translation  could  not  in  all  cases  suffice,  it 
was  necessary  to  add  to  the  translation  an 
explanation,  more  particularly  of  the  more 
difficult  and  obscure  passages.  Both  trans- 
lation and  explanation  were  designated  by 
the  term  Targum.  In  the  course  of  time 
there  sprang  up  a  guild,  whose  special 
office  it  was  to  act  as  interpreters  in  both 
senses  {Meturgeman),  while  formerly  the 
learned  alone  volunteered  their  services. 
These  interpreters  were  subjected  to  cer- 
tain bonds  and  regulations  as  to  the  form 
and  substance  of  their  renderings.  Al- 
together these  Meturgemanim  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  held  generally  in  very  high 
respect ;  one  of  the  reasons  being  probably 
that  they  were  paid,  and  thus  made  the  To- 
rah  "  a  spade  to  dig  with  it."  The  same 
causes  which,  in  the  course  of  time,  led  to 
the  writing  down  —  after  many  centuries 
of  oral  transmission  —  of  the  whole  body 
of  the  Traditional  Law,  engendered  also,  and 
about  the  same  period,  as  it  would  appear, 
written  Targums;  for  certain  portions  of 
the  Bible,  at  least.  The  fear  of  the  adul- 
terations and  mutilations  which  the  Divine 
Word  must  undergo  at  the  hands  of  incom- 
petent or  impious  exponents,  broke  through 
the  rule,  thai  the  Targum  should  only  be 
wal,  lest  it  might  acquire  undue  authority. 
Before,  however,  entering  into  a  more  de- 
tailed account,  we  must  first  dwell  for  a 
short  time  on  the  Midrash  itself,  of  which 
the  Targum  forms  part.  The  centre  of 
all  mental  activity  and  religious  action 
among  the  Jewish  community,  after  the 
return  from  Babylon,  was  the  Scriptural 
Canon  collected  by  the  Soferim,  or  Men  of 
the  Great  Synagogue.  These  formed  the 
chief  authority  on  the  civil  and  religious 
law,  and  their  autliority  was  the  Penta- 
teuch. They  had,  first,  to  explain  the  exact 
meaning  of   such  prohibitions  and    ordi- 


nances contained  in  the  Mosaic  Books  as 
seemed  not  explicit  enout^h  for  the  multi- 
tude, and  the  precise  application  of  which 
in  former  days  had  been  forgotten  dur- 
ing the  Captivity.  Secondly,  laws  neither 
specially  contained  nor  even  indicated  ia 
the  Pentateuch  were  inaugurated  by  them 
according  to  the  new  wants  of  the  times 
and  the  ever-shifting  necessities  of  the 
growing  Commonwealth.  This  juridical 
and  homiletical  expounding  and  interpret- 
ing of  Scripture  is  called  darash,  and  the 
avalanche  of  Jewish  literature  which  began 
silently  to  gather  from  the  time  of  the  re- 
turn from  the  exile  and  went  on  rolling  un- 
interruptedly, until  about  a  thousand  yeara 
after  the  destruction  of  the  second  Temple, 
may  be  comprised  under  the  general  name 
Midrash  —  "  expounding."  The  two  chief 
branches  indicated  are,  Halachah,  the  rule 
by  which  to  go,  =  binding,  authoritative 
law ;  and  Haggadah  =  saying,  legend,  — 
flights  of  fancy,  darting  up  from  the  Divine 
Word.  The  Haggadah  did  not  pretend  to 
possess  the  slightest  authority.  The  first 
collections  of  the  Halachah  —  embracing 
the  whole  field  of  juridico-political,  reli- 
gious, and  practical  life,  both  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  of  the  nation ;  the  human  and 
Divine  law  to  its  most  minute  and  insignifi- 
cant details  —  were  instituted  by  Hillel, 
Akiba,  and  Simon  B.  Gamaliel ;  but  the 
final  redaction  of  the  general  code,  Mishna, 
is  due  to  Jehudah  Hannasi.  [See  Tal- 
mud.] I.  The  Targums  were  originally 
oral,  and  the  earliest  Targum,  which  is  that 
of  Onkelos  on  the  Pentateuch,  began  to  bo 
committed  to  writing  about  the  2d  century 
of  the  Christian  era ;  though  it  did  not  as- 
sume its  present  sliape  till  the  end  of  the 
3d  or  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century. 
So  far,  however,  from  its  superseding  the 
oral  Targum  at  once,  it  was,  on  the  contra- 
ry, strictly  forbidden  to  read  it  in  public 
Its  language  is  Chaldee,  closely  approach- 
ing in  purity  of  idiom  to  that  of  Ezra  and 
Daniel.  It  follows  a  sober  and  clear, 
though  not  a  slavish  exegesis,  and  keeps  as 
closely  and  minutely  to  the  text  as  is  at  all 
consistent  with  its  purpose,  viz.  to  be 
chiefly,  and  above  all,  a  version  for  the 
people.  Its  explanations  of  difficult  and 
obscure  passages  bear  ample  witness  to  the 
competence  of  those  who  gave  it  its  final 
shape.  It  avoids  the  legendary  character 
with  which  all  the  later  Targums  entwine 
the  Biblical  word,  as  far  as  ever  circum- 
stances would  allow.  As  to  the  Bible  Text 
from  which  the  Targum  was  prepared,  we 
liave  no  certainty  whatever  on  this  head, 
owing  to  the  extraordinarily  corrupt  state 
of  our  Targum  texts.  II.  Targum  on  the 
Prophets,  —  viz.  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel, 
Kings,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the 
twelve  Minor  Prophets,  —  called  Targum 
OF  JoKATHAM  BEN  UzziEi..  We  shall  prob- 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


731 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


ably  not  be  far  wrong  in  placing  ihis  Tar- 
gum  some  time,  although  not  long,  after 
Onkelos,  or  about  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century.  This  Targura  may  fairly  be  de- 
scribed as  holding,  in  point  of  interpreta- 
tion and  enlargement  of  the  text,  the  mid- 
dle plac-e  between  Onkelos,  who  only  in  ex- 
treme cases  deviates  into  paraphrase,  and 
the  subsequent  Targums,  whose  connection 
with  their  texts  is  frequently  of  the  most 
flighty  character.  III.  and  IV.  Targum  of 
Jonathan- Ben-  Uzziel  and  Jerushalmi-  Tar- 
gum on  the  Pentateuch.  —  Onkelos  and  Jon- 
athan on  the  Pentateuch  and  Prophets, 
whatever  be  their  exact  date,  place,  author- 
ship and  editorship,  are  the  oldest  of  exist- 
ing Targums,  and  belong,  in  their  present 
shape,  to  Babylon  and  the  Babylonian 
academies  flourishing  between  the  3d  and 
4th  centuries  a.  d.  But  precisely  as  two 
parallel  and  independent  developments  of 
the  Oral  Law  have  sprung  up  in  the  Pales- 
tinian an(J  Babylonian  Talmuds  respective- 
ly, so  also  recent  investigation  has  proved 
to  demonstration  the  existence  of  two  dis- 
tinct cycles  of  Targums  on  the  Written 
Law  —  i.  e.  the  entire  body  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. The  one  first  collected,  revised, 
and  edited  in  Babylon,  called  —  more  es- 
pecially that  part  of  it  which  embraced  the 
Pentateuch  (Onkelos)  —  the  Babylonian. 
The  other,  continuing  its  oral  life,  so  to 
say,  down  to  a  much  later  period,  was 
written  and  edited  —  less  carefully,  or  rath- 
er with  a  much  more  faithful  retention  of 
the  oldest  and .  youngest  fancies  of  Metur- 
gemanim  and  Darshanim  —  on  the  soil  of 
Judaea  itself.  Of  this  entire  cycle,  how- 
ever, the  Pentateuch  and  a  few  other  books 
and  fragmentary  pieces  only  have  survived 
entire,  while  of  most  of  the  other  books  of 
the  Bible  a  few  detached  fragments  are  all 
that  is  known,  and  this  chiefly  from  quota- 
tions. V.  Targums  of  "  Joseph  the  Blind  " 
on  the  Hagiograjpha.  —  Those  Targums  on 
the  Hagiographa  which  we  now  possess 
have  been  attributed  vaguely  to  different 
authors.  Popular  belief  fastened  upon  Jo- 
seph the  Blind.  Yet,  if  ever  he  did  trans- 
late the  Hagiographa,  certain  it  is  that 
those  which  we  possess  are  not  by  his  or  his 
disciples'  hands  —  that  is,  of  the  time  of 
the  4th  century.  We  do  not  even  venture 
to  assign  to  them  more  than  an  approxi- 
mate round  date,  about  1000  a.  d. 

«?GTPTiAN  Versions.  I.  The  Memphitic 
Version.  —  The  version  thus  designated 
was  for  a  considerable  time  the  only  Egyp- 
tian translation  known  to  scholars  :  Coptic 
was  then  regarded  as  a  sufficiently  accurate 
and  definite  appellation.  But  when  the 
fact  was  established  that  there  were  at  least 
two  Egyptian  versions,  the  name  Coptic 
was  found  to  be  indefinite,  and  even  unsuit- 
able for  the  translation  then  so  termed ;  for 
iu  the  dialect  of  Upper  Egypt  there  was 


another ;  and  it  is  from  the  ancient  Copios 
in  Upper  Egypt  that  the  terra  Coptic  is 
taken.  Thus  Copto-Memphitic,  or  more 
simply  Memphitic,  is  the  better  name  for 
tlie  version  in  the  dialect  of  Lower  Egypt. 
When  Egyptian  translations  were  made  we 
do  not  know :  probably  before  the  middle 
of  the  4th  century.  While  the  native 
Christians  of  modern  Egypt  use  only  Ara- 
bic vernacularly,  yet  in  their  services  and 
in  their  public  reading  of  the  Scriptures 
they  employ  a  dialect  of  the  Coptic.  The 
Old  Testament  of  this  version  was  made 
from  the  LXX.  II.  The  Thebaic  Ver- 
sion. —  The  examination  of  Egyptian  MSS. 
in  the  last  century  showed  that  besides  the 
Memphitic  there  is  also  another  version  in 
a  cognate  Egyptian  dialect.  To  this  the 
name  Sahidic  was  applied  by  some,  but 
Thebaic  is  far  preferable.  III.  A  Third 
Egyptian  Version.  ~  Some  Egyptian  frag- 
ments were  noticed  amongst  the  Borgian 
MSS.,  which  in  dialect  differ  both  from  the 
Memphitic  and  Thebaic.  These  fragments 
of  a  third  Egyptian  translation  were  edited 
in  the  same  year  (1789).  Giorgi  and  MUn- 
ter  called  tlie  version  the  Ammonian.  The 
Character  and  Critical  Use  of  the  Egyptian 
Versions.  —  It  appears  that  the  Thebaic 
version  may  reasonably  claim  a  higher 
antiquity  than  the  Memphitic.  The  two 
translations  are  independent  of  each  other, 
and  both  spring  from  Greek  copies.  The 
probable  conclusions  seem  to  be  these  — 
that  the  Thebaic  version  was  made  in  the 
early  part  of  the  third  century,  for  the  use 
of  the  common  people  among  the  Chris- 
tians in  Upper  Egypt ;  that  afterwards  the 
Memphitic  version  was  executed  in  what 
was  the  more  polished  dialect,  from  the 
Greek  copies  of  Alexandria ;  and  that  thus 
in  process  of  time  tlie  Memphitic  remained 
alone  in  ecclesiastical  use. 

Gothic  Version.  —  In  the  year  318  the 
Gothic  bishop  and  translator  of  Scripture, 
Ulphilas,  was  born.  He  succeeded  The- 
ophilus  as  bishop  of  the  Goths  in  348; 
through  him  it  is  said  that  tlie  Goths  in 
general  adopted  Arianism.  The  great  work 
of  Ulphilas  was  his  version  of  tlie  Scrip- 
tures. In  388  he  visited  Constantinople  to 
defend  his  heterodox  creed,  and  while  there 
he  died.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury the  existence  of  a  MS.  of  this  version 
was  known  through  Morillon  having  men- 
tioned that  he  had  observed  one  in  the 
library  of  the  monastery  of  Werden  on  the 
Ruhr  in  Westphalia.  In  1648,  almost  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
amongst  the  spoils  from  Prague  was  sent  to 
Stockholm  a  copy  of  the  Gothic  Gospels, 
known  as  the  Codex  Argentem.  On  the 
abdication  of  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden, 
a  few  years  later,  it  disappeared.  In  1655 
it  was  in  the  possession  of  Isaac  Vossius  in 
HoUand.    In  1662  it  was  repurchased  for 


VEESIONS,  ANCIENT 


732 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


Sweden  by  Count  Magnus  Gabriel  de  la 
Gardie,  who  placed  it  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Upsal.  While  the  book  was 
in  the  hands  of  Vossius  a  transcript  was 
made  of  its  text,  from  which  Junius,  his 
uncle,  edited  tlie  first  edition  of  the  Gothic 
Gospels  at  Dort  in  1G65.  The  MS.  is  writ- 
ten on  vellum  that  was  once  purple,  in 
silver  letters,  except  those  at  the  beginning 
of  sections,  wliich  are  golden.  The  Gos- 
pels have  many  lacunae :  it  is  calculated 
that  when  entire  it  consisted  of  320  folios ; 
there  are  now  but  188.  It  is  pretty  certain 
that  this  beautiful  and  elaborate  MS.  must 
have  been  written  in  the  6th  century,  prob- 
ably in  Upper  Italy  when  under  the  Gothic 
sovereignty.  New  light  dawned  on  Ulphilas 
and  his  version  in  1817.  While  the  late 
Cardinal  Mai  was  engaged  in  the  examina- 
tion of  palimpsests  in  the  Ambrosian  Li- 
brary at  Milan,  of  which  he  was  at  that 
time  a  librarian,  he  noticed  traces  of  some 
Gothic  writing  under  that  of  one  of  the 
codices.  This  was  found  to  be  part  of  the 
Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  In  making 
further  examination,  four  other  palimpsests 
were  f-iund,  which  contained  portions  of 
the  Gocliic  Version.  Mai  deciphered  tliese 
MSS.  in  conjunction  with  Count  Carlo 
Uttavio  Castiglione,  and  their  labors  result- 
ed in  the  recovery,  besides  a  few  portions 
of  the  Old  Test.,  of  almost  the  whole  of  the 
thirteen  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  and  some  parts 
of  the  Gospels.  Tlie  edition  of  Gabelentz 
and  Loebe  (1830-45)  contains  all  that  has 
been  discovered  of  the  Gothic  Version,  with 
a  Latin  translation,  notes,  and  a  Gothic  Dic- 
tionary and  Grammar.  In  1855-6  Mass- 
mann  issued  an  excellent  small  edition  of 
all  the  Gothic  portions  of  the  Scriptures 
known  to  be  extant.  This  edition  is  said 
to  be  more-  correct  than  that  of  Gabelentz 
and  Locbe.  As  an  ancient  monument  of 
the  Gothic  language  the  version  of  Ulphilas 
possesses  great  interest ;  as  a  version  the 
use  of  which  was  once  extended  widely 
through  Europe,  it  is  a  monument  of  the 
Christianization  of  the  Goths ;  and  as  a 
version  known  to  have  been  made  in  the  4th 
century,  and  transmitted  to  us  in  ancient 
MSS.,  it  has  its  value  in  textual  criticism. 
In  certain  passages  it  has  been  thought  that 
there  is  some  proof  of  the  influence  of  the 
Latin;  but  its  Greek  origin  is  not  to  be 
mistaken.  The  Greek  from  which  the 
version  was  made  must  in  many  respects 
have  been  what  has  been  termed  the  tran- 
Bition  text  of  the  4th  century. 

Greek  Versions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 1.  Septuagint.  [See  Septuagint.] 
2.  Aquila.  —  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  in 
the  second  century  there  were  three  ver- 
sions executed  of  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures into  Greek.  The  first  of  these  was 
made  by  Aquila,  a  native  of  Sinope  in 
Fontvs,  who  had  become  a  proselyte  to 


Judaism.  The  Jerusalem  Talmud  de« 
scribes  him  as  a  disciple  of  Rabbi  Akiba; 
and  this  would  place  him  in  some  part  of 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (a.  d. 
117-138).  It  is  supposed  that  his  object 
was  to  aid  the  Jews  in  their  controversies 
with  the  Christians.  This  is  a  probable 
account  of  the  origin  of  his  version.  Ex- 
treme literality  and  an  occasional  polemical 
bias  appear  to  be  its  chief  characteristics. 

3.  Theodoiion.  —  The  second  version,  of 
which  we  have  information  as  executed  in 
the  second  century,  is  tliat  of  Theodotion. 
He  is  stated  to  have  been  an  Ephesian,  and 
he  seems  to  be  most  generally  described  as 
an  Ebionite :  if  this  is  correct,  his  work 
was  probably  intended  for  those  semi-Chris- 
tians who  may  have  desired  to  use  a  version 
of  their  own,  instead  of  employing  the  LXX. 
with  the  Christians,  or  that  of  Aquila  with 
the  Jews.  But  it  may  be  doubted  if  the 
name  of  translation  can  be  rightly  applied 
to  the  work  of  Theodotion :  it  i*  rather  a 
revision  of  the  LXX.  with  the  Hebrew  text, 
so  as  to  bring  some  of  the  copies  then  in 
use  into  more  conformity  with  the  original. 
The  statement  of  Epiphanius  that  he  made 
his  translation  in  tiie  reign  of  Commodus 
accords  well  with  its  having  been  quoted  by 
Irenaeus  ;  but  it  cannot  be  correct  if  it  is 
one  of  the  translations  referred  to  by  Justin 
Martyr  as  giving  interpretations  contrary 
to  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  New  Test. 

4.  Symmachus  is  stated  by  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  to  have  been  an  Ebionite :  Epi- 
phanius, however,  and  others  style  him  a 
Sanu>ritan.  It  may  be  that  as  a  Samaritan 
he  made  this  version  for  some  of  that  people 
who  employed  Greek,  and  who  had  learned 
to  receive  more  than  the  Pentateuch.  Epi- 
phanius says  that  he  lived  under  tlie  Em- 
peror Severus.  The  translation  which  he 
produced  was  probably  better  than  the  oth- 
ers as  to  sense   and  general  phraseology. 

5.  The  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Seventh  Versio7is. 
—  Besides  the  translations  of  Aquila,  Sym- 
machus, and  Theodotion,  the  great  critical 
work  of  Origen  comprised,  as  to  portions 
of  the  Old  Test.,  three  other  versions, 
placed  for  comparison  with  the  LXX.; 
wliich,  from  their  being  anonymous,  are 
onlj'  known  as  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh; 
designations  taken  from  the  places  which 
they  respectively  occupied  in  Origen's  co- 
lumnar arrangement.  Eusebius  says  that 
two  of  these  versions  were  found,  the  otiQ 
at  Jericho,  and  the  other  at  Nicopolis  on 
the  gulf  of  Actium.  Epiphanius  says  that 
the  fifth  was  found  at  Jericho,  and  the 
sixth  at  Nicopolis,  w'lile  Jerome  speaks 
of  the  fifth  as  having  been  found  at  the 
latter  place.  The  contents  of  the  fifth  ver- 
sion appear  to  have  been  the  Pentateuch, 
Psalms,  Canticles,  and  the  Minor  Prophets. 
The  sixth  version  seems  to  ha  ve  been  just 
the  same  in  its  contents  as  the  fiftli  (excex)k 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


733 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


2  Kings).  Jerome  calls  the  authors  of  the 
fifth  and  sixth  "  Judaicos  translatores ;  " 
but  the  translator  of  this  must  have  been  a 
Christian  when  he  executed  his  work,  or 
else  the  hand  of  a  Christian  reviser  must 
have  meddled  with  it  before  it  was  era- 
ployed  by  Origen.  Of  the  seventh  version 
very  few  fragments  remain.  It  seems  to 
have  contained  the  Psalms  and  Minor  Proph- 
ets; and  the  translator  was  probably  a 
Jew.  The  existing  fragments  of  these  varied 
versions  are  mostly  to  be  found  in  the  edi- 
tions of  the  relics  of  Origen's  Hexapla,  by 
Monifaucon  and  by  Bardlit.  6.  The  Ven^to- 
Greek  Version.  —  A  MS.  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury, in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice, 
contains  a  peculiar  version  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticles, 
Ruth,  Lamentations,  and  Daniel.  All  of 
these  hooks,  except  the  Pentateuch,  were 
published  by  Villoison  at  Strasburg  in  1784 ; 
the  Pentateuch  was  edited  by  Ammon  at 
Eriangen  in  1790-91. 

Latin  Versioxs.     [Vulgate.] 

Samaeitan  Versions.  [Samaritan 
Pentateuch.] 

Slavonic  Version.  In  the  year  862 
there  was  a  desire  expressed,  or  an  inquiry 
made,  for  Christian  teachers  in  Moravia, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  labors  of 
missionaries  began  amongst  them.  These 
missionaries  were  Cyrillus  and  Methodius, 
two  brothers  from  Thessalonica :  to  Cyril- 
lus is  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  Slavo- 
nian alphabet,  and  the  commencement  of 
the  translation  of  the  Scriptures.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  died  at  Rome  in  868,  while 
Methodius  continued  for  many  years  to  be 
the  bishop  of  the  Slavonians.  He  is  stated 
to  have  continued  his  brother's  translation, 
although  how  much  they  themselves  actu- 
ally executed  is  quite  uncertain.  The  Old 
Testament  is,  as  might  be  supposed,  a  ver- 
sion from  the  LXX.  As  the  oldest  known 
MS.  of  the  whole  Bible  is  of  the  year  1499, 
it  may  reasonably  be  questioned  whether 
this  version  may  not  in  large  portions  be 
comparatively  modern.  The  oldest  MS. 
of  any  part  of  this  version  is  an  Evangeli- 
ariura,  in  Cyrillic  characters,  of  the  year 
1056.  The  first  printed  portion  was  an 
edition  of  the  Gospels  in  Wallachia,  in 
1512;  in  1575  the  same  portion  was  printed 
at  Wilna;  and  in  1581  the  whole  Bible  was 
printed  at  Ostrog  in  Volhynia.  The  gen- 
eral text  is  such  as  would  have  been  ex- 
pected in  the  ninth  century :  some  readings 
from  the  Latin  have,  it  appears,  been  intro- 
duced in  places. 

Striac  Versions.  I.  Of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. A.  From  the  Hebrew.  —  In  the 
early  times  of  Syrian  Christianity  there 
was  executed  a  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment from  the  original  Hebrew,  the  use  of 
wliich  must  have  been  as  widely  extended 
fts  was   the  Christian  profession  amongst 


that  people.  Ephraora  the  Syrian,  in  tlie 
latter  half  of  the  4tli  century,  gives  abun- 
dant proof  of  its  use  in  general  by  his  coun- 
trymen. When  he  calls  it  ouB  version,  it 
does  not  appear  to  be  in  opposition  to  any 
other  Syriac  translation,  but  in  contrast 
to  the  original  Hebrew  text,  or  to  those  in 
other  languages.  At  a  later  period  this 
Syriac  translation  was  designated  Peshito 
{Simple).  It  is  probable  that  this  name 
was  applied  to  the  version  after  another 
had  been  formed  from  the  Hexaplar  Greek 
text.  This  translation  from  tiie  Hebrew 
has  always  been  the  ecclesiastical  version 
of  the  Syrians.  Its  existence  and  use 
prior  to  the  divisions  of  the  Syrian  Churches 
are  sufficiently  proved  by  Ephraem  alone. 
It  is  highly  improbable  that  any  part  of  the 
Syriac  version  is  older  than  the  advent 
of  our  Lord.  All  that  the  account  shows 
clearly  is,  that  it  was  believed  to  belong  to 
the  earliest  period  of  the  Christian  faith 
among  them.  Ephraem,  in  the  4th  century, 
not  only  shows  that  it  was  then  current, 
but  also  gives  the  impression  that  this  had 
even  then  been  long  the  case.  Probably 
the  origin  of  the  Old  Syriac  version  is  to 
be  compared  with  that  of  the  Old  Latin ; 
and  that  it  differed  as  much  from  tiie  pol- 
ished language  of  Edessa  as  did  the  Old 
Latin,  made  in  the  African  Province,  from 
the  contemporary  writers  of  Rome.  The 
Old  Syriac  has  the  peculiar  value  of  being 
the  first  version  from  the  Hebrew  original 
made  for  Christian  use.  The  proof  that 
this  version  was  made  from  the  Hebrew  is 
twofold :  we  have  the  direct  statements  of 
Ephraem,  and  we  find  the  same  thing  as 
evident  from  the  internal  examination  of 
the  version  itself.  The  first  printed  edition 
of  this  version  was  tiiat  which  appeared  in 
the  Paris  Polyglot  of  Le  Jay  in  1645.  In 
Walton's  Polyglot,  1G57,  the  Paris  text  is 
reprinted,  but  with  the  addition  of  the 
Apocryphal  books.  In  the  punctuation 
given  in  the  Polyglots,  a  system  was  intro- 
duced which  was  in  part  a  peculiarity  of 
Gabriel  Sionita  himself.  Dr.  Lee  collated 
for  the  text  which  he  edited  for  the  Bible 
Society  six  Syriac  MSS.  of  the  Old  Tost, 
in  general,  and  a  very  ancient  copy  of  the 
Pentateuch  :  he  also  used  in  part  the  com- 
mentaries of  Ephraem  and  of  Bar-Hebraeus. 
From  these  various  sources  he  constructed 
his  text,  with  the  aid  of  that  found  already 
in  the  Polyglots.  But  tliere  are  now  in 
England,  in  the  MS.  treasures  brought  from 
the  Nitrian  valleys,  the  means  of  far  more 
accurately  editing  this  version.  It  has 
been  much  discussed  whether  this  transla- 
tion were  a  Jewisii  or  a  Christian  work. 
There  need  be  no  reasonal)le  objection 
made  to  tlie  opinion  that  it  is  a  Christian 
work.  B.  The  Syriac  Version  from  the 
Hexaplar  Greek  7'ext.  —  Thc  only  Syriac 
version  of  the  O.  T.  up  to  the  6th  century 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


734 


VERSIONS,  ANCIENT 


was  apparently  the  Peshito.  Moses  Aghe- 
laeus,  who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century,  speaks  of  the  versions  of  the  N. 
T.  and  the  Psalter,  "which  Poly  carp  (rest 
his  soul!),  the  Chorepiscopus,  made  in 
Syriac  for  the  faithful  Xenaias,  the  teacher 
of  Mabug,  worthy  of  the  memory  of  the 
good."  The  version  by  Paul  of  Tela,  a 
Monophysite,  was  made  in  the  beginning 
of  the  7th  century ;  for  its  basis  he  used 
the  Hexaplar  Greek  text  —  that  is,  the 
LXX.,  with  the  corrections  of  Origen,  the 
asterisks,  obeli,  &c.,  and  with  the  references 
to  the  other  Greek  versions.  The  Syro- 
Hexaplar  version  was  made  on  the  princi- 
ple of  following  the  Greek,  word  for  word, 
as  exactly  as  possible.  It  contains  the 
marks  introduced  by  Origen,  and  the  ref- 
erences to  the  versions  of  Aquila,  Symma- 
chus,  Theodotion,  &c.  In  fact,  it  is  from 
this  Syriac  version  that  we  obtain  our  most 
accurate  acquaintance  with  the  results  of 
the  critical  labors  of  Origan.  It  is  from  a 
MS.  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan 
that  we  possess  accurate  means  of  know- 
ing this  Syriac  version.  The  MS.  in 
question  contains  the  Psalms,  Job,  Prov- 
erbs, Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Wisdom,  Ec- 
clesiasticus.  Minor  Prophets,  Jeremiah,  Ba- 
ruch,  Daniel,  Ezekiel,  and  Isaiah.  Be- 
sides these  portions  of  this  Syriac  version, 
the  MSS.  from  the  Nitrian  monasteries  now 
in  the  British  Museum  would  add  a  good  deal 
ni-re ;  amongst  these  there  are  six,  from 
vljch  much  might  be  drawn,  so  that  part 
of  the  Pentateuch  and  other  books  may  be 
rs'Xivered.  II.  The  Syriac  New  Testament 
Versions.  A.  The  Peshito  Syriac  N.  T.  — 
It  may  stand  as  an  admitted  fact  that  a  ver- 
sion of  the  N.  T.  in  Syriac  existed  in  the 
2d  century ;  and  to  this  wa  may  refer  the 
statement  of  Eusebius  respecting  Hegesip- 
pus,  that  he  "  made  quotations  from  the 
Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Syriac."  It  seems  equally  certain  that  in 
the  4th  century  such  a  version  was  as  well 
known  of  the  N.  T.  as  of  the  O.  T,  To  the 
translation  in  common  use  amongst  the 
Syrians,  orthodox,  Monophysite,  or  Nes- 
torian,  from  the  5th  century  and  onward, 
the  name  of  Pesliito  has  been  as  commonly 
applied  in  the  N.  T.  as  the  O.  T.  There 
seem  to  be  but  few  notices  of  the  old  Syri- 
ac Version  in  early  writers.  Cosmas  In- 
dicopleustes,  in  the  former  half  of  the  6th 
century,  incidentally  informs  us  that  the 
Syriac  translation  does  not  contain  the 
Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  2  and  8  John, 
and  Jude.  In  1552  Moses  of  Mardin  came 
to  Rome  to  Pope  Julius  III.,  commissioned 
by  Ignatius  the  Jacobite  (Monophysite) 
patriarch,  to  state  his  religious  opinions, 
to  effect  (it  is  said)  a  union  with  the  Ro- 
mish Church,  and  to  get  the  Syriac  iV.  T. 
printed.  In  this  last  object  he  failed  both 
at  Rome  and  Venice.    At  Vienna  he  was, 


however,  successful,  and  an  edition  ap- 
peared in  1555.  In  1828  the  edition  of 
Mr.  William  Greenfield  was  published  by 
Messrs.  Bagster.  This  Syriac  Version 
has  been  variously  estimated;  some  have 
thought  that  in  it  they  had  a  genuine  and 
unaltered  monument  of  the  second,  or  per- 
haps even  of  the  first  century.  Others, 
finding  in  it  indubitable  marks  of  a  later 
age,  were  inclined  to  deny  that  it  had  any 
claim  to  a  very  remote  antiquity.  The 
fact  is,  that  this  version,  as  transmitted  to 
us,  contains  marks  of  antiquity,  and  also 
traces  of  a  later  age.  The  two  things  are 
so  blended,  that  if  either  class  of  phe- 
nomena alone  were  regarded,  the  most 
opposite  opinions  might  be  formed.  It 
appears  probable  that  the  N.  T.  of  the 
Peshito  is  not  from  the  same  hand  as  the 
O.  T.  Not  only  may  Michaelis  be  right  in 
supposing  a  peculiar  translator  of  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews,  but  also  other  parts  may 
be  from  different  hands ;  this  opinion  will 
become  more  general  the  more  the  version 
is  studied.  The  Curetonian  Syriac  Gos- 
pels. —  Among  the  MSS.  brought  from  the 
Nitrian  monasteries  in  1842,  Dr.  Cureton 
noticed  a  copy  of  the  Gospels,  differing 
greatly  from  the  common  text ;  and  this  is 
the  form  of  text  to  which  the  name  of 
Curetonian  Syriac  has  been  rightly  ap- 
plied. Every  criterion  which  proves  the 
common  Peshito  not  to  exhibit  a  text  of 
extreme  antiquity,  equally  proves  the  early 
origin  of  this.  The  Curetonian  Syriac 
presents  such  a  text  as  we  miglit  have 
concluded  would  be  current  in  the  second 
century :  the  Peshito  has  many  features 
which  could  not  belong  to  that  age ;  un- 
less, indeed,  we  are  ready  to  reject  estab- 
lished facts,  and  those  of  a  very  numerous 
kind;  probably,  at  least,  two  thousand. 
B.  The  Philoxcnian  Syriac  Version,  and 
its  revision  by  Thomas  of  Harkel.  —  Phi- 
loxenus,  or  Xenaias,  a  Monophysite,  Bishop 
of  Hierapolis  or  Mabug  at  the  beginning  of 
the  6th  century,  caused  Polycarp,  his  Cho- 
repiscopus, to  make  a  new  translation  of 
the  N.  T.  into  Syriac.  This  was  executed 
in  A.  T>.  508,  and  it  is  generally  termed 
Philoxenian,  from  its  promoter.  This  ver- 
sion has  not  been  transmitted  to  us  in  the 
form  in  which  it  was  first  made ;  we  only 
possess  a  revision  of  it,  executed  by  Thomas 
of  Harkel  in  the  following  century  (The 
Gospels,  A.  D.  616).  C.  Syriac  Versions 
of  PoHions  wanting  in  the  Peshito.  I. 
The  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  Second 
and  Third  of  John,  and  that  of  Jude. — They 
were  published  by  Pococke  in  1630,  from  a 
MS.  in  the  Bodleian.  II.  The  Apocalypse. 
—  In  1627  De  Dieu  edited  a  Syriac  version 
of  the  Apocalypse,  from  a  MS.  in  the  Ley- 
den  Library,  written  by  one  "  Caspar,  from 
the  land  of  the  Indians,"  who  lived  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century.     III.   Th« 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED         735         VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 


Syriac  Version  of  John  \m.  1-11.  —  From 
the  MS.  sent  by  Archbishop  Ussher  to 
De  Dieu,  the  latter  published  this  section 
in  1631.  From  De  Dieu  it  was  inserted  in 
the  London  Polyglot,  with  a  reference  to 
Ussher's  MS.,  and  hence  it  has  passed  with 
the  other  editions  of  the  Peshito,  where  it 
is  a  mere  interpolation.  Probably  the  ver- 
sion edited  is  that  of  Paul  of  Tela,  the 
translator  of  the  Hexaplar  Greek  text  into 
Syriac.  D.  The  Jerusalem  Syriac  Lection- 
ary.  —  The  MS.  in  the  Vatican  containing 
this  version  was  written  in  a.  d.  1031,  in 
peculiar  Syriac  writing;  the  portions  are 
of  course  those  for  the  different  festivals, 
some  parts  of  the  Gospels  not  being  there 
at  all.  The  dialect  is  not  common  Syriac ; 
it  was  termed  the  Jerusalem  Syriac,  from 
its  being  supposed  to  resemble  the  Jerusa- 
lem Talmud  in  language  and  other  points. 
For  critical  purposes  this  Lectionary  has  a 
far  higher  value  than  it  has  for  any  other : 
its  readings  often  coincide  with  the  oldest 
and  best  authorities.  In  Adler's  opinion  its 
date  as  a  version  would  be  from  the  4th  to 
the  6th  century ;  but  it  can  hardly  be  sup- 
posed that  it  is  of  so  early  an  age,  or  that 
any  Syrians  then  could  have  used  so  cor- 
rupt a  dialect. 

Version,  Authorized.  I.  "Wtcliffe 
(b.  1324 ;  d.  1384).  —  The  N.  T.  was  trans- 
lated by  Wycliffe  himself.  The  O.  T.  was 
undertaken  by  Nicholas  de  Hereford,  but 
was  interrupted,  and  ends  abruptly  (follow- 
ing so  far  tlie  order  of  the  Vulgate)  in  the 
middle  of  Baruch.  Many  of  the  MSS.  of 
this  version  now  extant  present  a  different 
recension  of  the  text,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  work  of  Wycliffe  and  Hereford 
was  revised  by  Richard  Purvey,  circ.  a.  d. 
1388-  The  version  was  based  entirely  upon 
the  Vulgate.  The  following  characteristics 
may  be  noticed  as  distinguishing  this  ver- 
sion: (1)  The  general  homeliness  of  its 
style.  (2)  The  substitution,  in  many  cases, 
of  English  equivalents  for  quasi-technical 
words.  (3)  The  extreme  literalness  with 
which,  in  some  instances,  even  at  the  cost 
of  being  unintelligible,  the  Vulgate  text  is 
followed,  as  in  2  Cor.  i.  17-19.  II.  Ttn- 
DAL.  —  The  work  of  Wycliffe  stands  by 
itself.  Whatever  power  it  exercised  in 
preparing  the  way  for  the  Reformation  of 
the  16th  century,  it  had  no  perceptible  in- 
fluence on  later  translations.  With  Tyndal 
we  enter  on  a  continuous  succession.  He 
is  the  patriarch,  in  no  remote  ancestry,  of 
the  Authorized  Version.  More  than  Cran- 
mer  or  Ridley  he  is  the  true  hero  of  the 
English  Reformation.  "  Ere  many  years," 
he  said  at  tlie  age  of  thirty-six  (a.  d.  1520), 
ho  would  cause  "  a  boy  that  driveth  the 
plough  "  to  know  more  of  Scripture  than 
the  great  body  of  the  clergy  then  knew. 
He  prepared  himself  for  the  work  by  long 
years  of  labor  in  Greek  and  Hebrew.   First 


the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
were  published  tentatively.  In  1525  the 
whole  of  the  N.  T.  was  printed  in  4to.  at 
Cologne,  and  in  small  Svo.  at  Worms.  In 
England  it  was  received  with  denunciations. 
Tonstal,  Bishop  of  London,  preaching  at 
Paul's  Cross,  asserted  that  there  were  at 
least  2000  errors  in  it,  and  ordered  all 
copies  of  it  to  be  bought  up  and  burnt.  An 
Act  of  Parliament  (35  Henry  VIII.  cap.  1) 
forbade  the  use  of  all  copies  of  Tyndal's 
"  false  translation."  The  treatment  which 
it  received  from  professed  friends  was 
hardly  less  annoying.  In  the  mean  time 
the  work  went  on.  Editions  were  printed 
one  after  another.  The  last  appeared  in 
1535,  just  before  his  death.  His  heroic  life 
was  brought  to  a  close  in  1536.  We  may 
cast  one  look  on  its  sad  end  —  the  treach- 
erous betrayal,  the  Judas-kiss  of  the  false 
friend,  the  imprisonment  at  Vilvorden,  the 
last  prayer,  "  Lord,  open  the  King  of  Eng- 
land's eyes."  The  work  to  which  a  life 
was  thus  nobly  devoted  was  as  nobly  done. 
To  Tyndal  belongs  the  honor  of  having 
given  the  first  example  of  a  translation 
based  on  true  principles,  and  the  excellence 
of  later  versions  has  been  almost  in  exact 
proportion  as  they  followed  his.  Believing 
that  every  part  of  Scripture  had  one  sense, 
and  one  only,  the  sense  in  the  mind  of  tiie 
writer  (^Obedience,  p.  304),  he  made  it  his 
work,  using  all  philological  helps  that  were 
accessible,  to  attain  that  sense.  Believing 
that  the  duty  of  a  translator  was  to  place 
his  readers  as  nearly  as  possible  on  a  level 
with  those  for  whom  the  books  were  origi- 
nally written,  he  looked  on  all  the  later 
theological  associations  that  had  gathered 
round  the  words  of  the  N.  T.  as  hinderances 
rather  than  helps,  and  sought,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  get  rid  of  them.  All  the  ex- 
quisite grace  and  simplicity  which  have 
endeared  the  A.  V.  to  men  of  the  most 
opposite  tempers  and  contrasted  opinions, 
is  due  mainly  to  his  clear-sighted  truthful- 
ness. The  desire  to  make  the  Bible  a 
people's  book  led  him  in  one  edition  to 
something  like  a  provincial,  rather  than  a 
national  translation,  but  on  the  whole  it 
kept  him  free  from  the  besetting  danger  of 
the  time,  that  of  writing  for  scholars,  not 
for  the  people.  III.  Coverdale.  —  A  com- 
plete translation  of  the  Bible,  different  from 
Tyndal's,  bearing  the  name  of  Miles  Cover- 
dale,  printed  probably  at  Zurich,  appeared 
in  1535.  The  undertaking  itself,  and  the 
choice  of  Coverdale  as  the  translator,  were 
probably  due  to  Cromwell.  Tyndal's  con- 
troversial treatises,  and  the  polemical  char- 
acter of  his  prefaces  and  notes,  had  irritated 
the  leading  ecclesiastics  and  embittered 
the  mind  of  the  king  himself  against  him. 
There  was  no  hope  of  obtaining  the  king's 
sanction  for  anything  that  bore  his  name. 
But   the    idea  of  an  English  trauslatiua 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 


736 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 


began  to  find  favor.  Cromwell,  it  is  prob- 
able, thought  it  better  to  lose  no  further 
time,  and  to  strike  while  the  iron  was  hot. 
A  divine  whom  he  had  patronized,  thougli 
not,  like  Tyndal,  feeling  himself  called  to 
that  special  work,  was  wilhng  to  undertake 
it.  To  liim  accordingly  it  was  intrusted. 
The  work  which  was  tlius  executed  was 
done,  as  might  be  expected,  in  a  very  dif- 
ferent fashion  from  Tyndal'a.  Of  the  two 
men  one  had  made  this  tlie  great  object  of 
his  life;  the  other,  in  his  own  language, 
"  sought  it  not,  neither  desired  it,"  but 
accepted  it  as  a  task  assigned  to  him.  He 
was  content  to  make  the  translation  at  sec- 
ond hand  "  out  of  the  Douche  (Luther's 
German  Version)  and  the  Latine."  It  is 
not  improbable,  however,  that  as  time  went 
on  be  added  to  his  knowledge.  He,  at  any 
rate,  continued  his  work  as  a  painstaking 
editor.  Fresh  editions  of  his  fiible  were 
published,  keeping  their  ground  in  spite  of 
rivals  in  1537,  1539,  1550,  1553.  He  was 
called  in  at  a  still  later  period  to  assist  in 
the  Geneva  version.  IV.  Matthew.  —  In 
the  year  1537,  a  large  folio  Bible  appeared 
as  edited  and  dedicated  to  the  king,  by 
Thomas  Matthew.  No  one  of  that  name 
appears  at  all  prominently  in  the  religious 
history  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  this  suggests 
the  inference  that  the  name  was  adopted  to 
conceal  the  real  translator.  The  tradition 
which  connects  tliis  Matthew  with  John 
Rogers,  the  proto-martyr  of  the  Marian 
persecution,  is  all  but  undisputed.  Slat- 
thew's  Bible  reproduces  Tyndal's  work,  in 
the  N.  T.  entirely,  in  the  O.  T.  as  far  as 
2  Chr.,  the  rest  being  taken  with  occasional 
modifications  from  Coverdale.  The  print- 
ing of  the  book  was  begun  apparently 
abroad,  and  was  carried  on  as  far  as  the 
end  of  Isaiah.  At  that  point  a  new  pagi- 
nation begins,  and  the  names  of  the  Lon- 
don printers  appear.  A  copy  was  ordered, 
by  royal  proclamation,  to  be  set  up  in  every 
church,  the  cost  being  divided  between  tlie 
clergy  and  the  parishioners.  This  was, 
therefore,  the  first  Authorized  Version. 
What  has  been  said  of  Tyndal's  Version 
applies,  of  course,  to  this.  There  are, 
however,  signs  of  a  more  advanced  knowl- 
edge of  Hebrew.  More  noticeable  even 
than  in  Tyndal  are  the  boldness  and  fulness 
of  the  exegetical  notes  scattered  throughout 
the  book.  Strong  and  earnest  in  asserting 
what  he  looked  on  as  the  central  truths  of 
the  Gospel,  there  was  in  Rogers  a  Luther- 
like freedom  in  other  things  which  has  nof 
appeared  again  in  any  authorized  translation 
or  popular  commentary.  V.  Taverner 
(1539).  —  The  boldness  of  the  pseudo- 
Matthew  had  frightened  the  ecclesiastical 
world  from  its  propriety.  Coverdale's 
Version  was,  however,  too  inaccurate 
to  keep  its  ground.  It  was  necessary 
to  find    another    editor,    and    the    print- 


ers  applied  to   Richard    Taverner.      But 
little  is  known  of  his  life.     The  fact  that, 
though  a  layman,  he  had  been  chosen  as 
one  of  the  canons  of  the  Cardinal's  Col- 
lege at  Oxford  indicates  a  reputation  for 
scholarship,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the 
character  of  his  translation.     In  most  re- 
spects this  may  be  described  as  an  expur- 
gated  edition  of  Matthew's.     VI.    Cran- 
MEK.  —  In  the  same  year  as  Taverner's, 
and  coming  from  the  same  press,  appeared 
an  English  Bible,  in  a  more  stately  folio, 
with  a  preface  containing  the  initials  T.  C, 
which    imply    the    archbishop's    sanction. 
Cranmer's   Version  presents,  as  miglit  be 
expected,   many  points   of  interest.     The 
prologue  gives  a  more  complete  ideal  of 
what  a  translation  ought  to  be  than  we  have 
as  yet  seen.     Words  not  in  the  original  are 
to  be  printed  in  a  different  type.     It  was 
reprinted   again  and  again,  and  was   the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  Englisli  Church 
till  15G8  —  the  interval  of  Mary's  reign  ex- 
cepted.    From  it,  accordingly,  were  taken 
most,  if  not  all,  the  portions  of  Scripture 
in   the    Prayer-books   of    1549   and   1552. 
The   Psalms,   as   a  whole,  the   quotations 
from  Scripture  in  the  Homilies,  the  sen- 
tences  in  the  Communion   Services,   and 
some  phrases  elseiBthere,  still  preserve  the 
remembrance  of  it.     VII.  Geneva.  —  The 
exiles  who  fled  to  Geneva  in  the  reign  of 
Mary  entered  on  the  work  of  translation 
with  more   vigor  than   ever.     Tlie   Gene- 
van refugees  —  among  them  Whittingham, 
Goodman,  Fullain,   Sampson,   and  Cover- 
dale  himself — labored  "for  two  years  or 
more,  day  and  night."     Their  translation 
of  the   N.  T.  was  "diligently  revised  by 
the  most  approved  Greek  examples."    The 
N.   T.,  translated    by    Whittingliam,   was 
printed  in  1557,  and  the  wiiole  Bil)le  in 
15C0.     Whatever  may  have  been  its  fixults, 
the   Geneva  Bible,   commonly  called  the 
Breeches  Bible,  from  its  rendering  of  Gen. 
iii.  7,  was  unquestionably,  for  sixty  years, 
the  most  popular  of  all  versions.     Not  less 
than  eighty  editions,   some   of  the  wliole 
Bible,  were  printed  between  1558  and  1011. 
It  kept  its   ground    for  some   time   even 
against   the   A.  V.,  and   gave   way,   as   it 
were,  slowly  and  under  protest.     It  was 
the  version  specially  adopted  by  the  great 
PuriUm  party  through  the  whole  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  and  far  into  tliat  of  James.     As 
might  be  expected,  it  was  based  on  Tyn- 
dal's   Version.       Some    peculiarities    are 
worthy  of  special  notice :  (1)  It  professes 
a  desire  to  restore  the  "  true  writing  "  of 
many  Hebrew  names,  and  we  meet  accord- 
ingly with  such  forms  as  Izhak  (Isaac),  Jaa- 
cob,  and  the  like.    (2)  It  omits  the  name  of 
St.  Paul  from  the  title  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  and,  in  a  short  Preface,  leaves 
the  authorsliip  an  open  question.     (3)  It 
avows   the  principle  of  putting  all  words 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 


737 


VERSION,  AUTHORIZED 


not  in  the  original  in  Italics.  (4)  It  pre- 
sents, in  a  Calendar  prefixed  to  the  Bible, 
something  like  a  declaration  of  war  against 
the  established  order  of  the  church's  les- 
sons commemorating  Scripture  facts,  and 
the  deaths  of  the  great  Reformers,  but  ig- 
noring saints'  days  altogether.  (5)  It  was 
the  first  English  Bible  which  entirely  omit- 
ted the  Apocrypha.  The  notes  were  char- 
acteristically Swiss,  not  only  in  their 
theology,  but  in  their  politics.  VIII.  The 
Bishops'  Bible. —  The  facts  just  stated 
will  account  for  the  wish  of  Archbisliop 
Parker  to  bring  out  another  version,  which 
might  establish  its  claims  against  that  of 
Geneva.  Great  preparations  were  made. 
Eight  bishops,  together  with  some  deans 
and  professors,  brought  out  the  fruit  of  their 
labors  in  a  magnificent  folio  (1568  and 
1572).  It  was  avowedly  based  on  Cran- 
mer's ;  but  of  all  tlie  English  versions  it 
had  probably  the  least  success.  It  did  not 
command  the  respect  of  scholars,  and  its 
size  and  cost  were  far  from  meeting  the 
wants  of  the  people.  IX.  Rheims  and 
DouAY.  —  The  successive  changes  in  the 
Protestant  versions  of  the  Scriptures 
were,  as  might  be  expected,  matter  of  tri- 
umph to  the  controversialists  of  the  Latin 
Church.  Some  saw  in  it  an  argument 
against  any  translation  of  Scripture  into 
the  spoken  language  of  the  people.  Others 
pointed  derisively  to  the  want  of  unity 
which  these  changes  displayed.  There 
were  some,  however,  who  took  the  line 
which  Sir  T.  More  and  Gardiner  had  taken 
under  Henry  VIII.  They  did  not  object 
to  the  principle  of  an  English  translation. 
They  only  charged  all  the  versions  hitherto 
made  with  being  false,  corrupt,  heretical. 
To  this  there  was  the  ready  retort,  that 
they  had  done  nothing;  that  their  bishops 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  had  promised,  but 
had  not  performed.  It  was  felt  to  be  ne- 
cessary that  they  should  take  some  steps 
which  miglit  enable  tliem  to  turn  the  edge 
of  this  reproach.  The  English  Catholic 
refugees  wlio  were  settled  at  Rheims  un- 
dertook a  new  English  version.  The  N.  T. 
was  published  at  Rheims  in  1582,  and  pro- 
fessed to  be  based  on  "  the  authentic  text  of 
the  Vulgate."  Notes  were  added,  as  strong- 
ly dogmatic  as  those  of  the  Geneva  Bible, 
and  often  keenly  controversial.  The  work 
of  translation  was  completed  somewhat 
later  by  the  publication  of  the  O.  T.  at 
Douay  in  1609.  X.  Authorized  Vee- 
siON.  —  The  position  of  the  English  Church 
in  relation  to  the  versions  in  use  at  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  James  was 
hardly  satisfactory.  The  Bishops'  Bible 
was  sanctioned  by  authority.  Tliat  of  Ge- 
neva had  the  strongest  hold  on  tlie  affec- 
tions of  the  people.  Scholars,  Hebrew 
scholars  in  particular,  found  grave  fault 
47 


with  both.  Among  the  demands  of  the 
Puritan  representatives  at  tlie  Hampton 
Court  Conference  in  1604,  was  one  for  a 
new,  or  at  least  a  revised  translation.  The 
work  of  organizing  and  superintending  the 
arrangements  for  a  new  translation  was 
one  specially  congenial  to  James,  and  in 
160G  the  task  was  accordingly  commenced. 
It  was  intrusted  to  54  scholars.  The  fol- 
lowing were  the  instructions  given  to  the 
translators:  (1)  The  Bishops'  Bible  was 
to  be  followed,  and  as  little  altered  as  the 
original  will  permit.  (2)  The  names  of 
prophets  and  others  were  to  be  retained,  as 
nearly  as  may  be,  as  they  are  vulgarly  used. 

(3)  The  old  ecclesiastical  words  to  be  kept. 

(4)  When  any  word  hath  divers  significa- 
tions, that  to  be  kept  wliich  hath  been 
mpst  commonly  used  by  the  most  eminent 
fathers,  being  agreeable  to  the  propriety 
of  the  place  and  the  analogy  of  faith.  (6) 
The  division  of  the  chapters  to  be  altered 
either  not  at  all  or  as  little  as  possible.  (6) 
No  marginal  notes  to  be  afllxed  but  only 
for  the  explanation  of  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words.  (7)  Such  quotations  of  places  to 
be  marginally  set  down  as  may  serve  for 
fit  reference  of  one  Scripture  to  another. 
(8  and  9)  State  plan  of  translation.  Each 
company  of  translators  is  to  take  its  own 
books ;  eacli  person  to  bring  his  own  cor- 
rections. The  company  to  discuss  them, 
and  having  finished  their  work,  to  send  it 
on  to  another  company,  and  so  on.  (10) 
Provides  for  differences  of  opinion  between 
two  companies  by  referring  them  to  a  gen- 
eral meeting.  (11)  Gives  power,  in  cases 
of  diflBculty,  to  consult  any  scholars.  (12) 
Invites  suggestions  from  any  quarter.  (13) 
Names  the  directors  of  the  work :  Andrews, 
Dean  of  "Westminster;  Barlow,  Dean  of 
Chester;  and  the  Regius  Professors  of 
Hebrew  and  Greek  at  both  Universities.. 
(14)  Names  translations  to  be  followed! 
when  they  agree  more  with  the  original  thani 
the  Bishops'  Bible,  sc.  Tyndal's,  Coverdale's,, 
Matthew's,  Whitchurch's  (Cranmer's),  audi 
Geneva.  (15)  Authorizes  Universities  to- 
appoint  three  or  four  overseers  of  the  work. 
It  is  not  known  that  any  of  the  corre- 
spondence connected  with  this  work,  or- 
any  minute  of  the  meetings  for  conference, 
is  still  extant.  Nothing  is  more  striking, 
than  the  silence  with  which  tlie  versioiu 
that  was  to  be  the  inheritance  of  the  Eng^ 
lish  people  for  at  least  two  centuries  and 
a  half  was  ushered  into  the  world.  For 
three  years  the  work  went  on,  tlie  separate 
companies  comparing  notes,  as  directed. 
When  the  work  drew  towards  its  comple- 
tion, it  was  necessary  to  place  it  under  the 
care  of  a  select  few.  Two  from  each  of 
the  three  groups  were  accordingly  selected, 
and  the  six  met  in  London,  to  superintend 
the  publication.    The  final  correction,  and 


VILLAGE 


738 


VIXE  OF  SODOM 


the  task  of  writing  the  arguments  of  the 
several  books,  were  given  to  Bilson,  Bishop 
of  Wincliester,  and  Dr.  Miles  Smith,  the 
latter  of  whom  also  wrote  the  Dedication 
and  Preface.  The  version  thus  published 
did  not  all  at  once  supersede  those  already 
in  possession.  The  fact  that  five  editions 
were  published  in  three  years,  shows  that 
there  was  a  good  demand.  But  the  Bishops' 
Bible  probably  remained  in  many  Churches, 
and  the  popularity  of  the  Geneva  Version  is 
sliown  by  not  less  than  thirteen  reprints,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  between  1611  and  1617. 
It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  the  impression 
which  the  A.  V.  made  at  the  time  of  its  ap- 
pearance. Selden  says  it  is  "the  best  of 
all  translations,  as  giving  the  true  sense  of 
the  original."  It  would  be  easy  to  put  to- 
gether a  long  catena  of  praises  stretching 
from  that  time  to  the  present. 

Village.  This  word,  in  addition  to  its 
ordinary  sense,  is  often  used,  especially  in 
the  enumeration  of  towns  in  Josh,  xiii.,  xv., 
xix.,  to  imply  unwalled  suburbs  outside  the 
walled  towns.  Arab  villages,  as  found  in 
Arabia,  are  often  mere  collections  of  stone 
huts,  "  long,  low,  rude  hovels,  roofed  only 
with  the  stalks  of  palm-leaves,"  or  covered 
for  a  time  with  tent-cloths,  which  are  re- 
moved when  the  tribe  change  their  quar- 
ters. Others  are  more  solidly  built,  as  are 
most  of  the  modern  villages  of  Palestine, 
though  in  some  the  dwellings  are  mere 
mud-huts.  There  is  little  in  the  O.  T.  to 
enable  us  more  precisely  to  define  a  vil- 
lage of  Palestine,  beyond  the  fact  that  it 
was  destitute  of  walls  or  external  defences. 
Persian  villages  are  spoken  of  in  similar 
terms  (Ez.  xxxviii.  11;  Esth.  ix.  19).  By 
the  Talmudists  a  village  was  defined  as  a 
place  destitute  of  a  synagogue. 

Vine,  the  well-known  valuable  plant 
(joitis  vinifera')  very  frequently  referred 
to  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and 
cultivated  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
first  mention  of  this  plant  occurs  in  Gen. 
ix.  20,  21.  That  it  was  abundantly  culti- 
vated in  Egypt  is  evident  from  the  frequent 
representations  on  the  monuments,  as  well 
as  from  the  .Scriptural  allusions  (Gen.  xl. 
9-11;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  47).  The  vines  of  Pales- 
tine were  celebrated  both  for  luxuriant 
growth  and  for  the  immense  clusters  of 
grap(!3  which  they  produced.  When  the 
spies  were  sent  forth  to  view  the  promised 
land,  we  are  told  that  on  their  arrival  at 
the  valley  of  Eslicol  they  cut  down  a  branch 
with  one  cluster  of  grapes,  and  bare  it 
between  two  on  a  staff  (Num.  xiii.  23). 
Travellers  have  frequently  testified  to  the 
large  size  of  the  grape-clusters  of  Pales- 
tine. Especial  mention  is  made  in  the 
Bible  of  the  vines  of  Eshcol  (Num.  xiii. 
2^1  xxxii.  9),  of  Sibmah,  Heshbon,  and 
j;iealeh  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9,  10 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  82), 


and  Engcdi  (Cant.  i.  14).  From  the  abun- 
dance and  excellence  of  the  vines,  it  may 
readily  be  understood  how  frequently  this 
plant  is  the  subject  of  metaplior  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  To  dwell  under  the  vine 
and  fig-tree  is  an  emblem  of  domestic  hap- 
piness and  peace  (1  K.  iv.  25;  Mic.  iv.  4; 
Ps.  cxxviii,  3)  ;  the  rebellious  people  of 
Israel  are  compared  to  "wild  grapes,"  "an 
empty  vine,"  "  the  degenerate  plant  of  a 
strange  vine,"  &c.  (Is.  v.  2,  4 ;  Uos.  x.  1 ; 
Jer.  ii.  21).  It  is  a  vine  which  our  Lord 
selects  to  show  the  spiritual  union  which 
subsists  between  Himself  and  his  members 
(John  XV.  1-6).  The  ancient  Hebrews 
probably  allowed  the  vine  to  grow  trailing 
on  the  ground,  or  upon  supports.  This 
latter  mode  of  cultivation  appears  to  be 
alluded  to  by  Ezekiel  (xix.  11,  12).  The 
vintage,  which  formerly  was  a  season  of 
general  festivity,  commenced  in  Septem- 
ber. The  towns  are  deserted,  and  the 
people  live  among  the  vineyards  in  the 
lodges  and  tents  (comp.  Judg.  ix.  27 ;  Jer. 
XXV.  30;  Is.  xvi.  10).  The  grapes  were 
gathered  with  shouts  of  joy  by  the  "  grape- 
gatherers  "  (Jer.  XXV.  30),  and  put  into 
baskets  (see  Jer.  vi.  9).  They  were  then 
carried  on  the  head  and  shoulders,  or  slung 
upon  a  yoke,  to  the  "  wine-press."  Those 
intended  for  eating  were  perhaps  put  into 
flat  open  baskets  of  wickerwork,  as  was 
the  custom  in  Egypt.  In  Palestine,  at  pres- 
ent, the  finest  grapes,  says  Dr.  Robinson, 
are  dried  as  raisins,  and  the  juice  of  the 
remainder,  after  having  been  trodden  and 
pressed,  "is  boiled  down  to  a  sirup,  which, 
under  the  name  of  dibs,  is  much  used  by 
all  classes,  wherever  vineyards  are  found, 
as  a  condiment  with  their  food."  The  vine- 
yard, which  was  generally  on  a  liill  (Is.  v. 
1;  Jer.  xxxi.  5;  Amos  ix.  13),  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  or  hedge  in  order  to 
keep  out  the  wild  boars  (Ps.  Ixxx.  13), 
jackals,  and  foxes  (Num.  xxii.  24;  Cant, 
ii.  15;  Neh.  iv.  3;  Ez.  xiii.  4,  5;  Matt.  xxi. 
33).  Within  the  vineyard  was  one  or  more 
towers  of  stone  in  which  the  vine-dressers 
lived  (Is.  i.  8,  v.  2;  Matt.  xxi.  33).  The 
press  and  vat,  which  was  dug  (Matt.  xxi. 
33)  or  hewn  out  of  the  rocky  soil,  were 
part  of  the  vineyard  furniture  (Is.  v.  2). 

Vine  of  Sodom  occurs  only  in  Deut. 
xxxii.  32.  It  is  generally  supposed  thjit 
this  passage  alludes  to  the  celebrated  ap- 
ples of  Sodom,  of  which  Josephus  speaks, 
"  which  indeed  resemble  edible  fruit  in  col- 
or, but,  on  being  plucked  by  the  hand,  are 
dissolved  into  smoke  and  ashes."  It  has 
been  variously  identified.      Dr.  Robinson 

\  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  'Osher  fruit,  the 

j  Asdepias  {Calotropis)  procera  of  botanists. 

{  He  says,  "  The  fruit  greatly  resembles  ex- 
ternally a  large  smooth  apple  or  orange, 

I  hanging  in  clusters  of  three  or  four  to- 


VINEGAR 


739 


VULGATE 


gether,  and  when  ripe  is  of  a  yellow  color. 
It  was  now  fair  and  delicious  to  the  eye, 
and  soft  to  the  touch ;  but,  on  being  pressed 
or  struck,  it  explodes  with  a  putf,  like  a 
bladder  or  puff-ball,  leaving  in  the  hand 
only  the  shreds  of  the  thin  rind  and  a  few 
fibres.  It  is  indeed  filled  chiefly  with  air, 
which  gives  it  the  round  form."  Dr.  Hook- 
er writes,  "  The  Vine  of  Sodom  I  always 
thought  might  refer  to  Cucumis  colocynthis, 
which  is  bitter  and  powdery  inside;  the 
term  vine  would  scarcely  be  given  to  any 
but  a  trailing  or  other  plant  of  the  habit  of 
a  vine."  His  remark  that  the  term  vine 
must  refer  to  some  plant  of  the  habit  of  a 
vine,  is  conclusive  against  the  claims  of  all 
the  plants  hitherto  identified  with  the  Vine 
of  Sodom. 

Vinegar.  The  Hebrew  word  translated 
"  vinegar"  was  applied  to  a  beverage  con- 
'iisting  generally  of  wine  or  strong  drink 
turned  sour,  but  sometimes  artificially 
made  by  an  admixture  of  barley  and  wine, 
and  thus  liable  to  fermentation.  It  was 
acid  even  to  a  proverb  (Pro v.  x.  26),  and 
by  itself  formed  a  nauseous  draught  (Ps. 
Ixix.  21),  but  was  used  by  laborers  (Ruth 
ii.  14).  Similar  was  the  acetum  of  the 
Romans  —  a  thin,  sour  wine,  consumed  by 
soldiers.  This  was  the  beverage  of  which 
the  Saviour  partook  in  His  dying  moments 
(Matt,  xxvii.  48 ;  Mark  xv.  36 ;  John  xix. 
29,  30). 

Vineyards,   Plain  of  the.     This 
place,  mentioned  only  in  Judgv  xi.  33,  has 
been  already  noticed  under  Abel  (5). 
Viol.     [Psaltery.] 
Viper.     [Serpent.] 
Voph'si,  father  of  Nahbi,  the  Naphta- 
lite  spy  (Num.  xiii.  14). 

Vows.  The  earliest  mention  of  a  vow 
is  that  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii.  18-22,  xxxi. 
13).  Vows  in  general  are  also  mentioned 
in  the  Book  of  Job  (xxii.  27).  The  Law 
therefore  did  not  introduce,  but  regulated 
the  practice  of  vows.  Three  sorts  are  men- 
tioned :  I.  Vows  of  devotion ;  II.  Vows 
of  abstinence;  III.  Vows  of  destruction. 
I.  As  to  vows  of  devotion,  the  following 
rules  are  laid  down :  A  man  might  devote 
to  sacred  uses  possessions  or  persons,  but 
not  the  firstborn  either  of  man  or  beast, 
whicli  was  devoted  already  (Lev.  xxvii.  26). 
a.  If  he  vowed  land,  he  might  either  re- 
deem it  or  not  (Lev.  xxv.,  xxvii.).  b. 
Animals  fit  for  sacrifice,  if  devoted,  were 
not  to  be  redeemed  or  changed  (Lev. 
xxvii.  9,  10,  33).  c.  The  case  of  persons 
devoted  stood  thus :  A  man  might  devote 
either  himself,  his  child  (not  the  firstborn), 
or  his  slave.  If  no  redemption  took  place, 
the  devoted  person  became  a  slave  of  the 
sanctuary  :  see  the  case  of  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
XV.  8).  Otherwise  he  might  be  redeemed 
at  a  valuation  according  to  age  and  sex,  on 
the  scale  given  in  Lev.  xxvii.  1-7.    Among 


general  regulations  affecting  vows,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  mentioned  :  1.  Vows  were 
entirely  voluntary,  but  once  made  were  re- 
garded as  compulsory  (Num.  xxx.  2 ;  Deut. 
xxiii.  21 ;  Eccl.  v.  4).  2.  If  persons  in  a 
dependent  condition  made  vows,  as  (a)  an 
unmarried  daughter  living  in  her  father's 
house,  or  (b)  a  wife,  even  if  she  afterwards 
became  a  widow,  the  vow,  if  (a)  in  the  first 
case  her  father,  or  (6)  in  the  second,  her 
husband,  heard  and  disallowed  it,  was  void ; 
but  if  they  heard  without  disallowance,  it 
was  to  remain  good  (Num.  xxx.  3-16).  3. 
Votive  offerings  arising  from  the  produce 
of  any  impure  traflSc  were  wholly  forbidden 
(Deut.  xxiii.  18).  II.,  III.  For  vows  of 
abstinence,  see  Corban  ;  and  for  vows  of 
extermination,  Anathema,  and  Ezr.  x.  8 ; 
Mic.  iv.  13.  It  seems  that  the  practice  of 
shaving  the  head  at  the  expiration  of  a  vo- 
tive period  was  not  limited  to  the  Nazaritic 
vow  (Acts  xviii.  18,  xxi.  24). 

Vulgate,  The,  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Bible.  The  influence  which  it  exercised 
upon  Western  Christianity  is  scarcely  less 
than  that  of  the  LXX.  upon  the  Greek 
Churches.  But  both  the  Greek  and  the 
Latin  Vulgates  have  been  long  neglected. 
Yet  the  Vulgate  should  have  a  very  deep 
interest  for  all  the  Western  Churches.  For 
many  centuries  it  was  the  only  Bible  gen- 
erally used ;  and,  directly  or  indirectly,  it 
is  the  real  parent  of  all  the  vernacular 
versions  of  Western  Europe.  The  Gothic 
Version  of  Ulphilas  alone  is  independent 
of  it.  In  the  age  of  the  Reformation  the 
Vulgate  was  rather  the  guide  than  the 
source  of  the  popular  versions.  That  of 
Luther  (N.  T.  in  1523)  was  the  most  im- 
portant, and  in  this  the  Vulgate  had  great 
weight.  From  Luther  the  influence  of  the 
Latin  passed  to  our  own  Authorized  Ver- 
sion. But  the  claims  of  the  Vulgate  to  the 
attention  of  scholars  rest  on  wider  grounds. 
It  is  not  only  the  source  of  our  current 
theological  terminology,  but  it  is,  in  one 
shape  or  other,  the  most  important  early 
witness  to  the  text  and  interpretation  of  the 
whole  Bible.  The  name  is  equivalent  to 
Vulgaia  editio  (the  current  text  of  Holy 
Scripture).  I.  The  Old  Latin  Versions. — 
The  history  of  the  earliest  Latin  Version  of 
the  Bible  is  lost  in  obscurity.  All  that  can 
be  affirmed  with  certainty  is,  that  it  was 
made  in  Africa  in  the  2d  century.  During 
the  first  two  centuries  the  Churches  of 
Rome  and  Gaul  were  essentially  Greek; 
but  the  Church  of  N.  Africa  seems  to  have 
been  Latin-speaking  from  the  first.  This 
version  was  known  by  the  name  of  the  Old 
Latin  (  Vetm  Latino),  and  the  language 
was  rude  and  provincial.  It  appears  to 
have  arisen  from  individual  and  successive 
efforts ;  but  it  does  not  follow  by  any  means 
that  numerous  versions  were  simultaneously 
circulated,  or  that  the  several  parts  of  the 


VCXGATE 


740 


VULGATE 


version  were  made  independently.  Even 
if  it  had  been  so,  the  exigencies  of  the  pub- 
lic service  must  soon  have  given  definite- 
ness  and  substantial  unity  to  the  fragmen- 
tary labors  of  individuals.  The  work  of 
private  hands  would  necessarily  be  subject 
to  revision  for  ecclesiastical  use.  T)ie 
separate  books  would  be  united  in  a  vol- 
ume, and  thus  a  standard  text  of  the  whole 
collection  would  be  established.  With  re- 
gard to  the  O.  T.  the  case  is  less  clear.  It 
is  probable  that  the  Jews  who  were  settled 
in  N.  Africa  were  confined  to  the  Greek 
towns ;  otherwise  it  might  be  supposed  that 
the  Latin  Version  of  the  O.  T.  is  in  part 
anterior  to  the  Christian  era,  and  that  (as 
in  the  case  of  Greek)  a  preparation  for  a 
Christian  Latin  dialect  was  already  made 
when  the  Gospel  was  introduced  into  Africa. 
However  this  may  have  been,  the  substan- 
tial similarity  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  establishes  a  real 
connection  between  them,  and  justifies  the 
belief  that  there  was  one  popular  Latin 
Version  of  the  Bible  current  in  Africa  in 
the  last  quarter  of  the  second  century. 
From  considerations  of  style  and  language 
it  seems  certain  that  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, James,  and  2  Peter,  did  not  form 
part  of  the  original  African  Version.  In 
the  O.  T.,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Old  Latin 
erred  by  excess,  and  not  by  defect.  After 
the  translation  once  received  a  definite 
shape  in  Africa,  which  could  not  have  been 
long  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
it  was  not  publicly  revised.  It  continued 
to  be  used  in  Africa  in  its  original  form; 
but  in  the  4th  century  an  ecclesiastical 
recension  appears  to  have  been  made  in 
Northern  Italy,  which  was  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  Bala.  At  the  close  of  the  4th 
century  the  Latin  texts  of  the  Bible  current 
in  the  Western  Church  had  fallen  into  the 
greatest  corruption.  The  evil  was  yet 
greater  in  prospect  than  at  the  time ;  for 
the  separation  of  the  East  and  West  was 
growing  imminent.  II.  The  Labors  of 
Jerome.  —  In  the  crisis  of  danger  the  great 
scholar  was  raised  up  who  probably  alone 
for  1600  years  possessed  the  qualifications 
necessary  for  producing  an  original  version 
of  the  Scriptures  for  the  use  of  the  Latin 
Churches,  viz.  Jerome — Eusebius  Hierony- 
mus  —  who  was  born  in  329  a.  d.  at  Stridon 
in  Dalmatia,  and  died  at  Bethlehem  in  420 
A.  D.  After  long  and  self-denying  studies 
in  the  East  and  West,  Jerome  went  to 
Kome  A.  D.  382,  probably  at  the  request  of 
Damasus  the  Pope,  to  assist  in  an  important 
synod.  His  active  biblical  labors  date  from 
this  epoch,  and  in  examining  them  it  will 
bo  convenient  to  follow  the  order  of  time, 
noticing  (1)  the  Revision  of  the  Old  Latin 
Version  of  the  N.  T. ;  (2)  the  Revision  of 
the  Old  Latin  Version  (from  the  Greek)  of 


the  O.  T. ;  (3)  the  New  Version  of  the  O. 
T.  from  the  Hebrew.  (1.)  The  Revision 
of  the  Old  Latin  Versio7i  of  the  N.  T. — 
Jerome  had  not  been  long  at  Rome  (a.  d. 
383)  when  Damasus  consulted  him  on 
points  of  Scriptural  criticism.  Apparently 
in  the  same  year  Jerome,  at  the  request  of 
Damasus  the  Pope,  undertook  a  revision 
of  the  current  Latin  version  of  the  N.  T. 
by  the  help  of  the  Greek  original.  Jerome 
was  fully  sensible  of  the  prejudices  which 
such  a  work  would  excite  among  those 
"  who  thought  that  ignorance  was  holiness ;  " 
but  the  need  of  it  was  urgent.  "  There 
were,"  he  says,  "almost  as  many  forms 
of  text  as  copies."  The  Gospels  liad  natu- 
rally suffered  most.  Jerome  therefore  ap- 
plied himself  to  these  first.  But  his  aim 
was  to  revise  the  Old  Latin,  and  not  to 
make  a  new  version.  Yet  although  he  pro- 
posed to  himself  this  limited  object,  the 
various  forms  of  corruption  which  had  been 
introduced  were,  as  he  describes,  so  numer- 
ous that  the  difference  of  the  Old  and  Re- 
vised (Hieronymian)  text  is  throughout  clear 
and  striking.  The  preface  to  Damasus 
speaks  only  of  a  revision  of  the  Gospels, 
and  a  question  has  been  raised  whether 
Jerome  really  revised  the  remaining  books 
of  the  N.  T.  But  the  omission  is  probably 
due  to  the  comparatively  pure  state  in 
which  the  text  of  the  rest  of  the  N.  T.  was 
preserved.  An  examination  of  the  Vulgate 
text,  with  the  quotations  of  ante-Hieronym- 
ian  fathers  and  the  imperfect  evidence  of 
MSS.,  is  itself  sufficient  to  establish  the 
reality  and  character  of  the  revision.  (2.) 
The  Revision  of  the  O.  T.  from  the  LXX.  — 
He  next  proceeded  to  revise  the  O.  T.  from 
the  Septuagint.  He  commenced  his  task  by 
a  revision  of  the  Psalter.  This  revision, 
which  was  not  very  complete  or  careful,  ob- 
tained the  name  of  the  Roman  Psalter,  prob- 
ably because  it  was  made  for  the  use  of  the 
Roman  Church  at  the  request  of  Damasus. 
Shortly  afterwards,  at  the  urgent  request  of 
Paula  and  Eustochium,  Jerome  commenced 
a  new  and  more  thorough  revision.  The 
exact  date  at  which  this  was  made  is  not 
known,  but  it  may  be  fixed  with  great 
probability  very  shortly  after  a.  d.  387, 
when  he  retired  to  Bethlehem,  and  cer- 
tainly before  391,  when  he  had  begun  his 
new  translations  from  the  Hebrew.  In  the 
new  revision  Jerome  attempted  to  rep- 
resent as  far  as  possible,  by  the  help  of 
the  Greek  versions,  the  real  reading  of 
the  Hebrew.  This  new  edition  soon  ob- 
tained a  wide  popularity.  Gregory  of 
Tours  is  said  to  have  introduced  it  from 
Rome  into  the  public  services  in  France, 
and  from  this  it  obtained  the  name  of  the 
Gallican  Psalter.  From  the  second  (Gal- 
ilean) revision  of  the  Psalms  Jerome  ap- 
pears to  have  proceeded  to  a  revision  of 


VULGATE 


741 


VULGATE 


the  other  books  of  the  O.  T.,  restoring 
all,  by  the  help  of  the  Greek,  to  a  gen- 
eral conformity  with  the  Hebrew.  The 
revised  texts  of  the  Psalter  and  Job  have 
alone  been  preserved ;  but  there  is  no  rea- 
son to  doubt  that  Jerome  carried  out  his 
design  of  revising  all  the  "  Canonical  Scrip- 
tures." Subsequently  Jerome  undertook  a 
still  more  important  work,  namely,  the  trans- 
lation of  the  O.  T.  from  the  Hebrew.  (3.)  The 
Translation  of  the  0.  T.  from  the  Hebrew. 
—  He  commenced  the  study  of  Hebrew  when 
he  was  already  advanced  in  middle  life 
(about  A.  D.  374).  His  first  teacher  had 
been  a  Jewish  convert ;  but  afterwards  he 
did  not  scruple  to  seek  the  instruction  of 
Jews,  whose  services  he  secured  with  great 
difficulty  and  expense.  After  retiring  to 
Bethlehem,  he  appears  to  have  devoted 
himself  with  renewed  ardor  to  the  study 
of  Hebrew,  and  he  published  several  works 
on  the  subject  (about  a.  d.  389).  These 
essays  served  as  a  prelude  to  his  New  Ver- 
sion, which  he  now  commenced.  This  ver- 
sion was  not  undertaken  with  any  eccle- 
siastical sanction,  as  the  revision  of  the 
Gospels  was,  but  at  the  urgent  request  of 
private  friends,  or  from  his  own  sense  of 
the  imperious  necessity  of  the  work.  Its 
history  is  told  in  the  main  in  the  Prefaces 
to  the  several  instalments  which  were  suc- 
cessively published.  The  Books  of  Samuel 
and  Kings  were  issued  first,  and  to  these 
he  prefixed  the  famous  Prologus  galeatus, 
addressed  to  Paula  and  Eustochium,  in 
which  he  gives  an  account  of  the  Hebrew 
Canon  (about  a.  d.  391,  392).  The  other 
books  followed  in  succession,  and  the  whole 
work  was  completed  in  a.  d.  404.  III.  The 
History  of  Jerome's  Translation  to 
THE  Invention  of  Printing.  —  The  critical 
labors  of  Jerome  were  received  with  a  loud 
outcry  of  reproach.  He  was  accused  of 
disturbing  the  repose  of  the  Church,  and 
shaking  the  foundations  of  faith.  But 
clamor  based  upon  ignorance  soon  dies 
away ;  and  the  New  translation  gradually 
came  into  use  equally  with  the  Old,  and  at 
length  supplanted  it.  In  the  6th  century 
the  use  of  Jerome's  Version  was  universal 
among  scholars  except  in  Africa,  where  the 
other  still  lingered.  In  the  7th  century  the 
traces  of  the  Old  Version  grow  rare.  In 
the  8th  century  Bede  speaks  of  Jerome's 
Version  as  "  our  edition ;  "  and  from  this 
time  it  is  needless  to  trace  its  history, 
though  the  Old  Latin  was  not  wholly  for- 
gotten. Yet  throughout,  the  New  Version 
made  its  way  without  any  direct  eccle- 
siastical authority.  It  was  adopted  in  the 
different  Churches  gradually,  or  at  least 
without  any  formal  command.  But  the 
Latin  Bible  which  thus  passed  gradually 
into  use  under  the  name  of  Jerome  was  a 
etrangely  composite  work.    The  books  of 


the  O.  T.,  with  one  exception,  were  cer- 
tainly taken  from  his  Version  from  the 
Hebrew ;  but  this  had  not  only  been  vari- 
ously corrupted,  but  was  itself  in  many 
particulars  (especially  in  the  Pentateuch) 
at  variance  with  his  later  judgment.  Long 
use,  however,  made  it  impossible  to  substi- 
tute his  Psalter  from  the  Hebrew  for  the 
Galilean  Psalter;  and  thus  this  book  was 
retained  from  the  Old  Version,  as  Jerome 
had  corrected  it  from  the  LXX.  Of  the 
Apocryphal  books  Jerome  hastily  revised 
or  translated  two  only,  Judith  and  Tobit. 
The  remainder  were  retained  from  the  Old 
Version  against  his  judgment;  and  the 
Apocryphal  additions  to  Daniel  and  Esther, 
which  he  had  carefully  marked  as  apocry- 
phal in  his  own  Version,  were  treated  as 
integral  parts  of  the  books.  In  the  N.  T. 
the  text  of  the  Gospels  was  in  the  main 
Jerome's  revised  edition;  that  of  the  re- 
maining books  his  very  incomplete  revision 
of  the  Old  Latin.  Meanwhile  the  text  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  Latin  Bible  was 
rapidly  deteriorating.  The  simultaneous 
use  of  the  Old  and  New  Versions  necessa- 
rily led  to  great  corruptions  of  both  texts. 
Mixed  texts  were  formed  according  to  the 
taste  or  judgment  of  scribes,  and  the  con- 
fusion was  further  increased  by  the  changes 
which  were  sometimes  introduced  by  those 
who  had  some  knowledge  of  Greek.  In 
the  8th  century  the  corruption  had  arrived 
at  such  a  height,  that  Charlemagne  in- 
trusted to  Alcuin  (circ.  a.  d.  802)  the  task 
of  revising  the  Latin  text  for  public  use. 
Alcuin's  revision  probably  contributed  much 
towards  preserving  a  good  Vulgate  text.  It 
was  subsequently  revised  by  many  eminent 
scholars,  both  before  and.  after  the  inven- 
tion of  printing.  IV.  The  History  of  the 
Printed  Text.  —  It  was  a  noble  omen  for 
the  future  progress  of  printing  that  the  first 
book  which  issued  from  the  press  was  the 
Bible ;  and  the  splendid  pages  of  the  Maz- 
arin  Vulgate  (Mainz,  Gutenburg,  and  Fust) 
stand  yet  unsurpassed  by  the  latest  efforts 
of  typography.  This  work  is  referred  to 
about  the  year  1455,  and  presents  the  com- 
mon text  of  the  15th  century.  Other  edi- 
tions followed  in  rapid  succession.  The 
first  collection  of  various  readings  appears 
in  a  Paris  edition  of  1504,  and  others  fol- 
lowed at  Venice  and  Lyons  in  1511,  1513; 
but  Cardinal  Ximenes  (1502-1517)  was  the 
first  who  seriously  revised  the  Latin  text, 
to  which  he  assigned  the  middle  place  of 
honor  in  his  Polyglot  between  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  texts.  This  was  followed  by 
others.  When  the  Council  of  Trent  de- 
clared the  Vulgate  to  be  the  authoritative 
text  of  Scripture,  the  want  of  a  standard 
text  became  more  urgent  than  ever.  At 
length  an  edition  was  published  in  1590, 
under    the  superintendence  of  the  Pop© 


VULTURE 


742 


WAR 


Sixtus  v.,  with  the  famous  constitution 
prefixed,  in  which  Sixtus  affirmed  the  plen- 
ary authority  of  the  edition  for  all  future 
time.  It  was,  however,  soon  found  that 
this  edition  also  was  defective ;  and  accord- 
ingly another  edition  was  prepared  under 
papal  authority.  It  appeared  in  1592  in  the 
Pontificate  of  Clement  VIII.,  with  a  Pref- 
ace, written  by  Bellarmin.  More  than  a 
century  elapsed  before  anj'thing  more  of 
importance  was  done  for  the  text  of  the 
Latin  version  of  the  O.  T.,  when  at  length 
the  fortunate  discovery  of  the  original 
revision  of  the  Sixtine  correctors  again 
directed  the  attention  of  Roman  scholars 
to  their  authorized  text.  The  first  fruits 
of  their  labors  are  given  in  the  volume  of 
Vercellone,  which  has  thrown  more  light 
upon  the  history  and  criticism  of  the  Vul- 
gate than  any  previous  work.  The  neglect 
of  the  Latin  text  of  the  O.  T.  is  but  a  con- 
sequence of  the  general  neglect  of  the 
criticism  of  the  Hebrew  text.  In  the  N.  T. 
far  more  has  been  done  for  the  correc- 
tion of  the  Vulgate,  though  even  here  no 
critical  edition  has  yet  been  published. 
V.  The  Influence  and  Value  of  the 
Latin  Version.  —  The  vast  power  which 
the  Vulgate  has  had  in  determining  the 
theological  terras  of  Western  Christendom 
can  hardly  be  overrated.  By  far  the  great- 
er part  of  the  current  doctrinal  terminology 
is  based  on  the  Vulgate.  Predestination, 
justification,  supererogation  (supcrerogo), 
sanciification,  salvation,  mediation,  regen- 
eration, revelation,  visitation  (met.),  pro- 
pitiation, first  appear  in  the  Old  Vulgate. 
Grace,  redemption,  election,  reconciliation, 
satisfaction,  inspiration,  scripture,  were 
devoted  there  to  a  new  and  holy  use.  Sac- 
rament and  communion  are  from  the  same 
source ;  and  though  baptism,  is  Greek,  it 
comes  to  us  from  the  Latin.  It  would  be 
easy  to  extend  the  list  by  the  addition  of 
orders,  penance,  congregation,  priest.  But 
it  can  be  seen  from  the  forms  already 
brought  forward  that  the  Vulgate  has  left 
Its  mark  both  upon  our  language  and  upon 
our  thoughts.  It  was  the  Version  which 
alone  they  knew  who  handed  dowivto  the 
Reformers  the  rich  stores  of  mediaeval 
wisdom ;  the  Version  with  which  the  great- 
est of  the  Reformers  were  most  familiar, 
and  from  which  they  had  drawn  their  ear- 
liest knowledge  of  Divine  truth. 

Vulture.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  V. 
of  the  Heb.  dddh,  dayydh,  and  also  in  Job 
xxviii.  7,  of  ayydh.  There  seems  no  doubt 
but  that  the  A.  V.  translation  is  incorrect, 
and  that  the  original  words  refer  to  some  of 
the  smaller  species  of  raptorial  birds,  as 
kites  or  buzzards.  [Kite.]  But  the  He- 
brew word  nesher,  invariably  rendered 
"  eagle  "  in  the  A.  V.,  is  probably  the  vul- 
ture.    [Eagle.] 


W. 

"Wages.  The  earliest  mention  of  wages 
is  of  a  recompense,  not  in  money,  but  in 
kind,  to  Jacob  from  Laban  (Gen.  xxix.  15, 
20,  XXX.  28,  xxxi.  7,  8,  41).  In  Egypt, 
money  payments  by  way  of  wages  were  in 
use,  but  the  terras  cannot  now  be  ascer* 
tained  (Ex.  ii.  9).  The  only  mention  of 
the  rate  of  wages  in  Scripture  is  found  in 
the  parable  of  the  householder  and  the 
vineyard  (Matt.  xx.  2),  where  the  laborer's 
wages  are  set  at  one  denarius  per  day, 
probably  =  7|d.,  a  sum  which  may  be  fair- 
ly taken  as  equivalent  to  the  denarius, 
and  to  the  usual  pay  of  a  soldier  (ten  asses 
per  diem)  in  the  later  days  of  the  Roman 
republic  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  17;  Polyb.  vi.  39). 
In  earlier  times  it  is  probable  that  the  rate 
was  lower.  But  it  is  likely  that  laborers, 
and  also  soldiers,  were  supplied  with  pro- 
visions. The  law  was  very  strict  in  re- 
quiring daily  payment  of  wages  (Lev.  xix. 
13;  Deut.  xxiv.  14,  15).  The  employer 
who  refused  to  give  his  laborers  sufficient 
victuals  is  censured  (Job  xxiv.  11),  and 
the  iniquity  of  withholding  wages  is  de- 
nounced (Jer.  xxii.  13 ;  Mai.  iii.  6 ;  James 
V.  4). 

Wagon.  The  Oriental  wagon,  or 
arabah,  is  a  vehicle  composed  of  two  or 
three  planks  fixed  on  two  solid  circular 
blocks  of  wood,  from  two  to  five  feet  in 
diameter,  which  serve  as  wheels.  For  the 
conveyance  of  passengers,  mattresses  or 
clotlies  are  laid  in  the  bottom,  and  the 
vehicle  is  drawn  by  buffaloes  or  oxen. 
[Cart  and  Chariot.] 

Walls.  Only  a  few  points  need  be  no- 
ticed. 1.  The  practice  common  in  Palestine 
of  carrying  foundations  down  to  the  solid 
rock,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Temple,  with 
structures  intended  to  be  permanent  (Luke 
vi.  48) .  2.  A  feature  of  some  parts  of  Solo- 
mon's buildings,  as  described  by  Josephus, 
corresponds  remarkably  to  the  method 
adopted  at  Nineveh  of  incrusting  or  veneer- 
ing a  wall  of  brick  or  stone  with  slabs  of  a 
more  costly  material,  as  marble  or  alabas- 
ter. 8.  Another  use  of  walls  in  Palestine 
is  to  support  mountain-roads  or  terraces 
formed  on  the  sides  of  hills  for  purposes  of 
cultivation.  4.  The  "  path  of  the  vineyards  " 
(Num.  xxii.  24)  is  a  pathway  through  vine- 
yards, with  walls  on  each  side. 

Wandering  in  the  Wilderness. 
[Wilderness  of  Wandering.] 

War.  The  most  important  topic  in  con- 
nection with  war  is  the  formation  of  the 
army  which  is  destined  to  carry  it  on. 
[Army.]  In  1  K.  ix.  22,  at  a  period  (Solo- 
mon's reign)  when  the  organization  of  the 
army  was  complete,  we  have  apparently  a 


WAR 


743    WASHING  HANDS  AND  FEKT 


list  of  the  various  gradations  of  rank  in  the 
service,  as  follow  :  (1.)  "Men  of  war  "  = 
privates;  (2.)  "  servants,"  the  lowest  rank 
of  of&cevs  =  lieutenants ;  (3.)  "princes" 
=  captains;  (4.)  "captains,"  perhaps  = 
staff  officers  ;  (5.)  "rulers  of  his  chariots  and 
his  horsemen  "  =  cavalry  officers.    Before 


Aaiyrian  War  Chariot. ' 

entering  on  a  war  of  aggression  the  He- 
brews sought  for  the  Divine  sanction  by 
consulting  either  the  Urim  and  Thummim 
(Judg.  i.  1,  XX.  2,  27,  28;  1  Sam.  xiv.  37, 
xxiii.2,  xxviii.  6,  xxx.  8),  or  some  acknowl- 
edged prophet  (1  K.  xxii.  6;  2  Chr.  xviii. 
6).  Divine  aid  was  further  sought  in  actual 
warfare  by  bringing  into  the  field  the  Ark 
of  the  Covenant,  which  was  the  symbol  of 
Jehovah  Himself  (1  Sam.iv.  4-18,  xiv.  18). 
Formal  proclamations  of  war  were  not 
interchanged  between  the  belligerents.  Be- 
fore entering  the  enemy's  district  spies 
were  sent  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the 
country  and  the  preparations  of  its  inhab- 
itants for  resistance  (Num.  xiii.  17 ;  Josh, 
ii.  1 ;  Judg.  vii.  10 ;  1  Sam.  xxvi.  4).  When 
an  engagement  was  imminent  a  sacrifice 
was  offered  (1  Sam.  vii.  9,  xiii.  9),  and  an 
inspiriting  address  delivered  either  by  the 
commander  (2  Chr.  xx.  20)  or  by  a  priest 
(Deut.  XX.  2).  Then  followed  the  battle- 
signal  (1  Sam.  xvii.  52 ;  Is.  xiii.  13 ;  Jer.  1. 
42;  Ez.  xxi.  22;  Am.  i.  14).  The  combat 
assumed  the  form  of  a  number  of  hand-to- 
hand  contests.  Hence  the  high  value  at- 
tached to  fleetness  of  foot  and  strength  of 
arm  (2  Sam.  i.  23,  ii.  18;  1  Chr.  xii.  8). 
At  the  same  time  various  strategic  devices 
were  practised,  such  as  the  ambuscade 
(Josh.  viii.  2,  X2;  Judg.  xx.  36),  surprise 
(Judg.  vii.  16),  or  circumvention  (2  Sam. 
V.  23).  Another  mode  of  settling  the  dis- 
pute was  by  the  selection  of  champions 
(1  Sam.  xvii. ;  2  Sam.  ii.  14),  who  were 
spurred  on  to  exertion  by  the  offer  of  high 
reward  (1  Sam.  xvii.  25,  xviii.  25;  2  Sam. 
xviii.  11;  1  Chr.  xi.  6).  The  contest  hav- 
ing been  decided,  the  conquerors  were 
recalled  from  the  pursuit  by  the  sound  of 
a  trumpet  (2  Sara.  ii.  28,  xviii.  16,  xx.  22). 
The  siege  of  a  town  or  fortress  was  con- 
ducted in  the  following    manner:  A  line 


!  of  circumvallation  was  drawn  round  the 
!  place  (Ez.  iv.  2;  Mic.  v.  1),  constructed 
j  out  of  the  trees  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood (Deut.  XX.  20),  together  with  earth 
i  and  any  other  materials  at  hand.  This 
line  not  .only  cut  ott'  the  besieged  from 
the  surrounding  country,  but  also  served  as 
a  base  of  operations  for  the  besiegers.  The 
next  step  was  to  throw  out  from  this  line 
one  or  more  mounds  or  "  banks  "  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  city  (2  Sam.  xx.  15  ;  2  K.  xix. 
32;  Is.  xxxvii.  33),  which  were  gradually 
increased  in  height  until  they  were  about 
half  as  high  as  the  city  wall.  On  this  mound 
or  bank  towers  were  erected  (2  K.  xxv.  1 ; 
Jer.  lii.  4;  Ez.  iv.  2,  xvii.  17,  xxi.  22,  xxvi. 
8),  whence  the  slingers  and  archers  might 
attack  with  effect.  Battering-rams  (Ez.  iv. 
2,  xxi.  22)  were  brought  up  to  the  walls  by 
means  of  the  bank,  and  scaling-ladders 
might  also  be  placed  on  it.  The  treatment 
of  the  conquered  was  extremely  severe  in 
ancient  times.  The  bodies  of  the  soldiers 
killed  in  action  were  plundered  (1  Sam. 
xxxi.  8 ;  2  Mace.  viii.  27)  :  the  survivors 
were  either  killed  in  some  savage  manner 
(Judg.  ix.  45;  2  Sam.  xii.  31;  2  Chr.  xxv. 
12),  mutilated  (Judg.  i.  6;  1  Sam.  xi.  2), 
or  carried  into  captivity  (Num.  xxxi.  26 ; 
Deut.  XX.  14).  Sometimes  the  bulk  of  the 
population  of  the  conquered  country  was 
removed  to  a  distant  locality.  The  Mosaic 
law  mitigated  to  «,  certain  extent  the  sever- 
ity of  the  ancient  usages  towards  the  con- 
quered. The  conquerors  celebrated  their 
success  by  the  erection  of  monumental 
stones  (1  Sam.  vii.  12;  2  Sam.  viii.  13), 
by  hanging  up  trophies  in  their  public 
buildings  (1  Sam.  xxi.  9,  xxxi.  10;  2  K. 
xi.  10),  and  by  triumphal  songs  and  dances 
in  which  the  whole  population  took  part 
(Ex.  XV.  1-21 ;  Judg.  v. ;  1  Sam.  xviii.  6-8; 
2  Sam.  xxii. ;  Jud.  xvi.  2-17 ;  1  Mace.  iv. 
24). 

Washing  the  Hands  and  Feet. 
ii  s  knives  and  forks  were  dispensed  with  in 
eating,  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  the 
hand,  which  was  thrust  into  the  common 
dish,  should  be  scrupulously  clean ;  and 
again,  as  sandals  were  ineffectual  against 
the  dust  and  heat  of  an  Eastern  climate, 
washing  the  feet  on  entering  a  house  was 
an  act  both  of  respect  to  the  company  and 
of  refreshment  to  the  traveller.  The  for- 
mer of  these  usages  was  trr^sformcd  by 
the  Pharisees  of  the  New  Testament  age 
into  a  matter  of  ritual  observance  (Mark 
vii.  3),  and  special  rules  were  laid  down  as 
to  the  times  and  manner  of  its  performance. 
Washing  the  feet  did  not  rise  to  the  dignity 
of  a  ritual  observance  except  in  connection 
with  the  services  of  the  sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx. 
19,  21).  It  held  a  high  place,  however, 
among  the  rites  of  hospitality.  Immedi- 
ately that  a  guest  presented  himself  at  tbo 


WATCHES  OF  NIGHT 


744 


WEAVING 


tent-door,  it  was  usual  to  offer  the  neces- 
sary materials  for  washing  the  feet  (Gen. 
xviii.  4,  xix.  2,  xxiv.  32,  xliii.  24 ;  Judg. 
xix.  21).  It  was  a  yet  more  complimentary 
act,  betokening  equally  humility  and  affec- 
tion, if  the  host  actually  performed  the  office 
for  his  guest  (1  Sam.  xxv.  41 ;  Luke  vii.  38, 
44;  John  xiii.  5-14;  1  Tim.  v.  10.)  Such 
a  token  of  hospitality  is  still  occasionally 
exhibited  in  the  East. 

"Watches  of  Night.  The  Jews,  like 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  divided  the  night 
into  military  watches  instead  of  hours,  each 
watch  representing  the  period  for  which 
sentinels  or  pickets  remained  on  duty.  The 
proper  Jewish  reckoning  recognized  only 
three  such  watches,  entitled  the  first  or 
*'  beginning  of  the  watches  "  (Lam.  ii.  19), 
the  middle  watch  (Judg.  vii.  19),  and  the 
morning  watch  (Ex.  xiv.  24 ;  1  Sam.  xi.  11). 
These  would  last  respectively  from  sunset 
to  10  p.  M. ;  from  10  p.  h.  to  2  a.  h.  ;  and 
from  2  A.  M.  to  sunrise.  Subsequently  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Roman  supremacy, 
the  number  of  watches  was  increased  to 
four,  which  were  described  either  accord- 
ing to  their  numerical  order,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  "  fourth  watch  "  (Matt.  xiv.  25), 
or  by  the  terms  "even,  midnight,  cock- 
crowing,  and  morning"  (Mark  xiii.  35). 
These  terminated  respectively  at  9  p.  m., 
midnight,  3  a.  m.,  and  6  a.  m. 

Water  of  Jealousy,  (Num.  v.  ii- 
31).  The  ritual  prescribed  consisted  in  the 
husband's  bringing  the  woman  before  the 
priest,  and  the  essential  part  of  it  is  unques- 
tionably the  oath,  to  which  the  '*  water  " 
was  subsidiary,  symbolical,  and  ministerial. 
With  her  he  was  to  bring  the  tenth  part  of 
an  cphah  of  barley-meal  as  an  offering.  In 
the  first  instance,  the  priest  "  set  her  before 
the  Lord,"  with  the  offering  in  her  hand. 
As  she  stood  holding  the  offering,  so  the 
priest  stood  holding  an  earthen  vessel  of 
holy  water  mixed  with  the  dust  from  the 
floor  of  the  sanctuary,  and  declaring  her 
free  from  all  evil  consequences  if  innocent, 
solemnly  devoted  her  in  the  name  of  Jeho- 
vah to  be  "a  curse  and  an  oath  among  her 
people "  if  guilty,  further  describing  the 
exact  consequences  ascribed  to  the  opera- 
tion of  the  water  in  the  "  members  "  which 
she  had  "  yielded  as  servants  to  unclean- 
bess"  (vers.  21,  22,  27;  comp.  Rom.  vi. 
19).  He  then  "  wrote  these  curses  in  a 
book,  and  blotted  them  out  with  the  bitter 
water,"  and  having  thrown  the  handful  of 
meal  on  the  altar,  "  caused  the  woman  to 
drink  "  the  potion  thus  drugged,  she  more- 
over answering  to  the  words  of  his  impreca- 
tion, "  Amen,  Amen."  Josephus  adds,  if 
the  suspicion  was  unfounded,  she  obtained 
conception,  if  true,  she  died  infamously. 

Water  of  Separation.  [Purifica- 
tion; Uncleakness.j 


Wave-offering.  This  rite,  together 
with  that  of  "  heaving"  or  "  raising"  the 
offering,  was  an  inseparable  accompaniment 
of  peace-offerings.  In  such  the  right  shoul- 
der, considered  the  choicest  part  of  the 
victim,  was  to  be  "  heaved,"  and  viewed 
as  holy  to  the  Lord,  only  eaten  therefore 
by  the  priest ;  the  breast  was  to  be  "  waved," 
and  eaten  by  the  worshipper.  On  the  sec- 
ond day  of  the  Passover  a  sheaf  of  corn,  in 
the  green  ear,  was  to  be  waved,  accom- 
panied by  the  sacrifice  of  an  unblemished 
lamb  of  the  first  year,  from  the  perform- 
ance of  which  ceremony  the  days  till  Pente- 
cost were  to  be  counted.  When  that  feast 
arrived,  two  loaves,  the  first-fruits  of  the 
ripe  com,  were  to  be  offered  with  a  burnt- 
offering,  a  sin-offering,  and  two  lambs  of 
the  first  year  for  a  peace-offering.  These 
likewise  were  to  be  waved.  The  Scriptural 
notices  of  these  rites  are  to  be  found  in  Ex. 
xxix.  24,  28 ;  Lev.  vii.  30,  34,  viii.  27,  ix- 
21,  X.  14,  15,  xxiii.  10,  15,  20;  Nnra.  vi.  20, 
xviii.  11,  18,  26-29,  &c.  In  conjecturing 
the  meaning  of  tliis  rite,  regard  must  be  had, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  the  kind  of  sacrifice 
to  which  it  belonged.  It  was  the  accom- 
paniment of  peace-offerings.  These  not 
only,  like  the  other  sacrifices,  acknowledged 
God's  greatness  and  His  right  over  the 
creature,  but  they  witnessed  to  a  ratified 
covenant  —  an  established  communion  be- 
tween God  and  man. 

Way.  This  word  has  now,  in  ordinary 
parlance,  so  entirely  forsaken  its  original 
sense,  and  is  so  uniformly  employed  in  the 
secondary  or  metaphorical  sense  of  a  "  cus- 
tom "  or  "  manner,"  that  it  is  difficult  to 
rememberthat  in  the  Bible  it  most  frequent- 
ly signifies  an  actual  road  or  track.  Our 
translators  have  employed  it  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  no  less  than  eighteen  distinct  He- 
brew terms.  It  may  be  truly  said  that 
there  is  hardly  a  single  passage  in  which 
this  word  occurs  which  would  not  be  made 
clearer  and  more  real  if  "  road  to  "  were 
substituted  for  "  way  of."  There  is  one 
use  which  must  not  be  passed  over,  viz.  in 
the  sense  of  a  religious  course.  In  the  Old 
Test,  this  occurs  but  rarely,  perhaps  twice  : 
namely,  in  Amos  viii.  14,  and  Ps.  cxxxix. 
24.  But  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  4'Jof, 
"the  way,"  "the  road,"  is  the  received, 
almost  technical,  term  for  the  new  religion 
which  Paul  first  resisted  and  afterwards 
supported. 

Weapons.     [Arms.] 

Weasel  {chdled)  occurs  only  in  Lev.  xi. 
29,  in  the  list  of  unclean  animals  ;  but  the 
Hebrew  word  ought  more  probably  to  be 
translated  "  mole."  Moles  are  common  in 
Palestine. 

Weaving.  The  aj-t  of  weaving  appears 
to  be  coeval  with  the  first  dawning  of  civil- 
ization.   We  find  it  practised  with  great 


WEDDING 


745      WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


skill  by  the  Egyptians  at  a  very  early 
period.  The  *'  vestures  of  fine  linen  " 
such  as  Joseph  wore  (Gen.  xli.  42)  were  the 
product  of  Egyptian  looms.  The  Israelites 
were  probably  aciquainted  with  the  process 
before  their  sojourn  in  Egypt;  but  it  was 
undoubtedly  there  that  they  attained  the 
proficiency  which  enabled  them  to  execute 
the  hangings  of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxv. 
35;  1  Chr.  iv.  21),  and  other  artistic  tex- 
tures. At  a  later  period  the  Egyptians 
were  still  famed  for  their  manufactures  of 
"  fine  "  (i.  c.  hackled)  flax,  and  of  chdrt, 
rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "networks,"  but 
more  probably  a  white  material  either  of 
linen  or  cotton  (Is.  xix.  9;  Ez.  xxvii.  7). 
The  character  of  the  loom  and  the  process 
of  weaving  can  only  be  inferred  from  inci- 
dental notices.  The  Egyptian  loom  was 
usually  upright,  and  the  weaver  stood  at 
his  work.  The  cloth  was  fixed  sometimes 
at  the  top,  sometimes  at  the  bottom.  The 
modern  Arabs  use  a  procumbent  loom, 
raised  above  the  ground  by  short  legs. 
The  Bible  does  not  notice  the  loom  itself, 
but  speaks  of  the  beam  to  which  the  warp 
was  attached  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7 ;  2  Sam.  xxi. 
19)  ;  and  of  the  pin  to  which  the  cloth  was 
fixed,  and  on  which  it  was  rolled  (Judg. 
xvi.  14).  We  have  also  notice  of  the  shut- 
tle, which  is  described  by  a  term  significant 
of  the  act  of  weaving  (Job  vii.  6) ;  the 
thrum  or  threads  which  attached  the  web 
to  the  beam  (Is.  xxxviii.  12,  margin;  and 
the  web  itself  (Judg.  xvi.  14 ;  A.  V. 
"beam").  Whether  the  two  terms  in 
Lev.  xiii.  48,  rendered  "  warp"  and  "woof," 
really  mean  these,  admits  of  doubt.  The 
textures  produced  by  the  Jewish  weavers 
were  very  various.  The  coarser  kinds,  such 
as  tent-cloth,  sack-cloth,  and  the  "  hairy 
garments  "  of  the  poor  were  made  of  goat's 
or  camel's  hair  (Ex.  xxvi.  7 ;  Matt.  iii.  4). 
Wool  was  extensively  used  for  ordinary 
clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  47 ;  Prov.  xxvii.  26, 
xxxi.  13;  Ez.  xxvii.  18),  while  for  finer 
work  flax  was  used,  var3'ing  in  quality, 
and  producing  the  diflTerent  textures  de- 
scribed in  the  Bible  as  "  linen  "  and  "  fine 
linen."  The  mixture  of  wool  and  flax  in 
cloth  intended  for  a  garment  was  inter- 
dicted (Lev.  xix.  19;  Deut.  xxii.  11). 

Wedding.    [Makriagk.] 

Week.  There  can  be  no  doubt  about 
the  great  antiquity  of  measuring  time  by  a 
period  of  seven  days  (Gen.  viii.  10,  xxix. 
27).  The  origin  of  this  division  of  time  is 
a  matter  which  has  given  birth  to  much 
speculation.  Its  antiquity  is  so  great,  its 
observance  so  wide-spread,  and  it  occupies 
60  important  a  place  in  sacred  things,  that 
it  must  probably  be  thrown  back  as  far  as 
the  creation  of  man.  The  week  and  the 
Sabbath  are  thus  as  old  as  man  himself.  A 
purely  theological  ground  is  thus  estab- 


lished for  the  week.  They  who  embrace 
this  view  support  it  by  a  reference  to  the 
six  days'  creation  and  the  Divine  rest  on 
the  seventh.  1st.  That  the  week  rests  on 
a  theological  ground  may  be  cheerfully 
acknowledged  by  both  sides;  but  nothing 
is  determined  by  such  acknowledgment  as 
to  the  original  cause  of  adopting  this  divis- 
ion of  time.  Whether  the  week  gave  its 
sacredness  to  the  number  seven,  or  wliether 
the  ascendency  of  that  number  helped  to 
determine  the  dimensions  of  the  week,  it 
is  impossible  to  say.  2dly.  The  weekly 
division  was  adopted  by  all  the  Shemitic 
races,  and,  in  the  later  period  of  their  his- 
tory at  least,  by  the  Egyptians.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  no  reason  for  thinking 
the  week  known  till  a  late  period  either  to 
Greeks  or  Romans.  3dly.  So  far  from  the 
week  being  a  division  of  time  without  ground 
in  nature,  there  was  much  to  recommend 
its  adoption.  And,  further,  the  week  is  a 
most  natural  and  nearly  an  exact  quadri- 
partition  of  the  month,  so  that  the  quarters 
of  the  moon  may  easily  have  suggested  it. 
In  Exodus  the  week  conies  into  very  dis- 
tinct manifestation.  Two  of  the  great  feasts 
—  the  Passover  and  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles —  are  prolonged  for  seven  days  after 
that  of  their  initiation  (Exod.  xii.  15-20, 
&c.).  The  division  by  seven  was  expanded 
so  as  to  make  the  seventh  month  and  the 
seventh  year  Sabbatical.  In  the  N.  T.  we 
of  course  find  such  clear  recognition  of  and 
familiarity  with  the  week  as  needs  scarcely 
be  dwelt  on.  The  Christian  Church,  from 
the  very  first,  was  familiar  with  the  week. 
St.  Paul's  language  (1  Cor.  xvi.  2)  shows 
this.  We  cannot  conclude  from  it  tliat  such 
a  division  of  time  was  observed  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Corinth  generally ;  for  they  to 
whom  he  was  writing,  though  doubtless  the 
majority  of  them  were  Gentiles,  yet  knew 
the  Lord's  Day,  and  most  probably  the 
Jewish  Sabbath.  But  though  we  can  infer 
no  more  than  tliis  from  the  place  in  ques- 
tion, it  is  clear  that  if  not  by  this  time,  yet 
very  soon  after,  the  whole  Roman  world  had 
adopted  the  hebdomadal  division. 
Weeks,  Feast  of.  [Pektecost.] 
Weights  and  Measures.  A. 
Weights.  The  general  principle  of  the 
present  inquiry  is  to  give  the  evidence  of 
the  monuments  the  preference  on  all  doubt- 
ful points.  All  ancient  Greek  systems  of 
weight  were  derived,  either  directly  or  in- 
directly, from  an  Eastern  source.  The 
older  systems  of  ancient  Greece  and  Persia 
were  the  Aeginetan,  the  Attic,  the  Babylo- 
nian, and  the  Embolc.  1.  The  Aeginetan 
talent  is  stated  to  have  contained  GO  minae, 
and  6000  drachms.  2.  The  Attic  talent  is 
the  standard  weight  introduced  by  Solon. 
3.  The  Babylonian  talent  may  be  deter- 
mined from  existing  weights  found  by  Mr. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES   746   WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


Layard  at  Nineveh.  Pollux  makes  it  equal 
to  7000  Attic  drachms.  4.  The  Eubolc 
talent,  though  bearing  a  Greek  name,  is 
rightly  held  to  have  been  originally  an 
Eastern  system.  The  proportion  of  the 
Eubolc  talent  to  the  Babylonian  was  prob- 
ably as  GO  to  72,  or  5  to  6.  Taking  the 
Babylonian  maneh  at  7992  grs.  we  obtain 
399,000  for  the  Euborc  talent.  The  prin- 
cipal, if  not  the  only,  Persian  gold  coin  is 
the  Diiric,  weighing  about  129  grs.  6.  The 
Hebrew  talent  or  talents  and  divisions.  A 
talent  of  silver  is  mentioned  in  Exodus, 
which  contained  3000  shekels,  distingiiislied 
as  "  the  holy  shekel,"  or  *'  shekel  of  the 
sanctuary."  The  gold  talent  contained  100 
manehs,  and  10,000  shekels.  The  silver 
talent  contained  3000  shekels,  6000  bekas, 
and  60,000  gerahs.    The  significations  of 


the  names  of  the  Hebrew  weights  must 
be  here  stated.  The  chief  Unit  was  the 
Shekel  (i.  e.  weight),  called  also  the  Holy 
Shekel  or  Shekel  of  the  Sanctuary  ;  subdi- 
vided into  the  Jieka  (i.  e.  half)  or  half- 
shekel,  and  the  Gerah  (i.  e.  a  grain  or 
bean).  The  chief  multiple,  or  higher  unit, 
was  the  Kikkar  (i.  e.  circle  or  globe,  prob- 
ably for  an  aggregate  sum),  translated  in 
our  Version,  after  the  LXX.,  Talent  ;  sub- 
divided into  the  Maneh  (i.  e.  pai-t,  portion, 
or  number),  a  word  used  in  Babylonian  and 
in  the  Greek  ijia  or  Mina.  1.  The  relations 
of  the^e  weights,  as  usually  employed  for 
the  standard  of  weighing  Silver,  and  their 
absolute  values,  determined  from  the  extant 
silver  coins,  and  confirmed  from  other 
sources,  were  as  follows,  in  grains  exactly, 
and  in  Avoirdupois  weight  approximately : 


SiLVEE  Weights. 

Grains. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Correction. 

Gerah 

11 

110 

220 

13,200 

660,000 

2 

100 

i 

+•06  gr.  nearly. 

4-6gr. 

-|-l-75gr. 

—  2  oz.  nearly. 

—  6  lb.  nearly. 

10 

Beka    . 

20 

2 

Shekel 

1200 

120 

60 

Maneh 

00,000 

6000 

3000 

60 

Talent  (Kikkar) 

2.  For  Gold,  a  different  Shekel  was  used, 
probably  of  foreign  introduction.  Its  value 
has  been  calculated  at  from  129  to  132 
grains.  The  former  value  assimilates  it  to 
the  Persian  Baric  of  the  Babylonian  stan- 


dard. The  Talent  of  this  system  was  just 
double  that  of  the  silver  standard ;  it  was 
divided  into  100  manehs ;  and  each  maneh 
into  100  shekels,  as  follows : 


Gold  Weights. 

Grains. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Correction. 

Shekel 

132 

13,200 

1,320,000 

2 

200 

•3 

+  -75gr. 

—  2  oz.  nearly. 

—  12  lb.  nearly. 

130 

Maneh 

10,000 

100     1  Talent  (Kikkar) .... 

3.  There  appears  to  have  been  a  third  stan- 
dard for  Copper,  namely,  a  shekel  four  times 
as  heavy  as  the  Gold  Shekel  (or  528  grains), 
1500  of  which  made  up  the  Copper  Talent 
of  792,000  grains.  '  It  seems  to  have  been 
subdivided,  in  the  coinage,  into  Halves  (of 
2G4:  grains).  Quarters  (of  132  grains),  and 
Sixths  (of  88  grains). 

B.  Measures.  I.  Measures  of  Length. 
—  In  the  Hebrew,  as  in  every  other  system, 
these  measures  are  of  two  classes ;  length, 
in  the  ordinary  sense,  for  objects  whose  size 
we  wish  to  determine,  and  distance,  or 
itinerary  measures ;  and  the  two  are  con- 
nected by  some  definite  relation,  more  or 
less  simple,  between  their  units.  1.  The 
measures  of  the  former  class  have  been 
universally  derived,  in  the  first  instance, 
from  the  parts  of  the  human  body ;  but  it  is 
remarkable  that,  in  the  Hebrew  system,  the 


only  part  used  for  this  purpose  is  the  hand 
and  fore-arm,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  foot, 
which  was  the  chief  unit  of  the  Western 
nations.  Hence  arises  the  difficulty  of  de- 
termining the  ratio  of  the /oo^  to  the  Cubit,* 
which  appears  as  the  chief  Oriental  unit 
from  the  very  building  of  Noah's  ark  (Gen. 
vi.  15,  16,  vii.  20).  The  Hebrew  lesser 
measures  were  the  finger's  breadth  (Jer. 
lii.  21,  only) ;  the  palm  or  handbreadth 
(Ex.  XXV.  25 ;  IK.  vii.  26 ;  2  Chr.  iv.  5, 
used  metaphorically  in  Ps.  xxxix.  5)  ;  the 
span,  i.  e.  the  full  stretch  between  the  tips 
of  the  thumb  and  the  little  finger  (Ex. 
xxviii.  16;  1  Sam.  xvii.  4;  Ez.  xliii.  13,  and 
figuratively  Is.  xl.  12).  The  data  for  de- 
termining the  actual  length  of  the  Mosaic 


•  The  Hebrew  word  for  the  cubit  (ommaA)  appears  to 
have  been  of  Egyptian  oriein,  as  gome  of  the  mexuref  of 
capacity  (tlie  hin  aud  tphak)  were  certainljr. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES   747   WEIGHTS  AND  MEASUHES 


cubit  involve  peculiar  difficulties,  and  ab- 
solute certainty  seems  unattainable.  The 
following,  however,  seem  the  most  probable 
conclusions:  first,  that  three  cubits  were 
used  in  the  times  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy ; 
namely :  (1.)  The  cubit  of  a  man  (Deut. 
iii.  11),  or  the  common  cubit  of  Canaan  (in 
contradistinction  to  the  Mosaic  cubit)  of 
the  Chaldaean  standard ;  (2.)  The  old  Mo- 
saic or  legal  cubit,  a  handbreadth  larger 
than  the  first,  and  agreeing  with  the  small- 
er Egyptian  cubit;    (3.)  The  new  cubit, 


which  was  still  larger,  and  agreed  with  the 
larger  Egyptian  cubit,  of  about  20-6  inches, 
used  in  the  Kilometer :  and,  secondly,  that 
the  ordinary  cubit  of  the  Bible  did  not  come 
up  to  the  full  length  of  the  cubit  of  other 
countries.  The  reed  (JcAneJi)  for  measur- 
ing buildings  (like  the  Roman  deccmpeda) 
was  equal  to  6  cubits.  It  only  occurs  in 
Ezekiel  (xl.  5-8,  xli.  8,  xlii.  16-19).  The 
values  given  in  the  following  table  are  to 
be  accepted  with  reservation,  for  want  of 
greater  certainty : 


Hebrew  Measures  of  Length. 

Inches. 

Approximate. 
Feet.      Inches. 

Digit 

•7938 

3-1752 

6-5257 

19-0515 

114-3090 

1 
9 

•8orl| 

7 

6 

4 

Palm 

12 

3 

Span 

24 

6 

2 

Cubit 

144 

3d 

12 

6      1  Beed 

2.  Of  Measures  of  Distance  the  smallest  is 
the  pace,  and  the  largest  the  day^s  journey, 
(o)  The  Pace  (2  Sam.  vi.  13),  whether  it 
be  single,  like  our  pace,  or  double,  like  the 
Latin  passus,  is  defined  by  nature  within 
certain  limits,  its  usual  length  being  about 
30  inches  for  the  former,  and  5  feet  for  the 
latter.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose 
that  even  before  the  Roman  measurement 
of  the  roads  of  Palestine,  the  Jews  had  a 
Mile  of  1000  paces,  alluded  to  in  Matt.  v. 
41.  It  is  said  to  have  been  single  or  double, 
according  to  the  length  of  the  pace ;  and 
hence  the  peculiar  force  of  our  Lord's  say- 
ing: "Whosoever  shall  compel  thee  [as  a 
courier]  to  go  a  mile,  go  with  him  twain  " 
—  put  the  most  liberal  construction  on  the 
demand.  (J)  The  Day's  Journey  was  the 
most  usual  method  of  calculating  distances 
in  travelling  (Gen.  xxx.  36,  xxxi.  23 ;  Ex. 
iii.  18,  V.  3;  Num.  x.  33,  xi.  31,  xxxiii.  8; 
Deut.  i.  2 ;  1  K.  xix.  4 ;  2  K.  iii.  9 ;  Jon.  iii. 
3;  1  Mace.  v.  24,  28,  vii.  45;  Tob.  vi.  1), 
though  but  one  instance  of  it  occurs  in  the 
New  Testament  (Luke  ii.  44).  The  ordi- 
.nary  day's  journey  among  the  Jews  was  30 
miles ;  but  when  they  travelled  in  compa- 
nies, only  10  miles;  Neapolis  formed  the 
first  stage  out  of  Jerusalem,  according  to 
the  former,  and  Beeroth  according  to  the 
latter  computation,  (c)  The  Sabbath-day's 
Journey  of  2000  cubits  (Acts  i.  12)  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  N.  T.,  and  arose  from  a  Rabbin- 
ical restriction.  It  was  founded  on  a  uni- 
versal application  of  the  prohibition  given 
by  Moses  for  a  special  occasion  :  "Let  no 
man  go  out  of  his  place  on  the  seventh 


day"  (Ex.  xvi.  29).  An  exception  was 
allowed  for  the  purpose  of  worshipping  at 
the  Tabernacle ;  and,  as  2000  cubits  was  the 
prescribed  space  to  be  kept  latween  the 
Ark  and  the  people,  as  well  tis  the  extent 
of  the  suburbs  of  the  Levitical  cities  on  every 
side  (Num.  xxxv.  5),  this  was  taken  for  the 
length  of  a  Sabbath-day's  journey,  measured 
from,  the  wall  of  the  city  in  which  the  trav- 
eller lived.  Computed  from  the  value  given 
above  for  the  cubit,  the  Sabbath-day's  jour- 
ney would  be  just  six  tenths  of  a  mile,  (d) 
After  the  Captivity,  the  relations  of  the 
Jews  to  the  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans, 
caused  the  use,  probably,  of  the  Parasang, 
and  certainly  of  the  Stadium,  and  the  Mile. 
Though  the  first  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  it  is  well  to  exhibit  the  ratios  of  the 
three.  The  universal  Greek  standard,  the 
stadium  of  600  Greek  feet,  which  was  the 
length  of  the  race-course  atOlympia,  occurs 
first  in  the  Maccabees,  and  is  common  in 
the  N.  T.  Our  version  renders  it  furlong  ; 
it  being,  in  fact,  the  8th  part  of  the  Roman 
mile,  as  the  furlong  is  of  ours  (2  Mace.  xi. 
5,  xii.  9,  17,  29;  Luke  xxiv.  13;  John  vi. 
19,  xi.  18;  Rev.  xiv.  20,  xxi.  16).  One 
measure  remains  to  be  mentioned.  The 
fathom,  used  in  sounding  by  the  Alexan- 
drian mariners  in  St.  Paul's  voyage,  is  the 
Greek  aQyvia,  i.e.  the  full  stretch  of  the  two 
arms  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  middle  finger, 
which  is  about  equal  to  the  height,  and  in 
a  man  of  full  stature  is  six  feet.  For  the 
sake  of  completeness,  the  values  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  foot  are  shown  in  the 
following  table: 


WEIGIiTS  AND  MEASURES       748      WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


Milca. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Soman  Vnnt  —  -Ofi  of  nrp«k  Foot 

•0193 
3^  nearly 

1 
4 

6 

606 

=  4854 

11  •6196 
0135 

10-248 
0-81 
0 

^^ 

Greek  ] 

Poot   ....••••••••••« 

6 

6 
600 

vr                ' 

«i 

H 

Greek  Fathom  {6pyv(a)  .... 

625 

125 

100 
800 

Furlong  (aTaSiov)      .    .    . 

5,000 

4,800 

1,000 

8 
30 

Roman  Mile .... 

18,760 

18,000 

3,750 

3,000 

^ 

Persian  Parasang 

For  estimating  Area,  and  especially  Land, 
there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Jews  used  any 
special  system  of  Square  ileasures,  but 
they  were  content  to  express  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  surface  to  be  measured,  by 
the  cubit  (Num.  xxxv.  4,  5 ;  Ez.  xl.  27)  or 
by  the  reed  (Ez.  xlii.  20,  xliii.  17,  xlv.  2, 
xlviii.  20;  Rev.  xxi.  16). 

II.  Measukes  of  Capacity.  —  1.  The 
measures  of  capacity  for  Liquids  were : 
(a)  The  log  (Lev.  xiv.  10,  &c.),  the  name 
originally  signifying  a  "  basin."  (6)  The 
hin,  a  name  of  Egyptian  origin,  frequently 
noticed  in  tlie  Bible  (Ex.  xxix.  40,  xxx. 
24;  Num.  xv.  4,  7,  9;  Ez.  iv.  11,  &c.). 
(c)  The  bath,  the  name  meaning  "  meas- 
ured," the  largest  of  the  liquid  measures 
(1  K.  vii.  26,  38;  2  Chr.  u.  10;  Ezr.  vii. 
22 ;  Is.  V.  10).  The  relative  values  of  these 
measures  stand  thus : 


Log. 
12 

Hin, 
6       I  Bath. 

72 

2.  The  Dry  measure  contained  the  follow- 
ing denominations  :  (a)  The  cab,  men- 
tioned only  in  2  K.  vi.  25,  the  name  mean- 
ing literally  hollow  or  concave,  (i)  The 
omer,  mentioned  only  in  Ex.  xvi.  16-36. 
The  word  implies  a  heap,  and  secondarily, 
a  sheaf,  (c)  The  sidh,  or  *'  measure," 
this  being  the  etymological  meaning  of  the 
terra,  and  appropriately  applied  to  it,  in- 
asmuch as  it  was  the  ordinary  measure  for 
household  purposes  (Gen.  xviii.  6 ;  1  Sam. 
XXV.  18;  2  K.  vii.  1,  16).  The  Greek 
equivalent  occurs  in  Matt.  xiii.  33 ;  Luke 
xiii.  21.  (rf)  The  ephah,  a  word  of  Egyp- 
tian origin,  and  of  frequent  recurrence  in 
the  Bible  (Ex.  xvi.  36;  Lev.  v.  11,  vi.  20; 
Num.  v.  15,  xxviii.  6 ;  Judg.  vi.  19 ;  Ruth 
ii.  17;  1  Sam.  i.  24,  xvii.  17;  Ez.  xlv.  11, 
13,  14,  xlvi.  5,  7,  11,  14).  (c)  The  lethec, 
or  "  half  homer,"  literally  meaning  what 
is  poured  out :  it  occurs  only  in  Hos.  iii.  2. 
(/)  The  homer,  meaning  heap  (Lev.  xxvii. 
16;  Num.  xi.  32;  Is.  v.  10;  Ez.  xlv.  13). 
It  is  elsewhere  termed  cor,  from  the  circu- 
lar vessel  in  which  it  was  measured  (1  K. 


iv.  22,  V.  11;  2  Chr.  ii.  10,  xxvii.  6;  Ezr. 
vii.  22;  Ez.  xlv.  14).  The  Greek  equiva- 
lent occurs  in  Luke  xvi.  7.  The  following 
scale  gives  the  relative  values  of  these 
measures : 


C»b. 

Omer. 

Seah. 

Ephab. 

1* 

6 

4 

18 

10 

3 

180 

100 

30 

10     1  Homer. 

The  absolute  values  of  the  liquid  and  dry 
measures  are  stated  differently  by  Josephus 
and  the  Rabbinists,  and  as  we  are  unable 
to  decide  between  them,  we  give  a  doubly 
estimate  of  the  various  denominations. 


(Jofephus.)    (JiMAnists.) 
Gallon*. 


Biuhdf. 
10|  or  5j 


Gallons. 

Homer  or  Cor    8f)-(i96    or  44.286 

Ephah  or  Bath  8-609(5  or  4-4286 

Seah     ....  2-8898  or  1-4762 

Hin 1-4449  or  '7381 

Omer   ....  -8669  or  '4428 

Cab       ....  -4816  or  -246 

Log -1204  or  '0616 


In  the  N.  T.  we  have  notices  of  the  follow- 
ing foreign  measures :  (a)  The  metritis 
(John  ii.  6;  A.  V.  "firkin"),  for  liquids. 
(6)  The  choenix  (Rev.  vi.  6;  A.  V.  "  meas- 
ure"), for  dry  goods,  (c)  The  xestSc,  ap- 
plied, however,  not  to  the  peculiar  measure 
so  named  by  the  Greeks,  but  to  any  small 
vessel,  such  as  a  cup  (Mark  vii.  4,  8 ;  A. 
V.  "pot"),  (rf)  The  modius,  similarly 
applied  to  describe  any  vessel  of  moderate 
dimensions  (Matt.  v.  15;  Mark  iv.  21; 
Luke  xi.  33;  A.  V.  *' bushel"),  though 
properly  meaning  &  Roman  measure, 
amounting  to  about  a  peck.  The  value  of 
the  Attic  metritis  was  8-6696  gallons,  and 
consequently  the  amount  of  liquid  in  six 
stone  jars,  containing  on  the  average  2i 
metritae  each',  would  exceed  110  gallons 
(John  ii.  6).  Very  possibly,  however,  the 
Greek  terra  represents  the  Hebrew  bath; 
and,  if  the  bath  be  taken  at  the  lowest  esti- 
mate assigned  to  it,  the  amount  would  be 
reduced  to  about  60  gallons.  The  choenix 
was   1-48 th  of  an    Attic  medimnus,  and 


WELL 


749 


WHALE 


contained  nearly  a  quart.  It  represented 
the  amount  of  corn  for  a  day's  food ;  and 
hence  a  choenix  for  a  penny  (or  denarius), 
wliich  usually  purchased  a  bushel  (Cic. 
Verr.  iii.  81),  indicated  a  great  scarcity 
(Rev.  vi.  6). 

Well.  The  special  necessity  of  a  sup- 
ply of  water  (Judg.  i.  15)  in  a  hot  climate 
has  always  involved  among  Eastern  nations 
questions  of  property  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance, and  sometimes  given  rise  to  serious 
contention.  Thus  the  well  Beersheba  was 
opened,  and  its  possession  attested  with 
special  formality  by  Abraham  (Gen.  xxi. 
30,  31).  To  acquire  wells  which  they  had 
not  themselves  dug,  was  one  of  the  marks 
of  favor  foretold  to  tlie  Hebrews  on  their 
entrance  into  Canaan  (Deut.  vi.  11).  To 
possess  one  is  noticed  as  a  mark  of  inde- 
pendence (Prov.  V.  15),  and  to  abstain  from 


Ancient  Egrptian  Mnchtne  fbr  raisinft  Water,  Identical  with 
the  Shadoof  of  the  preaent  day.    (Wilkinaon.) 

the  use  of  wells  belonging  to  others,  a  dis- 
claimer of  interference  with  their  property 
(Num.  XX.  17,  19,  xxi.  22).  Similar  rights 
of  possession,  actual  and  hereditary,  exist 
among  the  Arabs  of  the  present  day.  It  is 
thus  easy  to  understand  how  wells  have  be- 
come in  many  cases  links  in  the  history 
and  landmarks  in  the  topography  both  of 
Palestine  and  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula. 
Wells  in  Palestine  are  usually  excavated 
from  the  solid  limestone  rock,  sometimes 
with  steps  to  descend  into  them  (Gen.  xxiv. 
IG).  The  brims  are  furnished  with  a  curb 
or  low  wall  of  stono,  bearing  marks  of  high 
antiquity  in  the  furrows  worn  by  the  ropes 
used  in  drawing  water.  It  was  on  a  curb 
of  this  sort  that  our  Lord  sat  wlicn  He  con- 
versed with  the  woman  of  Samaria  (John 
iv.  6),  and  it  was  this,  the  usual  stone  cover, 
which  the  woman  phiced  on  the  mouth  of 
the  well  at  Bahurim  (2  Sam.  xvii.  19),  where 
the  A.  V.  weakens  the  sense  by  omitting  the 
article.      The  usual  methods  for  raising 


water  are  the  following:  1.  The  rope 
and  bucket,  or  water-skin  (Gen.  xxiv.  14- 
20;  John  iv.  11).  2.  The  sakiyeh,  or  Per- 
sian wheel.  This  consists  of  a  vertical 
wheel  furnished  with  a  set  of  buckets  or 
earthen  jars,  attached  to  a  cord  passing 
over  the  wheel,  which  descend  empty  and 
return  full  as  the  wheel  revolves.  3.  A 
modification  of  the  last  method,  by  which  a 
man,  sitting  opposite  to  a  wheel  furnished 
with  buckets,  turns  it  by  drawing  with  his 
hands  one  set  of  spokes  prolonged  beyond 
its  circumference,  and  pusliing  another  set 
from  him  witli  his  feet.  4.  A  method  very 
common,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  Egypt, 
is  the  sliadoof,  a  simple  contrivance  con- 
sisting of  a  lever  moving  on  a  pivot,  which 
is  loaded  at  one  end  with  a  lump  of  clay  or 
some  other  weight,  and  has  at  the  other 
a  bowl  or  bucket.  —  Wells  are  usually  fur- 
nished with  troughs  of  wood  or  stone,  into 
which  the  water  is  emptied  for  the  use  of 
persons  or  animals  coming  to  the  wells. 
Unless  machinery  is  used,  which  is  com- 
monly worked  by  men,  women  are  usually 
the  water-carriers. 

Whale.  As  to  the  signification  of  the 
Hebrew  terms  tan  and  tannin,  variously 
rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  "  dragon," 
"  whale,"  *'  serpent,"  "  sea-monster,"  see 
Dragon.  It  remains  for  us  in  this  article 
to  consider  the  transaction  recorded  in  the 
Book  of  Jonah,  of  that  prophet  having  been 
swallowed  up  by  some  "  great  fish  "  which 
in  Matt.  xii.  40  is  called  cetos  {y.>;ioq), 
rendered  in  our  version  by  "  whale."  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  to  ob- 
serve that  the  Greek  word  cttos,  used  by 
St.  Matthew,  is  not  restricted  in  its  mean- 
ing to  "  a  whale,"  or  any  Cetacean  ;  like 
the  Latin  cete  or  cetus,  it  may  denote  any 
sea-monster,  either  "a  whale,"  or  "a 
shark,"  or  "  a  seal,"  or  "  a  tunny  of  enor- 
mous size."  Althougli  two  or  three  species 
of  whale  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  yet  tiie  "  great  fish  "  tliat  swallowed 
the  prophet  cannot  properly  be  identified 
with  any  Cetacean,  for,  although  tlie  Sperm 
whale  has  a  gullet  sufficiently  large  to  ad- 
mit the  body  of  a  man,  yet  it  can  hardly  be 
the  fish  intended ;  as  the  natural  food  of 
Cetaceans  consists  of  small  animals,  such 
as  medusae  and  Crustacea.  The  only  fish, 
tiien,  capable  of  swallowing  a  man  would 
be  a  large  specimen  of  the  White  Shark 
(Carchurias  vulgaris),  that  dreaded  enemy 
of  sailors,  and  the  most  voracious  of  the 
family  of  Squalidae.  This  shark,  which 
sometimes  attains  tlie  length  of  thirty  feet, 
is  quite  able  to  swallow  a  man  wliole.  The 
whole  body  of  a  man  in  armor  has  been 
found  in  the  stomach  of  a  wliite  shark ;  and 
Captain  King,  in  his  Survey  of  Australia, 
says  he  had  caught  one  which  could  Iiave 
swallowed  a  man  witii  the  greatest  ease. 
Blumenbach  mentions  that  a  whole  horse 


WHEAT 


750 


WILDERNESS 


has  been  found  in  a  shark,  and  Captain 
Basil  Plall  reports  the  taking  of  one  in 
•which,  besides  other  things,  lie  found  the 
whole  skin  of  a  buffalo  which  a  short  time 
before  had  been  thrown  overboard  from  his 
ship  (i.  p.  27).  The  white  shark  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Wheat,  the  well-known  valuable  cereal, 
cultivated  from  the  earliest  times,  is  first 
mentioned  in  Gen.  xxx.  14,  in  the  account 
of  Jacob's  sojourn  with  Laban  in  Mesopo- 
tamia. Egypt  in  ancient  times  was  cele- 
brated for  the  growth  of  its  wheat ;  the  best 
quality  was  all  bearded;  and  the  same 
varieties  existed  in  ancient  as  in  modern 
times,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
seven-eared  quality  described  in  Pharaoh's 
dream  (Gen.  xli.  22).  Babylonia  was  also 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  wheat  and 
other  cereals.  Syria  and  Palestine  pro- 
duced wheat  of  fine  quality  and  in  large 
quantities  (Ps.  cxlvii.  14,  Ixxxi.  16,  &c.). 
There  appear  to  be  two  or  three  kinds  of 
wheat  at  present  grown  in  Palestine,  the 
Triticiim  vulgare,  the  T.  spelta,  and  an- 
other variety  of  bearded  wheat  which  ap- 
pears to  be  the  same  as  the  Egyptian  kind, 
the  T.  compositum.  In  the  parable  of  the 
sower  our  Lord  alludes  to  grains  of  wheat 
which  in  good  ground  produce  a  hundred- 
fold (Matt.  xiii.  8).  The  common  Triticum 
vulgare  will  sometimes  produce  one  hun- 
dred grains  in  the  ear.  Wheat  is  reaped 
towards  the  end  of  April,  in  May,  and  in 
June,  according  to  the  differences  of  soil 
and  position ;  it  was  sown  either  broadcast, 
and  then  ploughed  in  or  trampled  in  by 
cattle  (Is.  xxxii.  20),  or  in  rows,  if  we 
rightly  understand  Is.  xxviii.  25,  which 
seems  to  imply  that  the  seeds  were  planted 
apart  in  order  to  insure  larger  and  fuller 
ears.  The  wheat  was  put  into  the  ground 
in  the  winter,  and  some  time  after  the  bar- 
ley ;  in  the  Egyptian  plague  of  hail,  conse- 
quently, the  barley  suffered,  but  the  wheat 
had  not  appeared,  and  so  escaped  injury. 

Whirlwind.  The  Hebrew  terms  sil- 
pkdh  and  se'&rdh  convey  the  notion  of  a 
violent  wind  or  hurricane,  the  former  be- 
cause such  a  wind  sweeps  away  every  object 
it  encounters,  the  latter  because  the  objects 
so  swept  away  are  tossed  and  agitated.  It 
does  not  appear  that  the  above  terms  ex- 
press the  specific  notion  of  a  wAiVZ-wind. 
The  whirlwind  is  frequently  used  as  a 
metaphor  of  violent  and  sweeping  de§truc- 
tion. 

Widow.  Under  the  Mosaic  dispensa- 
tion no  legal  provision  was  made  for  the 
maintenance  of  widows.  They  were  left 
dependent  partly  on  the  affection  of  rela- 
tions, more  especially  of  the  eldest  son, 
whose  birthright,  or  extra  share  of  the 
property,  imposed  such  a  duty  upon  him, 
and  partly  on  the  privileges  accorded  to 
other  distressed  classes,  such  as  a  partici- 


pation in  the  triennial  third  tithe  (Dent, 
xiv.  29,  xxvi.  12),  in  leasing  (Dcut.  xxiv. 
19-21),  and  in  religious  feasts  (Dent.  xvL 
11,  14).  With  regard  to  the  remarriage  of 
widows,  the  only  restriction  imposed  by  the 
Mosaic  law  had  reference  to  the  contingen- 
cy of  one  being  left  childless,  in  which  case 
the  brother  of  the  deceased  husband  had  a 
right  to  marry  the  widow  (Deut.  xxv.  5,  6 ; 
Matt.  xxii.  23-30).  In  the  Apostolic  Church 
the  widows  were  sustained  at  the  public 
expense,  the  relief  being  daily  administered 
in  kind,  under  the  superintendence  of  offi- 
cers appointed  for  this  special  purpose 
(Acts  vi.  1-6).  Particular  directions  are 
given  by  St.  Paul  as  to  the  class  of  persons 
entitled  to  such  public  maintenance  (1  Tira. 
V.  3-16).  Out  of  the  body  of  such  widows 
a  certain  number  were  to  be  enrolled,  the 
qualifications  for  such  enrolment  being  that 
tliey  were  not  under  sixty  years  of  age; 
that  they  had  been  "  the  wife  of  one  man," 
probably  meaning  but  once  married  ;  and 
that  they  had  led  useful  and  charitable  lives 
(vers.  9,  10).  We  are  not  disposed  to 
identify  the  widows  of  the  Bible  either  with 
the  deaconesses  or  with  the  nqtafiujiits  of 
the  early  Church.  The  order  of  widows 
existed  as  a  separate  institution,  contem- 
poraneously with  these  offices,  apparently 
for  the  same  eleemosynary  purpose  for 
which  it  was  originally  instituted. 

Wife.     [Marriage.] 

Wild  Beasts.  1.  BehSmdh,  which  is 
the  general  name  for  "  domestic  cattle  "  of 
any  kind,  is  used  also  to  denote  "  any  large 
quadruped,"  as  opposed  to  fowls  and  creep- 
ing things;  or  for  "beasts  of  burden," 
horses,  mules,  &c.,  as  in  1  K.  xviii.  5, 
Neh.  ii.  12,  14,  &c. ;  or  the  word  may  de- 
note "wild  beasts,"  as  in  Deut.  xxxii.  24, 
Hab.  ii.  17,  1.  Sam.  xvii.  44.  2.  Chayydh 
is  used  to  denote  any  animal.  It  is,  how- 
ever, very  frequently  used  specially  of 
"  wild  beast,"  when  the  meaning  is  often 
more  fully  expressed  by  the  addition  of  the 
word  hassddeh,  (wild  beast)  "  of  the  field  " 
(Ex.  xxiii.  11;  Lev.  xxvi.  22;  Deut.  vii. 
22;  Hos.  ii.  12  [14],  xiii.  8;  Jer.  xii. 
9,  &c.). 

Wilderness  of  the  Wandering. 
With  all  the  material  for  fixing  the  locali- 
ties of  the  Exodus,  the  evidence  for  many 
of  them  is  so  slight  that  the  whole  question 
is  involved  in  much  obscurity.  The  uncer- 
tainties commence  from  the  very  starting- 
point  of  the  route  of  the  Wandering.  It  is 
impossible  to  fix  the  point  at  which  in  "  the 
wilderness  of  Etham  "  (Num.  xxxiii.  6,  7) 
Israel,  now  a  nation  of  freemen,  emerged 
from  tliat  sea  into  which  they  had  passed 
as  a  nation  of  slaves.  The  fact  that  from 
*'  Etham  in  the  edge  of  the  wilderness," 
their  path  struck  across  the  sea  (Ex.  xiii. 
20),  and  from  the  sea  into  the  same  wilder- 
ness of  Etham,  seems  to  indicate  tlie  upper 


WILDERNESS 


751 


WILDERNESS 


end  of  the  farthest  ton^ie  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez  as  the  point  of  crossing.  There  seems 
reason  also  to  think  that  this  gulf  had  then, 
as  also  at  Ezion-Geber,  a  farther  extension 
northward  tlian  at  present,  owing  to  the 
land  having  upheaved  its  level.  [Red  Sea, 
Passage  of.]  Their  route  now  lay  south- 
wards down  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  and  at  first  along  the  shore.  The 
station  of  Ayun  Mousa  (the  Wells  of  Moses), 
with  its  tamarisks  and  seventeen  wells, 
may  have  served  for  their  gathering  after 
the  passage.  They  marched  for  three  days 
through  the  wilderness  of  Shur  or  Etham, 
on  the  south-west  margin  of  the  great  desert 
of  Paran  (et-TiK),  where  they  found  no 
water  (Ex.  xv.  22;  Num.  xxxiii.  8).  It  is 
a  part  of  the  belt  of  gravel  which  surrounds 
the  mountains  of  the  Peninsula,  and  is 
crossed  by  several  wadys,  whose  sides  are 
fringed  with  tamarisks,  acacias,  and  a  few 
palm-trees.  Near  one  of  these,  the  Wddy- 
el  'Amarah,  is  a  spring  called  Ain  Awdrah, 
not  only  in  the  position  of  Marah,  but  with 
the  bitter  taste  which  gave  it  the  name. 
The  people,  tormented  with  thirst,  mur- 
mured against  Moses,  who,  at  the  command 
of  God,  cast  a  certain  tree  into  the  waters 
which  made  them  sweet  (Ex.xv.  26).  They 
must  have  been  cheered  at  reaching  the 
oasis  of  Elim,  whose  twelve  wells  and 
threescore  palm-trees  mark  it  as  one  of  the 
wadys  that  break  the  desert;  either  the 
Wady  Ghurundel  or  the  Wady  Useit.  After 
passing  the  Wady  Taiyibeh,  the  route  de- 
scends through  a  defile  on  to  a  beautiful 
pebbly  beach,  where  Dean  Stanley  places 
the  Encampment  by  the  Red  Sea,  which 
is  mentioned  in  Numbers  (Num.  xxxiii.  10) 
next  to  Elim,  but  is  omitted  in  Exodus. 
Here  the  Israelites  had  their  last  view  of 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  shores  of  Egypt. 
Striking  inland  from  this  point,  they  en- 
tered the  Wilderness  of  Sin  (probably 
the  plain  of  MurkhaK),  which  leads  up 
from  the  shore  to  the  entrance  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Sinai  (Ex.  xvi.  1).  Here  occurred 
their  second  great  trial  since  leaving  Egypt. 
Their  unleavened  bread  was  exhausted ;  and 
they  began  to  murmur  that  they  had  better 
have  died  by  the  flesh-pots  of  Egypt  than 
have  been  led  out  to  be  killed  with  hunger 
in  the  wilderness.  But  God  was  teaching 
them  to  look  to  him  for  their  "  daily  bread," 
which  He  now  rained  down  from  heaven  in 
the  form  of  manna,  and  continued  the  sup- 
ply till  they  reached  Canaan  (Ex.  xvi.  4, 
35).  [Manna.]  From  this  valley  others 
lead  up,  by  a  series  of  steep  ascents,  into 
the  recesses  of  Sinai;  resembling  the  beds 
of  rivers,  but  without  water,  and  separated 
by  defiles  which  sometimes  become  stair- 
cases of  rock.  Such  were,  no  doubt,  the 
stations  of  Dopiikah  and  Alush  (Num. 
xxxiii.  12,  13),  and  such  are  the  Wadys 
SkeUal  and  Afvkatteb.    Prom  the  latter  the 


route  passes  into  the  long  and  winding 
Wady  Feiran,  with  its  groves  of  tamarisks 
and  palms,  overhung  by  the  granite  rocks 
of  Sfount  Serbal,  perhaps  the  Horeb  of 
Scripture.  This  valley  answers  in  every 
respect  to  Rephidim  (the  resting-places), 
the  very  name  of  which  implies  a  long  halt 
(Ex.  xvii.  1).  Here  the  cry  for  water  burst 
forth  into  an  angry  rebellion  against  Moses ; 
and  God  vouchsafed  a  miracle  for  a  per- 
manent supply  during  their  abode  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sinai.  Moses  was  command- 
ed to  go  before  the  people,  with  the  elders 
of  Israel,  and  to  smite  the  rock  in  Horeb, 
and  water  flowed  forth  out  of  it.  The  place 
was  called  Massah  (temptation),  and  Mer- 
iBAH  (chiding  or  strife),  in  memory  of  the 
rebellion  by  which  the  people  tempted  Je- 
hovah and  doubted  His  presence  among 
them  (Ex.  xvii.  2-7).  The  spring  thus 
opened  seems  to  have  formed  a  brook, 
which  the  Israelites  used  during  their  whole 
sojourn  near  Sinai  (Deut.  ix.  21 ;  comp.  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  15,  16,  cv.  41).  Hence  the  rock  is 
said  to  have  "followed  them  "  by  St.  Paul, 
who  makes  it  a  type  of  Christ,  the  source 
of  the  spiritual  water  of  life  (1  Cor.  x.  4; 
comp.  John  iv.  14,  vii.  35;  Isa.  Iv.  1 ;  Ez. 
xlvii.  1 ;  Zech.  xivrS ;  Rev.  xxii.  1,  17  :  the 
waters  flowing  out  of  the  temple,  which  also 
stood  on  a  bare  rock,  complete  the  type, 
linking  together  Sinai,  Sion,  and  the  spir- 
itual sense  of  both) .  The  next  stage  brought 
the  Israelites  to  the  Wilderness  of  Sinai, 
on  the  first  day  of  the  third  month  (Sivan, 
June),  and  here  they  encamped  before  the 
Mount  (Ex.  xix.  1,  2).  The  site  of  their 
camp  has  been  identified,  to  a  high  degree 
of  probability,  with  the  Wady  er-Rahah 
(the  enclosed  plain)  in  front  of  the  magnifi- 
cent clifls  of  Ras  S&fsdfeh.  On  the  iden- 
tification of  Sinai  itself,  see  Sinai.  The 
sojourn  of  the  Israelites  for  a  year  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Mount  Sinai  was  an  event- 
ful one.  Tlie  statements  of  the  Scriptural 
narrative  which  relate  to  the  receiving  of 
the  two  Tables,  the  Golden  Calf,  Moses' 
vision  of  God,  and  the  visit  of  Jcthro,  are 
too  well  known  to  need  special  mention 
here.  They  now  quitted  the  Sinaitic  region 
for  that  of  Paran,  in  which  they  went  three 
days  without  finding  a  permanent  encamp- 
ment (Num.  i.,  ix.  15-23,  x.  12, 33,  xi.  35,  xii. 
16).  In  following  the  route  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  Sinai,  we  must  try  to  determine 
two  or  three  chief  positions.  The  general 
direction  is  northwards  from  Sinai  "to  tlie 
mount  of  the  Amorites,"  the  highlands 
of  southern  Palestine.  The  two  extremes 
are  the  camp  before  Sinai  on  the  south, 
and  the  "city"  of  Kadesh,  or  Kadesh- 
Barnea,  on  the  north  (Num.  xiii.  26, 
XX.  6,  xxxii.  8).  Tlie  distance  between 
these  points  was  eleven  days'  journey 
(about  165  miles),  "by  the  way  of  Mount 
Seir"   (Deut.  i.  2).      This    is    evidently 


WILDERNESS 


752 


WILDERNESS 


mentioned  as  the  ordinary  route,  and  it 
seems  to  be  implied  (though  this  must  not 
be  assumed  as  certain)  that  it  was  followed 
by  the  Israelites.  Between  "the  mount  of 
the  Amorites  "  and  the  group  of  Sinai,  lies 
the  great  table-land  now  called  the  desert 
of  Et-Tih  {the  wandering).  There  can  be 
no  doubt  of  its  general  correspondence  to 
the  wilderness  of  Paran.  It  took  them 
some  time  to  get  clear  of  the  wadys  about 
Sinai;  and  although  Paran  is  mentioned 
from  the  first  as  the  region  into  which  they 
passed,  the  three  important  stations  of  Tab- 
KRAH,  Kibroth-Hattaavah,  and  Haze- 
roth  (Num.  xi.  3,  34,  35,  xxxiii.  17)  can 
hardly  be  reckoned  to  Paran,  as  they  are 
said  to  have  encamped  in  the  wilderness  of 
Paran  after  leaving  Hazeroth  (Num.  xii. 
16).  Unfortunately  these  three  names  fur- 
nish little,  if  any,  clew  to  the  route  they 
took  from  Sinai.  Taberah  (a  burning) 
records  the  awful  judgment  that  befell  the 
people,  who  now  began  again  to  murmur 
against  Jeliovali  (Num.  xi.  23).  The  name 
of  the  next  station,  Kibroth-Hattaavah 
(the  graves  of  lust),  is  of  similar  origin. 
They  loathed  the  manna,  and  asked  for 
flesh.  God  sent  them  quails,  on  which 
they  surfeited  themselves  for  a  whole 
month;  and  while  the  flesh  was  yet  be- 
tween their  teeth,  they  were  smitten  with  a 
great  plague,  which  gave  the  place  its  name. 
Tor  the  next  halting-place,  Hazeroth  (the 
enclosures),  a  site  has  been  found  at  the 
Wady  Huderah,  on  the  main  route  from 
Sinai  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah 
(Num.  xi.  35).  At  Hazeroth  Moses  was 
troubled  by  a  seditious  opposition  from 
Miriam  and  Aaron.  Miriam  was  smitten 
with  leprosy ;  and,  though  she  was  healed 
at  the  prayer  of  Moses,  Aaron,  as  the  high 
priest,  was  obliged  to  shut  her  out  from  the 
camp  for  seven  days ;  after  which  "  the 
people  removed  from  Hazeroth,  and  pitched 
in  the  wilderness  of  Paran."  Here  is  the 
Gordian  knot  of  the  topography.  We  are 
not  told  at  what  point  they  passed  into  the 
wilderness  of  Paran,  nor  how  many  stages 
they  made  in  it.  We  find  them  next  at 
Kadesu,  whence  the  spies  were  sent  out 
(Num.  xiii.  2&;  Deut.  i.  19)  ;  but  to  deter- 
mine the  position  of  Kadesh  itself  is  the 
great  problem  of  the  whole  route.  We  ob- 
tain no  help  from  the  list  of  stations  (Num. 
xxxiii.),  in  which  Kadesh  is  not  mentioned, 
and  the  name  of  Hazeroth  is  followed  by 
several  unknown  places,  of  which  it  is  even 
uncertain  whether  they  belong  to  this  jour- 
ney or  to  the  years  of  wandering  in  the 
wilderness.  The  latter  seems  the  more 
probable  alternative,  since  the  mention  of 
Mount  Hor  (Num.  xiii.  37-41)  clearly  re- 
fers to  the  fortieth  year,  and  at  least  tlie 
eight  preceding  stations  (Num.  xiii.  31-37) 
are  closely  connected  with  it  (comp.  Deut. 


X.  6,  7) ;  while  the  halt  at  Kadesh  (Nura. 
xiii.  37)  must  be  understood  of  a  return  to 
that  place  after  the  long  wanderings  (comp. 
Num.  XX.  1).  The  only  escape  from  these 
difficulties  is  by  the  hypothesis  tliat  Kadesh 
served  as  a  sort  of  head-quarters  during  the 
thirty-eight  years  of  wandering.  The  Isra- 
elites arrived  at  Kadesh  forty  days  before 
the  vintage,  or  about  the  latter  part  of  Au- 
gust; and  tliey  made  there  a  longer  halt 
ti)an  at  any  other  place,  except  before  Si- 
nai. At  Kadesh,  Jeliovah  declared  to  the 
people  that  they  had  reached  the  mountain 
of  the  Amorites,  into  which  they  were  to 
ascend,  to  possess  the  land  He  had  given 
them  (Deut.  i.  20,  21).  But  first  the  coun- 
try was  explored  by  twelve  spies,  who  were 
heads  of  their  respective  tribes  (Num.  xiii. 
1-lC ;  Deut.  i.  22,  23).  The  people,  alarmed 
by  tlxe  report  which  the  spies  brought  back 
of  the  strength  of  the  Canaanite  cities,  broke 
out  into  open  rebellion,  and  proposed  to 
elect  a  captain  and  to  return  to  Egypt. 
God  punished  them  by  declaring  that  they 
should  not  see  the  promised  land.  The 
execution  of  the  sentence  was  to  begin  on 
the  morrow,  by  their  turning  into  the  wil- 
derness by  the  way  of  the  Red  Sea.  There 
they  were  to  wander  for  forty  years  —  a  year 
for  each  day  that  the  spies  had  searched 
the  land  —  till  all  the  men  of  twenty  years 
old  and  upwards  had  left  their  carcasses  ia 
the  desert;  and  then  at  length  their  chil- 
dren, havingshared  their  wanderings,  should 
enter  on  their  inheritance  (Num.  xiv.).  Now 
that  it  was  too  late,  the  people  clianged  their 
mind;  and,  having  lost  the  opportunity 
given  them  by  God,  they  tried  to  seize 
it  against  His  will.  In  the  morning  they 
marched  up  the  mountain-pass  {Es-Sufa), 
in  spite  of  the  warning  of  Moses  —  that  it 
should  not  prosper;  and  the  Amalekites 
and  Canaanites,  coming  down  upon  them 
with- the  Amorites  of  the  mountain,  defeat- 
ed them  with  great  slaughter,  and  chased 
them  as  far  as  Hormali,  and  even  to  Mount 
Seir  (Num.  xiv.  40-45;  Deut.  i.  41-44), 
The  entrance  to  the  promised  land  on  this 
side  was  now  hopelessly  barred ;  and  their 
forlorn  state  is  thus  described  by  Moses : 
"  And  ye  returned  and  wept  before  Jeho- 
vah; but  Jehovah  M'ould  not  hearken  to 
your  voice  nor  give  ear  unto  you  "  (Deut. 
i.  45,  46).  The  tliirty-eight  years  (or  rather 
exactlj'  thirty-seven  years  and  a  half)  oc- 
cupied in  the  execution  of  God's  judgment 
form  almost  a  blank  in  the  sacred  history. 
Their  close  may  be  fixed  at  the  period  of 
the  final  marcli  from  Kadesh  to  Mount 
Hor,  and  thence  down  through  the  Arabahy 
and  up  the  eastern  side  of  Mount  Seir,  to 
the  plains  of  Moab  (Num.  xx.  1.  xxxiii.  37; 
Deut.  ii.  23).  But  the  intervening  portions 
of  the  narrative  are  most  difficult  to  assign 
to  their  proper  place  —  whether  to  tlie  first 


WILLOWS 


753 


WINDS 


or  final  stay  at  Kadesh,  or  to  the  years  be- 
tween. The  mystery  which  hangs  over  this 
period  seems  like  an  awful  silence  into 
which  the  rebels  sink  away.  After  the  rout 
in  Hormah,  the  people  "  abode  in  Kadesh 
many  days  "  (Deut.  i.  46).  This  phrase 
may  possibly  cover  the  whole  period  of  the 
wandering;  and  Kadesh  may  very  well  be 
taken  for  a  general  name  of  the  wilderness 
(see  Ps.  xxix.  8).  The  direction  in  which 
the  people  started  on  their  wanderings  is 
defined,  "hy  the  way  of  the  Red  Sea"  (Num. 
xiv.  25;  Deut.  i.  40),  which  seems  clearly 
to  mean  down  the  Arabah  to  the  head  of 
the  Elanitic  Gulf.  Now  it  seems  that  the 
passage  in  Deut.  ii.  1  must  be  referred  to 
this  same  * '  turning  into  the  wilderness  by 
way  of  the  Red  Sea,"  and  not  to  the  final 
march,  the  signal  for  which  is  recorded  at 
V.  3 ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  computa- 
tion of  the  thirty-eight  years  of  wandering 
from  the  time  they  left  Kadesh-barnea 
(Num.  xiv.  14).  If  this  be  so,  we  have  a 
clew  to  the  direction  of  the  wandering  in 
the  words,  "  and  we  compassed  Mount  Seir 
many  days ; "  words  which  point  to  the 
Arabah.  With  this  agrees  the  notice  of 
their  last  march  back  to  Kadesh,  being  from 
Ezion-gaber  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah  (Num.  xxxiii.  36). 

Willows  are  mentioned  in  Lev.  xxiii. 
40 ;  Job  xl.  22 ;  Is.  xliv.  4 ;  Ps.  cxxxvii.  2. 
With  respect  to  the  tree  upon  which  the 
captive  Israelites  hung  their  harps,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  weeping  willow 
(Salix  Babylonica)  is  intended.  This  tree 
grows  abundantly  on  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, in  other  parts  of  Asia  as  in  Pales- 
tine. The  Hebrew  word  translated  willows 
is  generic,  and  includes  several  species  of 
the  large  family  of  Salices,  which  is  well 
represented  in  Palestine  and  the  Bible  lands, 
such  as  the  Salixalba,  S.  viminalis  (osier), 
S.  Aegyptiaca. 

Willows,  The  Brook  of  the,  awady 
mentioned  by  Isaiah  (xv.  7)  in  his  dirge 
over  Moab.  His  language  implies  that  it 
was  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  country, 
and  is  possibly  identical  with  a  wady  men- 
tioned by  Amos  (vi.  14)  as  the  then  rec- 
ognized southern  limit  of  the  northern 
kingdom.  This  latter  appears  in  the  A.  V. 
as  *'  the  river  of  the  wilderness."  Widely 
as  they  differ  in  the  A.  V.,  the  names  are 
all  but  identical  in  the  original. 

Wills.  Under  a  system  of  close  inher- 
itancelike that  of  the  Jews,  the  scope  for  be- 
quest in  respect  of  land  was  limited  by  the 
right  of  redemption  and  general  re-entry  in 
the  Jubilee  year.  But  the  law  does  not  for- 
bid bequests  by  will  of  such  limited  interest 
in  land  as  was  consistent  with  those  rights. 
The  case  of  houses  in  walled  towns  was 
different,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
they  must,  in  fact,  have  frequently  been 
bequeathed  by  will  (Lev.  xxv.  30).  Two 
48 


instances  are  recorded  in  the  O.  T.  under 
the  Law,  of  testamentary  disposition,  (1) 
effected  in  the  case  of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  23),  (2)  recommended  in  the  case 
of  Hezekiah  (2  K.  xx.  1 ;  Is.  xxxviii.  1). 
[Heir.] 

Wimple,  an  old  English  word  for  hood 
or  veil,  used  in  the  A.  V.  of  Is.  iii.  22.  The 
same  Hebrew  word  is  translated  "  veil "  in 
Ruth  iii.  15,  but  it  signifies  rather  a  kind 
of  shawl  or  mantle. 

Window.  The  window  of  an  Oriental 
house  consists  generally  of  an  aperture 
closed  in  with  lattice-work  (Eccl.  xii.  3, 
A.  V.  "  window ;  "  Hos.  xiii.  3,  A.  V. 
"chimney;"  Cant.  ii.  9;  Judg.  v.  28; 
Prov.  vii.  6,  A.  V.  "casement").  Glass 
has  been  introduced  into  Egypt  in  modem 
times  as  a  protection  against  the  cold  of 
winter,  but  lattice-work  is  still  the  usual, 
and  with  the  poor  the  only,  contrivance  for 
closing  the  window.  The  windows  gener- 
ally look  into  the  inner  court  of  the  house, 
but  in  every  house  one  or  more  look  into  the 
street.  In  Egypt  these  outer  windows  gen- 
erally project  over  the  doorway.    [House.] 

Winds.  That  the  Hebrews  recognized 
the  existence  of  four  prevailing  winds  as 
issuing,  broadly  speaking,  from  the  four 
cardinal  points,  north,  south,  east,  and  west, 
may  be  inferred  from  their  custom  of  using 
the  expression  "  four  winds  "  as  equivalent 
to  the  "  four  quarters  "  of  the  hemisphere 
(Ez.  xxxvii.  9 ;  Dan.  viii.  8 ;  Zech.  ii.  6 ; 
Matt.  xxiv.  31).  The  North  wind,  or,  as  it 
was  usually  called,  "the  north,"  was  natu- 
rally the  coldest  of  the  four  (Ecclus.  xliii. 
20),  and  its  presence  is  hence  invoked  as 
favorable  to  vegetation  in  Cant.  iv.  16.  It 
is  described  in  Prov.  xxv.  23,  as  bringing 
rain ;  in  this  case  we  must  understand 
the  north-west  wind.  The  north-west  wind 
prevails  from  the  autumnal  equinox  to  the 
beginning  of  November,  and  the  north  wind 
from  June  to  the  equinox.  The  East  wind 
crosses  the  sandy  wastes  of  Arabia  Deserta 
before  reaching  Palestine,  and  was  hence 
termed  "  the  wind  of  the  wilderness  "  (Job 
i.  19 ;  Jer.  xiii.  24).  It  blows  with  violence, 
and  is  hence  supposed  to  be  used  generally 
for  any  violent  wind  (Job  xxvii.  21,  xxxviii. 
24 ;  Ps.  xlviii.  7 ;  Is.  xxvii.  8 ;  Ez.  xxvii. 
26).  In  Palestine  the  east  wind  prevails 
from  February  to  June.  The  South  wind, 
which  traverses  the  Arabian  peninsula  be- 
fore reaching  Palestine,  must  necessarily 
be  extremely  hot  (Job  xxxvii.  17;  Luke 
xii.  55).  The  West  and  south-west  winds 
reach  Palestine  loaded  with  moisture  gath- 
ered from  the  Mediterranean,  and  are  hence 
expressively  termed  by  the  Arabs  "  the 
fathers  of  the  rain."  Westerly  winds  pre- 
vail in  Palestine  from  November  to  Febru- 
ary. In  addition  to  the  four  regular  winds, 
we  have  notice  in  the  Bible  of  the  local 
squalls  (Mark  iv.  37 ;  Luke  viii.  23) ,  to  which 


WINE 


754 


WINE 


the  Sea  of  Gennesareth  was  liable.  In  the 
narrative  of  St.  Paul's  voyage  we  meet  with 
the  Greek  term  Lips  to  describe  the  south- 
west wind ;  the  Latin  Cams  or  Caiirus  the 
north-west  wind  (Acts  xxvii.  12),  and 
EiMoclydon,  a  wind  of  a  very  violent 
character  coming  from  E.  N.  E.  (Acts 
xxvii.  14). 

Wine.  The  manufacture  of  wine  is 
carried  back  in  the  Bible  to  the  age  of 
Noah  (Gen.  ix.  20,  21),  to  whom  the  dis- 
covery of  the  process  is  apparently,  though 
not  explicitly,  attributed.  The  natural  his- 
tory and  culture  of  the  vine  are  described 
under  a  separate  head.  [Vine.]  The  only 
other  plant  whose  fruit  is  noticed  as  having 
been  converted  into  wine,  was  tbe  pome- 
granate (Cant.  viii.  2).  In  Palestine  the 
vintage  takes  place  in  September,  and  is 
celebrated  with  great  rejoicings.  The  ripe 
fruit  was  gathered  in  baskets  (Jer.  vi.  9), 
as  represented  in  Egyptian  paintings,  and 
was  carried  to  the  wine-press.  It  was  then 
placed  in  the  upper  one  of  the  two  vats  or 
receptacles  of  which  the  wine-press  was 
formed,  and  was  subjected  to  the  process 
of  "  treading,"  which  has  prevailed  in  all 
ages  in  Oriental  and  South-European  coun- 
tries (Neh.  xiii.  15;  Job  xxiv.  11;  Is.  xvi. 
10;  Jer.  xxv.  30,  xlviii.  33;  Am.  ix.  13; 
Rev.  xtx.  15).  A  certain  amount  of  juice 
exuded  from  the  ripe  fruit  from  its  own 
pressure  before  the  treading  commenced. 
This  appears  to  have  been  kept  separate 
from  the  rest  of  the  juice,  and  to  have 
formed  the  "  sweet  wine  "  noticed  in  Acts 
ii.  13.  (See  below.)  The  "  treading  "  was 
effected  by  one  or  more  men  according  to 
the  size  of  the  vat.  They  encouraged  one 
another  by  shouts  (Is.  xvi.  9,  10 ;  Jer.  xxv. 
80,  xlviii.  33).  Their  legs  and  garments 
were  dyed  red  with  the  juice  (Gen.  xlix. 


Egyptian  Wine-preti.    (Wilkinson.) 

11;  Is.  Ixiii.  2,3).  The  expressed  juice 
escaped  by  an  aperture  into  the  lower  vat, 
or  was  at  once  collected  in  vessels.  A  hand- 


press  was  occasionally  used  in  Egypt,  but 
we  have  no  notice  of  such  an  instrument  in 
the  Bible.  As  to  the  subsequent  treatment 
of  the  wine,  we  have  but  little  information. 
Sometimes  it  was  preserved  in  its  unfer- 
mented  state,  and  drunk  as  must,  but  more 
generally  it  was  bottled  off  after  fermenta- 
tion, and,  if  it  were  designed  to  be  kept  for 
some  time,  a  certain  amount  of  lees  was 
added  to  give  it  body  (Is.  xxv.  6).  The 
•wine  consequently  required  to  be  "  refined  " 
or  strained  previously  to  being  brought  to 
table  (Is.  xxv.  6).  To  wine  is  attributed 
the  "darkly  flashing  eye  "  (Gen.  xlix.  12; 
A.  V.  "  red  "),  the  unbridled  tongue  (Prov. 
XX.  1 ;  Is.  xxviii.  7),  the  excitement  of  tho 
spirit  (Prov.  xxxi.  6;  Is.  v.  11;  Zech.  ix. 
15,  X.  7),  the  enchained  affections  of  its 
votaries  (Hos.  iv.  11),  the  perverted  judg- 
ment (Prov.  xxxi.  5;  Is.  xxviii.  7),  the* inde- 
cent exposure  (Hab.  ii.  15, 16),  and  the  sick- 
ness resulting  from  the  heat  (chemdh,  A.  V. 
"  bottles")  of  wine  (Hos.  vii.  5).  The  al- 
lusions to  the  effects  of  iirdsh  are  confined 
to  a  single  passage,  but  this  a  most  decisive 
one,  viz.  Hos.  iv.  11,  "Whoredom  and 
wine  (jyayin),  and  new  wine  {tirdsK)  take 
away  the  heart,"  where  tlr6sh  appears  as 
the  climax  of  engrossing  influences,  in  im- 
mediate connection  with  yayin.  It  has 
been  disputed  whether  tlie  Hebrew  wine 
was  fermented;  but  the  impression  pro- 
duced on  the  mind  by  a  general  review  of 
the  above  notices  is,  that  the  Hebrew  words 
indicating  wine  refer  to  fermented,  intoxi- 
cating wine.  The  notices  of  fermentation 
are  not  very  decisive.  A  certain  amount 
of  fermentation  is  implied  in  the  distention 
of  the  leather  bottles  when  new  wine  was 
placed  in  them,  and  which  was  liable  to 
burst  old  bottles.  It  is  very  likely  that  new 
wine  was  preserved  in  the  state  of  must  by 
placing  it  in  jars  or  bottles,  and  then  bury- 
ing it  in  the  earth.  The  mingling  that  we 
read  of  in  conjunction  with  wine  may  have 
been  designed  either  to  increase  or  to 
diminish  the  strength  of  the  wine,  according 
as  spices  or  water  formed  the  ingredient 
that  was  added.  The  notices  chiefly  favor 
the  former  view ;  for  mingled  liquor  was 
prepared  for  high  festivals  (Prov.  ix.  2,  5), 
and  occasions  of  excess  (Prov.  xxiii.  30 ; 
Is.  V.  22).  At  the  same  time  strength  was 
not  the  sole  object  sought;  the  wine  "  min- 
gled with  myrrh,"  given  to  Jesus,  was  de- 
signed to  deaden  pain  (Mark  xv.  23),  and 
the  spiced  pomegranate  whie  prepared  by 
the  bride  (Cant.  viii.  2)  may  well  have  been 
of  a  mild  character.  In  the  New  Testament 
the  character  of  the  "  sweet  wine,"  noticed 
in  Acts  ii.  13,  calls  for  some  Uttle  remark. 
It  could  not  be  new  wine  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  term,  inasmuch  as  about  eight 
months  must  have  elapsed  between  the 
vintage  and  the  feast  of  Pentecost.  The 
explanations  of  the  ancient  lexicographers 


WINE-PRESS 


755 


WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON 


rather  lead  us  to  infer  that  its  luscious 
qualities  were  due,  not  to  its  being  recently 
made,  but  to  its  being  produced  from  the 
very  purest  juice  of  the  grape.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  wines  of  Palestine 
varied  in  quality,  and  were  named  after  the 
localities  in  which  they  were  made.  The 
only  wines  of  which  we  have  special  notice, 
belonged  to  Syria;  these  were  the  wine  of 
Helbon  (Ez.  xxvii.  18),  and  the  wine  of 
Lebanon,  famed  for  its  aroma  (Hos.  xiv.,  7). 
With  regard  to  the  uses  of  wine  in  private 
life  there  is  little  to  remark.  It  was  pro- 
duced on  occasions  of  ordinary  hospitality 
(Gen.  xiv.  18),  and  at  festivals,  such  as  mar- 
riages (John  ii.  3).  Under  the  Mosaic  law 
wine  formed  the  usual  drink-offering  that 
accompanied  the  daily  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix. 
40),  the  presentation  of  the  first  fruits  (Lev. 
xxiii.  13,  and  other  offerings  (Num.  xv.  5). 
Tithe  was  to  be  paid  of  wine,  as  of  other 
products.  The  priest  was  also  to  receive 
first-fruits  of  wine,  as  of  other  articles  (Deut. 
xviii.  4;  comp.  Ex.  xxii.  29).  The  use  of 
wine  at  the  paschal  feast  was  not  enjomed 
by  the  Law,  but  had  become  an  established 
custom,  at  all  events,  in  the  post-Babylonian 
period.  The  wine  was  mixed  with  warm 
water  on  these  occasions.  Hence  in  the 
early  Christian  Church  it  was  usual  to  mix 
the  sacramental  wine  with  water.  [Drink.] 
Wine-press.  From  the  scanty  notices 
contained  in  the  Bible  we  gather  that  the 
wine-presses  of  the  Jews  consisted  of  two 
receptacles  or  vats  placed  at  different  eleva- 
tions, in  the  upper  one  of  which  the  grapes 
were  trodden,  while  the  lower  one  received 
the  expressed  juice.  The  two  vats  are 
mentioned  together  only  in  Joel  iii.  13 : 
"  The  press  is  full:  the  fats  overflow"  — 
the  upper  vat  being  full  of  fruit,  the  lower 
one  overflowing  with  the  must.  [Wine.] 
The  two  vats  were  usually  hewn  out  of  the 
solid  rock  (Is.  v.  2,  margin ;  Matt.  xxi.  33). 
Ancient  wine-presses,  so  constructed,  are 
still  to  be  seen  in  Palestine. 
Winnowing.  [AgricultureJ 
Wisdom  of  Jesus,  Son  of  Sirach. 

[Ec-  LESIASTICUS.] 

Wisdom,  The,  of  Solomon,  a  book 
of  the  Apocrypha,  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  first  (ch.  i.-ix.)  containing  the 
doctrine  of  Wisdom  in  its  moral  and  intel- 
lectual aspects ;  the  second,  the  doctrine  of 
Wisdom  as  shown  in  history  (ch.  x.-xix.). 
The  first  part  contains  the  praise  of  Wisdom 
as  the  source  of  immortality,  in  contrast  with 
the  teaching  of  sensualists ;  and  next  the 
praise  of  Wisdom  as  the  guide  of  practical 
and  intellectual  life,  the  stay  of  princes,  and 
the  interpreter  of  the  universe.  The  second 
part,  again,  follows  the  action  of  Wisdom 
summarily,  as  preserving  God's  servants, 
from  Adam  to  Moses,  and  more  particular- 
ly in  the  punishment  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Canaanites.    The  whole  argument  may  be 


presented  in  a  tabular  form  in  the  follow- 
ing shape :  I.  Ch.  i.-ix.  The  doctrine  of 
Wisdom  in  its  spiritual,  intellectucd,  and 
moral  aspects.  (a),  i.-v.  Wisdom  the 
giver  of  happiness  and  immortality :  The 
conditions  of  wisdom  (i.  1-11)  — Upright- 
ness of  thought  (1-5)  —  Uprightness  of 
word  (6-11).  — The  origin  of  death  (i.  12- 
ii.  24)  :  Sin  (in  fact)  by  man's  free  will  (i. 
12-16)  —  The  reasoning  of  the  sensualist 
(ii.  1-20)  —  Sin  (in  source)  by  the  envy  of 
the  devil  (21-24).  —The  godly  and  wicked 
in  life  (as  mortal)  (iii.  1-iv.)  :  In  chastise- 
ments (iii.  1-10)  —  In  the  results  of  life 
(iii.  11-iv.  6)  — In  length  of  life  (7-20).- 
The  godly  and  wicked  after  death  (v.)  t 
The  judgment  of  conscience  (1-14)  —  The 
judgment  of  God  —  On  the  godly  (15-16) 

—  On  the  wicked  (17-23).  {ft),  vi.-ix. 
Wisdom  the  guide  of  life :  Wisdom  the 
guide  of  princes  (vi.  1-21)  —  The  respon- 
sibility of  power  (1-11)  —  Wisdom  soon 
found  (12-16)  —  Wisdom  the  source  of  true 
sovereignty  (17-21).  —  The  character  and 
realm  of  wisdom:  Open  to ^11  (vi.  22-vii. 
7)  —  Pervading  all  creation  (vii.  8-viii.  1) 

—  Swaying  all  life  (viii.  2-17)  —  Wisdom 
the  gift  of  God  (viii.  17-ix.)  :  Prayer  for 
wisdom  (ix.).  II.  Ch.  x.-xix.  The  doc- 
trine of  Wisdom  in  its  historical  aspects : 
(a).  Wisdom  a  power  to  save  and  chastise  : 
Wisdom  seen  in  the  guidance  of  God's  peo- 
ple from  Adam  to  Moses  (x.-xi.  4).  — 
Wisdom  seen  in  the  punishment  of  God'8 
enemies  (xi.  5-xii.)  :  The  Egyptians  (xi.  5-: 
xii.  1)  —  The  Canaanites  (xii.  2-18)  — 
The  lesson  of  mercy  and  judgment  (19-27), 
(/*).  The  growth  of  idolatry  the  opposite 
to  wisdom :  The  worship  of  nature  (xiii.  1- 
9)  —  The  worship  of  images  (xiii.  10-xiv. 
13)  —  The  worship  of  deified  men  (xiv. 
14-21)  —  The  moral  effects  of  idolatry  (xiv, 
22-31).  (y).  The  contrast  between  true 
worshippers  and  idolaters  (xv.-xix.)  :  The 
general  contrast  (xv.  1-17) — The  special 
contrast  at  the  Exodus  :  The  action  of  beasts 
(xv.  18-xvi.  13)  —  The  action  of  the  forces 
of  nature  —  water,  fire  (xvi.  14-29)  —  The 
symbolic  darkness  (xvii.-xviii.  4)  —  The 
action  of  death  (xviii.  5-25)  —  The  powers 
of  nature  changed  in  their  working  to  save 
and  destroy  (xix.  1-21)  — Conclusion  (xix. 
21).  Style  and  Language.  —  The  literary 
character  of  the  book  is  most  remarkable 
and  interesting.  In  the  richness  and  free- 
dom of  its  vocabulary  it  most  closely  re- 
sembles the  Fourth  Book  of  Maccabees,  but 
it  is  superior  to  that  fine  declamation,  both 
in  po#er  and  variety  of  diction.  The  mag- 
nificent description  of  Wisdom  (vii.  22- 
viii.  1)  must  rank  among  the  noblest  pas- 
sages of  human  eloquence,  and  it  would  be 
perhaps  impossible  to  point  out  any  piece 
of  equal  length  in  the  remains  of  classical 
antiquity  more  pregnant  with  noble  thought, 
or  more  rich  in  expressive  phraseology. 


WISE  MEN 


756 


WOLF 


Doctrinal  Character.  — The  theological 
teaching  of  the  book  offers,  in  many  re- 
spects, the  nearest  approach  to  the  language 
and  doctrines  of  Greek  philosophy  which  is 
found  in  any  Jewish  writing  up  to  the  time 
of  Philo.  There  is  much  in  the  riews  which 
it  gives  of  the  world,  of  man,  and  of  the 
Divine  Nature,  which  springs  rather  from 
the  combination  or  conflict  of  Hebrew  and 
Greek  thought  than  from  the  independent 
development  of  Hebrew  thought  alone. 
Thus,  in  speaking  of  the  almighty  power 
of  God,  the  writer  describes  him  as  "  having 
created  the  universe  out  of  matter  without 
form,"  adopting  the  very  phrase  of  the 
Platonists,  which  is  found  also  in  Philo. 
Scarcely  less  distinctly  heathen  is  the  con- 
ception which  is  presented  of  the  body  as  a 
mere  weight  and  clog  to  the  soul  (ix.  15 ; 
contrast  2  Cor.  v,  1-4).  It  is  more  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  language  of  the  O.  T. 
that  the  writer  represents  the  Spirit  of  God 
as  filling  (i.  7)  and  inspiring  all  things  (xii. 
1),  but  even  here  the  idea  of  "  a  soul  of  the 
world"  seems  to  influence  his  thoughts. 
There  is,  on  tUe  other  hand,  no  trace  of  the 
characteristic  Christian  doctrine  of  a  resur- 
rection of  the  body.  The  identification  of 
the  tempter  (Gen.  iii.),  directly  or  indirect- 
ly, with  the  devil,  as  the  bringer  "  of  death 
into  the  world  "  (ii.  23,  24),  is  the  most  re- 
markable development  of  Biblical  doctrine 
which  the  book  contains.  Generally,  too, 
it  may  be  observed  that,  as  in  the  cognate 
books,  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes,  there  are 
few  traces  of  the  recognition  of  the  sinful- 
ness even  of  the  wise  man  in  his  wisdom, 
which  forms,  in  the  Psalms  and  the  Proph- 
ets, the  basis  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of 
the  atonement  (yet  comp.  xv.  2).  In  con- 
nection with  the  O.  T.  Scriptures,  the 
book,  as  a  whole,  may  be  regarded  as  car- 
rying on  one  step  farther  the  great  problem 
of  life  contained  in  Ecclesiastes  and  Job. 
From  internal  evidence  it  seems  most 
reasonable  to  believe  that  the  book  waa 
composed  in  Greek  at  Alexandria  some 
time  before  the  time  of  Philo  (about  120- 
80  B.  c).  St.  Paul,  if  not  other  of  the 
Apostolic  writers,  was  familiar  with  its 
language,  though  he  makes  no  definite  quo- 
tation from  it.  Thus  we  have  striking 
parallels  in  Rom.  ix.  21  to  Wisd.  xv.  7 ;  in 
Rom.  ix.  22  to  Wisd.  xii.  20 ;  in  Eph.  vi. 
13-17  to  Wisd.  T.  17-19  (the  heavenly 
armor),  &c.  It  seems,  indeed,  impossible 
to  study  the  book  dispassionately,  and  not 
feel  that  it  forms  one  of  the  last  links  in  the 
chain  of  providential  connection  between 
the  Old  and  New  Covenants.  It  would  not 
be  easy  to  find  elsewhere  any  pre-Christian 
view  of  religion  equally  wide,  sustained, 
and  definite. 

Wise  Men.    [Magi.] 

Witch,  WitchcraftiB.  [DnmiATiOK; 
Maqic^ 


Witness.  Among  people  with  whom 
writing  is  not  common,  the  evidence  of  a 
transaction  is  given  by  some  tangible  memo- 
rial or  significant  ceremony.  Abraham 
gave  seven  ewe-lambs  to  Abimelech  as  an 
evidence  of  his  property  in  the  well  of  Beer- 
aheba.  Jacob  raised  a  heap  of  stones,  "  the 
heap  of  witness,"  as  a  boundary-mark  be- 
tween himself  and  Laban  (Gen.  xxi.  30,  xxxi. 
47,  52).  The  tribes  ofReuben  and  Gad  raised 
an  "  altar "  as  a  witness  to  the  covenant 
between  themselves  and  the  rest  of  the  na- 
tion ;  Joshua  set  up  a  stone  as  an  evidence 
of  the  allegiance  promised  by  Israel  to 
God  (Josh.  xxii.  10,  26,  34,  xxiv.  26,  27). 
Thus  also  symbolical  usages,  in  ratification 
of  contracts  or  completed  arrangements,  as 
the  ceremony  of  shoe-loosing  (Deut.  xxv. 
9,  10;  Ruth  iv.  7,  8),  the  ordeal  prescribed 
in  the  case  of  a  suspected  wife,  with  which 
may  be  compared  the  ordeal  of  the  Styx 
(Num.  T.  17-31).  But  written  evidence 
was  by  no  means  unknown  to  the  Jews. 
Divorce  was  to  be  proved  by  a  written  doc- 
ument (Deut.  xxiv.  1,  3).  In  civil  con- 
tracts, at  least  in  later  times,  documentary 
evidence  was  required  and  carefully  pre- 
served (Is.  viii.  16;  Jer.  xxxii.  10-16). 
On  the  whole  the  Law  was  very  careful  to 
provide  and  enforce  evidence  for  all  its  in- 
fractions and  all  transactions  bearing  on 
them.  Among  special  provisions  with  re- 
spect to  evidence  are  the  following :  1. 
Two  witnesses  at  least  are  required  to  es- 
tablish any  charge  (Num.  xxxv.  30;  Deut. 
xvii.  6 ;  John  viii.  17 ;  2  Cor.  xiii.  1 ;  comp. 
1  Tim.  V.  19).  2.  In  the  case  of  the  sus- 
pected wife,  evidence  besides  the  husband's 
was  desired  (Num.  v.  13).  3.  The  witness 
who  withheld  tlie  truth  was  censured  (Lev. 
v.  1).  4.  False  witness  was  punished  with 
the  punishment  due  to  the  offence  which  it 
sought  to  establish.  6.  Slanderous  reports 
and  officious  witness  are  discouraged  (Ex. 
XX.  16,  xxiii.  1;  Lev.  xix.  16,  18,  &c.).  6. 
The  witnesses  were  the  first  executioners 
(Deut.  xiii.  9,  xvi.  7;  Acts  vii.  58).  7.  In 
case  of  an  animal  left  in  charge  and  torn 
by  wild  beasts,  the  keeper  was  to  bring  the 
carcass  in  proof  of  the  fact  and  disproof  of 
his  own  criminality  (Ex.  xxii.  13).  8.  Ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  women  and  slaves 
were  not  admitted  to  bear  testimony.  In 
the  N.  T.  the  original  notion  of  a  witness  is 
exhibited  in  the  special  form  of  one  who  at- 
tests his  belief  in  the  Gospel  by  personal 
suffering.  Hence  it  is  that  the  use  of  the 
ecclesiastical  term  "martyr,"  the  Greek 
word  for  "witness,"  has  arisen. 
Wizard.  [Divination;  Magic] 
Wolf.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  wolf  of  Palestine  is  the  common  Cants 
lupus,  and  that  this  is  the  animal  so  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Wolves 
were  doubtless  far  more  common  in  Bibli- 
cal times  than  they  are  now,  though  they 


WOMEN 


757 


WORSHIPPER 


are  occasionally  seen  by  modern  travellers. 
The  following  are  the  Scriptural  allusions 
to  the  wolf:  Its  ferocity  is  mentioned  in 
Gen.  xlix.  27;  Ez.  xxii.  27;  Hab.  i.  8; 
Matt.  vii.  15 ;  its  nocturnal  habits,  in  Jer. 
V.  6 ;  Zeph.  iii.  3 ;  Hab.  i.  8 ;  its  attacking 
sheep  and  lambs,  John  x.  12 ;  Matt.  x.  16 ; 
Luke  X.  3.  Isaiah  (xi.  6,  Ixv.  25)  foretells 
the  peaceful  reign  of  the  Messiah  under  the 
metaphor  of  a  wolf  dwelling  with  a  lamb; 
cruel  persecutors  are  compared  with  wolves 
(Matt.  X.  16;  Acts  xx.  29). 

Women.  The  position  of  women  in  the 
Hebrew  commonwealth  contrasts  favorably 
with  that  which  in  the  present  day  is  assigned 
to  them  generally  in  Eastern  countries.  The 
most  salient  point  of  contrast  in  the  usages 
of  ancient  as  compared  with  modern  Oriental 
society  was  the  large  amount  of  liberty  en- 
joyed by  women.  Instead  of  being  im- 
mured in  a  harem,  or  appearing  in  public 
with  the  face  covered,  the  wivts  and  maid- 
ens of  ancient  times  mingled  freely  and 
openly  with  the  other  sex  in  the  duties  and 
amenities  of  ordinary  life.  Bebekah  trav- 
elled on  a  camel  with  her  face  unveiled, 
until  she  came  into  the  presence  of  her 
affianced  (Gen.  xxiv.  64,  65).  Jacob  saluted 
Rachel  with  a  kiss  in  the  presence  of  the 
shepherds  (Gen.  xxix.  11).  Women  played 
no  inconsiderable  part  in  public  celebrations 
(Ex.  XV.  20,  21;  Judg.  xi.  34).  The  odes 
of  Deborah  (Judg.  v.)  and  of  Hannah  (1 
Sam.  ii.  l,'&c.)  exhibit  a  degree  of  intel- 
lectual cultivation  which  is  in  itself  a  proof 
of  the  position  of  the  sex  in  that  period. 
Women  also  occasionally  held  public  of- 
fices, particularly  that  of  prophetess  or 
inspired  teacher  (Ex.  xv.  20 ;  2  K.  xxii.  14 ; 
Neh.  vi.  14;  Luke  ii.  36;  Judg.  iv.  4). 
The  management  of  household  affairs  de- 
volved mainly  on  the  women.  The  value 
of  a  virtuous  and  active  housewife  forms  a 
frequent  topic  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (xi. 
16,  xii.  4,  xiv.  1,  xxxi.  10,  &c.).  Her  in- 
fluence was  of  course  proportionably  great. 
The  effect  of  polygamy  was  to  transfer 
female  influence  from  the  wives  to  the 
mother.  Polygamy  also  necessitated  a 
separate  establishment  for  the  wives  col- 
lectively, or  for  each  individually.  Further 
information  on  the  subject  of  this  article 
is  given  under  the  heads  Deaconess, 
Dkess,  Hair,  Marriage,  Slave,  Veil, 
and  Widow. 

Wood.     [Forest.] 

Wool  was  an  article  of  the  highest  value 
among  the  Jews,  as  the  staple  material  for 
the  manufacture  of  clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  47 ; 
Deut.  xxii.  11;  Job  xxxi.  20;  Prov.  xxxi. 
13;  Ez.  xxxiv.  3;  Hos.  ii.  5).  The  impor- 
tance of  wool  is  incidentally  shown  by  the 
notice  that  Mesha's  tribute  was  paid  in  a  cer- 
tain number  of  rams  "  with  the  wool  "  (2  K. 
iii.  4).  The  wool  of  Damascus  was  highly 
prized  in  the  mart  of  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii.  18). 


Woollen,  Linen  and.  The  Israel- 
ites were  forbidden  to  wear  a  garment  min- 
gled of  woollen  and  linen.  "  A  garment  of 
mixtures  Ishaatniz]  shall  not  come  upon 
thee  "  (Lev.  xix.  19)  ;  or,  as  it  is  expressed 
in  Deut.  xxii.  11,  "  Thou  shalt  not  wear 
shaatnSz,  wool  and  flax  together."  Our 
version,  by  the  help  of  the  latter  passage, 
bias  rendered  the  strange  word  shaatniz,  in 
the  former,  *'  of  linen  and  woollen,"  while 
in  Deut.  it  is  translated  *'  a  garment  of 
divers  sorts."  The  reason  given  by  Jo- 
seplius  for  the  law  which  prohibited  the 
wearing  a  garment  woven  of  linen  and 
woollen  is,  that  such  were  worn  by  the 
priests  alone. 

Worm,  the  representative  in  the  A.  V. 
of  several  Hebrew  words.  S&s,  which  oc- 
curs in  Is.  Ii.  8,  probably  denotes  some 
particular  species  of  moth,  whose  larva  is 
injurious  to  wool.  Rimmdh  (Ex.  xvi.  20) 
points  evidently  to  various  kinds  of  mag- 
gots, and  the  larvae  of  insects  which  feed 
on  putrefying  animal  matter,  rather  than 
to  earthworms.  TdWdhis  applied  in  Deut. 
xjfviii.  39  to  some  kinds  of  larvae  destruc- 
tive to  the  vines.  Various  kinds  of  insects 
attack  the  vine,  amongst  which  one  of  the 
most  destructive  is  the  Tortrix  vitisana, 
the  little  caterpillar  of  which  eats  off  the 
inner  parts  of  the  blossoms,  the  clusters  of 
which  it  binds  together  by  spinning  a  web 
around  them.  In  Job  xix.  26,  xxi.  26, 
xxiv.  20,  there  is  an  allusion  to  worms 
(insect  larvae)  feeding  on  the  dead  bodies 
of  the  buried.  There  is  the  same  allusion 
in  Is.  Ixvi.  24,  which  words  are  applied  by 
our  Lord  (Mark  ix.  44,  46,  48)  metaphor- 
ically to  the  torments  of  the  guilty  in  the 
world  of  departed  spirits.  The  death  of 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  was  caused  by  worms 
(Acts  xii.  23);  according  to  Josephus  (Ant. 
xix.  8),  his  death  took  place  five  days  after 
his  departure  from  the  theatre.  Whether 
the  worms  were  the  cause  or  the  result  of 
the  disease  is  an  immaterial  question. 

Wormwood  occurs  frequently  in  the 
Bible,  and  generally  in  a  metaphorical 
sense,  as  in  Deut.  xxix.  18,  where  of  the 
idolatrous  Israelites  it  is  said,  "  Lest  there 
be  among  you  a  root  that  beareth  worm- 
wood "  (see  also  Prov.  v.  4).  In  Jer.  ix. 
15,  xxiii.  13 ;  Lam.  iii.  15,  19,  wormwood 
is  symbolical  of  bitter  calamity  and  sorrow ; 
unrighteous  judges  are  said  to  "  turn  judg- 
ment to  wormwood  "  (Am.  v.  7).  The  Ori- 
entals typified  sorrows,  cruelties,  and  ca- 
lamities of  any  kind  by  plants  of  a  poisonous 
or  bitter  nature.  The  name  of  the  star  which, 
at  the  sound  of  the  third  angel's  trumpet, 
fell  upon  the  rivers,  was  called  Wormwood 
(Rev.  viii.  11).  Four  kinds  of  wormwood 
are  found  in  Palestine  —  Artemisia  niloiica, 
A.  Judaica,  A.  fruticosa,  and  A.  dnerea. 

Worshipper,  a  translation  of  the 
Greek  word  neoooros,  used  once  only,  Act* 


WRESTLING 


758 


WRITING 


six.  35;  in  the  margin,  "  Temple-keeper." 
The  neocoros  was  originally  an  attendant  in 
a  temple,  probably  intrusted  with  its  charge. 
The  divin«  honors  paid  in  later  Greek  times 
to  eminent  persons  even  in  their  lifetime, 
were  imitated  and  exaggerated  by  the  Ro- 
mans under  the  empire,  especially  in  Asia. 
The  terra  neocoros  became  thus  applied  to 
cities  or  communities  which  undertook  the 
worship  of  particular  emperors  even  during 
their  lives.  The  first  occurrence  of  the 
terra  in  connection  with  Ephesus  is  on 
coins  of  the  age  of  Nero  (a.  d.  54-68). 

Wrestling.    [Games.] 

"Writing.  There  is  no  account  in  the 
Bible  of  the  origin  of  writing.  Throughout 
the  Book  of  Genesis  there  is  not  a  single 
allusion,  direct  or  indirect,  either  to  its 
practice  or  existence.  That  the  Egyptians 
in  the  time  of  Joseph  were  acquainted  with 
writinj:  of  a  certain  kind  there  is  evidence 
to  prove,  but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that 
up  to  this  period  the  knowledge  extended 
to  the  Hebrew  family.  At  the  same  time 
there  is  no  evidence  against  it.  Writing  is 
first  distinctly  mentioned  in  Ex.  xvii.  f 4, 
and  the  connection  clearly  implies  that  it  was 
not  then  employed  for  the  first  time,  but  was 
so  familiar  as  to  be  used  for  historic  records. 
Moses  is  commanded  to  preserve  the  mem- 
ory of  Amalek's  onslaught  in  the  desert  by 
committing  it  to  writing.  The  tables  of  the 
testimony  are  said  to  be  "  written  by  the 
finger  of  God"  (Ex.  xxxi.  18),  on  both 
sides,  and  "  the  writing  was  the  writing  of 
God,  graven  upon  the  tables  "  (Ex.  xxxii. 
15).  The  engraving  of  the  gems  of  the 
high-priest's  breastplate  with  the  names  of 
the  children  of  Israel  (Ex.  xxviii.  11),  and 
the  inscription  upon  the  mitre  (Ex.  xxxix. 
30)  have  to  do  more  with  the  art  of  the 
engraver  than  of  the  writer,  but  both  imply 
the  existence  of  alphabetic  characters .  The 
curses  against  the  adulteress  were  written 
by  the  priest  "in  the  book;  "  and  blotted 
out  with  water  (Num.  v,  23).  Hitherto, 
however,  nothing  has  been  said  of  the 
application  of  writing  to  the  purposes  of 
ordinary  life,  or  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
art  among  the  common  people.  Up  to  this 
point  such  knowledge  is  only  attributed  to 
Moses  and  the  priests.  From  Deut.  xxiv. 
1,  3,  however,  it  would  appear  that  it  was 
extended  to  others.  It  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  to  infer  frpm  this  that  the  art  of 
writing  was  an  accomplishment  possessed 
by  every  Hebrew  citizen,  though  there  is 
no  mention  of  a  third  party ;  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  these  "  bills  of  divorce- 
ment," though  apparently  so  informal,  were 
the  work  of  professional  scribes.  It  was 
enjoined  as  one  of  the  duties  of  the  king 
(Deut.  xvii.  18),  that  he  should  transcribe 
the  book  of  the  law  for  his  own  private 
study.  If  we  examine  the  instances  in 
which  writing  is  mentioned  in  coonectioa 


with  individuals,  we  shall  find  that  in  all 
cases  the  writers  were  men  of  superior 
position.  In  Is.  xxix.  11, 12,  there  is  clear- 
ly a  distinction  drawn  between  the  man 
who  was  able  to  read  and  the  man  who  was 
not,  and  it  seems  a  natural  inference  that 
the  accomplishments  of  reading  and  writing 
were  not  widely  spread  among  the  people, 
when  we  find  that  they  are  universally  at- 
tributed to  those  of  high  rank  or  education 
—  kings,  priests,  prophets,  and  profession- 
al scribes.  In  the  name  Kirjath-Sepher 
(Book-town,  Josh.  xr.  15)  there  is  an  indi- 
cation of  a  knowledge  of  writing  among  the 
Phoenicians.  The  Hebrews,  then,  a  branch 
of  the  great  Semitic  family,  being  in  pos- 
session of  the  art  of  writing,  according  *o 
their  own  historical  records,  at  a  very  eai^y 
period,  the  further  questions  arise,  what 
character  they  made  use  of,  and  whence 
they  obtained  it?  Recent  investigations 
have  shown  that  the  square  Hebrew  char- 
acter is  of  comparatively  modern  date,  and 
has  been  formed  from  a  more  ancient  type 
by  a  gradual  process  of  development.  What 
then  was  this  ancient  type  ?  Most  probably 
the  Phoenician.  Pliny  was  of  opinion  that 
letters  were  of  Assyrian  origin.  Diodorus 
Siculus  (v.  74)  says  that  the  Syrians  in- 
vented letters,  and  from  them  the  Phoeni- 
cians, having  learnt  them,  transferred  them 
to  the  Greeks.  According  to  Tacitus  (Ann. 
xi.  14),  Egypt  was  believed  to  be  the  source 
whence  the  Phoenicians  got  their  knowl- 
edge. Be  this  as  it  may,  to  the  Phoeni- 
cians, the  daring  seamen  and  adventurous 
colonizers  of  the  ancient  world,  the  voice 
of  tradition  has  assigned  the  honor  of  the 
invention  of  letters.  Whether  it  came  to 
them  from  an  Aramaean  or  Egyptian  source 
can  at  best  be  but  the  subject  of  conjecture. 
It  may,  however,  be  reasonably  inferred 
that  the  ancient  Hebrews  derived  from,  or 
shared  with,  the  Phoenicians  the  knowledge 
of  writing  and  the  use  of  letters.  The  names 
of  the  Hebrew  letters  indicate  that  they 
must  have  been  the  invention  of  a  Shemitic 
people,  and  that  they  were  moreover  a  pas- 
toral people  may  be  inferred  from  the  same 
evidence.  Gesenius  argues  for  a  Phoeni- 
cian origin  of  the  alphabet,  in  opposition  to 
a  Babylonian  or  Aramaean,  on  the  follow- 
ing grounds  :  1.  That  the  names  of  the 
letters  are  Phoenician,  and  not  Syrian.  2. 
If  the  Phoenician  letters  are  pictorial,  as 
there  seems  reason  to  believe,  there  is  no 
model,  among  the  old  Babylonian  discover- 
ers of  writing,  after  which  they  could  have 
been  formed.  But  whether  or  not  the 
Phoenicians  were  the  inventors  of  the  She- 
mitic alphabet,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of 
their  just  claim  to  being  its  chief  dissem- 
inators ;  and  with  this  understanding  we 
may  accept  the  genealogy  of  alphabets  aa 
given  by  Gesenius,  and  exhibited  in  th© 
accompanying  table. 


WRrrma 


759 


WRITING 


Anc  Greek. 


FhoenicUn. 

i 

I 


Anc.  fenUn.       I^umidian.       Anc.  UebreT. 


.He 


Etruscan.  Boinan. 
TJinbriiui.  | 

Oscan.  Rimic  ? 
Samnite. 

Ceia-       Coptic. 
iHiruui. 


Later  Greek. 


otiiii 


Gotmc     Slavonian. 


Anc.  Aramaean. 


Palmyren*. 


1 
Heb.  sqaart 
cli&ract6r. 


Sassanid  —  writing. 


-Zend. 
Pehlvi. 


The  old  Semitic  alphabets  may  be  divided 
into  two  principal  classes  :  1.  The  Phoeni- 
cian, as  it  exists  in  the  inscriptions  in  Cy- 
prus, Malta,  Carpentras,  and  the  coins  of 
Phoenicia  and  her  colonies.  From  it  are 
derived  the  Samaritan  character,  and  the 
Greek.  2.  The  Hebrew-Chaldee  character ; 
to  which  belong  the  Hebrew  square  char- 
acter; the  Palmyrene,  which  has  some 
traces  of  a  cursive  hand ;  the  Estrangelo, 
or  ancient  Syriac ;  and  the  ancient  Arabic 
or  Cufic.  It  was  probably  about  the  first 
or  second  century  after  Christ  that  the 
square  character  assumed  its  present  form ; 
though  in  a  question  involved  in  so  much 
uncertainty  it  is  impossible  to  pronounce 
with  great  positiveness.  The  Alphabet.  — 
The  oldest  evidence  on  tlie  subject  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet  is  derived  from  the  alpha- 
betical Psalms  and  poems  :  Pss.  xxv.,  xxxiv., 
xxxvii.,  cxi.,  cxii.,  cxix.,  cxlv. ;  Prov.  xxxi. 
10-31 ;  Lam.  i.-iv.  From  these  we  ascer- 
tain that  the  number  of  the  letters  was 
twenty-two,  as  at  present.  The  Arabic 
alphabet  originally  consisted  of  the  same 
number.  It  has  been  argued  by  many  that 
the  alphabet  of  the  Phoenicians  at  first 
consisted  only  of  sixteen  letters.  The 
legend,  as  told  by  Pliny  (vii.  56),  is  as 
follows :  Cadmus  brought  with  him  into 
Greece  sixteen  letters ;  •  at  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war  Palamedes  added  four  others, 
e,  H,  *,  X,  and  Simonides  of  Melos  four 
more,  Z,  H,  *,  a.  Divisions  of  Words.  — 
Hebrew  was  originally  written,  like  most 
ancient  languages,  without  any  divisions 
between  tlie  words.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  the  Phoenician  inscriptions.  The  va- 
rious readings  in  the  LXX.  show  that,  at 
the  time  this  version  was  made,  in  the  He- 
brew MSS.  which  the  translators  used,  the 
words  were  written  in  a  continuous  series. 
The  modern  synagogue  rolls  and  the  MSS. 
of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  have  no  vowel- 
points,  but  the  words  are  divided,  and  the 
Samaritan  in  tJiis  respect  differs  but  little 
from  the  Hebrew.  Writing  Materials,  Sfe. 
—  The  oldest  documents  which  contain  the 
writing  of  a  Semitic  race  are  probably  the 
bricks  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  on  which 
are  impressed  the  cuneiform  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions.  There  is,  however,  no  evidence 


Estraogelo 
and  Xestorian. 


Cuflc 
Kiiclii. 


Peahito. 


TTiguric,  or 
OldTurUah. 


that  they  were  ever  employed  by  the  He- 
brews. Wood  was  used  upon  some  occasions 
(Num.  xvii.  3),  and  writing  tablets  of  box- 
wood are  mentioned  in  2  Esdr.  xiv.  24.  The 
"  lead,"  to  which  allusion  is  made  in  Job  xix. 
24,  is  supposed  to  have  been  poured,  when 
melted,  into  the  cavities  of  the  stone  made 
by  the  letters  of  an  inscription,  in  order  to 
render  it  durable.  It  is  most  probable  that 
the  ancient  as  well  as  the  most  common 
material  which  the  Hebrews  used  for  writ- 
ing was  dressed  skin  in  some  form  or  other. 
We  know  that  the  dressing  of  skins  was 
practised  by  the  Hebrews  (Ex.  xxv.  6; 
Lev.  xiii.  48),  and  they  may  have  acquired 
the  knowledge  of  the  art  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, among  whom  it  had  attained  great 
perfection,  the  leather-cutters  constitut- 
ing one  of  the  principal  subdivisions  of 
the  third  caste.  Perhaps  the  Hebrews 
may  have  borrowed,  among  their  other 
acquirements,  the  use  of  papyrus  from 
the  Egyptians,  but  of  this  we  have  no  posi- 
tive evidence.  In  the  Bible  the  only  allu- 
sions to  the  use  of  papyrus  are  in  2  John 

12,  where  chartes  (A.  V.  "paper")  occurs, 
which  refers  especially  to  papyrus  paper, 
and  3  Mace.  iv.  20,  where  charteria  is  found 
in  the  same  sense.  Herodotus^  after  telling 
us  that  the  lonians  learnt  the  art  of  writing 
from  the  Phoenicians,  adds  that  they  called 
their  books  skins,  because  they  made  use 
of  sheep-skins  and  goat-skins  when  short 
of  paper.  Parchment  was  used  for  the 
MSS.  of  the  Pentateuch  in  the  time  of  Jo- 
sephus,  and  the  membranae  of  2  Tim.  iv. 

13,  were  skins  of  parchment.  It  was  one 
of  the  provisions  in  the  Talmud  that  the 
Law  should  be  written  on  the  skins  of  clean 
animals,  tame  or  wild,  or  even  of  clean 
birds.  The  skins  when  written  upon  were 
formed  into  rolls  (migilldth ;  Ps.  xl.  8; 
corap.  Is.  xxxiv.  4;  Jer.  xxxvi.  14;  Ez.  ii. 
9;  Zech.  v.  1).  They  were  rolled  upon 
one  or  two  sticks  and  fastened  with  a 
thread,  the  ends  of  which  w  >re  sealed  (Is. 
xxix.  11 ;  Dan.  xii.  4;  Rev.  v.  1,  &c.)  The 
rolls  were  generally  written  on  one  side 
only,  except  in  Ez.  ii.  9 ;  Rev.  v.  1.  They 
were  divided  into  columns  (A.  V.  "  leaves," 
Jer.  xxxvi.  23) ;  the  upper  margin  was  to 
bo  not  less  than  three  fingers  broad,  tho 


XANTmCUS 


190 


TEAR 


lower  not  less  than  four;  and  a  space  of 
two  fingers'  breadth  was  to  be  left  between 
every  two  columns.  But  besides  skins, 
which  were  used  for  the  more  permanent 
kinds  of  writing,  tablets  of  wood  covered 
with  wax  (Luke  i.  63)  served  for  the  ordi- 
"•  nary  purposes  of  life.  Several  of  these 
were  fastened  together  and  forme'd  volumes. 
They  were  written  upon  with  a  pointed 
style  (Job  xix.  24),  sometimes  of  iron  (Ps. 
xlv.  2;  Jer,  viii.  8,  xvii.  1).  For  harder 
materials  a  graver  (Ex.  xxxii.  4 ;  Is.  viii. 
1)  was  employed.  For  parchment  or  skins 
a  reed  was  used  (3  John  13 ;  3  Mace.  v.  20). 
The  ink  (Jer.  xxxvi.  18),  literally  "black," 
like  the  Greek  (liXav  (2  Cor.  iii.  3;  2 
John  12;  3  John  13),  was  of  lampblack 
dissolved  in  gall-juice.  It  was  carried  in 
an  inkstand,  which  was  suspended  at  the 
girdle  (Ez.  ix.  2,  3),  as  is  done  at  the  pres- 
ent day  in  the  East.  To  professional  scribes 
there  are  allusions  in  Ps.  xlv.  1 ;  Ezr.  vii. 
6;  2  Esdr.  xlv.  24. 


X. 


Xan'thicus.     [Month.] 
Xerx'es.    [Ahasuerus.] 


Y. 


Yarn.  The  notice  of  yarn  is  contained 
In  an  extremely  obscure  passage  in  1  K.  x. 
28  (2  Chr.  i.  16).  The  Hebrew  Received 
Text  is  questionable.  Gesenius  gives  the 
sense  of  "  nuiiiber  "  as  applying  equally  to 
the  merchants  and  the  horses:  "A  band 
of  the  king's  merchants  bought  a  drove  (of 
horses)  at  a  price." 

Year,  the  highest  ordinary  division  of 
time.  Two  years  were  known  to,  and  ap- 
parently used  by,  the  Hebrews.  1.  A  year 
of  360  days  appears  to  have  been  in  use  in 
Noah's  time,  or  at  least  in  the  time  of  the 
writer  of  the  narrative  of  the  Flood,  for  in 
that  narrative  the  interval  from  the  17th 
day  of  the  2d  month  to  the  17th  day  of  the 
7th  of  the  same  year  appears  to  be  stated 
to  be  a  period  of  150  days  (Gen.  vii.  11,  24, 
viii.  3, •4,  comp.  13),  and,  as  the  1st,  2d, 
7th,  and  10th  months  of  one  year  are  men- 
tioned (viii.  13,  14,  vii.  11,  viii.  4,  5),  the 
1st  day  of  the  10th  month  of  this  year 
being  separated  from  the  1st  day  of  the 
1st  month  of  the  next  year  by  an  interval 
of  at  least  54  days  (viii.  5,  6,  10,  12,  13), 
we  can  only  infer  a  year  of  12  months.  A 
year' of  360  days  is  the  rudest  known.  It 
is  formed  of  12  spurious  lunar  months,  and 
was  probably  the  parent  of  the  lunar  year 
of  354  days,  and  the  Vague  year  of  365. 
The  Hebrew  year,  from  the  time  of  the 


Exodus,  was  evidently  lunar,  though  in 
some  manner  rendered  virtually  solar,  and 
we  may  therefore  infer  that  the  lunar  year 
is  as  old  aa  the  date  of  tlie  Exodus.  As 
the  Hebrew  year  was  not  an  Egyptian  year, 
and  as  nothing  is  said  of  its  being  new, 
save  in  its  time  of  commencement,  it  was 
perhaps  earlier  in  use  among  the  Israelites, 
and  either  brought  into  Egypt  by  them,  or 
borrowed  from  Shemitic  settlers.  2.  The 
year  used  by  the  Hebrews  fi'ora  the  time  of 
the  Exodus  may  be  said  to  have  been  then 
instituted,  since  a  current  month,  Abib,  on 
the  14th  day  of  which  the  first  Passover  was 
kept,  was  then  made  the  first  month  of  the 
year.  The  essential  characteristics  of  this 
year  can  be  clearly  determined,  though  we 
cannot  fix  those  of  any  single  year.  It  was 
essentially  solar,  for  the  otfering  of  produc- 
tions of  the  earth,  first-fruits,  harvest-prod- 
uce, and  ingathered  fruits,  was  fixed  to  cer- 
tain days  of  the  year,  two  of  which  were  in  the 
periods  of  great  feasts,  the  third  itself  a  feast 
reckoned  from  one  of  the  former  days.  But  it 
is  certain  that  the  months  were  lunar,  each 
commencing  with  a  new  moon.  There  must 
therefore  have  been  some  method  of  adjust- 
ment. The  first  point  to  be  decided  is  how 
the  commencement  of  each  year  was  fixed. 
Probably  the  Hebrews  determined  their  new 
year's  day  by  the  observation  of  heliacal  or 
other  star-riaings  or  settings  known  to  mark 
the  right  time  of  the  solar  year.  It  follows, 
from  the  determination  of  the  proper  new 
moon  of  the  first  month,  whether  by  obser- 
vation of  a  stellar  phenomenon,  or  of  the 
forwardness  of  the  crops,  that  the  method 
of  intercalation  can  only  have  been  that  in 
use  after  the  Captivity,  the  addition  of  a  thir- 
teenth month  whenever  the  twelfth  ended 
too  long  before  the  equinox  for  the  offering 
of  the  first-fruits  to  be  made  at  the  time 
fixed.  The  later  Jews  had  two  commence- 
ments of  the  year,  whence  it  is  commonly 
but  inaccurately  said  that  they  had  two 
years,  the  sacred  year  and  the  civil.  We 
prefer  to  speak  of  the  sacr<?d  and  civil  reck- 
onings. The  sacred  reckoning  was  that 
instituted  at  the  Exodus,  according  to  which 
the  first  month  was  Abib;  by  the  civil  reck- 
oning the  first  month  was  the  seventh.  The 
interval  between  tlie  two  comiuencements 
was  thus  exactly  half  a  year.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  institution  at  the  time  of 
the  Exodus  was  a  change  of  commence- 
ment, not  the  introduction  of  a  new  year, 
and  that  thenceforward  the  year  had  two 
beginnings,  respectively  at  about  the  vernal 
and  the  autumnal  equinoxes.  Tiie  year 
was  divided  into — 1.  Seasons.  Two  sea- 
sons are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  "  sum- 
mer "  and  "  winter."  The  former  properly 
means  tlie  time  of  cutting  fruits,  the  latter, 
that  of  gathering  fruits  ;  they  are  therefore 
originally  rather  summer  and  autumn  than 
summer  and  winter.    But  that  they  signify 


TEAR,  SABBATICAL 


761 


ZACCHAEUS 


ordinarily  the  two  grand  divisions  of  the 
year,  the  warm  and  cold  seasons,  is  evident 
from  their  use  for  the  whole  year  in  the  ex- 
pression "  summer  and  winter  "  (Ps.  Ixxiv. 
17;  Zech.  xiv.  8).  2.  Months.  [Months.] 
3.    Weeks.     [Weeks.] 

Year,  Sabbatical.  [Sabbatical 
Year.] 

Year  of  Jubilee.     [Jubilee,  Year 

OF.] 

Yoke.  1.  A  well-known  implement  of 
husbandry,  is  frequently  used  metaphori- 
cally for  subjection  (e.  g.  1  K.  xii.  4,  9-11 ; 
Is.  ix.  4;  Jer.  v.  5)  ;  hence  an  "  iron  yoke  " 
represents  an  unusually  galling  bondage 
(Deut.  xxviii.  48 ;  Jer.  xxviii.  13).  2.  A 
pair  of  oxen,  so  termed  as  being  yoked  to- 
gether (1  Sam.  xi.  7 ;  1  K.  xix.  19,  21).  The 
Hebrew  term  is  also  applied  to  asses  ( Judg. 
xix.  10)  and  mules  (2  K.  v.  17),  and  even 
to  a  couple  of  riders  (Is.  xxi.  7).  3.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  certain  amount  of 
land  (1  Sam.  xiv.  14),  equivalent  to  that 
which  a  couple  of  oxen  could  plough  in  a 
day  (Is.  v.  10;  A.  "V.  "acre"),  correspond- 
ing to  the  Latin  jugum. 


Z. 

Zaana'im,  The  Plain  of,  or,  more 
accurately,  "  the  oak  by  Zaanaim,"  a  tree 
—  probably  a  sacred  tree  —  mentioned  as 
marking  the  spot  near  which  Heber  the 
Kenite  was  encamped  when  Sisera  took 
refuge  in  his  tent  (Judg.  iv.  11).  Its  situ- 
ation is  defined  as  "  near  Kedesh,"  i.  e. 
Kedesh-Xaphtali,  the  name  of  which  still 
lingers  on  the  high  ground,  north  of  Safed, 
and  west  of  the  lake  of  el  Huleh.  The  Keri, 
or  correction,  of  Judg.  iv.  11,  substitutes 
Zaanannim  for  Zaanaim,  and  the  same  form 
is  found  in  Josh.  xix.  33. 

Za'anan.    [Zenan.] 

Za'avan,  or  Za'van,  a  Horite  chief, 
«on  of  Ezer  the  son  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
27;  1  Chr.  i.  42). 

Za'bad.  1.  Son  of  Nathan,  son  of  At- 
tai,  son  of  Ahlai,  Sheshan's  daughter  (1 
Chr.  ii.  31-37),  and  hence  called  son  of 
Ahlai  (1  Chr.  xi.  41).  He  was  one  of  Da- 
vid's mighty  men,  but  none  of  his  deeds 
have  been  recorded.  The  chief  interest 
connected  with  him  is  in  his  genealogy, 
which  is  of  considerable  importance  in  a 
chronological  point  of  view.  2.  An  Ephra- 
imite  if  the  text  of  1  Chr.  vii.  21  is  cor- 
rect. 3.  Son  of  Shimeath,  an  Ammonitess ; 
an  assassin  who,  with  Jehozabad,  slew  king 
Joash,  according  to  2  Chr.  xxiv.  26;  but, 
in  2  K.  xii.  21,  his  name  is  written,  prob- 
ably more  correctly,  Jozachar.  4.  A  lay- 
man of  Israel,  of  the  sons  of  Zattu,  who 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  at  Ezra's  com- 
naand  (Ezr.  x.  27).    5.  One  of  the  de- 


scendants of  Hashum,  who  had  married  a 
foreign  wife  after  the  Captivity  (Ezr.  x. 
33).  6.  One  of  the  sons  of  Kebo,  whose 
name  is  mentioned  under  the  same  circum- 
stances as  the  two  preceding  (Ezr.  x.  43). 

Zabade'ans,  an  Arab  tribe  who  were 
attacked  and  spoiled  by  Jonathan,  on  liis 
way  back  to  Damascus  from  his  fruitless 
pursuit  of  the  army  of  Demetrius  (1  Mace, 
xii.  31) .  Their  name  probably  survives  in 
the  village  Zebddny,  about  2G  miles  from 
Damascus,  standing  at  the  upper  end  of  a 
plain  of  the  same  name,  which  is  the  very 
centre  of  Antilibanus. 

Zab'bai.  1.  One  of  the  descendants 
of  Bebai,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
in  the  days  of  Ezra  (Ezr.  x.  28).  2.  Father 
of  Baruch,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  re- 
building the  city  wall  (Neh.  iii.  20). 

Zab'bud.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bigvai, 
who  returned  in  the  second  caravan  with 
Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  14). 

Zab'di.  1.  Son  of  Zerah,  the  son  of 
Judah,  and  ancestor  of  Achan  (Josh.  vii. 

1,  17,  18).  2.  A  Benjamite,  of  the  sons 
of  Shimhi  (1  Chr.  viii.  19).  3.  David's 
oflBcer  over  the  produce  of  the  vineyards 
for  the  wine-cellars  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  27).  4. 
Son  of  Asaph  the  minstrel  (Neh.  xi.  17)  ; 
called  elsewhere  Zaccur  (Neh.  xii.  35) 
and  ZicHRi  (1  Chr.  ix.  15). 

Zab'diel.  1.  Father  of  Jashobeam,  the 
chief  of  David's  guard  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  2). 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  the  great  men,  or,  as 
the  margin  gives  it,  "  Haggedolim  "  (Neh. 
xi.  14). 

Za'bud,  son  of  Nathan  (1  K.  iv.  5),  is 
descri'bed  as  a  priest  (A.  V.  "  principal 
officer "),  and  as  holding  at  the  court  of 
Solomon  the  confidential  post  of  "  king's 
friend,"  which  had  been  occupied  by  Hushai 
tlie  Archite  during  the  reign  of  David  (2 
Sam.  XV.  37,  xvi.  16;  1  Chr.  xxvii.  33). 

Zab'ulon,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
Zeuulon  (Matt.  iv.  13,  15;  Rev.  vii.  8). 

Zac'cai.  The  sons  of  Zaccai,  to  the 
number  of  760,  returned  with  Zcrubbabel 
(Ezr.  ii.  9 ;  Neh.  vii.  14). 

Zacchae'US,  a  tax-collector  near  Jeri- 
cho, who,  being  short  in  stature,  climbed  up 
into  a  sycamore-tree,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
sight  of  Jesus  as  He  passed  through  that 
place  (Luke  xix.  1-10).  Zacchaeus  was  a 
Jew,  as  may  be  inferred  from  his  name  and 
from  the  fact  that  the  Saviour  speaks  of 
him  expressly  as  "  a  son  of  Abraham." 
The  term  which  designates  his  office  —  "  Uie 
chief  among  the  publicans"  —  is  unusual, 
but  describes  him,  no  doubt,  as  the  superin- 
tendent of  customs  or  tribute  in  the  district 
of  Jericho,  where  he  lived.  The  office  must 
have  been  a  lucrative  one  in  such  a  region, 
and  it  is  not  strange  that  Zacchaeus  is  men- 
tioned by  the  Evangelists  as  a  rich  man. 
The  Saviour  spent  the  night  probably  in 
the  house  of  Zacchaeus,  and  the  next  da/ 


ZACCHUR 


762 


ZAIR 


pursued  his  journey  to  Jerusalem.  He  was 
in  the  caravan  from  Galilee,  which  was 
going  up  thither  to  keep  the  Passover. 

Zac'chur.  a  Simeonite,  of  the  family 
of  Mishnm  (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

Zac'cur.  1.  Father  of  Shammua,  the 
Reubenite  spy  (Num.  xiii.  4).  2.  A  Mer- 
arite  Levite,  son  of  Jaaziah  (1  Chr.  xxiv. 
27).  3.  Son  of  Asaph,  the  singer  (1  Chr. 
XXV.  2,  10;  Neh.  xii.  35).  4.  The  son  of 
Imri,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  rebuilding 
the  city  wall  (Nch.  iii.  2).  5.  A  Levite, 
or  family  of  Levites,  who  signed  the  cov- 
enant with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  12).  6.  A 
Levite,  whose  son  or  descendant  Hanan  was 
one  of  the  treasurers  over  the  treasuries 
appointed  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

Zachari'ah.  1.  Or  properly  Zecha- 
EiAH,  was  son  of  Jeroboam  II.,  14th  king 
of  Israel,  and  the  last  of  the  house  of  Jehu. 
There  is  a  difficulty  about  the  date  of  his 
reign.  Most  ciironologers  assume  an  inter- 
regnum of  11  years  between  Jeroboam's 
death  aod  Zachariah's  accession;  during 
which  the  kingdom  was  suffering  from  the 
anarchy  of  a  disputed  succession,  but  this 
seems  unlikely  after  the  reign  of  a  resolute 
ruler  like  Jeroboam,  and  does  not  explain 
the  difference  between  2  K.  xiv.  17,  and  xv.l. 
We  are  reduced  to  suppose  that  our  present 
MSS.  have  here  incorrect  numbers,  to  sub- 
stitute 15  for  27  in  2K.  xv.  1,  and  to  believe 
that  Jeroboam  II.  reigned  62  or  53  years. 
But  whether  we  assume  an  interregnum, 
or  an  error  in  the  MSS.,  we  must  place 
Zachariah's  accession  b.  c.  771-2.  His 
reign  lasted  only  six  months.  He  was 
killed  in  a  conspiracy,  of  which  Shallum 
was  the  head,  and  by  which  the  prophecy 
in  2  K.  x.  30  was  accomplished.  2.  The 
father  of  Abi,  or  Abijah,  Hezekiah's  mother 
(2  K.  xviii.  2). 

Zachari'as.  1.  Father  of  John  the 
Baptist  (Luke  i.  5,  &c.).  [John  the  Bap- 
tist.] 2.  Son  of  Barachias,  who,  our 
Lord  says,  was  slain  by  the  Jews  between 
the  altar  and  the  temple  (Matt,  xxiii.  35 ; 
Luke  xi.  51).  Tliere  has  been  much  dis- 
pute who  this  Zacharias  was.  Many  of  the 
Greek  Fathers  have  maintained  that  the 
father  of  John  the  Baptist  is  the  person  to 
whom  our  Lord  alludes ;  but  there  can  be 
little  or  no  doubt  that  the  allusion  is  to 
Zechariah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada  (2  Chr. 
xxiv.  20,  21).  The  name  of  the  father  of 
Zacharias  is  not  mentioned  by  St.  Luke; 
and  we  may  suppose  that  the  uarae  of 
Barachias  crept  into  the  text  of  St.  Matthew 
from  a  marginal  gloss,  a  confusion  having 
been  made  between  Zechariah,  the  son  of 
Jehoiada,  and  Zacharias,  the  son  of  Bara- 
chias (Berechiah)  the  prophet. 

Za'cher,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jehiel, 
the  father  or  founder  of  Gibeon,  by  his  wife 
Maachah  (1  Chr.  viii.  31). 

Za'dok  (Just).    1.  Son  of  Ahitub,  and 


one  of  the  two  chief  priests  in  the  time  of 
David,  Abiathar  being  the  otiier.  Zadok 
was  of  the  house  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of 
Aaron  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  3),  and  eleventh  in 
descent  from  Aaron  (1  Chr.  xii.  28).  He 
joined  David  at  Hebron  after  Saul's  death 
(1  Chr.  xii.  28),  and  henceforth. his  fidelity 
to  David  was  inviolable.  When  Absalom 
revolted,  and  David  fled  from  Jerusalem, 
Zadok  and  all  the  Levites  bearing  the  Ark 
accompanied  him,  and  it  was  only  at  the 
king's  express  command  that  they  returned 
to  Jerusalem,  and  became  the  medium  of 
communication  between  the  king  and 
Hushai  the  Archite  (2  Sarii.  xv.,  xvii.). 
When  Absalom  was  dead,  Zadok  and  Abia- 
thar were  the  persons  who  persuaded  the 
elders  of  Judah  to  invite  David  to  return 
(2  Sam.  xix.  11).  When  Adonijah,  in 
David's  old  age,  set  up  for  king,  and  had 
persuaded  Joab,  and  Abiathar,  the  priest, 
to  join  his  party,  Zadok  was  unmoved,  and 
was  employed  by  David  to  anoint  Solomon 
to  be  king  in  his  room  (1  K.  i.).  And  for 
this  fidelity  he  was  rewarded  by  Solomon, 
who  "thrust  out  Abiathar  from  In-ing  priest 
unto  the  Lord,"  and  "  put  in  Zadok  the 
priest "  in  his  room  (1  K.  ii.  27,  35).  From 
tins  time,  however,  we  hear  little  of  him. 
It  is  siiid  in  general  terms,  in  the  enumera- 
tion of  Solomon's  officers  of  state,  thai 
Zadok  was  the  priest  (1  K.  iv.  4 ;  1  Chr. 
xxix.  22),  but  no  single  act  of  his  is  men- 
tioned. Zadok  and  Abiathar  were  of  nearly 
equal  dignity  (2  Sam.  xv.  35,  3G,  xix.  11). 
The  duties  of  the  office  were  divided. 
Zadok  ministered  before  the  Tabernacle  at 
Gibeon  (1  Chr.  xvi.  3'J).  Abiathar  had  the 
care  of  the  Ark  at  Jerusalem.  Not,  how- 
ever, exclusively,  as  appears  from  1  Clir. 
XV.  11;  2  Sam.  xv.  24,25,29.  2.  Accord- 
ing to  the  genealogy  of  the  high-priests  in 

1  Chr.  vi.  12,  there  was  a  second  Zadok, 
son  of  a  seconrl  Ahitub,  son  of  Araariah, 
about  the  time  of  king  Ahaziah.  It  is 
probable  that  no  such  person  as  this  second 
Zadok  ever  existed,  but  that  tiie  insertion 
of  the  two  names  is  a  copyist's  error.  3. 
Father  of  Jerushah,  the  wife  of  king  Uzziah, 
and  mother  of  king  Jothara  (2  K.  xv.  33 ; 

2  Chr.  xxvii.  1).  4.  Son  of  Baana,  who 
repaired  a  portion  of  tiie  wall  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  4),  and  wlio  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  21).  5.  Son  of 
Immer,  a  priest  who  repaired  a  portion  of 
the  wall  over  against  his  own  house  (Neh. 
iii.  29).  6.  In  Neh.  xi.  11,  and  1  Chr.  ix. 
11,  mention  is  made,  in  a  genealogy,  of 
Zadok,  the  son  of  Meraioth,  the  son  of 
Ahitub.  But  it  can  hardly  be  doubtful  that 
Meraioth  is  inserted  by  the  error  of  a  copy-« 
ist,  and  that  Zadok  the  son  of  Ahitub  is 
meant. 

Za'ham,  son  of  Rehoboam  by  Abihail, 
the  daughter  of  Eliab  (2  Chr.  xi.  19). 
Za'lr,  a  place  named,  in  2  K.  viii.  21 


ZALAPH 


763 


ZEBAH 


only,  in  the  account  of  Joram's  expedition 
against  the  Edomites.  The  parallel  ac- 
count in  Chronicles  (2  Chr.  xxi.  9)  agrees 
with  this,  except  that  the  words  "  to  Zair  " 
are  omitted.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
Zair  is  identical  with  Zoar. 

Za'laph,  father  of  Hanun,  who  assisted 
in  rebuilding  the  city  wall  (Neh.  iii.  30). 

Zal'mon,  an  Ahohite,  one  of  David's 
guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  28). 

Zal'mon,  Mount,  a  wooded  eminence 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Shechem 
(Judg.  ix.  48).  The  name  of  Dalmanutha 
has  been  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of 
that  of  Zalmon. 

Zalmo'nah,  a  desert-station  of  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxxiii.  41),  lies  on  the  east 
Bide  of  Edom. 

Zalmun'na.    [Zebah.] 

Zamzurn'mims,  the  Ammonite  name 
lor  the  people  who  by  others  were  called 
Rephaim  (Dout.  ii.  20  only).  They  are 
described  as  having  originally  been  a  power- 
ful and  numerous  nation  of  giants.  From 
a  slight  similarity  between  the  two  names, 
and  from  the  mention  of  the  Emim  in  con- 
nection with  each,  it  is  conjectured  that  the 
Zamzummim  are  identical  with  the  Zuzim. 

Zano'ab..  1.  A  town  of  Judah  in  the 
Shefelah  or  plain  (Josh.  xv.  34 ;  Neh.  iii. 
13,  xi.  30),  possibly  identical  with  Zdn^'a. 

2.  A  town  of  Judah  in  the  highland  district 
(Josh.  XV.  56),  not  improbably  identical 
with  Saniite,  about  10  miles  S.  of  Hebron. 

3.  In  the  genealogical  lists  of  the  tribe  of 
Judali  in  1  Chron.,  Jekuthiel  is  said  to 
have  been  the  father  of  Zanoah  (iv.  18). 
Aa  Zanoah  is  the  name  of  a  town  of  Judah, 
this  mention  of  Bithiah  probably  points  to 
some  colonization  of  the  place  by  Egyptians 
or  by  Israelites  directly  from  Egypt. 

Zaph'nath-paane'ah,  a  name  given 
by  Pliaraoh  to  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  45). 
The  Rabbins  interpreted  Zaphnath-paaneah 
as  Hebrew,  in  the  sense  "  revealer  of  a 
secret."  As  the  name  must  have  been 
Egyptian,  it  has  been  explained  from  the 
Coptic  as  meaning  "  the  preserver  of  the 
age." 

Za'phon,  a  place  mentioned  in  the  enu- 
meration of  the  allotment  of  the  tribe  of 
Gad  (Josh.  xiii.  27). 

Za'ra,  Zakah  the  son  of  Judah  (Matt. 
i.3). 

Za'rah,  Zehah,  the  son  of  Judah  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  30,  xlvi.  12). 

Za'reah,  the  same  as  Zobah  and 
ZoREAH  (Neh.  xi.  29). 

Za'reathites,  The,  the  inhabitants  of 
Zareah  or  ZoRAH  (1  Chr.  ii.  63). 

Za'red,  The  Valley  of.    [Zehed.] 

Zar'ephath,  the  residence  of  the  proph- 
et Elijah  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
drought  (1  K.  xvii.  9,  10).  Beyond  stating 
that  it  was  near  to,  or  dependent  on,  Zidon, 
tlie  Bible  gives  no  clew  to  its  position.    It 


is  mentioned  by  Obadiah  (ver.  20),  but 
merely  as  a  Canaanite  (that  is,  Phoenician) 
city.  It  is  represented  by  the  modern 
village  of  Sura-fend.  Of  the  old  town 
considerable  indications  remain.  One  group 
of  foundations  is  on  a  headland  called  Ain 
el-Kantarah ;  but  the  chief  remains  are 
south  of  this,  and  extend  for  a  mile  or 
more,  with  many  fragments  of  columns, 
slabs,  and  other  architectural  features.  In 
the  N.  T.  Zarephath  appears  under  the 
Greek  form  of  Sarepta.     (Luke  iv.  26). 

Zar'etan,  Zarthan  (Josh.  iii.  16). 

Za'reth-sha'har,  a  place  mentioned 
only  in  Josh.  xiii.  19,  in  the  catalogue  of 
the  towns  allotted  to  Reuben. 

Zar'hites,  The,  a  branch  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  descended  from  Zerah  the  son  of 
.Judah  (Num.  xxvi.  13,  20;  Josh.  vii.  17;  1 
Chr.  XX vii.  11,  13). 

Zar'tanah  (l  K.  iv.  12).     [Zarthan.] 

Zar'than.  1.  A  place  in  the  circle  of 
Jordan,  mentioned  in  connection  with  Suo- 
coth  (1  K.  vii.  46).  2.  It  is  also  named  in 
the  account  of  the  passage  of  the  Jordan  by 
the  Israelites  (Josh.  iii.  16),  where  the  A. 
V.  has  Zaretan.  3.  A  place  with  the  simi- 
lar name  of  Zartanah  (1  K.  iv.  12).  4. 
Further,  Zeredathah,  named  (in  2  Chr.  iv. 
17  only)  in  specifying  the  situation  of  the 
founderies  for  the  brass-work  of  Solomon's 
Temple,  is  substituted  for  Zarthan ;  and  this 
again  is  not  impossibly  identical  with  the 
Zererath  of  the  story  of  Gideon  (Judg.  vii, 
22).  All  these  spots  agree  in  proximity  to 
the  Jordan,  but  beyond  this  we  are  abso- 
lutely at  fault  as  to  their  position. 

Zat'tu.  The  sons  of  Zattu  were  a  fami- 
ly of  laymen  of  Israel  who  returned  with 
Zerubbahel  (Ezr.  ii.  8;  Neh.  vii.  13). 

Za'van  (l  Chr.  i.  42).     [Zaavan.] 

Za'za,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jonatlian,  a 
descendant  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chr.  ii.  33). 

Zebadl'ah.  1.  A  Benjamite  of  the  sons 
of  Beriah  (1  Chr.  viii.  15).  2.  A  Benja- 
mite of  the  sons  of  Elpaal  (1  Chr.  viii.  17). 
3.  One  of  the  sons  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor  (1 
Chr.  xii.  7).  4.  Son  of  Asahel,  the  brother 
of  Joab  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  7).  5.  Son  of 
Michael,  of  the  sons  of  Shephatiah  (Ezr. 
viii.  8).  6.  A  priest  of  the  sons  of  Immer, 
who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  after  the 
return  from  Babylon  (Ezr.  x.  20).  7. 
Third  son  of  Meshelemiah  the  Korhite  (1 
Chr.  xxvi.  2).  8-  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  8).  9.  The  son 
of  Ishmael  and  prince  of  the  house  of  Judah 
in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xix.  11). 

Ze'bah  and  Zalmun'na,  the  two 
"kings"  of  Midian  who  commanded  the 
great  invasion  of  Palestine,  and  who  finally 
fell  by  the  hand  of  Gideon  himself  (Judg. 
viii.  5-21;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11).  Wliile  Oreb 
and  Zeeb,  two  of  the  inferior  leaders  of  the 
incursion,  had  been  slain,  with  a  vast  num- 
ber of  their  people,  by  the  Ephraimites,  al 


ZEBAIM 


704 


ZEBULUN 


the  central  fords  of  the  Jordan,  the  two 
kings  had  succeeded  in  making  tlieir  escape 
by  a  passage  farther  to  the  north  (probably 
the  ford  near  Betlishean),  and  thence  by 
the  Wady  Yahis,  through  Gilead,  to  Karkor, 
a  place  which  is  not  fixed,  but  whicli  lay, 
doubtless,  high  up  on  the  Hauran.  Here 
they  were  reposing  with  15,000  men,  a  mere 
remnant  of  their  huge  horde,  when  Gideon 
overtook  them.  Tlie  name  of  Gideon  was 
Btill  full  of  terror,  and  the  Bedouins  were 
entirely  unprepared  for  his  attack  —  they 
fled  in  dismay,  and  the  two  kings  were 
taken.  Such  was  the  third  act  of  the  great 
tragedy.  Two  more  remain.  First  the  re- 
turn down  the  longdi'files  leading  to  the  Jor- 
dan. Gideon  probably  strode  on  foot  by  the 
side  of  his  captives.  They  passed  Penuel, 
where  Jacob  had  seen  the  vision  of  the 
face  of  God;  they  passed  Succoth;  they 
crossed  tlie  rapid  stream  of  the  Jordan ; 
they  ascended  the  highlands  west  of  the 
river,  and  at  length  reached  Ophrah,  the 
native  village  of  their  captor.  Then  at 
last  the  question  which  must  have  been 
on  Gideon's  tongue  during  the  whole  of 
the  return  found  a  vent:  "  What  man- 
ner of  men  were  they  which  ye  slew  at 
Tabor?  "  Up  to  this  time  the  sheikhs  may 
have  believed  that  they  were  reserved  for 
ransom ;  but  these  words  once  spoken,  there 
can  have  been  no  doubt  what  their  fate  was 
to  be.  They  met  it  like  noble  children  of 
the  desert,  without  fear  or  weakness.  One 
request  alone  they  make  —  that  they  may 
die  by  the  sure  blow  of  the  hero  himself  : 
**  and  Gideon  arose  and  slew  them." 

Zeba'im,  mentioned  in  the  catalogue 
of  the  fitmilies  of  "  Solomon's  slaves,"  who 
returned  from  the  Captivity  with  Zerubba- 
bel  (Ezr.  ii.  57;  Neh.  vii.  59). 

Zeb'edee,  a  fisherman  of  Galilee,  the 
father  of  the  Apostles  James  the  Great  and 
John  (Matt.  iv.  21),  and  the  husband  of 
Salome  (Matt,  xxvii.  56 ;  Mark  xv.  40).  He 
probably  lived  either  at  Bethsaida  or  in  its 
immediate  neighborhood.  It  has  been  in- 
ferred from  the  mention  of  his  "  hired  ser- 
vants "  (Mark  i.  20),  and  from  the  acquaint- 
ance between  the  Apostle  John  and  Annas 
the  high-priest  (John  xviii.  15),  that  the 
family  of  Zebedee  were  in  easy  circum- 
stances (comp.  xix.  27),  although  not  above 
manual  labor  (Matt.  iv.  21).  He  appears 
only  once  in  the  Gospel  narrative,  namely, 
in  Matt.  iv.  21,  22;  Mark  i.  19,  20,  where 
he  is  seen  in  his  boat  with  his  two  sons 
mending  their  nets. 

Zebi'ua,  one  of  the  sons  of  Nebo,  who 
had  taken  foreign  wives  after  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Ezr.  x.  43). 

Zebo'im.     1.  One  of  the  five  cities  of 

the    "  plairi "    or  circle  of  Jordan.     It  is 

.  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  19,  xiv.  2,  8 ;  Deut. 

zxix.  23 ;  and  Hos.  xi.  8,  in  each  of  which 

passages  it  is  either  coupled  with  Admah, 


or  placed  next  it  in  the  lists — perhaps 
represented  by  Talda  Sebdan,  a  n:inie  at- 
tached to  extensive  ruins  on  tlio  high 
ground  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  Kerak. 
In  Gen.  xiv.  2,  8,  the  name  is  given  more 
correctly  in  the  A.  V.  Zeboiim.  2.  The 
Valley  of  Zeboim,  a  ravine  or  gorge,  ap- 
parently east  of  Michmash,  mentioned  only 
in  1  Sam.  xiii.  18.  The  road  running  from 
Michmash  to  the  east  is  specified  as  *'  the 
road  of  the  border  that  looketh  to  the  ravine 
of  Zeboim  towards  the  wilderness."  The 
wilderness  is  no  doubt  the  district  of  un- 
cultivated mountain  tops  and  sides  which 
lies  between  the  central  district  of  Benjamin 
and  the  Jordan  Valley.  In  that  very  dis- 
trict there  is  a  wild  gorge,  bearing  the  name 
of  Shuk  ed-Dubba',  "  ravine  of  the  hyena," 
the  exact  equivalent  of  Ge  hat-tsebo'im. 

Zebu'dah,  wife  of  Josiah  and  mother 
of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  K.  xxiii.  36). 

Ze'bld,  chief  man  (A.  V.  "  ruler  ")  of 
the  city  of  Shechem  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
test between  Abimelech  and  the  native 
Canaanites  (Judg.  ix.  28,  30,  36,  38,  41). 

Zeb'Illoilite,  a  member  of  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun  (Judg.  xii.  11,  12).  Applied  only 
to  Elon,  the  one  judge  produced  by  the 
tribe  (Judg.  xii.  11,  12). 

Zeb'Ulun  (a  habitation),  the  tenth  of 
the  sons  of  Jacob,  according  to  the  order  in 
which  their  births  are  enumerated ;  the 
sixth  and  last  of  Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  20,  xxxv. 
23,  xlvi.  14;  1  Chr.  ii.  I).  His  birth  is  re- 
corded in  Gen.  xxx.  19,  20.  Of  the  indi- 
vidual Zebulun  nothing  is  recorded.  The 
list  of  Gen.  xlvi.  ascribes  to  him  three  sons, 
founders  of  the  chief  families  of  the  tribe 
(comp.  Num.  xxvi.  26)  at  the  time  of  the 
migration  to  Egypt.  The  head  of  the  tribe 
at  Sinai  was  Eliab  son  of  Helen  (Num.  vii. 
24)  ;  at  Shiloh,  Elizaphan  son  of  Parnach 
(ib.  xxxiv.  25).  Its  representative  amongst 
the  spies  was  Gaddiel  son  of  Sodi  (xiii.  10). 
The  tribe  is  not  recorded  to  have  taken 
part,  for  evil  or  good,  in  any  of  the  events 
of  the  wandering  or  the  conquest.  Judah, 
Joseph,  Benjamin,  had  acquired  the  south 
and  the  centre  of  the  country.  To  Zebulun 
fell  one  of  the  fairest  of  the  remaining  por- 
tions. It  is  perhaps  impossible,  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge,  exactly  to 
define  its  limits  ;  but  the  statement  of  Jose- 
phus  is  probably  in  the  main  correct,  that 
it  reached  on  the  one  side  to  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth,  and  on  the  other  to  Carmel 
and  the  Mediterranean.  On  the  south  it 
was  bounded  by  Issachar,  who  lay  in  the 
great  plain  or  valley  of  the  Kishon ;  on  the 
north  it  had  Naphtali  and  Asher.  The  fact 
recognized  by  Josephus  that  Zebulun  ex- 
tended to  the  Mediterranean,  though  not 
mentioned  or  implied,  as  far  as  we  can  dis- 
cern, in  the  lists  of  Joshua  and  Judges,  is 
alluded  to  in  the  Blessing  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
xlix.  13).     Situated  so  far  from  the  centra 


ZEBULUNITES 


765 


ZECHARIAH 


of  government,  Zebulun  remains  through- 
out the  history,  with  one  exception,  in  the 
obscurity  which  envelops  the  whole  of  the 
northern  tribes.  That  exception,  however, 
is  a  remarkable  one.  The  conduct  of  the 
tribe  during  the  struggle  with  Sisera,  when 
they  fought  with  desperate  valor  side  by 
side  with  their  brethren  of  Naphtali,  was 
such  as  to  draw  down  the  especial  praise 
of  Deborah,  who  singles  them  out  from 
all  the  other  tribes  (Judg.  v.  18).  A  simi- 
lar reputation  is  alluded  to  in  the  mention 
pf  the  tribe  among  those  who  attended  the 
inauguration  of  David's  reign  at  Hebron 
(1  Chr.  xii.  33).  The  same  passage,  how- 
ever, shows  that  they  did  not  neglect  the 
arts  of  peace  (ver.  40).  We  are  nowhere 
directly  told  that  the  people  of  Zebulun 
were  carried  off  to  Assyria. 

Zeb'ulunites,  The,  the  members  of 
the  tribe  of  Zebulun  (Num.  xxvi.  27  only). 

Zechari'ah.  1.  The  eleventh  in  order 
of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  He  is  called 
in  his  prophecy  the  son  of  Berechiah,  and 
the  grandson  of  Iddo,  whereas  in  the  Book 
of  Ezra  (v.  1,  vi.  14)  he  is  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Iddo.  It  is  natural  to  sup- 
pose, as  the  prophet  himself  mentions  his 
father's  name,  whereas  the  Book  of  Ezra 
mentions  only  Iddo,  that  Berechiah  had 
died  early,  and  that  there  was  now  no  inter- 
vening link  between  the  grandfather  and 
the  grandson.  Zechariah,  like  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel  before  him,  was  priest  as  well 
as  prophet.  He  seems  to  have  entered  upon 
his  office  while  yet  young  (Zech.  ii.  4),  and 
must  have  been  born  in  Babylon,  whence 
he  returned  with  the  first  caravan  of  exiles 
under  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua.  It  was  in 
the  eighth  month,  in  the  second  year  of 
Darius,  that  he  first  publicly  discharged  his 
office.  In  this  he  acted  in  concert  with 
Haggai.  Both  prophets  had  the  same  great 
object  before  them ;  both  directed  all  their 
energies  to  the  building  of  the  Second 
Temple.  To  their  influence  we  find  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  in  a  great  meas- 
ure ascribed.  It  is  impossible  not  to  see 
of  how  great  moment,  under  such  circum- 
stances, and  for  the  discharge  of  the  special 
duty  with  which  he  was  intrusted,  would  be 
the  priestly  origin  of  Zechariah.  The  foun- 
dations of  the  Temple  had  indeed  been  laid, 
but  that  was  all  (Ezr.  v.  16).  Discouraged 
by  the  opposition  which  th6y  had  encoun- 
tered at  first,  the  Jewish  colony  had  begun 
to  build,  and  were  not  able  to  finish ;  and 
even  when  the  letter  came  from  Darius 
sanctioning  the  work,  and  promising  his 
protection,  they  showed  no  hearty  disposi- 
tion to  engage  in  it.  At  such  a  time,  no 
more  fitting  instrument  could  be  found  to 
rouse  the  people,  whose  heart  had  grown 
cold,  than  one  who  united  to  the  authority 
of  the  Prophet  the  zeal  and  the  traditions 
of  a  sacerdotal  family.    ''  And  the  elde^ 


of  the  Jews  builded,"  it  is  said,  "  and  they 
prospered  through  the  prophesying  of  Hag- 
gai the  prophet,  and  Zechariah  the  son  of 
Iddo  "  (Ezr.  vi.  14).  If  the  later  l^ewish 
accounts  may  be  trusted,  Zechariah,  as  well 
as  Haggai,  was  a  member  of  the  Great 
Synagogue.  The  genuine  writings  of  Zech- 
ariah help  us  but  Uttle  in  our  estimation  of 
his  character.  Some  faint  traces,  however, 
we  may  observe  in  them  of  his  education 
in  Babylon.  He  leans  avowedly  on  the 
authority  of  the  older  prophets,  and  copies 
their  expressions.  Jeremiah  especially 
seems  to  have  been  his  favorite ;  and  hence 
the  Jewish  saying,  that  "  the  spirit  of  Jere- 
miah dwelt  in  Zechariah."  But  in  what 
may  be  called  the  peculiarities  of  liis  proph- 
ecy, he  approaches  more  nearly  to  Ezekiel 
and  Daniel.  Like  them  he  delights  in  vis- 
ions ;  like  them  he  uses  symbols  and  alle- 
gories, rather  than  the  bold  figures  and 
metaphors  which  lend  so  much  force  and 
beauty  to  the  writings  of  the  earlier  proph- 
ets ;  like  them  he  beholds  angels  minister- 
ing before  Jehovah,  and  fulfilling  his  be- 
hests on  the  earth.  He  is  the  only  one  of 
the  prophets  who  speaks  of  Satan.  That 
some  of  these  peculiarities  are  owing  to  hia 
Chaldaean  education  can  hardly  be  doubted. 
Even  in  the  form  of  the  visions  a  careful 
criticism  might  perhaps  discover  some  traces 
of  the  Prophet^  early  training.  Generally 
speaking,  Zechariah's  style  is  pure,  and 
remarkably  free  from  Chaldaisms.  The 
Book  of  Zechariah,  in  its  existing  form, 
consists  of  three  principal  parts,  cbs.  i.- 
viii.,  chs.  ix.-xi.,  chs.  xii.-xiv.  I.  The 
first  of  these  divisions  is  allowed  by  all 
critics  to  be  the  genuine  work  of  Zechariah 
the  son  of  Iddo.  It  consists,  first,  of  a 
short  introduction  or  preface,  in  which  the 
prophet  announces  his  commission;  then 
of  a  series  of  visions,  descriptive  of  all 
those  hopes  and  anticipations  of  which  the 
building  of  the  Temple  was  the  pledge  and 
sure  foundation;  and  finally  of  a  discourse, 
delivered  two  years  later,  in  reply  to  ques- 
tions resi)ecting  the  observance  of  certain 
established  fasts.  1.  The  short  introduc- 
tory oracle  (ch.  i.  1-6)  is  a  warning  voice 
from  the  past,  and  manifestly  rests  upon 
the  former  warnings  of  Haggai.  2.  In  a 
dream  of  the  night  there  passed  before  the 
eyes  of  the  prophet  a  series  of  visions  (ch. 
i.  7-vi.  15).  These  visions  are  obscure, 
and  accordingly  the  prophet  asks  their 
meaning.  The  interpretation  is  given  by 
an  angel  who  knows  the  mind  and  will  of 
Jehovah.  (1.)  In  the  first  vision  (ch.  i. 
7-15)  the  prophet  sees,  in  a  valley  of  myr- 
tles, a  rider  upon  a  roan  horse,  accompar 
nied  by  others  who,  having  been  sent  forth 
to  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  had  re- 
turned with  the  tidings  that  tlie  whole  eArth 
was  at  rest  (with  reference  to  Hag.  ii.  20). 
Hereupon  the  angel  asks  how  loitg  tlu» 


ZECHARIAH 


766 


ZECHARIAH 


state  of  things  shall  last,  and  is  assured 
that  the  inditfcrence  of  the  heathen  shall 
cease,  and  that  the  Temple  shall  be  built 
in  Jerusalem.  (2.)  The  second  vision  (ch. 
ii.  1-17,  A.  V.  i.  18-ii.  13)  explains  how 
the  promise  of  the  first  is  to  be  fulfilled. 
The  old  prophets,  in  foretelling  the  happi- 
ness and  glory  of  the  times  which  should 
succeed  the  Captivity  in  Babylon,  had  made 
a  great  part  of  that  happiness  and  glory  to 
consist  in  tlie  gathering  together  again  of 
the  whole  dispersed  nation  in  the  land 
given  to  their  fatliers.  This  vision  was  de- 
signed 4o  teach  that  the  expectation  thus 
raised  —  tlie  return  of  the  dispersed  of  Is- 
rael —  sliould  be  fulfilled.  (3.)  The  next 
two  visions  (iii.,  iv.)  are  occupied  with  the 
Temple,  and  with  the  two  principal  persons 
on  whom  the  hopes  of  the  returned  exiles 
rested.  The  permission  granted  for  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  had  no  doubt 
stirred  afresh  the  maUce  and  the  animosity 
of  the  enemies  of  the  Jews.  Joshua  the 
high-priest  had  been  singled  out,  it  would 
seem,  as  the  especial  object  of  attack,  and 
perhaps  formal  accusations  had  already 
been  laid  against  him  before  the  Persian 
court.  Tlie  prophet,  in  vision,  sees  him 
summoned  befote  a  higher  tribunal,  and 
solemnly  acquitted,  despite  the  charges  of 
the  Satan  or  Adversary.  This  is  done  with 
the  forms  still  usual  in  an  Eastern  court. 
(4.)  The  last  vision  (iv.)  supposes  that  all 
opposition  to  the  building  of  the  Temple 
shall  be  removed.  This  sees  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work.  The  two  next  visions 
(v.  1-11)  signify  that  the  land,  in  which  the 
sanctuary  has  just  been  erected,  shall  be 
purged  of  all  its  pollutions.  (5.)  First,  the 
curse  is  recorded  against  wickedness  in  the 
whole  land.  v.  3.  (G.)  Next,  the  unclean 
tiling,  whether  in  the  form  of  idolatry  or 
any  other  abomination,  shall  be  utterly  re- 
moved. (7.)  And  now  the  night  is  waning 
fast,  and  the  morning  is  about  to  dawn. 
Chariots  and  horses  appear,  issuing  from 
between  two  brazen  mountains,  the  horses 
like  those  in  the  first  vision ;  and  these  re- 
ceive their  several  commands  and  are  sent 
forth  to  execute  the  will  of  Jehovah  in  the 
four  quarters  of  the  earth.  Thus,  then,  the 
cycle  of  visions  is  completed.  Scene  after 
scene  is  unrolled  till  the  whole  glowing  pic- 
ture is  presented  to  the  eye.  All  enemies 
crushed ;  the  land  repeopled  and  Jerusalem 
girt  as  with  a  wall  of  fire ;  the  Temple  re- 
built, more  truly  splendid  than  of  old,  be- 
cause more  abundantly  filled  with  a  Divine 
Presence ;  the  leaders  of  the  people  assured 
in  the  most  signal  manner  of  the  Divine 
protection;  all  wickedness  solemnly  sen- 
tenced, and  the  land  forever  purged  of  it ; 
—  such  is  the  magnificent  panorama  of 
hope  which  the  Prophet  displays  to  Ws 
countrymen.  Immediately  on  these  visions 
there  follows  a  symbolical  act.    Three  Is- 


raelites had  just  returned  from  Babylon, 
bringing  with  them  rich  gifts  to  Jerusalem, 
apparently  as  contributions  to  the  Temple, 
and  had  been  received  in  the  house  of  Jo- 
siah  the  son  of  Zephaniah.  Thither  the 
Prophet  is  commanded  to  go  —  whether 
still  in  a  dream  or  not,  is  not  very  clear  — 
and  to  employ  the  silver  and  gold  of  their 
oflerings  for  the  service  of  Jehovah.  He 
is  to  make  of  them  two  crowns,  and  to  place 
these  on  the  head  of  Joshua  the  high-priest 
—  a  sign  that  in  the  Messiah  who  should 
build  the  Temple,  the  kingly  and  priestly 
offices  should  be  united.  3.  From  this  time, 
for  a  space  of  nearly  two  years,  the  Proph- 
et's voice  was  silent,  or  his  words  have  not 
been  recorded.  But  in  the  fourth  year  of 
king  Darius,  in  the  fourth  day  of  the  ninth 
month,  there  came  a  deputation  of  Jews  to 
his  Temple,  anxious  to  know  whether  the 
fast-days  which  had  been  instituted  during 
the  seventy  years'  Captivity  were  still  to  1^ 
observed.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  ques- 
tion should  have  been  addressed  to  priests 
and  prophets  conjointly  in  the  Temple. 
This  close  alliance  between  two  classes 
hitherto  so  separate,  and  often  so  antago- 
nistic, was  one  of  the  most  hopeful  circum- 
stances of  the  times.  Still  Zechariah,  as 
chief  of  the  prophets,  has  the  decision  of 
this  question.  In  language  worthy  of  his 
position  and  his  office,  language  whi<;h  re- 
minds us  of  one  of  the  most  striking  pas- 
sages of  his  great  predecessor  (Is.  Iviii. 
5-7),  he  lays  down  the  same  principle,  that 
God  loves  mercy  rather  than  fasting,  and 
truth  and  righteousness  rather  than  sack- 
cloth and  a  sad'  countenance.  Again  he 
foretells,  but  not  now  in  vision,  the  glori- 
ous times  that  are  near  at  hand  when  Jeho- 
vah shall  dwell  in  the  midst  of  them,  and 
Jerusalem  be  called  a  city  of  truth  (viii. 
1-1  o).  Again  he  declares  that  "  truth  and 
peace"  (vers.  16,  19)  are  the  bulwarks  of 
national  prosperity.  And  he  announces,  in 
obedience  to  the  command  of  Jehovah,  not 
only  that  the  fasts  are  abolished,  but  that 
the  days  of  mourning  shall  henceforth  be 
days  of  joy,  the  fasts  be  counted  for  festi- 
vals. His  prophecy  concludes  with  a  pre- 
diction that  Jerusalem  shall  be  the  centre 
of  religious  worsliip  to  all  nations  of  the 
earth  (viii.  16-23).  II.  The  remainder  of 
the  Book  consists  of  two  sections  of  about 
equal  length,  ix.-xi.  and  xii.-xiv.,  each  of 
which  has  an  inscription.  1.  In  the  first 
section  he  threatens  Damascus  and  the  sea- 
coast'  of  Palestine  with  misfortune,  but  de- 
clares that  Jerusalem  shall  be  protected. 
The  Jews  who  are  still  in  captivity  shall 
return  to  their  land.  The  Teraphim  and 
the  false  prophets  may  indeed  liave  spoken 
lies,  but  upon  these  will  the  Lord  execute 
judgment,  and  then  He  will  look  with  favor 
upon  His  people,  and  bring  back  both  Judah 
and  Ephraim  from  their  captivity.     The 


ZECHARIAH 


767 


ZEDAD 


possession  of  Gilead  and  Lebanon  is  again 
promised,  as  the  special  portion  of  Ephraim ; 
and  both  Egypt  and  Assyria  shall  be  broken 
and  humbled.  2.  The  Second  Section,  xii. 
-xiv.,  is  entitled  "  the  burden  of  the  word 
of  Jehovah  for  Israel."  But  Israel  is  here 
used  of  the  nation  at  large,  not  of  Israel  as 
distinct  from  Judah.  Indeed,  the  prophecy 
which  follows  concerns  Judah  and  Jerusa- 
lem. In  this  the  prophet  beholds  the  near 
approach  of  troublous  times,  when  Jeru- 
salem should  be  hard  pressed  by  enemies. 
But  in  that  day  Jehovah  shall  come  to  save 
them,  and  all  the  nations  which  gather  them- 
selves against  Jerusalem  shall  be  destroyed. 
Many  modern  critics  maintain  that  the  later 
chapters,  from  the  9th  to  the  14th,  were 
written  by  some  other  prophet,  who  lived 
before  the  exile.  The  prophecy  closes  with 
a  grand  and  stirring  picture.  All  nations 
are  gathered  together  against  Jerusalem, 
and  seem  already  sure  of  their  prey.  Half 
of  their  cruel  work  has  been  accomplished, 
when  Jehovah  Himself  appears  on  behalf 
of  His  people.  He  goes  forth  to  war  against 
the  adversaries  of  His  people.  He  estab- 
lishes His  kingdom  over  all  the  earth.  All 
nations  that  are  still  left  shall  come  up  to 
Jerusalem,  as  the  great  centre  of  religious 
worship,  and  the  city  from  that  day  forward 
shall  be  a  holy  city.  Such  is,  briefly,  an 
outline  of  the  second  portion  of  that  book, 
which  is  commonly  known  as  the  Prophe- 
cy of  Zechariah.  Integrity.  —  Mede  was 
the  first  to  call  this  in  question.  The  prob- 
ability that  the  later  chapters,  from  the  9th 
to  the  14th,  were  by  some  other  prophet, 
seems  first  to  have  been  suggested  to  him 
by  the  citation  in  St.  Matthew.  He  rests 
his  opinion  partly  on  the  authority  of  St. 
Matthew,  and  partly  on  the  contents  of  the 
later  chapters,  which  he  considers  require 
a  date  earlier  than  the  exile.  Archbishop 
Newcombe  went  further.  He  insisted  on 
the  great  dissimilarity  of  style  as  well  as 
subject  between  the  earlier  and  later  chap- 
ters. And  he  was  the  first  who  advocated 
ttie  theory,  that  the  last  six  chapters  of 
Zechariah  are  the  work  of  two  distinct 
prophets.  2.  Son  of  Meshelemiah,  or 
Shelemiah,  a  Korhite,  and  keeper  of  the 
north  gate  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre- 
gation (1  Chr.  ix.  21).  3.  One  of  the  sons 
of  Jehiel  (1  Chr.  ix.  37).  4.  A  Levite  of 
the  second  order  in  the  Temple  band  as  ar- 
ranged by  David,  appointed  to  play  "  with 
psalteries  on  Alamoth"  (1  Chr.  xv.  18,  20). 
6.  One  of  the  princes  of  Judah  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xvii.  7).  6.  Son 
of  the  high-priest  Jehoiada,  in  the  reign  of 
Joash  king  of  Judah  (2  Chr.  xxiv.  20),  and 
therefore  the  king's  cousin.  After  the  death 
of  Jehoiada,  Zechariah  probably  succeeded 
to  his  oflSce,  and  in  attempting  to  check  the 
reaction  in  favor  of  idolatry  which  imme- 
diately followed,  he  fell  a  victim  to  a  con- 


spiracy formed  against  him  by  the  king, 
and  was  stoned  in  the  court  of  the  Temple. 
He  is  probably  the  same  as  the  "  Zacharias 
son  of  Barachias,"  who  was  slain  between 
the  Temple  and  the  altar  (Matt,  xxiii.  35). 
[Zacharias,  No.  2.]  7.  A  Kohathite  Le- 
vite in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chr.  xxxiv. 
12).  8.  The  leader  of  the  sons  of  Pharosh 
who  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezr.  viii.  3).  9. 
Son  of  Bebai  (Ezr.  viii.  11).  10.  One  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  people  whom  Ezra  sum- 
moned in  council  at  the  river  Ahava  (Ezr. 
viii.  16).  He  stood  at  Ezra's  left  hand 
when  he  expounded  the  Law  to  the  people 
(N€h.  viii.  4).  11.  One  of  the  family  of 
Elam,  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife  afler 
the  Captivity  (Ezr.  x.  26).  12.  Ancestor 
of  Athaiah,  or  Uthai  (Neh.  xi.  4).  13.  A 
Shilonite,  descendant  of  Perez  (Neh.  xi. 
5).  14.  A  priest,  son  of  Pashur  (Neh.  xi. 
12).  15.  The  representative  of  the  priestly 
family  of  Iddo  in  tHfe  days  of  Joiakim  the 
son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  16).  Possibly  the 
same  as  Zechariah  the  prophet  the  son  of 
Iddo.  16.  One  of  the  priests,  son  of  Jona- 
than, who  blew  with  the  trumpets  at  the 
dedication  of  the  city  wall  by  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah  (Neh.  xii.  35,  41).  17.  A  chief 
of  the  Reubenites  at  the  tipie  of  the  captiv- 
ity by  Tiglath-Pileser  (1  Chr.  v.  7).  18. 
One  of  the  priests  who  accompanied  the 
ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chr. 
XV.  24).  19.  Son  of  Isshiah,  or  Jesiah,  a 
Kohathite  Levite  descended  from  Uzziel  (1 
Chr.  xxiv.  25).  20.  Fourth  son  of  Hosah 
of  the  children  of  Merari  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  11). 
21.  A  Manassite  (1  Chr.  xxvii.  21).  22. 
The  father  of  Jahaziel  (2  Chr.  xx.  14).  23. 
One  of  the  sons  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chr.  xxi. 
2).  24.  A  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah, 
who  appears  to  have  acted  as  the  king's 
counsellor,  but  of  whom  nothing  is  known 
(2  Chr.  xxvi.  5).  25.  The  father  of  Abi- 
jah,  or  Abi,  Hezekiah's  mother  (2  Chr. 
xxix.  1).  26.  One  of  the  family  of  Asaph 
in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  13). 
27.  One  of  the  rulers  of  the  Temple  in  the 
reignof  Josiah  (2  Chr.  XXXV.  8).  28.  The 
son  of  Jeberechiah,  who  was  taken  by  the 
prophet  Isaiah  as  one  of  the  "  faithful  wit- 
nesses to  record,"  when  he  wrote  concern- 
ing Maher-shalal-hash-baz  (Is.  viii.  2).  He 
may  have  been  the  Levite  of  the  same 
name,  who  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  aisisted 
in  the  purification  of  the  Temple  (2  Chr. 
xxix.  13).  Another  conjecture  is,  that  he 
is  the  same  as  Zechariah  the  father  of 
Abijah,  the  queen  of  Ahaz. 

Ze'dad,  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
north  border  of  the  land  of  Israel,  as  prom- 
ised by  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  8),  and  as 
restored  by  Ezekiel  (xlvii.  15).  A  place 
named  Sudud  exists  to  the  east  of  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  chain  of  Antilibanus, 
about  60  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Baalbcc.  Thia 
may  be  identical  with  Zedad. 


ZEDEKIAH 


768 


ZEDEKIAH 


Zedeki'ah.  1.  The  last  king  of  Judah 
and  Jerusalem.  He  was  the  son  of  Josiali 
by  his  wife  Hamutal,  and  therefore  own 
brother  to  Jehoahaz  (2  K.  xxiv.  18 ;  comp. 
xxiii.  31).  His  original  name  had  been 
Mattaniah,  wliich  was  changed  to  Zed- 
ekiah  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  when  he  carried 
off  his  nephew  Jehoiachim  to  Babylon,  and 
left  him  on  the  throne  of  Jerusalem.  Zed- 
ekiah  was  but  21  years  old  when  he  was 
thus  placed  in  charge  of  an  impoverished 
kingdom  (b.  c.  697).  His  history  is  con- 
tained in  a  short  sketch  of  the  events  of  his 
reign  given  in  2  K.  xxiv.  17-xxv.  7,  and, 
with  some  trifling  variations,  in  Jer.  xxxix. 
1-7,  Hi.  1-11,  together  with  the  still  shorter 
summary  in  2  Chr.  xxxvi.  10,  &c. ;  and 
also  in  Jer.,  xxi.,  xxiv.,  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xxix., 
xxxii.,  xxxiii.,  xxxiv.,  xxxvii.,  xxxviii.,  and 
Ez.  xvi.  11-21.  From  these  it  is  evident 
that  Zedekiah  was  a  man  not  so  much  bad  at 
heart  as  weak  in  will.  •  It  is  evident  from 
Jer.  xxvii.  and  xxviii.  that  the  earlier  por- 
tion of  Zedekiali's  reign  was  marked  by  an 
agitation  throughout  the  whole  of  Syria 
against  the  Babylonian  yoke.  Jerusalem 
seems  to  have  taken  the  lead,  since  in  the 
fourth  year  of  Zedekiah's  reign  we  find  am- 
bassadors from  all  the  neighboring  king- 
doms—  Tyre,  Sidon,  Edom,  and  Moab  — 
at  his  court,  to  consult  as  to  the  steps  to  be 
taken.  This  happened  either  during  the 
king's  absence  or  immediately  after  his  re- 
turn from  Babylon,  whither  he  went  on 
some  errand,  the  nature  of  which  is  not 
named,  but  which  may  have  been  an  at- 
tempt to  blind  the  eyes  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  his  contemplated  revolt  (Jer.  li.  59). 
T4ie  first  act  of  overt  rebellion  of  which 
any  record  survives  was  the  formation  of 
an  alliance  with  Egypt,  of  itself  equivalent 
to  a  declaration  of  enmity  with  Babylon. 
As  a  natural  consequence  it  brought  on 
Jerusalem  an  immediate  invasion  of  the 
Chaldeans.  The  mention  of  this  event  in 
the  Bible,  though  sure,  is  extremely  slight, 
and  occurs  only  in  Jer.  xxxvii.  6-11,  xxxiv. 
21,  and  Ez.  xvii.  15-20 ;  but  Josephus  (x. 
7,  §  3)  relates  it  more  fully,  and  gives  the 
date  of  its  occurrence,  namely,  the  eighth 
year  of  Zedekiah.  It  appears  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, being  made  aware  of  Zede- 
kiah's defection,  either  by  the  non-payment 
of  the  tribute  or  by  other  means,  at  once 
sent  an  army  to  ravage  Judaea.  This  was 
done,  and  the  whole  country  reduced,  ex- 
cept Jerusalem  and  two  strong  places  in 
the  western  plain,  Lachish  and  Azekah, 
which  still  held  out  (Jer.  xxxiv.  7).  In 
the  mean  time  Pharaoh  had  moved  to  the 
assistance  of  his  ally.  On  hearing  of  his 
j^proach  the  Chaldeans  at  once  raised  the 
siege  and  advanced  to  meet  him.  The 
nobles  seized  the  moment  of  respite  to  re- 
assert their  power  over  the  king.  How 
long  the  Babylonians  were  absent  from 


Jerusalem  we  are  not  told.  All  we  cer- 
tainly know  is,  that  on  the  tenth  day  of  the 
tenth  month  of  Zedekiah's  ninth  year  the 
Chaldeans  were  again  before  the  walls  (Jer. 
lii.  4).  From  this  time  forward  the  siege 
progressed  slowly,  but  surely,  to  its  con- 
summation. Zedekiah  again  interfered  to 
preserve  the  life  of  Jeremiah  from  the  ven- 
geance of  the  princes  (xxxviii.  7-13),  and 
then  occurred  the  interview  between  the 
king  and  the  prophet,  which  affords  so 
good  a  clew  to  the  condition  of  abject  de- 
pendence into  which  a  long  course  of  oppo- 
sition had  brought  the  weak-minded  mon- 
arch. While  the  king  was  hesitating  the 
end  was  rapidly  coming  nearer.  The  city 
was  indeed  reduced  to  the  last  extremity. 
The  bread  had  for  long  been  consumed 
(Jer.  xxxviii.  9),  and  all  the  terrible  expe- 
dients had  been  tried  to  which  the  wretch- 
ed inhabitants  of  a  besieged  town  are  forced 
to  resort  in  such  cases.  At  last,  after  six- 
teen dreadful  months,  the  catastrophe  ar- 
rived. It  was  on  the  ninth  day  of  the 
fourth  month,  about  the  middle  of  July,  at 
midnight,  as  Josephus  with  careful  minute- 
ness informs  us,  that  the  breach  in  those 
stout  and  venerable  walls  was  effected. 
The  moon,  nine  days  old,  had  gone  down 
below  the  hills  which  form  the  western 
edge  of  the  basin  of  Jerusalem,  or  was  at 
any  rate  too  low  to  illuminate  the  utter 
darkness  which  reigns  in  the  narrow  lanes 
of  an  Eastern  town,  where  the  inhabitants 
retire  early  to'  rest,  and  where  there  are 
but  few  windows  to  emit  light  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  houses.  The  wretched  rem- 
nants of  the  army  quitted  the  city  in  the 
dead  of  night ;  and  as  tlie  Chaldean  army 
entered  the  city  at  one  end,  the  king  and 
his  wives  fled  from  it  by  the  opposite  gate. 
They  took  the  road  towards  the  Jordan. 
On  the  way  they  were  met  and  recognized 
by  some  of  the  Jews  who  had  formerly  de- 
serted to  the  Chaldeans.  By  them  the  in- 
telligence was  communicated,  and,  as  soon 
as  the  dawn  of  day  permitted  it,  swift  pur- 
suit was  made.  The  king's  party  were 
overtaken  near  Jericho,  and  carried  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  then  at  Riblah* 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  valley  of  Lebanon. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  with  a  refinement  of  cru- 
elty characteristic  of  those  cruel  times,  or- 
dered the  sons  of  Zedekiah  to  be  killed 
before  him,  and  lastly  his  own  eyes  to  be 
thrust  out  (b.  c.  586).  He  was  then  loaded 
with  brazen  fetters,  and  at  a  later  period 
taken  to  Babylon,  where  he  died.  2.  Son 
of  Chenaanah,  a  prophet  at  the  court  of 
Ahab,  head,  or,  if  not  head,  virtual  leader 
of  the  college.  He  appears  but  once,  viz. 
as  spokesman  when  the  prophets  are  con- 
sulted by  Ahab  on  the  result  of  his  proposed 
expedition  to  Ramoth-Gilead  (IK.  xxii. ; 
2  Chr.  xviii.).  Zedekiah  had  prepared  him- 
self for  the  interview  with  a  pair  of  iron 


ZEEB 


769 


ZEPHANIAH 


horns,  after  the  symbolic  custom  of  the 
prophets  (comp.  Jer.  xiii.,  xix.),  the  horns 
of  the  reem,  or  buffalo,  which  was  the 
recognized  emblem  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim 
(Deut.  xxxiii.  17).  With  these,  in  the  in- 
terval before  Micaiah's  arrival,  he  illus- 
trated the  manner  in  which  Ahab  should 
drive  the  Syrians  before  him.  When  Mi- 
caiah  appeared  and  had  delivered  his  proph- 
ecy, Zedekiah  sprang  forward  and  struck 
him  a  blow  on  the  face,  accompanying  it  by 
a  taunting  sneer.  For  this  he  is  threatened 
by  Micaiah  in  terms  which  are  hardly  in- 
telligible to  us,  but  which  evidently  allude 
to  some  personal  danger  to  Zedekiah.  Jose- 
phus  relates  that  after  Micaiah  had  spoken, 
Zedekiah  again  came  forward,  and  de- 
nounced him  as  false,  on  the  ground  that 
his  prophecy  contradicted  the  prediction 
of  Elijah,  that  Ahab's  blood  should  be 
licked  up  by  dogs  in  the  field  of  Naboth  of 
Jezreel ;  and  as  a  further  proof  that  he  was 
an  impostor,  he  struck  him,  daring  him  to 
do  what  Iddo,  in  somewhat  similar  cir- 
cumstances, had  done  to  Jeroboam  —  viz., 
wither  his  hand.  As  to  the  question  of 
what  Zedekiah  and  his  followers  were, 
whether  prophets  of  Jehovah  or  of  some 
false  deity,  it  seems  hardly  possible  to  en- 
tertain any  doubt.  3.  The  son  of  Maasei- 
ah,  a  false  prophet  in  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix. 
21,  22).  He  was  denounced  in  the  letter 
of  Jeremiah  for  having,  with  Ahab  the  son 
of  Kolaiah,  buoyed  up  the  people  with  false 
hopes,  and  for  profane  and  flagitious  con- 
duct. Their  names  were  to  become  a  by- 
word, and  their  terrible  fate  a  warning.  4. 
The  son  of  Hananiah,  'one  of  the  princes 
of  Judah  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  12). 

Zeeb,  one  of  the  two  "princes"  of 
Midian  in  the  great  invasion  of  Israel.  He 
is  always  named  with  Oreb  (Judg.  vii.  25, 
viii.  3;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11).  Zeeb  and  Oreb 
were  not  slain  at  the  first  rout  of  the  Arabs, 
but  at  a  later  stage  of  the  struggle,  proba- 
bly in  crossing  the  Jordan  at  a  ford  farther 
down  the  river.  Zeeb,  the  wolf,  was  brought 
to  bay  in  a  winepress  which  in  later  times 
bore  his  name  — the  "winepress  of  Zeeb." 
[Oreb.] 

Ze'lah,  a  city  in  the  allotment  of  Ben- 
jamin (Josh,  xviii.  28),  contained  the  fam- 
ily tomb  of  Kisb,  the  father  of  Saul  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  14). 

Ze'lek,  an  Ammonite,  one  of  David's 
guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  37;  1  Chr.  xi.  39). 

Zelo'phehad,  son  of  Hepher,  son  of 
Gilead,  son  of  Machir,  son  of  Manasseh 
(Josh.  xvii.  3).  He  was  apparently  the 
second  eon  of  his  father  Hepher  (1  Chr. 
vii.  15).  Zelophehad  came  out  of  Egypt 
with  Moses,  but  died  in  the  wilderness,  as 
did  the  whole  of  that  generation  (Num.  xiv. 
35,  xxvii.  3).  On  his  death  without  male 
heirs,   his   five  daughters,  just  after    the 

m 


second  numbering  in  the  wilderness,  came 
before  Moses  and  Elcazar  to  claim  the  in- 
heritance of  their  father  in  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh.  The  claim  was  admitted  by  di- 
vine direction  (Num.  xxvi.  33,  xxvii.  1-11). 

Zelo'tes,  the  epithet  given  to  the  Apos- 
tle Simon  to  distinguish  him  from  Simon 
Peter  (Luke  vi.  15).  [Canaanite;  Si- 
mon 5.] 

Zel'zah,  a  place  named  once  only  (1 
Sam.  X.  2),  as  on  the  boundary  of  Benja- 
min, close  to  Rachel's  sepulchre. 

Zemara'im,  a  town  in  the  allotment  of 
Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  22),  perhaps  identi- 
cal with  Mount  Zeharaim  (mentioned  in 
2  Chr.  xiii.  4  only),  which  was  "  in  Mount 
Ephraim,"  that  is  to  say,  within  the  general 
district  of  the  highlands  of  that  great  tribo 
(2  Chr.  xiii.  4). 

Zem'arite,  The,  one  of  the  Hamite 
tribes  who,  in  the  genealogical  table  of  Gen. 
X.  (ver.  18)  and  1  Chron.  i.  (ver.  16),  are 
represented  as  "  sons  of  Canaan."  Noth- 
ing is  certainly  known  of  this  ancient  tribe. 
The  old  interpreters  place  them  at  Emessa, 
the  modern  Hums. 

Zemi'ra,  one  of  the  sons  of  Becher  the 
son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chr.  vii.  8). 

Ze'nan,  a  town  in  the  allotment  of  Ju- 
dah, situated  in  the  district  of  the  Shefelah 
(Josh.  XV.  37).  It  is  probably  identical 
with  Zaanan  (Mic.  i.  11). 

Ze'nas,  a  believer,  and,  as  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  context,  a  preaclier  of  the 
Gospel,  who  is  mentioned  in  Tit.  iii.  13  in 
connection  with  ApoUos.  He  is  further 
described  as  "  the  lawyer."  It  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  whether  Zenas  was  a 
Roman  jurisconsult  or  a  Jewish  doctor. 

Zephani'ah.  1.  The  ninth  in  order 
of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  His  pedigree 
is  traced  to  his  fourth  ancestor,  Hezekiah, 
(i.  1),  supposed  to  be  the  celebrated  king 
of  that  name.  In  chap.  i.  the  utter  desola- 
tion of  Judaea  is  predicted  as  a  judgment 
for  idolatry,  and  neglect  of  the  Lord,  the 
luxury  of  the  princes,  and  the  violence  and 
deceit  of  their  dependants  (3-9).  The 
prosperity,  security,  and  insolence  of  the 
people  are  contrasted  with  the  horrors  of 
the  day  of  wrath  (10-18).  Ch.  ii.  contains  a 
call  to  repentance  (1-3),  with  prediction  of 
the  ruin  of  the  cities  of  the  Philistines,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  house  of  Judah  after 
the  visitation  (4-7).  Other  enemies  of 
Judah,  Moab,  Amnion,  are  threatened  with 
perpetual  destruction  (8-15).  In  chap.  iii. 
the  prophet  addresses  Jerusalem,  which  ho 
reproves  sharply  for  vice  and  disobedience 
(1-7).  He  then  concludes  with  a  series  of 
promises  (8-20).  The  chief  characteristics 
of  this  book  are  the  unity  and  harmony  of 
tlie  composition,  the  grace,  encrg)',  and 
dignity  of  its  style,  and  the  rapid  and  ef- 
fective alternations  of  tlireats  and  promise*. 
The  general  tone  of  the  last  portion  is  M«»« 


ZEPHATH 


770 


ZERETH 


eianic,  but  without  any  specific  reference  to 
the  person  of  our  Lord.  The  date  of  the 
book  is  given  in  the  inscription ;  viz.  the 
reign  of  Josiah,  from  G42  to  611  B.  c.  It  is 
most  probable,  moreover,  that  the  prophecy 
was  delivered  before  the  18th  year  of  Jo- 
siah. 2.  The  son  of  Maaseiah  (Jer.  xxi. 
1),  and  sagan  or  second  priest  in  the  reign 
of  Zedekiah.  He  succeeded  Jehoiada  (Jer. 
xxix.  25,  26),  and  was  probably  a  ruler  of 
the  Temple,  whose  office  it  was,  among 
others,  to  punish  pretenders  to  the  gift  of 
prophecy.  In  this  capacity  he  was  appealed 
to  by  Shemaiah  the  Nehelamite  to  punish 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxix.  29).  Twice  was  he 
eent  from  Zedekiah  to  inquire  of  Jeremiah 
the  issue  of  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the 
Chaldeans  (Jer.  xxi.  1),  and  to  implore  him 
to  intercede  for  the  people  (Jer.  xxxvii.  3). 
On  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  he  was  taken 
and  slain  at  Riblah  (Jer.  lii.  24,  27 ;  2  K. 
XXV.  18,  21).  3.  Father  of  Josiah  2  (Zech. 
vi.  10),  and  of  Hen,  according  to  the  read- 
ing of  the  received  text  of  Zech.  tI.  14. 

Ze'phath,  the  earlier  name  (Judg.  i. 
17)  of  a  Canaanite  town,  which  after  its 
capture  and  destruction  was  called  by  the 
Israelites  Hormali.     [Hormah.] 

Zeph'athah,  The  Valley  of,  the 
spot  in  which  Asa  joined  battle  with  Zerah 
the  Ethiopian  (2  Chr.  xiv.  10  only). 

Ze'phi  (1  Chr.  i.  36).    [Zepho.] 

Ze'pho,  son  of  Eliphaz,  son  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  11),  and  one  of  the  "dukes," 
or  phylarchs,  of  the  Edoraites  (ver.  15). 
In  1  Chr.  i.  36  he  is  called  Zephi. 

Ze'phon,  Ziphiox,  the  son  of  Gad 
(Num.  XX vi.  15),  and  ancestor  of  the  family 
of  the  Zephoxites. 

Zer,  a  fortified  town  in  the  allotment  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35  only),  probably  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  S.  W.  side  of  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth. 

Ze'rah.  1.  A  son  of  Reuel,  son  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  13;  1  Chr.  i.  37),  and  one  of 
the  "  dukes,"  or  phylarchs,  of  the  Edomites 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  17).  2.  Less  properly,  Za- 
KAH,  twin  son,  with  his  elder  brother  Pha- 
rez,  of  Judah  and  Tamar  (Gen.  xxxviii.  30 ; 
1  Chr.  ii.  6;  Matt.  i.  3).  His  descendants 
were  called  Zarhites,  Ezrahites,  and  Izra- 
hites  (Num.  xxvi.  20;  IK.  ir.  31;  1  Chr. 
xxvii.  8,  11).  3.  Son  of  Simeon  (1  Chr. 
ir.  24),  called  Zohar  in  Gen.  xlvi.  10).  4. 
A  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of  Iddo  or  Adaiah 
(1  Chr.  vi.  21,  41  [Heb.  vi.  26]).  5.  The 
Ethiopian  or  Cushite,  an  invader  of  Judah, 
defeated  by  Asa  about  b.  c.  941.  [Asa.] 
Zerah  is  probably  the  Hebrew  name  of 
Usarken  I.,  second  king  of  the  Egyptian 
xxiid  dynasty ;  or  perhaps  more  probably 
Usarken  II.,  his  second  successor.  In  the 
14th  year  of  Asa,  Zerah,  the  Ethiopian, 
with  a  mighty  army  of  a  million,  invaded 
his  kingdom,  and  advanced  unopposed  in 
Uie  field  as  far  as  Maresbah.    The  invading 


army  had  swarmed  across  the  border  and 
devoured  the  Philistine  fields  before  Asa 
could  march  to  meet  it.  "  In  the  Valley 
of  Zephathah  at  Maresbah,"  the  two  armies 
met.  We  cannot  perfectly  determine  the 
site  of  the  battle.  From  the  prayer  of  Asa 
we  may  judge  that,  when  he  came  upon  the 
invading  army,  he  saw  its  hugeness,  and  so 
that,  as  he  descended  through  a  valley,  it 
lay  spread  out  beneath  him.  Tlie  Egyptian 
monuments  enable  us  to  picture  tlie  general 
disposition  of  Zerah's  army.  The  chariots 
formed  the  first  corps  in  a  single  or  double 
line;  behind  them,  massed  in  phalanxes, 
were  heavy-armed  troops ;  probably  on  the 
flanks  stood  archers  and  horsemen  in  light- 
er formations.  No  doubt  the  Ethiopian, 
confident  in  his  numbers,  disdained  to  at- 
tack the  Hebrews  or  clear  the  heights,  but 
waited  in  the  broad  valley,  or  the  plain. 
Asa's  prayer  before  the  battle  is  full  of  the 
noble  faith  of  the  age  of  the  Judges.  The 
chariots,  broken  by  the  charge  and  with 
horses  made  unmanageable  by  flights  of 
arrows,  must  have  been  forced  back  upon 
the  cumbrous  host  behind.  "  So  the  Lord 
smote  the  Ethiopians  before  Asa,  and  be- 
fore Judah ;  and  the  Ethiopians  fled.  And 
Asa  and  the  people  that  [were]  with  hlni 
pursued  them  unto  Gerar ;  and  [or  '  for '] 
the  Ethiopians  were  overthrown,  that  they 
could  not  recover  themselves."  So  com- 
plete was  the  overthrow,  that  the  Hebrews 
could  capture  and  spoil  the  cities  around 
Gerah,  which  must  have  been  in  alliance 
with  Zerah.  The  defeat  of  the  Egyptian 
army  is  without  parallel  in  the  history  of 
the  Jews.  On  no  other  occasion  did  an 
Israelite  army  meet  an  army  of  one  of  the 
great  powers  and  defeat  it. 

Zerahi'ah.  1.  A  priest,  son  of  tJzzi,  and 
ancestor  of  Ezra  the  Scribe  (1  Chr.  vi.  6, 
51  [Heb.  V.  32,  vi.  36];  Ezr.  vii.  4).  2. 
Father  of  Elihoenai  of  the  sons  of  Pahath 
Moab  (Ezr.  riii.  4). 

Ze'red  (Dent.  ii.  13,  14),  or  Za'red 
(Num.  xxi.  12),  a  brook  or  valley  running 
into  the  Dead  Sea  near  its  S.  E.  corner, 
which  Dr.  Robinson  with  some  probability 
suggests  as  identical  with  the  Wady  el-Ahsy. 
It  lay  between  Moab  and  Edom,  and  is  the 
limit  of  the  proper  term  of  the  Israelites' 
wandering  (Deut.  ii.  14). 

Zer'eda,  the  native  place  of  Jeroboam 
(1  K.  xi.  26).  Zereda  or  Zeredah  has  been 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  Zerldatiiah 
and  Zarthan  or  Zartanah.  But  the  two 
last  were  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  while 
Zeredah  was,  according  to  the  repeated 
statement  of  the  LXX.,  on  Mount  Ephraim. 

Zered'athah.    [Zarthan.J 

Zer'erath.    [Zarthan.] 

Ze'resh,  the  wife  of  Haman  the  Agagite 
(Esth.  V.  10,  14,  vi.  13). 

Ze'reth,  son  of  Ashur  the  founder  of 
Tekoa,  by  his  wife  Helah  (1  Chr.  iv.  7). 


ZEBI 


771 


ZIBA 


Zo'ri,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jeduthun  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chr.  xxv.  3). 

Ze'ror,  a  Benjamite,  ancestor  of  Kish  the 
father  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  ix.  1). 

Zeru'ah,  the  mother  of  Jeroboam  the 
son  of  Nebat  (1  K.  xi.  2G). 

Zerub'babel  {horn  at  Babel,  i.  e.  Bab- 
ylon), tlie  head  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  at 
the  time  of  the  return  from  the  Babylonish 
Captivity  in  the  first  year  of  Cyrus.  The 
history  of  Zerubbabel  in  the  Scriptures  is  as 
follows  ;  In  the  first  year  of  Cyrus  he  was 
living  at  Babylon,  and  was  the  recognized 
prince  of  Judah  in  the  Captivity,  what  in 
later  times  was  called  "  the  Prince  of  the 
Captivity,"  or  "  the  Prince."  On  the  is- 
suing of  Cyrus's  decree  he  immediately 
availed  himself  of  it,  and  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  those  of  his  countrymen 
*'  whose  spirit  God  had  raised  to  go  up  to 
build  the  house  of  the  Lord  which  is  in 
Jerusalem."  It  is  probable  that  he  was  in 
the  king  of  Babylon's  service,  both  from 
his  having,  like  Daniel  and  the  three  chil- 
dren, received  a  Chaldee  name  [Shesh- 
bazzar],  and  from  the  fact  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Persian  king  to  the  office  of 
governor  of  Judaea.  On  arriving  at  Jeru- 
salem, Zerubbabel's  great  work,  which  he 
set  about  immediately,  was  the  rebuilding 
of  the  Temple.  In  the  second  month  of 
the  second  year  of  their  return,  the  foun- 
dation was  laid  with  all  the  pomp  which 
they  could  command.  The  Samaritans  or 
Cutheans  put  in  a  claim  to  join  with  the 
Jews  in  rebuilding  the  Temple ;  and  when 
Zerubbabel  and  his  companions  refused  to 
admit  them  into  partnership  they  tried  to 
hinder  them  from  building,  and  hired  coun- 
sellors to  frustrate  their  purpose.  They 
were  successful  in  putting  a  stop  to  the 
work  during  the  seven  remaining  years  of 
the  reign  of  Cyrus,  and  through  the  eight 
years  of  Cambyses  and  Smerdis.  Nor  does 
Zerubbabel  appear  quite  blameless  for  this 
long  delay.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
building  the  Temple  were  not  such  as  need 
have  stopped  the  work;  and  during  this 
long  suspension  of  sixteen  years  Zerubba- 
bel and  the  rest  of  the  people  had  been  busy 
in  building  costly  houses  for  themselves. 
But  in  tlie  second  year  of  Darius  light 
dawned  upon  the  darkness  of  the  colony 
from  Babylon.  In  that  year  —  it  was  the 
most  memor.able  event  in  Zerubbabel's  life 
—  the  spirit  of  prophecy  suddenly  blazed 
up  with  a  most  brilliant  light  amongst  the 
returned  captives.  Their  words  fell  like 
sparks  upon  tinder.  In  a  moment  Zerub- 
babel, roused  from  his  apathy,  threw  his 
whole  strength  into  the  work,  zealously 
seconded  by  Jeshua  and  all  the  people. 
Undeterred  by  a  fresh  attempt  of  their  ene- 
mies to  hinder  the  progress  of  the  building, 
they  went  on  with  the  work  even  while  a 
reference  was  being  made  to  Dariits ;  and 


when,  after  the  original  decree  of  Cyrus  hnd 
been  found  at  Ecbatana,  a  most  gracious 
and  favorable  decree  was  issued  by  Darius, 
enjoining  Tatnai  and  Shethar-boznai  to  as- 
sist the  Jews  with  wliatsoever  tliey  had  need 
of  at  the  king's  expense.  After  much  op- 
position [see  Nehemiah]  .and  many  hin- 
derances  and  delays,  the  Temple  was  at 
length  finished,  in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius, 
and  was  dedicated  with  much  pomp  and 
rejoicing.  [Temple.]  The  only  other 
works  of  Zerubbabel  which  we  learn  from 
Scripture  are  the  restoration  of  the  courses 
of  priests  and  Levites,  and  of  the  provision 
for  their  maintenance,  according  to  tlie  in- 
stitution of  David  (Ezr.  vi.  18;  Neh.  xii. 
47)  ;  the  registering  the  returned  captives 
according  to  their  genealogies  (Neh.  vii. 
5)  ;  and  the  keeping  of  a  Passover  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Darius,  with  whicli  last 
event  ends  all  that  we  know  of  the  life  of 
Zerubbabel.  His  apocryphal  history  is  told 
in  1  Esdr.  iii.-vii.  The  exact  parentage 
of  Zerubbabel  is  a  little  obscure,  from  liia 
being  always  called  the  son  of  Shealtiel 
(Ezr.  iii.  2,  8,  v.  2,  &c. ;  Hag.  i.  1,  12,  14, 
&c.),  and  appearing  as  such  in  the  geneal- 
ogies of  Christ  (Matt.  i.  12;  Luke  iii.  27), 
whereas  in  1  Chr.  iii.  19,  he  is  represented 
as  the  son  of  Pedaiah,  Shealtiel  or  Sala- 
thiel's  brother,  and  consequently  as  Sala- 
thiel's  nephew.  It  is  of  more  moment  to 
remark  that,  while  St.  Matthew  deduces 
his  line  from  Jechonias  and  Solomon,  St. 
Luke  deduces  it  through  Neri  and  Nathan. 
Zerubbabel  was  the  legal  successor  and 
heir  of  Jeconiah's  royal  estate,  the  grand- 
son of  Neri,  and  the  lineal  descendant  of 
Nathan  the  son  of  David.  In  the  N.  T, 
the  name  appears   in  the  Greek  form  of 

ZOKOBABEL. 

Zerui'ah,  the  mother  of  the  three  lead- 
ing heroes  of  David's  army  —  Abishai,  Joab, 
and  Asahel  —  known  as  the  "  sons  of  Zer- 
uiah."  She  and  Abigail  are  specified  in  I 
Chr,  ii.  13-17  as  "sisters  of  the  sons  of 
Jesse"  (v.  16).  The  expression  is  in  itself 
enough  to  raise  a  suspicion  tliat  she  was 
not  a  daughter  of  Jesse,  a  suspicion  which 
is  corroborated  by  tlie  statement  of  2  Sam. 
xvii.  25,  that  Abigail  was  the  daughter  of 
Nahash.  [Nahash.]  Of  Zeruiah's  hus- 
band there  is  no  mention  in  the  Bible. 

Ze'tham,  tiie  son  of  Laadan,  a  Ger- 
shonite  Levite  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  8), 

Ze'than,  a  Benjamite  of  the  sons  of 
Bilhan  (1  Chr.  vii.  10). 

Ze'thar,  one  of  the  seven  eunuchs  of 
Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10). 

Zi'a,  one  of  the  Gadites  who  dwelt  in 
Bashan  (1  Chr.  v.  13). 

Zi'ba,  a  person  who  plays  a  prominent 
part,  though  with  no  credit  to  himself,  in 
one  of  the  episodes  of  David's  history  (2 
Sam.  ix.  2-12,  xvi.  1-4,  xix.  17,  29).  [Mk- 

FUIBOSH£XU,J[ 


ZTttEON 


T7fi 


ZIDON 


Zib'eon,  father  of  Anah,  whose  daughter 
Aholibaniah  was  Esau's  wife  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
2).  Although  called  a  Hivite,  he  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  Zibeon  the  son  of  Seir  the 
Horite  (vers.  20,  24,  29;  1  Chr.  i.  38,  40). 

Zib'ia,  a  Benjaniite  apparently  the  son  of 
Shaharaim,  by  his  wife  Hodesh  (1  Chr. 
vii.  9). 

Zib'iah,  a  native  of  Beersheba,  and 
mother  of  king  Joash  (2  K.  xii.  1 ;  2  Chr. 
xiv.  1). 

Zich'ri.  1.  Son  of  Ishar  the  son  of 
Kohath  (Ex.  vi.  21).  2.  A  Benjaniite  of 
the  sons  of  Shimhi  (1  Chr.  viii.  19).  3. 
A  Benjamite  of  the  sons  of  Shashak  (1  Chr. 
Tiii.  23).  4.  A  Benjamite  of  the  sons  of 
Jcroham  (1  Chr.  viii.  27).  5.  Son  of 
Asaph,  elsewhere  called  Zabdi  and  Zac- 
CUR  (1  Chr.  ix.  15).  6.  A  descendant  of 
Eliezer  the  son  of  Moses  (1  Chr.  xxvi.  25). 
7.  The  fother  of  Eliezer,  the  chief  of  the 
Keubenites  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chr. 
xxvii.  16).  8.  One  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
father  of  Amasiah  (2  Chr.  xvii.  16).  9. 
Father  of  Elishaphat,  one  of  the  conspira- 
tors with  Jehoiada  (2  Chr.  xxiii.  1).  10. 
An  Ephraimite  hero  in  the  invading  army 
of  Pekali,  the  son  of  Remaliah  (2  Chr. 
xxviii.  7).  11.  Father  or  ancestor  of  Joel 
14  (Neh.  xi.  9).  12.  A  priest  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Abijah,  in  the  days  of  Joiakim  the 
eon  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  17). 

Zid'diiu,  a  fortified  town  in  the  allot- 
ment of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  85). 

Zidki'jah,  a  priest,  or  family  of  priests, 
who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  X.  1). 

Zi'don,  or  Si'don  (Gen.  x.  15,  19; 
Josh.  xi.  8,  xix.  28 ;  Judg.  i.  31,  xviii.  28 ; 
Joel  iii.  4  (iv.  4) ;  Is.  xxiii.  2,  4,  12;  Jer. 
XXV.  22,  xxvii.  3;  Ez.  xxviii.  21,  22;  Zech. 
ix.  2;  Matt.  xi.  21,  22,  xv.  21;  Luke  vi. 
17,  X.  13,  14 ;  Mark  iii.  8,  vii.  24,  31).  An 
ancient  and  wealthy  city  of  Phoenicia,  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
less  than  20  English  miles  to  the  north  of 
Tyre.  Its  Hebrew  name,  Tsiddn,  signifies 
*'  Fishing,"  or  "  Fishery."  Its  modern  name 
is  Saida.  It  is  situate  in  the  narrow  plain 
between  the  Lebanon  and  the  sea.  From 
a  Biblical  point  of  view,  this  city  is  inferior 
in  interest  to  its  neighbor  Tyre ;  though  in 
early  times  Sidon  was  the  more  influential 
of  the  two  cities.  This  is  shadowed  forth  in 
tlie  Book  of  Genesis  by  the  statement  that 
Zidon  was  the  first-born  of  Canaan  (Gen. 
X.  15),  and  is  implied  in  the  name  of 
"  Great  Zidon,"  or  "  the  Metropolis  Zidon," 
which  is  twice  given  to  it  in  Joshua  (xi.  8, 
xix.  28).  It  is  confirmed,  likewise,  by 
Zidonians  being  used  as  the  generic  name 
of  the  Phoenicans,  or  Canaanites  (Josh, 
xiii.  6 ;  Judg.  xviii.  7)  ;  and  by  the  reason 
assigned  for  there  being  no  deliverer  to 
Laish  when  its  peaceable  inhabitants  were 
massacred,  that  "  it  was  far  from  Zidon  ;  " 


whereas,  if  Tyre  had  been  then  of  equal 
importance  it  would  have  been  more  natural 
to  mention  Tyre,  which  professed  substan- 
tially the  same  religion,  and  was  almost 
twenty  miles  nearer  (Judg.  xviii.  28). 
From  the  time  pf  Solomon  to  the  invasion 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  Zidon  is  not  often  di- 
rectly mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  subordinate  to  Tyre. 
When  the  people  called  "  Zidonians "  is 
mentioned,  it  sometimes  seems  that  the 
Phoenicians  of  the  plain  of  Zitlon  are 
meant  (1  K.  v.  6,  xvi.  31,  xi.  1,  5,  33;  2 
K.  xxiii.  13).  There  is  no  doubt,  however, 
that  Zidon  itself,  the  city  properly  so  called, 
was  threatened  by  Joel  (iii.  4)  and  Jere- 
miah (xxvii.  3).  Still,  all  that  is  known 
respecting  it  during  the  epoch  is  very 
scanty,  amounting  to  scarcely  more  than 
that  one  of  its  sources  of  gain  was  trade 
in  slaves,  in  which  the  inhabitants  did 
not  shrink  from  selling  inhabitants  of 
Palestine;  that  the  city  was  governed  by 
kings  (Jer.  xxvii.  3  and  xxv.  22) ;  that, 
previous  to  the  invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
it  had  furnished  mariners  to  Tyre  (Ez.  xxvii. 
8) ;  that  at  one  period  it  was  subject,  in 
some  sense  or  other,  to  Tyre ;  and  that, 
when  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria  invaded 
Phoenicia,  Zidon  seized  the  opportunity  to 
revolt.  During  the  Persian  domination, 
Zidon  seems  to  have  attained  its  highest 
point  of  prosperity ;  and  it  is  recorded  that, 
towards  the  close  of  that  period,  it  far  ex- 
celled all  other  Phoenician  cities  in  wealth 
and  importance.  It  is  very  probable  that 
the  long  siege  of  Tyre  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  tended  not  only  to  weaken  and  impov- 
erish Tyre,  but  likewise  to  enrich  Zidon  at 
the  expense  of  Tyre.  Its  prosperity  was 
suddenly  cut  short  by  an  unsuccessful  re- 
volt against  Persia,  which  ended  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  town  (b.  c.  351).  The 
principal  circumstances  were  these  :  While 
the  Persians  were  making  preparations  in 
Phoenicia  to  put  down  the  revolt  in  Egypt, 
some  Persian  satraps  and  generals  behaved 
oppressively  and  insolently  to  Sidonians  in 
the  Sidonian  division  of  the  city  of  Tripolis. 
On  this  the  Sidonian  people  projected  a 
revolt ;  and  having  first  concerted  arrange- 
ments with  other  Phoenician  cities,  and 
made  a  treaty  with  Nectanebus,  they  put 
their  designs  into  execution.  But  their 
king  Tennes  proved  a  traitor  to  their  cause 
—  and  in  performance  of  a  compact  with 
Ochus,  he  betrayed  into  the  king's  power 
one  hundred  of  the  most  distinguished 
citizens  of  Sidon,  who  were  all  shot  to 
death  with  javelins.  Five  hundred  other 
citizens,  who  went  out  to  the  king  with 
ensigns  of  supplication,  shared  the  same 
fate ;  and  by  concert  between  Tennes  and 
Mentor,  the  Persian  troops  were  admitted 
within  the  gates,  and  occupied  the  city 
walls.     The  Sidonians,  before  the  arrival 


/ 


ZIDONIANS 


of  Ochns,  had  burnt  their  vessels  to  pre- 
vent any  one's  leaving  the  town ;  and  wlien 
they  saw  themselves  surrounded  by  the 
Persian  troops,  tliey  adopted  the  desperate 
resolution  of  shutting  themselves  up  with 
their  families,  and  setting  fire  each  man  to 
his  own  house  (b.  c.  351).  Forty  thousand 
persons  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the 
Haraes.  Sidon,  however,  gradually  recov- 
ered from  the  blow,  and  became  again 
a  fiourishing  town.  It  is  about  fifty  miles 
distant  from  Nazareth,  and  is  the  most 
northern  city  which  is  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  Christ's  journeys. 

Zido'nians,  the  inhabitants  of  Zidon. 
They  were  among  the  nations  of  Canaan 
left  to  practise  the  Israelites  in  the  art  of 
war  (Judg.  iii.  3),  and  colonies  of  them 
appear  to  have  spread  up  into  the  hill 
country  from  Lebanon  to  Misrephoth-maim 
(Josh.  xiii.  4,  6),  whence  in  later  times  they 
hewed  cedar-trees  for  David  and  Solomon 
(1  Chr.  xxii.  4).  They  oppressed  the  Isra- 
elites on  their  first  entrance  into  the  coun- 
try (Judg.  X.  12),  and  appear  to  have  lived 
a  luxurious,  reckless  life  (Judg.  xviil.  7)  ; 
they  were  skilful  in  hewing  timber  (1  K.  v. 
6),  and  were  employed  for  tiiis  purpose  by 
Solomon.  They  were  idolaters,  and  wor- 
shipped Ashtoreth  as  their  tutelary  goddess 
(1  K.  xi.  5,  33;  2  K.  xxiii.  13),  as  well  as 
the  sun-god  Baal,  from  whom  their  king 
was  named  (1  K.  xvi.  31). 

Zif  (1  K.  vi.  37).     [Month.] 

Zi'ha.  1.  The  children  of  Ziha  were  a 
family  of  Nethinim  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezr.  ii.  43;  Neh.  vii.  46).  2. 
Ciiief  of  the  Nethinim  in  Ophel  (Neh.  xi. 
21).  The  name  is  probably  identical  with 
the  preceding. 

Zlk'lag,  a  place  which  possesses  a 
special  interest  from  its  having  been  the 
residence  and  the  private  property  of  Da- 
vid. It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  catalogue 
of  the  towns  of  Judah  in  Josh,  xv.,  and 
occurs,  in  the  same  connection,  amongst 
the  places  which  were  allotted  out  of  the 
territory  of  Judah  to  Simeon  (xix.  6).  We 
next  encounter  it  in  the  possession  of  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6),  when  it  was, 
at  David's  request,  bestowed  upon  him  by 
Achish  king  of  Gath.  He  resided  there 
for  a  year  and  four  months  (ib.  7 ;  1  Sam. 
xxxi.  14,  26;  1  Chr.  xii.  1,20).  It  was 
there  he  received  the  news  of  Saul's  death 
(2  Sam.  i.  1,  iv.  10).  He  then  relinquished 
it  for  Hebron  (ii.  1).  Ziklag  is  finally 
mentioned  as  being  reinhabited  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Judah  after  their  return  from  the 
Captivity  (Neh.  xi.  28).  The  situation  of 
the  town  is  diflacult  to  determine,  and  we 
only  know  for  certain  that  it  was  in  the 
south  country. 

Zil'lah.    [Lamech.] 

Zil'pah,  a  Syrian  given  by  Laban  to  his 
ditugliter  Leah  as  an  attendant  (Gen.  xxix. 


773  ZIOII 

24),  and  by  Leah  to  Jacob  as  a  concubine. 
She  was  the  mother  of  Gad  and  Asher 
(Gen.  XXX.  9-13,  xxzv.  26,  xxxvii.  2,  xlvi. 
18). 

Zil'thai.  1.  A  Benjamite,  of  the  sons 
of  Sliimhi  (1  Chr.  viii.  20).  2.  One  of  the 
captains  of  thousands  of  Manassch  wlio 
deserted  to  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chr.  xii.  20). 

Zim'mah.  1.  A  Gerslionite  Levitc, 
son  of  Jahath  (1  Chr.  vi.  20).  2.  Anotlicr 
Gerslionite,  son  of  Shimci  (1  Chr.  vi.  42) ; 
possibly  the  same  as  the  preceding.  3. 
Father  or  ancestor  of  Joah,  a  Gerslionite 
in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chr.  xxix.  li'}. 
At  a  much  eariier  period  we  find  the  same 
collocation  of  names,  Zimmah  and  Joali  as 
father  and  son  (1  Chr.  vi.  20). 

Zim'ran,  the  eldest  son  of  Ketnrah 
(Gen.  XXV.  2 ;  1  Chr.  i.  32).  His  descend- 
ants are  not  mentioned,  nor  is  any  hint 
given  that  he  was  the  founder  of  a  tribe. 

Zim'ri.  1.  The  sonof  Salu,  a  Simeon- 
ite  chieftain,  slain  by  Phinehas  with  the 
Midianitish  princess  Cozbi  (Num.  xxv.  14). 
2.  Fifth  sovereign  of  the  separate  kingdom 
of  Israel,  of  which  he  occupied  the  throne 
for  the  brief  period  of  seven  days  in  the 
year  b.  c.  930  or  929.  Originally  in  com- 
mand of  half  the  chariots  in  the  royal  army, 
he  gained  the  crown  by  the  murder  of  king 
Elah  son  of  Baasha.  But  the  army  which 
at  that  time  was  besieging  the  Philistine 
town  of  Gibbethon,  when  they  heard  of 
Elah's  murder,  procljiimed  their  general. 
Omri,  king.  He  immediately  marched 
against  Tirzah,  and  took  tlie  city.  Zjinri 
retreated  into  the  innermost  part  of  the 
late  king's  palace,  set  it  on  fire,  and  perished 
in  the  ruins  (1  K.  xvi.  9-20).  3.  One  of 
the  five  sons  of  Zerah  the  son  of  Judah  (1 
Chr.  ii.  6).  4.  Son  of  Jehoadah  and  de- 
scendant of  Saul  (1  Chr.  viii.  36,  ix.  42). 
5.  An  obscure  name,  mentioned  (Jor.  xxv. 
25)  in  probable  connection  with  Dedan, 
Tema,  Buz,  Arabia,  the  "mingled  people." 
Nothing  further  is  known  respecting  Zimri, 
but  it  may  possibly  be  the  same  as,  or 
derived  from,  Zimrak,  which  see. 

Zin,  the  name  given  to  a  portion  of  the 
desert  tract  between  the  Dead  Sea,  Ghfir, 
and  Arabah  on  the  E.,  and  the  general 
plateau  of  the  Tih  which  stretches  west- 
ward. The  country  in  question  consists 
of  two  or  three  successive  terraces  of 
mountain  converging  to  an  acute  angle  at 
the  Dead  Sea's  southern  verge,  towards 
which  also  they  slope.  Kadesh  lay  in  it, 
and  here  also  Idumea  was  conterminous 
with  Judah ;  since  Kadesh  was  a  city  in  the 
border  of  Edom  (see  Kadesh  ;  Num.  xiii. 
21,  XX.  1,  xxvii.  14,  xxxiii.  86,  xxxiv.  3; 
Josh.  XV.  1). 

Zi'na,  ZizAH,  the  second  son  of  Shimci 
(1  Chr.  xxiii.  10,  coinp.  11)  the  Gershonite. 

Zi'on.     [Jerusalem.] 

Zi'or,  a  town  in  the  mountain  district  of 


ZIPH 


rr4 


ZOBA 


Judah  (Josh.  xv.  54).  It  belongs  to  the 
same  group  with  Hebron. 

Ziph,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Judah. 
1.  In  tlie  south ;  named  between  Ithnan 
and  Telera  (Josh.  xv.  24).  It  does  not  ap- 
pear again  in  the  history,  nor  has  any  trace 
of  it  been  met  with.  2.  In  the  higliland 
district ;  named  between  Carmel  and  Juttah 
(Josh.  XV.  55).  The  pLaee  is  immortalized 
by  its  connection  with  David  (1  Sam.  xxiii. 
14,  15,  24,  xxvi.  2).  These  passages  sliow, 
that  at  that  time  it  had  near  it  a  wilderness 
(i.  e.  a  waste  pasture-ground)  and  a  wood. 
The  latter  has  disappeared,  but  tlie  former 
remains.  The  name  of  Zif  is  found  about 
three  miles  S.  of  Hebron,  attached  to  a 
rounded  hill  of  some  100  feet  in  height, 
which  is  called  Tell  Ztf.  3.  Son  of  Jeha- 
leleel  (1  Chr.  iv.  16). 

Zi'phah,  another  son  of  Jehaleleel  (1 
Chr.  iv.  16). 

Zi'phims,  The,  the  inhabitants  of 
Ziph  2,  In  this  form  the  name  is  found 
in  the  A.  V.  only  in  the  title  of  Ps.  liv.  In 
the  narrative  it  occurs  in  the  more  usual 
form  of 

Zi'phites,  The,  1  Sam.  zxlii.  19; 
xxvi.  1. 

Ziph'ion,  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi.  16) ; 
elsewhere  called  Zephon. 

Ziph'ron,  a  point  in  the  north  boundary 
of  the  Promised  Land  as  specified  by  Moses 
(Num.  xxxiv.  9). 

Zip'por,  fatlier  of  Balak  king  of  Moab 
(Num.  xxii.  2,  4,  10,  16,  xxiii.  18 ;  Josh, 
xxiv.  9;  Judg.  xi.  25).  Whether  he  was 
the  "  former  king  of  Moab"  alluded  to  in 
Num.  xxi.  26,  we  are  not  told. 

Zippo'rah,  daughter  of  Reuel  or  Je- 
thro,  the  priest  of  Midian,  wife  of  Moses, 
and  mother  of  his  two  sons  Gershom  and 
Eliezer  (Ex.  ii.  21,  iv.  25,  xviii.  2;  corap. 
6).  Tlie  only  incident  recorded  in  her  life 
is  that  of  the  circumcision  of  Gershom  (iv. 
54-26). 

Zith'ri,  properly  "Sithri;"  one  of  the 
sons  of  Uzziel,  the  son  of  Kohath  (Ex.  vi. 
22).  In  Ex.  vi.  21,  "Zithri"  should  be 
"Zichri,"  as  in  A.  V.  of  1611. 

Ziz,  The  Cliff  of,  the  pass  by  which 
the  horde  of  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and 
Mehunim,  made  their  way  up  from  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  wilderness 
of  Judah  near  Tekoa  (2  Chr.  xx.  16  only ; 
comp.  20).  It  was  the  pass  of  Ain  Jidy 
—  the  very  same  route  which  is  taken  by 
the  Arabs  in  their  marauding  expeditions 
at  tlie  present  day. 

Zi'za.  1.  Son  of  Shiphi,  a  chief  of  the 
Simeonites  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (1 
Chr.  iv.  37).  2.  Son  of  Rehoboam  by 
Maachah,  the  granddaughter  of  Absalom 
(2  Chr.  xi.  20). 

Zi'zah,  a  Gershonite  Levite,  second  son 
of  Shimei  (1  Chr.  xxiii.  11) ;  called  Ziha 
in  ver.  10, 


Zo'ail,  an  ancient  city  of  Lower  KK>i>N 
called  Tanis  by  the  Greeks.  It  stooTl  on 
the  eastern  hank  of  the  Tanitic  brnncli  of 
the  Nile.  Its  name  indicates  a  place  of 
departure  from  a  country,  and  hence  it  has 
been  identified  with  Avaris,  the  capital  of 
the  Sheplierd  dynasty  in  Egypt.  We  read 
in  the  book  of  Numbers  that  "  Hebron  was 
built  seven  years  before  Zoan  in  Egypt" 
(xiii.  22),  which  tends  to  establish  tho 
identity  of  Avaris  and  Zoan,  since  we  kno  v 
that  Hebron  M'as  already  built  in  Abra* 
ham's  time,  and  the  Shepherd-invasion  nfay 
be  dated  about  the  same  period.  Sup- 
posing that  the  Pharaoh  who  oppressed  the 
Israelites  belonged  to  the  Shepherds,  it 
would  be  natural  for  him  to  reside  at  Zoan ; 
and  this  city  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  Plagues  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  city  spoken  of  ia 
the  narrative  in  Exodus  as  that  where  Pha- 
raoh dwelt  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  42,  43).  Tanis 
gave  its  name  to  the  xxist  and  xxiiid  dy- 
nasties,  and  hence  its  mention  in  Isaiah 
(xix.  18,  XXX.  4),  "  I  will  set  fire  in  Zoan  '* 
(xxx.  14),  where  it  occurs  among  the  cities 
to  be  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Zo'ar,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
the  land  of  Canaan.  Its  original  name  was 
Bela  (Gen.  xiv.  2,  8).  It  was  in  intunate 
connection  with  the  cities  of  the  "  plain  of 
Jordan" — Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  and 
Zeboiim  (see  also  xiii.  10 ;  but  not  x.  19). 
In  the  general  destruction  of  the  cities  of 
the  plain,  Zoar  was  spared  to  atford  slielter 
to  Lot  (xix.  22,  23,  30).  It  is  mentioned 
in  the  account  of  the  death  of  Moses  as  one 
of  the  landmarks  which  bounded  his  view 
from  Pisgah  (Deut.  xxxiv.  3),  and  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  known  in  the  time  both 
of  Isaiah  (xv.  5)  and  Jeremiah  (xlviii.  34). 
These  are  all  the  notices  of  Zoar  contained 
in  the  Bible.  It  was  situated  in  the  same 
district  with  th%  four  cities  already  men- 
tioned, viz.  in  the  "  plain  "  or  "  circle  "  '*  of 
the  Jordan,"  and  the  narrative  of  Gen.  xix. 
evidently  implies  that  it  was  very  near  to 
Sodom  (ver.  15,  23,  27).  The  definite  po- 
sition of  Sodom  is,  and  probably  will  al- 
ways be,  a  mystery ;  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  was  at 
the  north  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  that 
the  cities  of  the  plain  must  therefore  have 
been  situated  there  instead  of  at  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  lake,  as  it  is  generally  takca 
for  granted  they  were.     [Sodom.] 

Zo'ba,  or  Zo'bah,  the  name  of  a  por- 
tion of  Syria,  which  formed  a  separate  king- 
dom in  the  time  of  the  Jewish  monarchs, 
Saul,  David,  and  Solomon.  It  probably 
was  eastward  of  Coele-Syria,  and  extended 
thence  north-east  and  east,  towards,  if  not 
even  to,  the  Euphrates.  We  first  hear  of 
Zobah  in  the  time  of  Saul,  when  we  find  it 
mentioned  as  a  separate  count-ry,  governed 
apparently  by  a  number  of  kings  who  owned 


ZOBEBAH 


775 


ZUZIMS 


no  common  head  or  chief  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47). 
Some  forty  years  later  than  this,  we  find 
Zobah  under  a  single  ruler,  Hadadezor,  son 
of  Rehob.  He  had  wars  with  Toi,  king  of 
Hamath  (2  Sam.  \iii.  10),  and  held  various 
petty  Syrian  princes  as  vassals  under  his 
yoke  (2  Sam.  x.  19).  David  (2  Sam.  viii. 
3)  attacked  Hadadezer  in  the  early  part  of 
his  reign,  defeated  his  army,  and  took  from 
him  a  thousand  chariots,  seven  hundred 
(seven  thousand,  1  Chr.  xviii.  4)  horsemen, 
and  20.000  footmen.  Hadadezer's  allies, 
the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  were  defeated  in  a 
great  battle.  The  wealth  of  Zobah  is  very 
apparent  in  the  narrative  of  this  campaign. 
It  is  not  clear  whether  the  Syrians  of  Zobah 
Bubmittcd  and  became  tributary  on  this  oc- 
eision,  or  whether,  although  defeated,  they 
were  able  to  maintain  their  independence. 
At  any  rate,  a  few  years  later  they  were 
again  in  arras  against  David.  The  war  was 
provoked  by  the  Ammonites,  who  hired  the 
services  of  the  Syrians  of  Zobah.  The  al- 
lies were  defeated  in  a  great  battle  by  Joab, 
who  engaged  the  Syrians  in  person  (2  Sam. 
X.  9).  Hadadezer,  upon  this,  made  a  last 
effort  (I  Chr.  xix.  16).  A  battle  was  fought 
near  Helam,  where  the  Syrians  of  Zobah 
and  their  new  allies  were  defeated  with 
great  slaughter.  Zobah,  however,  though 
subdued,  continued  to  cause  trouble  to  the 
Jewish  kings.  A  man  of  Zobah,  Kezon, 
son  of  Eliadah,  made  himself  master  of 
Damascus,  where  he  proved  a  fierce  ad- 
versary to  Israel  all  through  the  reign  of 
Solomon  (1  K.  xi.  23-25).  Solomon  also 
was,  it  would  seem,  engaged  in  a  war  with 
Zobah  itself  (2  Chr.  viii.  3).  This  is  the 
last  that  we  hear  of  Zobah  in  Scripture. 
The  name,  however,  is  found  at  a  later  date 
in  the  Inscriptions  of  Assyria,  where  the 
kingdom  of  Zobah  seems  to  intervene  be- 
tween Hamath  and  Damascus. 

Zobe'bah.,  son  of  Coz,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chr.  iv.  8). 

Zo'har.  1.  Father  of  Ephron  the  Hit- 
tite  (Gen.  xxiii.  8,  xxv.  9).  2.  One  of  the 
sons  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10 ;  Bx.  vi.  15)  ; 
called  Zeraii  in  1  Chr.  iv.  24. 

Zo'heleth,  The  Stone.  This  was  "by 
En  Rogel"  (1  K.  i.  9);  and  therefore,  if 
En  Rogel  be  the  modern  Um-ed-Deraj,  this 
stone,  "  where  Adonijah  slew  sheep  and 
oxen,"  was  in  all  likelihood  not  far  from 
the  well  of  the  Virgin. 

Zo'heth,  son  of  Ishi  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah (1  Chr.  iv.  20). 

Zo'pliah,  son  of  Helem,  or  Hotham, 
the  son  of  Heber,  an  Asherite  (1  Chr.  vii. 
35,  3G). 

Zo'phai,  a  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  El- 
kanali  and  ancestor  of  Samuel  (1  Chr.  vi. 
26  [11]).     In  ver.  35  he  is  called  Zcph. 

Zo'phar,  one  of  the  three  friends  of  Job 
(Job  ii.  11,  xi.  1,  XX.  1,  xlii.  9). 


Zo'phim,  The  Field  of,  a  spot  on  or 
near  the  top  of  Pisgah,  from  which  Balaam 
had  his  second  view  of  the  encampment  of 
Israel  (Num.  xxiii.  14).  The  position  of 
the  field  of  Zophim  is  not  defined.  May  it 
not  be  the  same  place  which  later  in  tho 
history  is  mentioned  as  Mizpah-Moab? 

Zo  rah,  a  town  in  the  allotment  of  tho 
tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  41).  It  is  previ- 
ously mentioned  (xv.  33)  in  the  cataloguo 
of  Judah,  among  the  places  in  the  district 
of  the  Sliefelah  (A.  V.  Zoreali).  It  w.as 
the  residence  of  Manoah  and  the  native 
place  of  Samson.  It  is  mentioned  amongst 
the  places  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chr. 
xi.  10).  It  is  perhaps  identical  with  tho 
modern  village  of  Sur'ah. 

Zo'rathites,  The,  i.  e.  the  people  of 
ZoRAH,  mentioned  in  1  Chr.  iv.  2  as  de- 
scended from  Shobal. 

Zo'reah.    [Zorah.] 

Zo'rites,  The,  are  named  in  the  gene- 
alogies of  Judali  (1  Chr.  ii.  54)  apparently 
amongst  the  descendants  of  Salma  and  near 
connections  of  Joab. 

Zorob'abel  (Matt.  1.  12,  13 ;  Luke  iii. 
27).     [Zerubbabel.] 

^u[ar,  father  of  Nethaneel  the  chief  of 
the  tribe  of  Issachar  at  the  time  of  the  Ex- 
odus (Num.  i.  8,  ii.  5,  vii.  18,  23,  x.  15). 

Zuph,  The  Land  of,  a  district  at 
which  Saul  and  his  servant  arrived  after 
passing  through  those  of  Shalisha,  of  Sh.i- 
lim,  and  of  the  Benjamites  (1  Sam.  ix.  5 
only).  It  evidently  contained  the  city  in 
which  they  encountered  Samuel  (ver.  C), 
and  that  again  was  certainly  not  far  from 
the  "  tomb  of  Rachel."  It  may  perhaps  bo 
identified  with  Soba,  a  well-known  placo 
about  7  miles  due  west  of  Jerusalem. 

Zuph,  a  Kohathite  Levite,  ancestor  of 
Elkanah  and  Samuel  (1  Sam.  i.  1 ;  1  Chr.  vi. 
35).     In  1  Chr.  vi.  26  he  is  called  Zopiiai. 

Zur.  1.  Father  of  Cozbi  (Num.  xxv. 
15),  and  one  of  the  five  princes  of  Midian 
who  were  slain  by  the  Israelites  when  Ba- 
laam fell  (Num.  xxxi.  8.)  2.  SonofJehiel 
the  founder  of  Gibeon  (1  Chr.  viii.  30,  ix. 
30). 

Zu'riel,  son  of  Abihail,  and  chief  of  tho 
Merarite  Levitcs  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus 
(Num.  iii.  35). 

Zurishad'dai,  father  of  Shelumiel,  tln» 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  at  tlie  time  of 
the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  6,  ii.  12,  vii.  36,  41,  x. 
19). 

Zu'zims,  The,  an  ancient  people,  who, 
lying  in  the  path  of  Chedorlaomer  and  his 
allies,  were  attacked  and  overthrown  by 
them  (Gen,  xiv.  5).  The  Zuzims  perhaps 
inhabited  the  country  of  the  Anuuonite.s, 
and  were  identical  with  the  Zamzummim, 
who  are  known  to  have  been  exterminated 
and  succeeded  in  their  land  by  the  Am- 
monites,    [Zamzijmmim.] 


776 

THE  JEWISH  CALENDAR. 


CORRESPOXDINO  DATES  FOB 

Three  Years. 

Jewish  Calekdar 
(In  the  Sacred  Order  of  the  Months). 

A.M.  5623. 
A.D.   186.3. 

A.  M.  5024. 
A.D.  1804. 

A.  M.  6025. 
A.D.  1865. 

Mar.  21  .  .  . 
Apr.  4, 5, 10, 11 
Apr,  19  .  .  . 

Apr.    7  .  .  .  . 
Apr.  21, 22, 27, 28 

Mnr.  28  ...  . 
Apr.  11,12,17,18 

I.  ABIB  OB  NISAN.    April. 
1.  New  Moon. 

15, 16, 21,  il.    PAS30VKB  Days,  1,  2,  7,  last. 
30.  New  Moon. 

IT.  JYAK  (Yiah).    May. 
1.  New  Moon. 

10.  Death  of  Elijah  (Lag  B'  Omer).    Fast. 
12. 

28.  Death  of  Samuel.    Ftat. 
30.  New  Moon. 

III.  SIVAN.    Jnne. 
1.  New  Moon. 

6, 7.  Penticcost or Sebuoth. 
30.  New  Moon. 

IV.  THAMMUZ.    July. 

1.  New  Moon. 
.  17.  Taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.    Fast. 

y.  AB.    August. 

1.  New  Moon. 

9.  Destruction  of  Temple.    Fatt. 
15,  Tubeah.    LUtla  Festival. 
30.  New  Moon. 

VI.  ELUL.    September. 
1.  New  Moon. 

7.  Dedication  of  Walls  by  Nehemiah.  Feast. 
17.  Expulsion  of  the  Greeks. 

Apr.  20  .  .  . 
Apr,  29  .  .  . 
May     1  .  .  . 

May    7   .  .  .  . 
May  24  ...  . 

Apr.  27  ...  . 
May   14  ...  . 

May  17  .  .   . 

May  19  .   .  . 

May  19  .  .  . 
May  24,  25    . 
June  17  .  .  . 

June  5  .  .  .  . 
June  10, 11    .  . 

Blay  26.  .  .    . 
May  31,  June  ] 

June  18  .  .  . 
July    6  .  .  . 

July  17  .  .  . 
July  26  .  .  . 
July  31  .  .  . 

July    6  .  .  .  . 
July  21  ...  . 

Aug.   3  .  .  .  . 
Aug.  11  ...  . 

Jnne  25  ...  . 
July  11  ...  . 

July  24  ...  . 
Aug.    1  .  .  .  . 

Aug.  15  .  .  . 

Ang.  16  .  .  . 
Auff.  22  .  .  . 

Sept.   2  .  .  .  . 

Ang.  23  .... 

Sept.   1   .  .  . 

A.M.  6624. 
A.D.  1863-4. 

A.  M,  5625. 
A.D.  1864-5. 

A.M.  5626. 
A.  D.  1865-6. 

Beginnino  of  Civil  Year. 

Sept.  14, 15    . 
Sept.  16  .  .  . 
Sept.  23  .  .   . 
Sept.  28,  29    . 
Oct.      1  .  •  . 

Oct.  1,2  .  .  .  . 
Oct.     3  .  .  .  . 
Oct.    10  ...  . 
Oct.   15,  16    .  . 

Sept.  21,22    .  . 
Sept.  24  ...  . 
Si'pt.  :io  .... 
Oct.     5,  6  .  .   . 

VII.  TISRI.    October. 

1,  2.  New  Year  and  New  Moon. 

3.  Death  of  Gedaliah.    Fast. 
10.  Kipur.    Day  of  Atonement.    Fast. 
15, 16.  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 
18.  Hosanna  Kabba. 

21.  Feast  of  Branches  or  of  Palms. 

22.  End  of  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

23.  Feast  of  the  Law. 

VIII.  CHESVAN  (Marchesvan).  November. 
1.  New  Moon. 

IX.  CHISLEU.    December. 
1.  New  Moon. 
25.  Hanuca,    Dedication  of  Temple. 

X,  THEBET.    January. 
1.  New  Moon. 

10.  Siege  of  Jerusalem.    Fast. 

XI.  SEBAT.    February. 
1.  New  Moon. 

XII.  ADAR.    March. 
1.  New  Moon. 
14.  Little  Purim. 

rXII.*  VE ADAR  (Intercalary).  Latter  part 
of  March  and  beginning  of  April. 
1.  New  Moon. 

Oct.     4  .  .  . 
Oct.     6  .  .  . 
Oct.     6  .  .  . 

Oct.    14  .  .  . 

Nov.  12  .  .  . 
Dec.     6  .  .  . 

Deo.  11  .  .  . 
Dee.  20  .  .  . 

1864. 
Jan.     9  .  .  . 

Feb.    8  .  .  . 
Feb.  21  .  .  . 

Oct.  21  ...  . 
Oct.  22  ...   . 
Oct.  23  ...  . 

Oct.  31  ...  . 

Nov.  30  ...  . 
Dec.  24  ...  . 

Dec.  30  ...  . 

1865. 
Jan.     8  .  .  .  . 

Jan.  28  ...  . 

Feb.  27  ...  . 

Oct.    11  ...  . 
Oct.    12  ...  . 
Oct.    13  ...  . 

Oct.    21  ...  . 

Nov.  19  ...  . 
Dec.   13  ...  . 

Dec.    19  ...  . 
Dec.   28  ...  . 

1866. 
Jan.    17  ...  . 

Mar.    9  .  .  . 

Mar.  21   .   .   . 
Mar.  22,  23    . 
Apr.    6  .  .  . 

Mar.    9  .  .  .  . 

Mar.  12,  13    .  . 

(.  14,  15.  Feast  of  Purim  and  Shnsham  Purim. 
Last  Day  of  the  Year. 

*  Mem.  —  Thf 
month  (  Vtcular) 

Jewish  year  contains 
8  seven  times  introduc 

154  dnys,  or  12  lunations  of  the  moon ;  but  in  a  cycle  of  19  years  an  Intercalary 
cd  to  render  the  averoge  length  of  the  year  nearly  correct. 

,Tx,„       THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


Series  9482 


,,"^  SOUJjBJNREGIONAL  UBRAfiY  FACl 


A    000  994  779     7 


"   --^^   ■  a^i    '  g^..     ^.      'iB^;       1^^=;        ■ 


m'  ^..'  m^^ 


:-■^~*^^j 


Wf:  M- 


